Experimental Methods in Marine Dynamics

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________
FAKULTET FOR INGENIRVITENSKAP OG TEKNOLOGI NTNU TRONDHEIM

NORGES TEKNISK-NATURVITENSKAPELIGE UNIVERSITET
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY NTNU TRONDHEIM NORWEGIAN
UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________
TMR7
Experimental Methods in
Marine Hydrodynamics
Sverre Steen
Revised August 2014
MARINTEKNISK SENTER
INSTITUTT FOR MARIN TEKNIKK
MARINE TECHNOLOGY CENTRE

TRONDHEIM, NORWAY
DEPARTMENT OF MARINE TECHNOLOGY
Page1
CONTENTS
1
INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................3
1.1
1.2
GENERALMODELLINGLAWS..............................................................................6
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
General...................................................................................................................................55
RigidModels...........................................................................................................................55
ElasticModels.........................................................................................................................57
CONVENTIONALSHIPTESTING.........................................................................61
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
Generaldescriptionofequipment.........................................................................................28
Strainanddisplacementmeasurements................................................................................28
Positionmeasurements..........................................................................................................32
Accelerations..........................................................................................................................34
PressureTransducers..............................................................................................................35
Velocities................................................................................................................................38
ForcemeasurementsDynamometers..................................................................................41
WaveMeasurements..............................................................................................................42
DataAcquisition......................................................................................................................44
SamplingFrequency...............................................................................................................48
LengthofRecords...................................................................................................................50
Calibration..............................................................................................................................53
Zeroing....................................................................................................................................54
PHYSICALMODELLING......................................................................................55
5.1
5.2
5.3
Introduction............................................................................................................................14
TowingTanks..........................................................................................................................14
CavitationTunnel....................................................................................................................18
OceanLaboratories.................................................................................................................20
Generationofenvironment....................................................................................................21
INSTRUMENTATION.........................................................................................28
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
Geometricalsimilarity..............................................................................................................6
Kinematicsimilarity..................................................................................................................6
Dynamicsimilarity....................................................................................................................7
ScalingRatios..........................................................................................................................10
Hydroelasticity........................................................................................................................11
Cavitation................................................................................................................................13
EXPERIMENTALFACILITIES...............................................................................14
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
Background...............................................................................................................................3
Whymodeltests.......................................................................................................................4
General...................................................................................................................................61
Towingandpropulsiontestsintowingtank..........................................................................61
Cavitationtunneltests............................................................................................................65
Maneuveringtests..................................................................................................................67
SEAKEEPINGTESTING.......................................................................................71
7.1
General...................................................................................................................................71
LecturenotesinExperimentalMethodsinMarineHydrodynamics,issuedAugust2014
Page2
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
OFFSHORESTRUCTURETESTING......................................................................77
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
Deliverytrials........................................................................................................................103
Shipmonitoringsystems......................................................................................................110
ERRORANALYSIS............................................................................................113
12.1
12.2
12.3
13
General...................................................................................................................................85
Statictests..............................................................................................................................85
Decaytest...............................................................................................................................85
RegularWaveTest..................................................................................................................88
IrregularWaveTest................................................................................................................91
FULLSCALEMEASUREMENTS.........................................................................103
11.1
11.2
12
Testingoffloatingoffshoreshipsandplatformswithmooringandflexiblerisersystems...83
Testingofhydrofoilships........................................................................................................83
Testingoffloatingoffshorewindturbines.............................................................................83
Challengesinhybridmodeltesting........................................................................................83
ANALYSISOFMEASUREDDATA........................................................................85
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
11
General...................................................................................................................................77
TestRequirements..................................................................................................................77
Deepwaterstructuresrequirements.....................................................................................78
TestProcedure........................................................................................................................80
REALTIMEHYBRIDMODELTESTING................................................................82
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
10
TestRequirement...................................................................................................................71
Testsetup..............................................................................................................................72
TestProcedure........................................................................................................................73
Tankwalleffects.....................................................................................................................75
Introduction..........................................................................................................................113
Uncertaintyanalysis.............................................................................................................113
DiscussionofErrorSources..................................................................................................119
MODELTESTSVSNUMERICALCALCULATIONS..............................................127
13.1
13.2
General.................................................................................................................................127
ModeltestsforValidationofNumericalCalculations..........................................................128
14 REFERENCES...................................................................................................130
15 INDEX.............................................................................................................132
ANNEXA ExampleofReportingfromModelTest
ANNEXB ExampleofModelTestSpecification
ANNEXC ViscousSurgeDampingofFloatingProductionVesselMooredatSea
ANNEXD ErrorAnalysisofExperiments.LecturenotebyS.Ersdal
ANNEXE ITTCstandardforpoweringperformanceprediction
Page3
INTRODUCTION
ThiscompendiumhasbeenpreparedforthecourseExperimentalMethodsinMarine
Hydrodynamics.Partsofthenotesarebasedonearlierlecturenoteswithinthisfield;seeHuse
(1999)andWalderhaug(1983).ExtensiverevisionsofthecompendiumwrittenbyAarsnesin2001
weremadebySteenin2004,2005,and2006,followedbysmallerrevisionsin2010and2012.
AlthoughthenameofthiscourseisExperimentalMethodsinMarineHydrodynamics,wewill
mainlybetalkingaboutmodeltesting,sincemostexperimentsinmarinehydrodynamicsaremade
inmodelscale.Also,modeltestinginvolvesmanyinterestingissues,likescalingandmodelling.Full
scaletestingishandledasaspecialcase,seechapter11.
Throughoutthetext,manyreferencesaregiventosupplementaryliterature,anditis
recommendedtoconsultthoseforamoreindepthtreatmentofspecialtopics.Agoodtextbook
thatcoversmostofthetopicsintheselecturenotesatanintroductorybutstillmorethoroughlevel
isthebookbyDunn(2005).
Figure 1.1 Model tests in Peerlesspool in London in 1761
1.1
Background
Experimentalfacilitiesformodeltestingofshipshavealongtradition.Improvedresistance
performanceoftheshipswasearlythemaindrivingforcebehindthedevelopmentofshipmodel
Page4
testing.ItisknownthatLeonardodaVinci(aboutyear1500)carriedouttestswith3models
ofships,allwithequallength,butwithdifferentforeandaftshape.Basedonhisexperimentshe
wasabletogiverecommendationaboutwhichshapegivesthehighestspeed.LaterSamuelFortey
(16221651)alsodidtestswithshipmodelsandin1721EmanuelSwedenborggaveadetailed
proposalforshipmodeltestingintroducingtheprinciplewithfallingweightfortowingofthe
models.Inthiswayhewasabletoachieveaknownandconstanttowingforce.In1761this
principlewasusedinPeerlesspoolinLondonasshownonthepicturegiveninFigure1.1.Atthat
timenoscalinglawswereavailabletopredictfullscalebehaviourandonehadtoassumethatthe
winnerwasthebestalsoinfullscale.
WilliamFroude(18101879)isoftengiventhehonourforthemethodofreallyusingmodeltesting
forshipdesignbythedevelopmentofamethodforscalingfrommodelresistancetotheactualship
resistance.Thismayberight,butseveralotherworksfromthesametimealsocontribute
significantlytothisdevelopment.Theestablishingofthescalingmethodsshouldthereforemorebe
regardedasaresultoftheincreasinginterestandactivitieswithinthisfield.
FroudestowingtankwasbuiltinSouthEnglandinca1870andisregardedasthebeginningof
modernmodeltesting.ThemaindimensionofthetankwasLxBxd=85mx11mx3m.Itwas
equippedwitharailintheroof,whichcarriedthedynamometers.Maximumspeedwas5m/s.
Shortlyafterthistankwasestablished,severalothertankswerebuiltinEngland,Germanyand
elsewhere.ThetowingtankinTrondheimwascompletedin1939withdimensionLxBxd=170mx
10.5mx5m,whichwasanormaltanksizeatthattime.
Later,thedevelopmentwithinshiptechnologyhasinitiateddevelopmentandbuildingof
specialisedfacilitiesascavitationtunnels,manoeuvringandseakeepingbasins.Duringthelast20
25yearstheneedsfromtheoffshoreindustryhavepushedthisdevelopmentevenfurther,and
complexlaboratorieswiththepossibilityoftestingstructuresinrealisticconditionsincludingwind,
currentaswellasmultidirectionalwaves,havebeenbuilt.Anexampleofthistypeoflaboratoryis
theOceanBasinatMARINTEK.
Differenttypesoffacilitiesaredescribedinmoredetailsinchapter3.
Afurtherdescriptionandreviewofthehistoryanddevelopmentofshipmodeltestingcanbefound
inSNAME(1967)andinStoot(1959)
1.2
Whymodeltests
Hydrodynamicmodeltestingwillbasicallyhavethreedifferentaims:
1. Toachieverelevantdesigndatatoverifyperformanceofactualconceptsforshipsand
othermarinestructures
2. Verificationandcalibrationoftheoreticalmethodsandnumericalcodes
3. Toobtainabetterunderstandingofphysicalproblems.
Alltheaimscanbeassociatedtotheoftenverycomplicatednatureofproblemsconnectedtothe
interactionbetweenfixedandfloatingstructuresandthemarineenvironment.
Aim1isspeciallythecaseiftheanalysisisverycomplicatedforwhichverifiednumericaltoolsare
notavailable.Modeltestcanbeusedtoinvestigateeffectsofsimplificationsusedasbasisfor
Page5
analyticalornumericalmodels.Inthiswaymodeltestresultscanbeusedtoassist
developmentofmorereliablenumericaltools.
Page6
GENERALMODELLINGLAWS
Physicalmodelsareintendedtorepresentthefullscalesystemascloseaspossibleata(much)
smallerscale.Tobeabletodeterminetheproperpropertiesofthemodelweneedmodellingor
scalinglawsthatensureasimilarbehaviourinmodelandfullscale.
Dimensionalanalysiscanbeusedtoderiveagroupofmeaningfuldimensionlessquantitiesfor
applicablevariables.Thisisparticularlyusefuliftheproblemiscomplex.Typicallyallthevarious
quantitiesassumedtobeofimportanceforacertainphenomenaislisted.Afunctionalrelationship
betweenthedifferentparametergroupsisthenestablishedforallflowgoverningquantities.The
scalinglawsareobtainedbytakingtheratioofthedifferentforces.Adetaileddescriptionof
dimensionalanalysiscanbefoundinTaylor(1974).Aderivationofthemostcommon
dimensionlessvariablesusedinfluiddynamics,usingBuckinghamsPitheoremisfoundinchapter5
ofWhite(2005).
Toachievesimilarityinforcesbetweenthemodelscaleandfullscalesituationthefollowing
conditionsmustbefulfilled:
Geometricalsimilarity
Kinematicsimilarity
Dynamicsimilarity
Inthefollowingtheserequirementswillbediscussed.Amorecomprehensivediscussionabout
modellawsisgivenbyChakrabarti(1998)
2.1
Geometricalsimilarity
Geometricalsimilarstructuresinmodelandfullscalehavethesameshape.Thismeansthata
constantlengthscalebetweenthemexist:
LF / LM
whereLMandLFareanydimensionsofthemodel/fullscalestructure.Therequirementtoequal
lengthratioforalldimensionsdoesnotapplyonlytothestructures,butalsotothesurrounding
environment.Atthefirstviewthisseemstobeaneasyrequirementtosatisfyforpracticaltesting.
Howeverthisneednotbetheactualsituation.Forexampletheactualsurfaceroughnessofaship
cannotbeaccuratelymodelled.Anotherexampleisthealmostunrestrictedextentofthe
surroundingwaterforasailingship(exceptforwaterdepthinsomecases).Thissituationisnot
possibletoreproduceinmodelscale,whichimpliesthatphysicalboundariesalwayspresentin
modeltestingcaninfluencethetestresults.
2.2
Kinematicsimilarity
Theratiosbetweenvelocitiesinmodelscalehavetobeequaltothecorrespondingratiosinfull
scale.Thisimpliesthatflowwillundergothegeometricalsimilarmotionsinbothcases.Asan
exampletheratiobetweentheforwardspeedofashipandtherotationalspeedofthepropeller
hastobethesame:
Page7
VF
VM
nF (2 RF ) nM (2 RM )
VF
V
M JF JM
nF DF nM DM
or
whereVistheshipspeed,nistherateofrevolutionofthepropeller,Risthepropellerradius,Dis
thepropellerdiameterandJistheadvancecoefficient.
2.3
Dynamicsimilarity
2.3.1 Forces
Dynamicsimilarityisachievedifwehavethesameratioatmodelscaleandfullscaleforthe
differentforcecontributionspresentintheproblem.Inprinciplethefollowingforcecontributions
willbeofimportance:
1. InertiaForces,Fi
2. Viscousforces,Fv
3. Gravitationalforces,Fg
4. Pressureforces,Fp
5. Elasticforcesinthefluid,Fe.
6. Surfaceforces,Fs.
Inaddition,forelasticmodelstheelasticrelativedeformationsmustbeidenticalinmodelandfull
scale.
Wewillusethefollowingdifferentphysicalquantitiestocharacterisethedifferentforce
contributions;physicallength;L,velocity;U,fluiddensity;,gravitationalacceleration;g,andthe
fluidviscositycoefficient;.ThefollowingdependenceofthephysicalparametersL,U,,gand
willexistforthedifferentforcecontributions:
InertiaForces:
Fi
dU 3
dU dx 3
L
L U 2 L2
dt
dx dt
ViscousForces:
Fv
dU 2
L UL
dx
GravitationalForces:
Fg gL3
PressureForces:
Fp pL2
ElasticfluidForces:
Fe v E v L2
SurfaceForces:
Fs L
Page8
wherevistherelativeelongation(compression),Evisthevolumeelasticityandisthe
surfacetension.
2.3.2 FroudeNumber
Thedynamicsimilarityrequirementappliedontheratiobetweeninertiaandgravityforcesgives
thefollowingrelation:
Fi
U 2 L2 U 2
Fg
gL
gL3
Appliedonmodelandfullscalethisrequirementgives:
UM 2 UF2
gLM gLF
UM
UF
FN
gLM
gLF
whereFNistheFroudenumber.Geometricalandkinematicsimilarity,andequalityinFroude
numberinmodelandfullscalewillthereforeensuresimilaritybetweeninertiaandgravityforces.
Sincesurfacewavesaregravitywaves,thisimpliesthatequalityinFroudenumbershouldgive
equalityinwaveresistancecoefficient.
2.3.3 ReynoldsNumber
Equalratiobetweeninertiaandviscousforceswillgive:
Fi U 2 L2 UL UL
Re
Fv
UL
whereReistheReynoldsnumberand=/isthekinematicviscosity.EqualityinReynolds
numberbetweenfullscaleandmodelscalewillthereforeensurethattheviscousforcesare
correctlyscaled.
2.3.4 Machsnumber
Theelasticityofwaterwillinfluencethepressuretransmissioninwaterandwillthereforebe
importantforsometypeofmodeltesting.Equalratiobetweeninertiaandelasticforcesgives:
Fi
U 2 L2
Fe v E v L2
Usingthegeometricalsimilarityrequirementthatvareequalinmodelandfullscalethis
requirementgives:
U 2 L2
U 2 L2
2
2
v Ev L M v Ev L F
UM
UF
Mn
Ev , M
Ev , F
Page9
whereMnistheMachnumberand Ev isthespeedofsoundinwater.
2.3.5 Webersnumber
Theratiobetweeninertiaandsurfacetensionforcesisgivenfrom:
Fi
U 2 L2 U 2 L
Fs
L
Similarityrequirementforthisforceratioinmodelandfullscalewillnowgivethefollowing
requirement:
U 2 L
U 2 L
M F
whichgives:
UM
( L) M
UF
Wn
( L) F
whereWnistheWebersnumber
2.4
Page10
ScalingRatios
Thefollowingdimensionlessquantitiesarecommonlyusedfortestingofshipandoffshore
structures:
Symbol
DimensionlessNumber
ForceRatio
Definition
UL
U
gL
Re
ReynoldsNumber
Inertia/Viscous
FN
FroudeNumber
Inertia/Gravity
Mn
MachsNumber
Inertia/Elasticity
Wn
WebersNumber
Inertia/Surfacetension
St
Strouhallnumber
fv D
KC
KeuleganCarpenterNumber
Drag/Inertia
U AT
EV
U
TheStrouhalNumberisnotderivedfromaforceratio.fvisthevortexsheddingfrequencyandStis
thenondimensionalvortexsheddingfrequency,whichagaindeterminetheoscillationfrequency
ofthetransverseliftforcesactingonacylinderwithcrossdimensionD.
TheKeuleganCarpenterNumberisdeterminedfromforceratiobetweendragandinertiaforces
forthecasewithoscillatingflowpastacylinder.TistheperiodofoscillationandUAisthevelocity
amplitude.EqualKCinmodelandfullscaleisforexampleachievedifthesameratiobetweenwave
heightandcylinderdiameterisused.
Inpracticaltestingitwillnotbepossibletosatisfysimultaneouslythedifferentscalinglaws.For
exampleshipsandoffshorestructuresareformostpracticalsituationinfluencedbysurfacewave
effects,eitherfromincomingwavesorwavegeneratedbytheforwardspeedormotionsofthe
structure.Gravitationalforceswillgovernthesurfacewaveformation.Thisimpliesthatforthese
conditionsequalityinFroudenumberinmodelandfullscalemustbeachieved.Ifviscousforcesare
importantfortheactualsituation,therequirementofequalityinReynoldsnumbershouldin
principlealsobesatisfied.Thisisnotpossibletoachieve.Theviscousforceswillnotbecorrectly
scaledandinthescalingprocessfrommodeltofullscalethiseffecthastobeevaluated.
OtherpracticallimitationsforachievingequalityinRearemodelsizeandnecessarymodelspeed.
TherequirementofconstantUL(assumingconstant)willformostcasesbeimpossibletoachieve.
Inconventionalmodeltestingofshipsandoffshorestructures,physicalscalingandtestexecution
aremostcommonlycarriedoutbasedonFroudeScaling.TheeffectofdifferentReynoldsnumberis
accountedforbydifferentscalingprocedures.Atypicalexampleisshipresistancetests,where
scalingmethodsforcorrectingforeffectofdifferentReynoldsnumberiswellestablished.Forother
applicationsnoestablishedmethodexistsforaccountingfortheeffectofReynoldsnumber.This
willbediscussedinmoredetailsinchapter12.2.
Page11
AssumingFroudescalingisappliedandgeometricalsimilaritywithscaleratio LF / LM ,
fromtheequalityinFroudenumberwehave:
UM
UF
gLM
gLF
UF UM
LF
UM
LM
Theotherphysicalparameterscannowbederivedfromthedimensionalanalysissfollows:
F 3
MM
M
Structuralmass:
MF
Force:
FF
Moment:
MF
Acceleration:
aF aM
Time:
tF tM
Pressure:
pF
F 3
FM
M
F 4
MM
M
F
pM
M
Theratio F M isincludedtoaccountforpossibledifferenceinfluiddensitybetweenfullscale
andmodelscale(usuallyseawaterinfullscalerelativetofreshwaterinthetesttank).
2.5
Hydroelasticity
Inhydroelasticproblemsthehydrodynamicforcesareinfluencedbytheelasticdeformationofthe
structure.Thisdeformationisgovernedbytheinertiaforcesandelasticforcesinthestructure.The
modellingoftheelasticpropertiesofstructureswillthereforegiveseveraladditionalproblems
comparedtothemodellingofwaveinduceddynamicresponseofrigidstructures.Exampleswhere
correctlyscaledelasticbehaviourofthemodelwillbeimportantisspringingandwhippingofships,
anddynamicbehaviourofmarinerisersandmooringlines.
Additionalrequirementstotheelasticmodelcanbesummarisedasfollows:
Correctlyscaledglobalstructuralstiffness
Structuraldampingmustbesimilartofullscalevalues
Themassdistributionmustbesimilar.
Page12
Geometricalsimilaritybetweenmodelandfullscaleforanelasticstructurewillrequirethat
theelasticdeformationsaresimilar.Toillustratethiswewillconsiderthedeflectionofacantilever
beamasanexample.Thedeflection,,isgivenfrom:
FL3
EI
whereEIistheflexuralrigidityandFisthehydrodynamicforcewhichcanbeexpressedas:
F CU 2 L2
whereCisaforcecoefficientdependentonFN,Reetc.Therequirementofsimilarityindeformation
inmodelandfullscalegives:
F
LF
M
LM
F M
Usingtheaboveequationsthisrequirementissatisfiediftheratio:
C U 2 L4
EI
isequalinmodelandfullscale.Assumingequalforcecoefficientanddensityweobtainthe
followingrequirementtothestructuralrigidity:
U 2 L4
U 2 L4
5
EI F EI M
EI
EI
F
M
Ifalldimensionsofthecrosssectionalshapeofthebeamarescaledgeometricalsimilar,the
momentofinertia,I,willsatisfytherelation:
IF IM 4
WearethanleftthefollowingrequirementtotheYoungsmodulus,E:
EF EM
ThisimpliesthattheYoungsmodulusforthemodelmustbe1/timesthevalueofthefullscale
structure.
Itshouldbenotedthatthetwolastequationsisnottoberegardedasrequirementstothemodel.
ThebendingstiffnessrequirementisgivenforEI.Inpracticalmodeltestingtherequirementgiven
toscalingofEIisoftensatisfiedbymanipulatingthedifferentparametersbyapplyingother
materials,otherwallthickness,orbymodifyingthestructuralbuildupofthebeam.Theouter
geometry,whichisexposedtothehydrodynamicforces,hastobemodeledgeometricallycorrect.
Alsotherequirementtocorrectmodelingofmassdistributionandstructuraldampinghastobe
satisfied.Thiswillbefurtherdiscussedaspartofthephysicalmodeling,seechapter5.3.
Similarresultswillbefoundfortheaxialandtorsionstiffnesses.Therequirementfortheaxial
stiffnesscaseis:
Page13
( EA) F ( EA) M 3
whereEAistheaxialstiffness.Thisrelationgivesequalstraininmodelandfullscale.Thecross
sectionalarea,A,willsatisfytherelation AF AM 2 ,whichgivesthesamerequirementtothe
Youngsmodulusasshownabove.
2.6
Cavitation
Ifcavitationoccurs,dynamicsimilarityalsorequiresthatthelawofequalcavitationnumberis
accountedforintheexperiments.Therequirementisthatthecavitationnumbergivenas:
( gh p0 ) pv
1/ 2 U 2
hastobethesameforthemodelasinfullscale.p0istheatmosphericpressure,ghisthe
hydrostaticpressureandpvisthevapourpressure.Tosatisfythisrequirementacavitationtunnel,
withpossibilitytolowertheatmosphericpressurehastobeapplied.
Page14
EXPERIMENTALFACILITIES
3.1
Introduction
Thedifferenttypeofexperimentalfacilitiesusedforshipsandoffshorestructurescanbe
categorizedasfollows:
Towingtanks,conventionalandfacilitiestailormadeforspecificpurposes.
Cavitationtunnels
Oceanbasins
Usuallywewillfindtwoormoredifferenttypeoftestsfacilitiesateachresearchandtesting
institution.ForexampleatMARINTEKthereisthreetowingtanks,acavitationtunnelandanocean
basin.InFigure3.1anoverviewofthetestfacilitiesatMARINTEKispresented.
Theexperimentalfacilitiesfortestingofshipandoffshorestructuresarenotonlythephysical
tank/basinwherethetestsareexecuted.Thetestingfacilitieshavealsotocoverdifferent
additionalfunctionsasworkshopsforconstructionandbuildingofmodels,instrumentation,
simulationofenvironmentandsoftwareandtoolstorecordandanalyzethemeasureddata.A
typicallayoutofatowingtank,includingutilityfunctions,isshowninFigure3.2.Fortestingof
realisticbehaviorofstructuresinaseaway,equipmentforgenerationofwind,wavesandcurrent
andefficientwaveabsorptionareofvitalimportance.
3.2
TowingTanks
Thefirsttowingtankswerebuiltforperformingtowingandpropulsiontests.Thelengthofthe
towingtankhastobelongenoughtogetasufficientlongtimewithsteadyflowconditionsfor
measurementsoftowingandpropulsionforces.Therequiredsizewillthereforebedependenton
typeofshipstobetested,scaleratioandforwardspeed.Todayalargenumberoftowingtanks
exist,morethan200areinregularuse.Thelengthofthetowingtanksisfrom20mtomorethan
1000m.
Thesmalltanksaretypicallyconnectedtoteachingandresearchinstitutions.Theverylongtanks
aremainlyconnectedtonavalactivities.AnexampleisthehighspeedtankatDavidTaylorNaval
ShipResearchandDevelopmentCentrewithdimensions900mx6.4mx3mwithamaximum
towingcarriagespeedofupto50m/s.Thistankwasbuiltespeciallyfortestingofhighspeedships.
Theconstructionofthistankwasadirectresultoftherequirements:Navyin50kn,definedin
about1960asatargetfortheUSNavy.AsimilarfacilityalsoexistsinSt.Petersburg.
AtypicalsizeforcommercialworkingtowingtanksisLxBxd=250mx10mx5m.Typicalshipmodel
lengthis58m.Thissizeoffacilitiesseemstorepresentareasonablecompromisebetweencostfor
tankconstruction,costformodelmanufactureandoperationalcosts(whichtogetherdetermine
thecostofmodeltesting)andtherequiredscaleratioandcorrespondingaccuracythatcanbe
achieved.ThesizeofthelargehydrodynamiclaboratoriesattheMarineTechnologyCentreis
showninFigure3.1,withmoredetailsaboutthetowingtanksgiveninFigure3.3.
Page15
Almostalltowingtanksuseatowingcarriagetomovethemodeltroughthewater.A
typicaltowingcarriagedesignisshowninFigure3.3.Thetypicalmaxcarriagespeedis10m/s.
Duringcalmwatertowingandpropulsionthemodeliskeptfixedinsurgeswayandyaw,butfreeto
heaveandpitch.
Figure 3.1 Overview of test facilities at MARINTEK
Page16
Figure 3.2
A typical towing carriage design.
Tobeabletoperformseakeepingtestsorothertypeoftestinginsurfacewaves,manytowing
tanksareequippedwithawavemakeratoneendofthetank.Generationofwavesandtypeof
wavegeneratorsarediscussedinmoredetailsinchapter3.5.1.Inordertopreventreflectionsof
wavesfromtheoppositeside,awavebeach,whichisabsorbingthewaveenergy,hastobe
installedatthissideofthetowingtank.
Ithasalsobeenconstructedtowingtanksthatarehighlyspecialisedforagivenpurpose.An
exampleistheDutchandChinesevacuumtanks,wheretheentirespaceabovethetankis
evacuatedandairpressuredownto0.04barcanbeachieved.Thepurposeofthistypeoffacilityis
todopropulsiontestswithsurfaceeffectsandcompleteshipmodelpresent,atthelowpressure
requiredforequalityincavitationnumber.
AnotherexampleofaspecialisedtankistheicetanksinHamburgandHelsinki.Iceismodelledby
freezing,usinghighsalinitywaterandchemicalstocontrolthemechanicalprioritiesoftheice.
Thesetanksareusedfortestingoficebreakersandoffshorestructuresexposedtotheactionof
driftingice.
ThetowingtankatMARINTEKwascompletedin1939withdimensions170x10.5x5m.Later,in
1978,extendedto260mwherethedepthoftheextensionis10.0m.Thelayoutofthetowingtank
isshowninFigure3.4.Thetowingcarriageisofconventionaltype.Fortestingofhighspeed
vesselsthecarriageisequippedwithaFreetoSurgerig.The8mlongrigismountedinfrontof
thetowingcarriageasshowninFigure3.4.Usingthisrigthewinddisturbanceatthepositionofthe
modeliseliminatedandthemodelisallowedtofreelysurge,heaveandpitchduringwavetesting.
Page17
6
7
28
10
4
5
3
13
2
9
10
11
12
13
Ship model manufacturing

shop
Trimming tank
NC milling machine for
model production
Instrumentation workshop
10.5
5.6
10.0
11
Model store
Drawing office
Reception
Tank II
13.5
1
2
3
4
5
TANK I
14
15
Carpenter workshop
Propeller model
manufacturing shop
Cavitation laboratory
Dock gate
Wave absorber, Tank I
and Tank I+III
Wavemaker, Tank III
and Tank I+III
Wave absorber, Tank III
12
15
TANK III
14
1
39
85
260
Towingtankdata
TankI
TankII
TankIII
TankI+III*
Length:
175m
25m
85m
260m
Width:
10.5m
2.8m
10.5m
10.5m
Depth:
5.6m
1.0m
10m
5.6/10.0m
Tot.weightcarriage:
20tons
0.2ton
15tons
20/15tons
Wheelbase:
11.04m
3m
11.04m
11.04m
Speedrange:
0.0210m/s
0.051.75m/s
00.9m/s
0.0210m/s
2
2
2
Max.acceleration:
1m/s
1m/s
1m/s
1m/s2
Modelsizerange:
8m
1m
8m
Doubleflap
Doubleflap
Singleflap
Wavemaker:
Regularand
Regularand
Regularand
irregularwaves
irregularwaves
irregularwaves
0.9m
0.3m
Max.waveheight:
0.9m
0.85sec.
0.253sec.
Waveperiodrange:
0.85sec.
1:10
1:8
Max.wavesteepness:
1:10
Wavespectra:
Computergenerated
* Tank I and III can be used separately and also as one long tank (Tank I + III) by removing the gate (12)
and wave absorber (15). In Tank I + III either of the two carriages can be used.
Figure 3.3
Towing Tanks at MARINTEK.
Page18
Figure 3.4
3.3
Free to surge rig in front of towing carriage.
CavitationTunnel
Cavitationtunnelsaredesignedtobeabletotestpropellersandotherliftingsurfacesata
sufficientlylowpressuretoachievecorrectcavitationnumber.Mostcommercialmodeltest
institutionshaveoneormorecavitationtunnels,andabout100tunnelsistodayinregularuse.
Awiderangeofdifferentsizecavitationtunnelsexist,fromsmallsizetunnelsforresearchand
education,withtestsectionareaoftypically0.25x0.25m,toverybigcirculatingwatertanks,with
testsectiondimensionupto3x6mandlengthof11m(theBerlintunnel).Atypicalsize
conventionaltunneliswithcirculartestsectionwithdiameterofabout1mMaximumflowspeed
atmeasuringsectionisusually1020m/s.Largetunnelsoftenhavetestsectionsallowingfor
mountingofacompleteshiphullmodel.
Fortunnelsthatcannotallowtestingofentireshiphullmodels,anafterbodymodeloftheshipis
oftenappliedtoproducecorrectinflowtothepropeller,andmeshscreensareusedtoproducethe
specifiedwakedistribution.Thebenefitofusingafterbodymodelsandmeshscreens,insteadofa
completemodel,isthepossibilityofhavingthemeshscreensimulatefullscalewake,notonly
modelscalewake.Whentestingtheentireshipmodel,onlymodelscalewakemightbetested.
Somecavitationtunnelsareofthefreesurfacetype.Suchtunnelscanbeusedfortestingofhigh
speedpropellersoperatinginfullorsubmergedcondition.Thistypeoftunnelsisespeciallywell
suitedforstudyingventilationproblemsforpropeller,waterjetsandfoilsections.Largetunnels
withfreesurfaceenabletestwithnormalshipmodels.
ThecavitationtunnelatMARINTEKisshowninFigure3.6.Thediameteroftheworkingsectionis
1.2mandthelengthofworkingsectionis2.08m.Maximumwatervelocityis18m/s.The
minimumworkingpressureis0.1atm.Afterbodymodelsandmeshscreensareapplied.
Page19
Figure 3.5
Cavitation Tunnel at MARINTEK.
3.4
Page20
OceanLaboratories
Theoceanlaboratoriesareingeneralconstructedfortestingofoffshorestructuresandfor
seakeepingandmanoeuvringtestingofships.
Incontrasttothetraditionaltowingtankstheoceanbasinsandseakeepinglaboratoriesmakeit
possibletocarryouttestswithanywaveheading(obliquewaves)forshipswithforwardspeed.For
manoeuvringtestsitisrequiredwithatowingcarriagewithcontrolledmotionsinbothlongitudinal
andtransversedirection.Thisisachievedbyasubcarriage,whichisconnectedunderneaththe
mainlongitudinalmotioncarriage(seeFigure3.7,takenfromtheseakeepinglaboratoryatSSPA,
Sweden).Combinedwiththelargewidthofthesefacilities(typically3050m)thearbitrary
horizontalmotionrequirementtendstomakethecarriagesystemcomplexandheavy.
Basinspurposebuiltforoffshoretestingisformostcasesbuiltafter1980.Foroffshoretestinga
largecarriagesystemisnotrequired.Oceanlaboratoriesareusuallyequippedwithadvanced
systemsforgenerationofwaves,oftencapableofgenerationofbothlongcrestedand
multidirectional(orshortcrested)wavesaswellaswindandcurrent.Inthiswayitispossibleto
givearealisticrepresentationofthemarineenvironmentalconditions.
Figure 3.6
Carriage system in Ocean Basin (from SSPA, Sweden).
Examplesofcommercialoceanlaboratoriesfortestingofcoastalandoffshorestructuresare:
MARINTEK,Trondheim;
LxB=80mx50m,d=010m
MARIN,Netherlands;
LxB=45mx36m,d=010.5m,pitincentrewithd=30m
HydralicLab,Ottawa,Canada:
LxB=50mx30m,d=3m
OTRC,TexasA&M:
LxB=45.7mx30.5m,d=5.8m,pitwithd=16.8m
Page21
Somebasinsareequippedwithafalsebottomthatcanbesettodifferentdepths.Inthis
waytheactualwaterdepthcanbecorrectlymodeledinthetestsetup.Thispropertyalsoenable
mountingofmodels,mooringsystemandothersubseaequipmentonadrybottom,whichafter
installationofthesystemtobetested,islowereddowntothewantedwaterdepth.Thislargely
simplifiesthepreparationworkforthetest.
TheoceanlaboratoryatMARINTEKisfittedwithtwosetsofwavemakers.Alongthe50msideof
thebasinthereisadoubleflapwavemakercapableofgeneratinglongcrestedwaves.Alongthe80
msidethereisamultiflapwavemakerconsistingof144individuallycontrolledflapsforgeneration
ofshortcrestedandlongcrestedwaves.Waveabsorptionbeachesareinstalledonthetwo
oppositesidestoreducetheproblemswithwavereflections.Currentcanbemodeledindirection
alongthebasin(inwavedirectionofthedoubleflapwavemaker).Thewaterdepthisadjustable
from0m(surfaceposition)to10mbymovingthefalsebottom.Amoredetaileddescriptionofthe
OceanLaboratoryatMARINTEKisgivenbyHuseandTrum(1981)andNaeser.(1981).
3.5
Generationofenvironment
Reliablemodeltestingrequirescontrolledgenerationofwind,wavesandcurrentinbothtimeand
spacetoachievearealisticandwelldefinedenvironment.Commonlyusedequipmentfor
environmentgenerationisdescribedinthefollowing.
3.5.1 Wavegenerationandabsorption
Therearetwomainclassesofwavegenerators,thehorizontaldrivenflaptypewavemakerandthe
verticaldrivenwedge(plunger)typewavemaker.Inmoderntestfacilitiesalmostonlytheflaptype
isused.TwoexamplesofflaptypewavemakersareshowninFig3.8.Thefirstoneisadoubleflap
wavemakerasinstalledinthetowingtankandintheoceanbasinatMARINTEK.Hydraulic
actuatorsareused.TheotheristhesingleflapwavemakerasinstalledinMarineCybernetic
Laboratory(MCLab)atMARINTEK.Thiswavemakeriselectricallydriven.Therearsideoftheflap
maybeeitherdryorwet.Thedoubleflaptypeisusuallyusedfordeeperwater.Bythepossibility
ofusingtheupper,thelowerorbothflapsincombinationsforthedoubleflaptype,itispossibleto
generatewaveswithaminimumofdistortionforlargerwavelengthrangethanwhatispossiblefor
asingleflapsolution.
Page22
Figure 3.7
Examples of flap type wave maker; single flap and double flap.
Othertypesofwavemakersarepistontype(asmallsketchisshowninFigure3.9),andpneumatic
wavemakers.Pneumaticwavemakersusevariableairpressureinachamberabovethewaterat
theedgeofthebasintocreatewaves.DavidTaylorModelBasininWashingtonDChasapneumatic
wavemakerintheiroceanbasin,exceptforthattheprincipleislittleused,andisconsidered
inferiorrelativetoflaptypewavemakers.
Figure 3.8
Wave-maker theory, Wave height to stroke ratio as function of relative depth.
Page23
Thegenerationofwavesarecontrolledbythefrequencyandamplitudeoftheflap.In
Figure3.9therelationbetweenflapstroke,S,andwaveheightH,isshownforflaptypewave
maker.Theresultingwaveheightisshownasafunctionoftheparameterkhwhere k 2 is
thewavenumber,isthewavelengthandhisthewaterdepth.Theresultsarebasedonwave
makertheoryseee.g.DeanandDalrymple(1984).Thisratiobetweenthemechanicaldisplacement
oftheflaptothewaveamplitudeisthetransferfunctionofthewavemaker.
Aregularwaveelevationcanbegeneratedusingthetransferfunctiontodeterminetherequired
controlsignaltothewavemaker.InFigure3.10themaximumwaveheightforregularwavesas
functionofwaveperiodisshownforthedoubleflapwavemakersinthetowingtankatMARINTEK.
Itisobservedthatincreasingwaveperiod(andhencewavelength),givesdecreasingmaximum
waveheight.
Figure 3.9
Maximum wave height as function of wave period, Double Flap wave maker at
MARINTEK
Thegenerationofirregularwavesiscontrolledbyaninputsignalbasedontheselectedwave
spectrumcombinedwiththetransferfunctionofthewavemaker.Thecommonlyusedassumption
thattheseasurfaceelevationisastationaryGaussianprocesswithzeromeanisapplied.The
surfaceelevationasfunctionoftime,(t),canthanberepresentedbyafinitenumberofFourier
components:
N
(t ) an cos( nt n )
n 1
wherenisthephaseangleofcomponentncreatedfromarandomphasegenerator.Random
phaseisnecessarytoeliminateanycoherentfeaturesdevelopinginthewavesignal.anisthe
FourieramplitudeofcomponentndeterminedfromtheinputwavespectrumdensityS()as:
an 2 S ( n )
Page24
isthefrequencyintervalforeachcomponent.Itisimportantwithasufficientnumberof
componentsinthewavegenerationtoavoidrepetitionofthewavesignalandaliasing,see
Newland(1975)forfurtherdetails.Typically,2000componentsareused.
FormostcasesthewavespectraaregeneratedaccordingtotheJONSWAPformulation:
S ( ) g 2 5 exp 1.25( 0 ) 4 exp ( 0 )
( 2 0 2
where:
0.07 for 0
0.09 for 0
0 isthespectralpeakfrequency
isthepeakednessparameter.
InFigure3.11atypicalexampleoftheoreticalJONSWAPspectrumandmeasuredwavespectrumin
thewavetankareshown.Theagreementinenergydistributionisseentobeverygood.
Figure 3.10
Typical example of theoretical JONSWAP spectrum and measured wave spectrum in

the wave tank
Multidirectional(orshortcrested)wavescanbegeneratedusinganarrayofflapsalongonesideof
thebasin.Therearetypicallyaboutahundredindividualflaps.Themultiflapwavegeneratorscan
Page25
alsobeusedtogeneratelongcrestedwaveswithanarbitrarywaveheading.Togenerate
shortcrestedwavethedirectionalspreadingfunctionmustbespecifiedinadditiontotheenergy
densityspectrum.Thisgivesthefollowinggeneralisationforthesurfaceelevationasfunctionof
spaceandtime,(x,y,t):
N
( x, y, t ) a n cosk n ( x cos n y sin n ) n t n
n 1
whereannowistheFourieramplitudeofcomponentnincludingthespreadingfunction:
a n 2 S ( n ) D( n , n )
Toavoidreflectionandwavebuildingupinthebasin,anefficientwaveabsorptionsystemisalso
essential.Themostusedsystemforwaveabsorptioniswavebeaches.Anexampleisshownin
Figure3.12.Theshapeisparabolicwhichhasbeenfoundtobemoreefficientforalargewave
periodrangecomparedtoastraightbeach.Reflectedwaveheightoflessthan5%oftheincoming
waveheightwilltypicallybeachievedwiththisbeachdesign.Inoceanbasinswaveabsorbersare
usuallymountedonthesideswithoutwavemakers,typicallywithtwosideswithwavemakersand
twosideswithwaveabsorbers(asinMARINTEKoceanbasin).
Intowingtanksthemainproblemwillbereflectionoftheshipgeneratedwavesystemfromthe
tankwalls.Itisnotpracticaltomountabeachalongsidethetankwallandtransversewaveswillbe
generated.Fortestswithforwardspeedthisisusuallynotaproblem,sincethereflectedwaveswill
hitthetestareaafterthemodelhasleft.Fortestswithzeroorverylowforwardspeed,the
problemofwavereflectionsmustbetakenveryseriously.Forlongtestruns,likeistypicalforatest
inirregularwaves,somekindofwaveabsorptionalongthetankwallisrequired.
Page26
Figure 3.11
Upper; Wave absorber, beach type. Lower; measured wave reflection from beach, in
% of incoming wave amplitude.
3.5.2 Windgeneration
Windgenerationismostconnectedtostationarymodeltestsinoceanbasins.Forfreelymoving
modelswindisnoteasilyappliedinpracticaltesting.Thewindinthebasinisusuallygeneratedby
meansofabatteryofportableelectricalfans.Thefansareplacedsomedistancefromthetesting
areatoachieveahomogeneouswindspeeddistributionatthepositionofthetestmodel.Thewind
directioncanbechangedbymovingthepositionofthefans.
Twodifferentmethodsforcalibratingthewindspeedarecommonlyused:
1. Froudescalingofwindspeed,i.e: U M ,Wind U F ,Wind
2. Usingprecalculatedwindforceactingonthemodelandtuningthemodelwindspeedto
thisforceisachieved.
Forthefirstcasethewindspeediscalibratedatthepositionofthemodel,butwithoutthemodel
present.Usingthisprocedurerequireaveryaccuratemodellingofthemodelsuperstructureto
obtainreliablewindforces.Thelastprocedurerequiresthatreliablewindforceestimatesare
availableonbeforehand.Ifthisisthecasethescaleeffectsonwindforcescanbeavoided.Usually
thisprocedurewillgiveabout20%higherwindspeedthanthespeedestablishedfromFroude
scalinglaw.
Theeffectofwindwillbeimportantforalmostalltypesofmooredstructures.Thewindspeedisin
generalnonsteadyandthedynamiceffectsofthewindscanbeanimportantexactionsourcefor
resonancemotionsofmooredstructureandinspecialcasesforrollmotionsofships.Thedynamic
Page27
effectofwindcanbesimulatedinthetestbycontrollingthepowertothefans.A
frequentlyusedwindenergyspectrumforoffshoreapplicationsistheNPDspectrum.
Thefrequencyrangeofawindspectrumisquitebroadbanded,oftencoveringarangefrom0.005
to1Hz.
3.5.3 Current
Tosimulatecurrenttwodifferentapproachesarecommonlyused:
1. Directgenerationofcurrentinthebasinusingpumpingofwater
2. Towingofthemodelsetupwithspeedequaltothecurrentspeed.
Thefirstapproachrequireslargepumpswithrecirculationducts.Forbasinswithafalsebottom(as
atMARINTEK)thepumpscanrecirculatethewaterunderthefalsebottom.Alsoexternalpiping
(outsidethebasin,asusedinMCLabatMARINTEKandatMarinintheNetherlands)canbeusedfor
recirculationofwater.
Localcurrentcanbegeneratedbyplacingportablecurrentgeneratorsinfrontofthemodel(in
principleasforthewindgeneration).Howeverforthismethoditisdifficulttoachieveareasonable
stationarycurrentfieldatthepositionofthemodelduetolargeeddiesofbackflowingwater.The
effectofcurrentonwaveforceswillnotberealisticallyaccountedforbythisproceduredueto
largespacevariationincurrentfieldbetweenthewavemakerandmodel.
Theeffectofcurrentisespeciallyimportantformooredstructures,bothduetothedirectforces
duetothecurrentandduetotheinteractionbetweencurrentandwaves.Theinteractionbetween
currentandwaveseffectcanlargelyinfluencethewavedriftforcesandhenceinfluencemean
offsetandforcesaswellastheslowdriftmotions.Forthecasewithmooredstructuresthe
simulationofthecurrenteffectbytowingthemodelwithaspeedequaltothecurrentspeedisnot
apracticalsolution.Forthiscaseabasinwithdirectcurrentgenerationwillberequired.
ThegenerationofcurrentspeedisbasedontheFroudescalinglaw.Thisisnecessarytoproperly
representthewavecurrentinteractioneffects,butitmayintroducesomescaleeffectsforthe
currentforcesduetodifferenceinRenumber,resultinginpossiblydifferentflowregimesinmodel
andfullscale.
Currentcalibrationofspeedandprofileshouldbeperformedwithoutthemodelinthebasin.
Velocityfluctuationswillalwaysbepresentinbasingeneratedcurrent(inrealfullscalecurrent,
fluctuationswillalsobeobserved).Largefluctuationsincurrentmayrepresentanexcitationsource
forslowlyvaryingresonanceoscillationsandthemagnitudeshouldthereforebeaslowaspossible.
Astandarddeviationforthecurrentfluctuationofabout5%ofmeancurrentistypicallyachievedin
basinswithclosedrecirculationsolutions.Correctmodellingofthecurrentfluctuationsmightbe
importantforthedynamicsofdeepwatersystems,butwestillnotknowenoughaboutthis,andno
modeltestingfacilitiescurrentlyhavepossibilitiestocreatecontrolledcurrentfluctuations.
Page28
INSTRUMENTATION
4.1
Generaldescriptionofequipment
Alargerangeofdifferenttypeofmeasuringequipmentisusedfortestingofshipsandoffshore
structures.Usually,instrumentsaredesignedtogenerateananalogvoltageorcurrentsignalwhich
islinearlyproportionaltothemeasuredparameter.Nonlinearcharacteristicsoccurinrarecases.
Instrumentswithdigitaloutputareincreasinglyused,butanalogoutputisstillpreferred,inorder
toavoidthecomplexitiesofdealingwithdifferentdigitalsignalprotocols.
Thesystemrequiredforperformingmeasurementsincludesthefollowingcomponents:
Thetransducers
Amplifiers
Filters(analogand/ordigital)
ADconverter
Datastorageunit
Cablingbetweenthedifferentcomponents
TRANSDUCER
Figure 4.1
AMPLIFIER
& SIGNAL
CONDITIONER
A/D
CONVERTER
COMPUTER DATA BUS
RESPONSE
AtypicalsetupisshowninFigure4.1.Itiscommonpracticetousetwoormoreindependent
computersystemsforoperatingthetankfacility.Onemachineisusedforrealtimegenerationof
controlsignalforthewavemakerandanadditionalmachineisusedforthedataacquisitionand
analysis.Additionalmachinesmightbeusedforcontrolofruddersorothercontroldevices,orfor
controlofthecarriage.
Schematic of typical set op of a data acquisition system for model testing
Afurtherdescriptionofinstrumentationandtransducersrelevantformodeltestingcanbefoundin
Olsen(1992).Adetaileddescriptionofmeasurementtechniquesforfluidmeasurementsisgivenby
Goldstein(1983)
4.2
Strainanddisplacementmeasurements
Themostusedmethodsforstrainanddisplacementmeasurementsinmodeltestingarebasedon
thefollowingprinciples:
Resistivetransducers,basedonchangeofresistanceduetostrain;straingauges
Inductivetransducers
Capacitancetransducers.
Page29
Inadditiontoadirectmeasureofstrainanddisplacements,thesetypeoftransducerare
alsocommonlyusedasthebasisforpressurecells,forcetransducers,velocitymeasurementsand
accelerometers.Theseapplicationswillbediscussedseparately.
4.2.1 Straingauges
Thestraingaugemeasuredtheelongationinthematerialtowhichitisglued.Straingaugesare
commonlyusedinanumberofdifferenttypesoftransducers.Examplesofstraingauge
constructionsareshowninFigure4.2.ThethreadsareusuallyCUNialloys.
Theuseofstraingaugesisbasedonthattheelongationofthestraingaugewillchangethe
resistance.Thegaugefactork,isdefinedas:
R
L
R
L
whereRistheresistanceandListhelengthandrepresentthechangeoflengthorresistance.The
factorkistypicallyabout2formetallicmaterials.Increasingthefactorkwillincreasethe
sensitivityofthestraingauge.kvaluesuptoabout100200canbeachievedusingpiezoresistive
materials.
Theelongationofthestraingaugesususuallymeasuredinmicrostrain,S=106S,where
S L L .
Figure 4.2
Examples of strain gauges designs
Tomeasurethechangeofresistanceoverastraingauge,a
Wheatstonebridgecircuitisused.AbasicWheatstone
bridgecircuitcontainsfourresistances,aconstantvoltage
input,andavoltagegage.ForagivenvoltageinputVin,the
currentsflowingthroughABCandADCdependonthe
resistances,i.e.,
Vin V ABC V ADC
I ABC R1 R2 I ADC R3 R4
Figure 4.3 Wheatstone bridge circuit
ThevoltagedropsfromAtoBandfromAtoDaregivenby:
Page30
V AB I ABC R1
V AD
Vin
R1
R1 R2
Vin
R4
I ADC R4
R 4 R3
ThevoltagegagereadingVgcanthenbeobtainedfrom:
V g V AB V AD
Vin
Vin
R1
R4
R1 R2
R 4 R3
R1 R3 R2 R4
V
R1 R2 R4 R3 in
Nowsupposethatallresistancescanchangeduringthemeasurement.Thecorrespondingchange
involtagereadingwillbe:
V g V g
R1 R1 R3 R3 R2 R2 R4 R4
V
R1 R1 R2 R2 R4 R4 R3 R3 in
Ifthebridgeisinitiallybalanced,theinitialvoltagereadingVgshouldbezero.Thisyieldsthe
followingrelationshipbetweenthefourresistances:
R1 R3 R2 R4
V 0
R1 R2 R4 R3 in
Vg
R1 R3 R2 R4
or
R1 R4 1
R2 R3 r
Wecanusethisresulttosimplifythepreviousequationthatincludesthechangesinthe
resistances.DoingsoresultsinthesolutionforthechangeinVg:
V g
1 r
R1 R2 R3 R4
1 Vin
R
R
R
R
1
2
3
4
whereisdefinedby:
1 r
1
R
R3
R1 R4
r 2
R1
R4
R3
R2
Moreover,whentheresistancechangesaresmall(<5%),thesecondorderterm is approximately
zero and can be ignored. We then have:
V g
1 r
R1 R2 R3 R4
Vin
R2
R3
R4
R1
whichisthebasicequationgoverningtheWheatstonebridgevoltageinstrainmeasurement.The
coefficient
1 r 2
iscalledcircuitefficiency.
Page31
Inpractice,oneoftenusesthesameresistancevalueforallfourresistors,R1=R2=R3=R4=R.
Notingthatr=1inthiscase,thechangeinvoltagecanbefurthersimplifiedto
V g
R1 R2 R3 R4
Vin
4R
DifferenttypesofWheatstonebridgecircuitsareusedtomeasurethechangeofresistanceovera
straingauge.Averysimpleexampleformeasurementofforceisshowninfigure4.4.Onestrain
gaugeismountedtoeachsideofabeam.Twodummyresistances(usuallyintegratedinthe
amplifier)areusedforbalancingthebridge.Thissetupiscalledahalfbridge.Aconstantvoltageis
usedasexcitation,Vin.Theforcegivesrisetoanelongationofstraingauge1andcompressionof
straingauge2.Thisintroducesanunbalanceinthebridgeandavoltagecanbemeasuredatthe
exitatVg.Inafullbridgecircuit,allfourbranchesofthebridgearestraingauges.Mountingtwo
straingaugesoneachsideofthebeaminFigure4.4inafullbridgearrangementwouldgivetwice
thesensitivityofthehalfbridgearrangement.
B
Force K
R
-
R
+
R
Strain
1
gauges
G Vg
Side view
Figure 4.4
gauges.
Front view
Vin
Examples of half-bridge circuit for measurements of change of resistance of strain
4.2.2 Inductivetransducers
Theinductivetransducersarebasedonthevoltageinducedbyamovablecore.Anexampleofan
applicationisshowninFigure4.5.TheshownsystemiscalledLVDT(linearvariabledifferential
transformer).OnesetofthecoilisexcitedbyACvoltageandtheinducedvoltageismeasuredin
thesecondset.
Thistypeoftransducerisavailableinawiderangeofsizes,frequencyrangesandaccuracys.Itis
usedfordirectpositionmeasurements,butalsoasbasisforpressurecellsforcetransducers,
velocitymeasurementsandaccelerometers.
Page32
Figure 4.5
LVDT transducer for displacement measurements.
4.2.3 Capacitancetransducers
Thecapacitancetransducersconsistoftwocloselyspacedplatesoraplatesuspendedbetweena
pairofouterplatesasshowninFigure4.6.Theplatesareconductiveandrelativemovement
betweentheplatesintroduceavariationofthecapacitance
F
F
Figure 4.6
Capacitance transducers for displacement measurements.
Thistypeoftransducersrequireamuchsmallerdrivingforcecomparedtoinductivetransducers,
buthaveahighernoiselevelandarethereforelessfrequentlyusedinpracticalmodeltesting.
4.3
Positionmeasurements
Typicalpositionmeasurementsofinterestforfloatingstructureswillbethe6degreesoffreedoms
rigidbodymotionsofship/platformsandmotionsofmooringlinesandrisers.Otherexamplesare
measurementsofdeflectionsofelasticmodelsasforspringingandwhippingresponseofships.
4.3.1 OpticalandVideosystems
Forfreerunningmodelsandmooredstructurestheglobalmotionsaremeasuredbyopticalor
videobasedsystems.Foropticalsystemminimum3lightemittingdiodesarelocatedonthemodel.
Page33
Forvideosystemsballshapedreflectorsmountedonthemodelisused.Onshorecameras,
minimum2,areusedforreadingthepositionofeachdiode.Basedontheinstantaneousposition
(x,yandz)ofeachofthe3diodes,themotionsin6DoFaredetermined.
Theaccuracyofthemeasuredmotionswillforbothopticalandvideosystemsbeoftheorderof
+/1mmforposition(inmodelscale)and+/0.05degreesforroll,pitchandyaw.Formostcases
thisisanacceptableaccuracyfortherigidbodyvesselmotions.
4.3.2 Gyros
Therollandpitchmotionscanalsobemeasuredusinggyros.Theprinciplebehindthegyrois
showninFigure4.7.Arotatingmasskeepstheinnerpartofthegyroinacontinuoushorizontal
position.Thenextlinkcanbetiltedaboutoneaxisandtheangleismeasuredusinga
potentiometer.Theouterlinkcanbetiltedaboutanaxisperpendiculartothefirstaxisandthe
anglecanbemeasuredinthesameway.Fromthemeasuredanglesandtheknownsequenceof
theanglestherollandpitchmotionsareuniquelydetermined.
Thegyroisarobusttoolandiscommonlyusedbothinmodeltestingandininstrumentsappliedin
fullscale.However,sinceitinvolvescomplexmechanicalcomponents,itisfairlylargeandfairly
expensive.Thesizelimitstheuseinmodels,andthecostlimitstheusebothinmodelandinfull
scaleexperiments.
Figure 4.7
Principle of a gyro for measurement of roll and pitch.
4.3.3 Potentiometer
Lowfrictionpotentiometerscanbeusedformeasurementofmotioninonedirection.ANylonline
isconnectedtothemodel,thenpassedaroundthepulleyonthepotentiometerspindleand
tensionedbysprings.Themotionofthemodelwillthereforebedirectlytransducedintoavoltage
signalbythepotentiometer.
Acommonlyusedsetupformeasurementsofheaveandpitch(trim)fortowingtestsisshownin
Figure4.8.Thepotentiometersareusedformeasurementsofthemotionsbetweentheshipmodel
andthetowingcarriage.Thesetupisusedbothformeasurementsofrunningheaveandtrimin
calmwatertestingandformeasurementsofwaveinducedmotionsinheadseawaves.
Page34
Figure 4.8
towing tests.
Example of using potentiometers for measurements of heave and pitch motions in
4.3.4 Positionbasedonmeasuredforceandacceleration.
Measurementofpositioncaninprinciplebeobtainedfrommeasuredacceleration(seebelow)bya
doubleintegrationofthemeasuredaccelerationsignal:
x(t ) a (t ) dtdt At B
Ascanbeseen,positionbasedonintegratedaccelerationcannotgiveinformationaboutmean
levelorpossibleconstantdriftoftheposition.Increasingperiodofoscillationwillgivereduced
accuracyofthederivedposition.Forpracticalapplicationsthismethodarethereforeusuallylimited
tomeasurementsofthewavefrequencypartofthemotions.
Anotherindirectwaytoestablishthepositionisusingmeasuredforceincombinationwithalinear
spring:
x (t )
F (t )
Themethodrequiresaspringconnectionbetweenthemodelandafixedpoint(e.gtowingcarriage,
seabedetc.).Itisnecessarythatthespringstiffnessissufficientlowtoavoidanyinfluenceonthe
dynamicbehaviorofthemodel.
4.4
Accelerations
Measurementsmadebyaccelerometersarebasedontheratiobetweenforce,massand
acceleration:
Page35
a (t )
F (t )
Amasscanbeconnectedtoabeam.Whenexposedtoaccelerationthebeamwillbedeflectedby
theinertiaforces.Thedeflectionofthebeamisproportionaltotheacceleration.Straingaugescan
beusedformeasuringthedeflectionofthebeamandhencetheaccelerationisobtained.
Anothertypeofaccelerometersisbasedonthepiezoelectricaleffect.Apiezoelectricalmaterialis
amaterialwhichwhendeformedproducesanelectricalfield.Thevoltagegeneratedisproportional
tothesurfacepressureapplied.Combinedwithamassthisgivesasignalproportionaltothe
acceleration.TheprincipleisshowninFigure4.9.Thechargeistransferredtovoltageinacharge
amplifier,butsomeofthechargeleaksout.Thisgivestheaccelerometeralowerlimitforwhich
frequenciesthatcanbecovered.Thistypeofaccelerometerscanthereforeonlybeusedfor
dynamicmeasurements.
Figure 4.9
Piezo electric material exposed to surface pressure.
Theresonanceofthemassspringsystemmayinfluencethemeasurementofaccelerations.For
frequencieswellbelowtheresonancefrequencythemasswillfollowthemotionsofthehousing
andwehavealinerrelationbetweentheaccelerationandthesignalout.Forfrequenciesinthe
resonanceregionthemasswillbeexitedandthesignaloutwillbefrequencydependent.The
dynamicamplificationswillbedependentofthedampingofthesystem,butingeneral
accelerometersshouldonlybeusedformeasurementsofresponseswithoscillationfrequencies
wellbelowthenaturalfrequencyoftheaccelerometer.AccelerometersbasedonPiezoelectricity
canbemadeverystiffwithresonancefrequencyhigherthan500KHz.Thismakesthemusefulfor
applicationsofmeasurementsofresponseduetoimpactloads.Toincreasethesensitivityofthe
accelerometerthemassmustbeincreasedorthestiffnessreduced.Accelerometerswithlow
naturalfrequencywillthereforebemoresensitivethantheaccelerometerswithhighresonance
frequency.
Theaccelerometersaddweighttothestructureanditisthereforeimportanttoensurethatthat
weightissufficientlylowtoavoidanyinfluenceonthedynamicbehaviour.Theweightofthe
accelerometercanbemadeverysmall,typicallydowntoafewgrams.
4.5
PressureTransducers
Pressuremeasurementsaremostlyperformedusingpressurecells.Threetypesofpressurecells
arecommonlyused:
Page36
1. basedonpiezoelectricity
2. basedoninductivetransducers
3. basedonstraingauges.
Pressurecellsarebasicallyforcemeasurementsoverasmallarea.Typicaldimensionsofpresser
cellsusedformodeltestingisD=210mm.Thedifferenttypesofpressuremeasuringdevicesare
illustratedinFigure4.10.
Figure4.10
Schematicrepresentationofthemostcommontypeofpressuretransducers.
(a):Capacitancetransducer,(b):Piezoelectricand(c):Straingauge
Pressurecellsbehaveinmanywayssimilarasanaccelerometerandtheresonanceofthemass
springsystemmayinfluencethemeasurements.Thedynamicamplificationswillbedependentof
thedampingofthesystem,butingeneralpressurecellsshouldonlybeusedformeasurementsof
responseswithfrequencieswellbelowthenaturalfrequencyofthecell.Straingaugetypecells
respondstodisplacementsfromdcto5kHz.Itisthereforewellsuitedformostpracticalmodel
testing.Pressurecellsbasedonpiezoelectricitycanbemadeverystiffwithresonancefrequency
uptomorethan500kHz.AnexampleofthistypeofpressurecellisshowninFigure4.11.This
transduceristhereforewellsuitedtomeasurementsofpressurebehaviorwithverylowrisetimeas
willbethecaseforslammingpressuremeasurements.Anexampleofmeasuredslammingpressure
fortheimpactofaflat,elasticplatetowardsawavecrestisshowninFigure4.12.Itisobserved
thatclosetothecenteroftheplatebottomwherethewavecresthit,therisetimeislessthan
0.0001sandthedurationofthepeakextremelyshort.Consequentlyapressurecellwithveryhigh
resonanceperiodwillberequiredtoaccuratelyreproducethispressurebehavior.
Page37
Figure 4.10
Piezoelectric pressure transducer for pressure measurements.
Figure 4.11
Example of measured slamming pressure. Impact of a horizontal circular cylinder
towards calm water surface.
4.5.1 Measurementofpressuredistribution
Inthelateryears,pressuresensingfilmhasbeendevelopedbyseveraldifferentcompanies.The
filmisbasicallyamatrixofsmallpressurecellsintegratedintoaflexibleplasticfilmthatcanbe
appliedtocurvedsurfaces,andwilleffectivelyreturnthepressuredistributionoverthesurface.
Thepressurecellsaremadeofalayerofsemiconductingmaterialwherethedegreeof
conductivitydependsonthepressureappliedtothematerial.Twocompaniesthatdevelop
pressuresensingfilmareTekscanhttp://www.tekscan.com/andPressureProfileSystems
http://www.pressureprofile.com/.Thistechnologyhasmainlybeendevelopedfordry
applications,liketestinganddevelopmentofcarseats,sportsequipment,andsimilar.Thus,itisnot
straightforwardtoapplyittomarinehydrodynamicsproblems,butthepossibilityofeasily
measuringthepressuredistribution,notonlypointpressures,meansthatthistechnologyis
probablygoingtobeappliedalsotomarinehydrodynamicsinthefuture.
Page38
Aslightlysimilartechnologyispressuresensitivepaint(PSP).Thecolorofthepaintis
changingwiththepressure,whenaspeciallightsourceisused.Thisisalsoarecentmeasurement
technique,developedintheformerSovietUnionandknownintheWestsinceanadvertisementin
AviationWeeklyin1990.Itisprimarilyusedinwindtunneltestingofaircraft.Thepressure
sensitivepaintissensitivenotonlytopressure,buttotemperatureandoxygencontentintheflow,
somethingthatcomplicatestheapplication.
4.6
Velocities
Thevelocityinapointcanbeobtainedbyastraightforwardintegrationofmeasuredacceleration
orbyaderivationofmeasuredposition.Bothmethodsarecommonlyusedforvelocity
measurementsofstructuralcomponents.
Formeasurementoffluidvelocitydifferentprinciplesarepossible:
Basedonmeasurementsofpressure,e.g.pitottubes
LDV
Ultrasonictransducers
Bymeasuringrateofrevolutionofasmallimpeller.
Thetwofirstmethodsarediscussedinthefollowing.
4.6.1 Pitottubes
Thepitottubesensoriscommonlyusedformeasurementofthewakesurveys,flowthroughwater
jetsetc.ThePrandtlpitottubeisshowninFigure4.13.Thepressuredifferencebetweenthetotal
pressureheadatthefront(inpos.Ainthefigure)andthestaticpressureattheside(atpositionB)
ismeasuredbyadifferentialpressurecell.Basicallythepitottubeisapressuredifferencemeasure,
butthevelocityisobtainedfromthewellknownrelation:
p 1 2 U 2
Toimproveaccuracythistheoreticalrelationisnotused,insteadthecalibratedrelationbetween
pressureandvelocitywillbeapplied.
Page39
Figure 4.12
Prandtl pitot tube.
Tocovermorepositionsinthesamerun,severalpitottubescanbemountedtogetherasshownin
Figure4.14.
Usingpitottubeswithfiveholeslocatedindifferentangularpositiononasphericalhead,the
velocityinallthreedirectionscanbemeasured,incaseofwakesurveys;axial,tangentialandradial
velocity.
Figure 4.13
Pitot tube arrangement for measurement of velocity in several positions.
Page40
4.6.2 LaserDopplerVelocimetryLDV
LaserDopplerVelocimetry(LDV)hasbeenusedformorethan20yearsformeasurementsofflow
aroundshipsandpropellers.Theusehasbeenmainlyforvalidationofpredictiontoolsforvelocity
distributionaroundliftingsurfaces,withinboundarylayersandforwakeflow.GenerallyLDV
measurementsaretimeconsumingandexpensivetoperformandtheuseforcommercialmodel
testinghavebeenverylimited.SeeITTC,(1996)forafurtherdiscussionforapplicationofLDVin
modeltesting.
LDVusestheDopplershiftinthereflectedlightfrequency(color)todeterminethevelocityand
directionoftheflow.Byusingtwobeamsfromdifferentdirection,the3Dvelocityvectorina
singlepointcanbemeasured.Tomeasurevelocityindifferentpositions,thetransmittingand
receivingopticsmustbemoved(seeFigure4.14).Thisiscommonlydoneusinganautomatic
traversingsystem.
OneofthemainbenefitsofLDVisthatitisanonintrusivemeasurementtechnique,whichmeans
thatonedoesnothavetoputanysensorsintotheareawhereonewantstomeasure,thusoneis
notinterferingwiththeflowfieldofinterest.LDVdoalsogiveveryquickresponse,whichmeans
thatitissuitableformeasurementofturbulenceandsimilarlyrapidlychangingflowphenomena.
Formeasurementofaveragevelocityinonedirection,itisgenerallyrecommendedtousepitot
tubesorsimilartechniques.
ForLDVtoworkthereneedstobelightreflectingparticlesdissolvedinthewaterinorderto
providelightscattering.Ifthereisnoparticlesinthewaterthelightfromthelaserwillnotbe
reflected.Infact,oneisnotmeasuringthewatervelocity,butrathertheparticlevelocity.There
mightbesufficientdirtinthewaterfromthestart,butitiscommontohavetoapplyparticlesfor
thepurposeofLDVmeasurement.Thisprocessiscalledseeding.Properseedingisoneofthekeys
tosuccessfulapplicationofLDV.Whentestinginlargefacilities,likealargetowingtank,seeding
mightbeoneofthemainchallenges.Seedingtheentiretankisdifficultandexpensive.Seeding
locallyintheareaofmeasurementmightdisturbtheflow,anditmightbedifficulttoobtaina
reasonablyhomogeneousdistributionofparticles.
Flow
Laser
HeNe
Ar-Ion
Nd:Yag
Diode
Beamsplitter
(Freq. Shift)
Achrom. Lens
PC
Receiving optics
with detector
Transmitting
optics
Gas
Liquid
Particle
Signal
processing
Spectrum analyser
Correlator
Counter, Tracker
Figure 4.14
Achrom. Lens
Spatial Filter
Photomultiplier
Photodiode
Signal
conditioner
Amplifier
Filter
Principles of a LDV measurement system
Page41
4.6.3 ParticleImageVelocimetryPIV
ParticleImageVelocimetry,orPIV,isanonintrusive,opticaltechniqueformeasurementofvelocity
vectors.AsforLDVlaserlightisused,andsimilartoLDVthewaterneedsparticlesseedingto
providelightscattering.WhileLDVmeasuresvelocityinasinglepointatatime,PIVmeasuresthe
velocityinanarea,soitisconsideredafieldmeasurementtechnique.PIVusesalaserlightsheet,
createdbyputtingaspreadinglensinfrontofthelaserbeam.Bytakingtwostereophotographs(or
onedoubleexposurestereophotograph)withveryshorttimeintervalthevelocityoftheparticles
canbedeterminedfromhowfartheyhavemoved.Byusingstereophotographs,themovementin
space,notonlyinasingleplane,canbedetermined.PIVhasbeeninuseforalongtime,butitis
theadvanceindigitalhighspeedvideoandimageanalysisthatquiterecentlyhasmadePIV
interestingtoapplyinregularhydrodynamicsresearch.Inthetimeoneusedfilmbasedpictures
andmoreorlessmanualanalysis,PIVwasextremelytediousandtimeconsuming.Now,semi
automatinganalysisofthedigitalvideoimagesmeansthatlargeamountsofmeasurementdatacan
begeneratedfairlyquickly.Also,theaccuracyhasbeengreatlyincreased.PIVisincreasinglyused
insteadofLDV,sinceitismuchfastertomapavelocitydistributionactuallythedistributioninan
areaiscapturedatoneinstant,andnotoversometime,aswithLDV.
Figure 4.15
Principles of a PIV measurement system
4.7
ForcemeasurementsDynamometers
Theloadcellsusedinmodeltestingareoftendesignedtofitaspecificpurposeandtocoverthe
expectedrangeofloadsduringthetests.Forexamplefortowingtests,veryhighaccuracyin
measuredforcewillberequiredandthetransducerwillbetailormadetomeasureforceinone
directionwithahighaspossibleresolution.Thisiscalledaresistancedynamometerandisstandard
equipmentinatowingtank.InFigure4.15adynamometerformeasurementsofpropellerthrust
andtorquedirectlyonthepropellerhubisshown.Thethrustismeasuredbyaninductiveposition
transducerandthetorquebystraingaugeswhichmeasuresheardeformationonahollowpartof
thepropellershaft.
Page42
Figure 4.16
Dynamometer for measurements of propeller thrust and torque.
Transducersformeasurementsofforcesinoneormoredegreesoffreedomareoftenproducedas
apurposemachinedpiecewithstraingaugesgluedtothebasematerial.Atypicaldesignfor
measurementofforcesin3d.o.fs(axialforceandshearforces)isshowninFigure4.17.
Figure 4.17
Example of force transducer based on strain gauges. Axial forces and shear forces
are measured.
Themachiningofthematerialgivesareaswithhighshearstresseswherethestraingaugesare
mounted.Bycarefuldesignofthetransducerthecrosstalkcanbekeptataminimum.Cross
talkmeanscouplingeffectsbetweenthedifferentdegreesoffreedom.Forexampleforthe
transducerinFigure4.17,ifapuretensioninxdirectionisapplied,themeasuredresponsefrom
thetransducerinyandzdirectionisaresultofcrosstalk.Fortransducerdesignitisimportant
withminimumcrosstalk.
Using3transducerofthistypemountedbetweentwoplatesa6d.o.ftransducerisobtained.
4.8
WaveMeasurements
Waveelevationismostcommonlymeasuredbymeansofwaveprobesoftheconductive(or
resistance)type.Avoltageisappliedontoparallelrods.Theresistanceisdeterminedbythelength
Page43
oftherodswhichiswetted(orsubmerged).Bymeasuringthecurrentduetotheapplied
voltageacrosstherodsthewettedpartandhencesurfaceelevation,isdirectlyachieved.Arraysof
threeormoreofthistypeofsensorscanbeusedtomeasurethedirectionaldistributioninshort
crestedwaves.
Waveprobesarealsousedformeasurementofrelativemotionsbetweenthestructureandthe
watersurface.Thewavegaugemaythenbemountedonthestructureandtherelativemotionin
thepointisdirectlyobtained.ExamplesoftransducersolutionsforthispurposeareshowninFigure
4.18.Bothrodsandconductivetapegluedtothemodelareusedforthispurpose.Rodsare
preferableatzerospeedduetoeasiermountingandcalibration,whileconductivetapeisoften
requiredformodelswithforwardspeed,toavoidresistanceandwatersprayfromtherods.
Figure 4.18
Example of wave transducers for measurements of relative motions.
Formeasurementofwavesathighforwardspeeds,thewirebasedprobesdontworkwell,dueto
thesprayandwavemakingofthesurfacepiercingwires.Runupinfrontofthewiresand
ventilationbehindthewiresleadstolargeerrorsinthemeasurements.Forforwardspeedsofmore
than2m/s,thewirebasedprobesshouldnotbeused.Alternativesaremainly:
Ultrasoundwaveprobes
Servoneedlewaveprobes
Ultrasoundwaveprobesworksbysendingoutahighfrequencysoundpulse,andmeasuringthe
timeittakesbeforethereflectedsoundwavereachestheprobe.Thetechniquehasbeenusedfor
alongtimeforlevelmeasurementintanksanddams,butitisnotuntilfairlyrecentlythat
instrumentswithsufficientaccuracyfortowingtankwavemeasurementhasbeenavailable.The
UltraLabsystemsfromGeneralAcousticsisinpracticaluseinthehydrodynamiclaboratoriesatthe
MarineTechnologyCentre.Someofthesesystemshavelimitationswithrespecttoforwardspeed
Page44
andwavesteepness,whilethemostadvancedsystemscoverallconditionsofpractical
interestfortowingtankwork.
Servoneedlewaveprobesconsistofasensingneedlemountedonaservomechanism.Thesensing
needlemeasuresthedegreeofcontactwiththewater,andtheservomechanismmakessurethe
needlehasafairlyconstantsubmergence.Then,theactualwaveheightisfoundbymeasuringthe
positionoftheneedle.Thisisafairlycomplexandfragileinstrument,andtheonlyreasontouse
suchaninstrumentisthecapabilityofwavemeasurementathighforwardspeed.
4.9
DataAcquisition
Thedifferentinstrumentsappliedinthetestsetupareconnectedbycablestoadataacquisition
systemtorecordthemeasureddata.AschematicofadataacquisitionsystemisshowninFig4.1.
4.9.1 Amplifiers
Atypicalanalogtransducersignaliswithoutputinmicrovolts.Itisthereforeamplifiedbyan
amplifier,usuallyto+/10Voltrange.
Dependingontypeoftransducerdifferenttypeofamplifiersisused.Amplifiersforanalogsignals
fromstraingaugeandsimilartypeoftransducerscanhavebridgeexcitationandbridgebalancing
builtin.Thismeansthattheamplifierwillprovidethecurrentandvoltagerequiredforthe
measurementbridge(seesection4.2.1Straingauges),inadditiontoamplificationoftheoutput
signal.Piezoelectricaltransducersrequireachargeamplifier.Inductiontypetransducersrequire
ACexcitation,whichmeansthatthedrivingcurrentofthetransducerisACratherthanDC.Strain
gaugetransducerscanuseeitherACorDCexcitation.
4.9.2 Filters
Filterscanbeeitheranalogordigitalfilters.Analogfiltersareappliedbeforethesignalsare
convertedtodigitalunitsbytheADconverterandmaybebuiltinasanintegratedpartofthe
amplifier.ThedigitalfiltersareappliedaftertheADconversionandcanbeimplementedeitherasa
digitalcircuitorassoftwareinthecomputerusedforanalysis.
Thefiltersremovesignalsatcertainfrequencybands.Dependingonwhichfrequencybandis
removedtheycanbesplitintothreeclasses:
Lowpass,i.e.forremovingofhighfrequencycomponents
Highpass,i.e.forremovingoflowfrequencycomponents
Bandpass
thedifferenttypesareillustratedinFigure4.19.
Analoglowpassfilteriscommonlyusedforremovingofnoiseasthenoiseisusuallyappearingata
significantlyhigherfrequencythanthephysicalmeasuringsignal.ToavoidNyquistphenomena(se
discussionbelow)thecutofffrequencyoftheanaloglowpassfilteredshouldbesettobelower
thanhalfthesamplingfrequencyfS..Thegeneralrecommendationistosetthecutofffrequency
muchlowerthanhalfthesamplingfrequency1/10ofthesamplingfrequencyisthepreferred
value,butitmightmeanthathighsamplingfrequenciesarerequired,andthereforecompromises
areoftenmade.
Page45
Amplitude
Ideal characteristic
Real characteristic
Low pass filter
High pass filter
Band pass filter

Frequency
Figure 4.19
Illustration of different type of filters.
Lowpassfiltersappliedinrealtimecausesatimedelay.Thismightbeillustratedwithanexample
ofaverysimplelowpassfilter,whichiscreatedbycreatingthelowpassfilteredsignalfroman
averageoftheunfilteredsignaloveracertainperiodoftime.Intheexample,showninFigure4.20,
asinusoidalsignalwithperiodof30secondshashadanothersinusoidalsignalwithperiod1.2
secondssuperimposed.Thefilterisimplementedasarunningaverageover2.4seconds,seenin
Figure4.20asthetimeittakesbeforethefilteredsignalappears.Itisclearlyseenfromthefigure
thatthefilteredsignallagsbehind,withhalftheaveragingtime.Thelongertheaverageperiod,the
lowerthefilterfrequency,andthelongerthetimedelay.Iftheaveragingwindowcouldhavebeen
symmetricallyplacedrelativetothetimeofthefilteredvaluethedelaywouldbeavoided.Thiscan
beachievedwhenfilteringanexistingdataset,butnotwhenfilteringinrealtime,sinceitwould
requiretheabilitytolookintothefuture.
Itshouldbenotedthatfilteringisinpracticenotperformedbysimpleaveraging.Thereisalarge
varietyofmethods,whichisnotcoveredhere.SeeforinstanceDunn(2005)foradiscussionof
filteralgorithms.
Page46
Figure 4.20 Illustration of time-delay due to filtering
4.9.3 AnalogtoDigital(AD)Conversion
Mosttransducertypes,includingthelargegroupofstraingaugebasedtransducers,areanalog
transducers,meaningthattheyproduceananalogoutputsignal.Torepresentthissignalina
computerithastobedigitized.TheprocessofdigitalizationisperformedintheADconverter.
TheADconverterisusuallyaphysicallyseparateunit;aboxoranextracardforthecomputer.The
lineinpartofacomputersoundcardisanADconvertercustommadeforsound,butreallyquite
similartotheADconvertersusedforothermeasurements.TheADconverterunitwilloftenalso
haveapossibilityfordigitaltoanalogconversionDAsimilartothelineoutofacomputersound
card.TheDAconvertermightforinstancebeusedtoproduceasignalforacontrolsystem.TheAD
convertermightbeintegratedwiththemeasurementamplifier.ThisisthecasefortheHottinger
MGC+digitalmeasurementamplifiersinuseinthehydrodynamiclaboratoriesattheMarine
TechnologyCentre.
TheADconverterunitwill,dependingontheactualmodel,haveacertainnumberofchannels,
whichmeanshowmanysignalscanbeconvertedsimultaneously.LimitationsintheADconverter
willdeterminehowfastthedatacanbesampledthesamplingfrequency.Itmeansthatfor
experimentsrequiringveryfastsampling,specialADconverterequipmentmighthavetobe
acquired.
OneshouldalsobeawarethatsomeADconverterssampleallchannelsatexactlythesameinstant,
whileotherswillsamplethechannelssequentiallyduringthesamplinginterval.Ifforinstance10
channelsaresampledat10Hz,thesequentialADconverterwillsampleasinglechannelevery
1/100second,sothateachchannelissampledevery1/10second,butnotatthesametime.Thisis
usuallynotaproblem,sincethesamplingfrequencyshouldbemuchhigherthanthefrequencyof
thephenomenatobestudied.
TherangeoftheADconvertermeanswhatinputvoltagevaluesareaccepted.MostADconverters
acceptvaluesintherange10V.Iftheinputsignalexceedstherange,anoverflowoccurs,resulting
inaninvalidvalue,andpossiblyinanerrorsituationthatdisturbstheotherchannelsand/or
disruptsthemeasurement.
AnotherimportantfeatureoftheADconverteristheresolutionhowmanybitsareusedto
representonesample.An8bitADconverterwillrepresenttheanalogvaluebychoosingthe
nearestofonly28=256differentvalues.12bitADconvertersarecommonforthelessexpensive
models,producingarangeof4096differentvalues.Expensivemodels,liketheMGC+,use20bit,
Page47
giving1048576differentvales.EspeciallyforlowresolutionADconvertersitisvery
importanttouseasmuchaspossibleoftherangeoftheADconverter.Ifyouhavea8bitAD
converteranduseonly10%oftherangeyougetaneffectiveresolutionofonly25differentvalues,
andthatwillseriouslyimpactyourmeasurementaccuracyyougetasmuchas100/25=4%error
onlyontheADconversion!Touseasmuchoftherangeaspossible,youshouldselectatransducer
withacapacitythatisclosetowhatyouwillmeasure,butwhereyouareprettysurethatthe
capacityisnotgoingtobeexceeded.Thismeansyouneedtoknowapproximatelythemagnitude
ofyourmeasuredvaluespriortotheexperiment.Inadditiontoselectingthecorrecttransducer,
youcanalsoadjusttheamplificationoftheamplifier.Thereasonwhyyoushouldnotjustusea
largecapacitytransducerandturnuptheamplificationisthatthiswillalsoamplifythenoiseinthe
measurementchain,resultinginapoorsignaltonoiseratiointheresultingmeasurement.
4.9.4 Wirelessdatatransmission
Examplesofcaseswherewirelessdatatransmissionisrequiredinatestsetuparemeasurements
onarotatingshaft,forinstanceapropellershaft,andmeasurementsonboardasmallshipmodel.
Therearevariousalternativesandcurrentlyarapiddevelopmentoftechnologyandavailable
products.Afundamentalquestionisatwhatstageshallthedatatransmissiontakeplacebefore
oraftertheA/Dconversion?Forstraingaugeandsimilarsensors,thetransmissionshouldtake
placeaftertheamplification.Thismeansthattheamplifiershouldbeplacedonboardthemodelor
therotatingshaft.Thisagainmeansthatforthesmallestmodels,andindeedfortherotatingshaft,
theamplifiermustbeofaspecial,verysmallkind.Previously,itwasmostcommontotransmitthe
amplifiedanalogsignal,forinstanceusingananalogradiolink.Nowitismorecommontoinclude
theA/Dconverterintheinstrumentationpackageonboardthemodelandtransmitthedigital
signal.Wewillprovidetwoexamplesofthis.
Forafreerunningshipmodeltobeusedinseakeepingtests,MARINTEKisusingaMGC+digital
measurementamplifieronboardthemodel.Theamplifierisrunningon24VDCpower,suppliedby
twomotorcyclebatteriesmountedinseries.TheMGC+iscommunicatingwiththecomputerbyan
ordinaryIPconnection.Usuallythisconnectionisbycable,butincaseofthefreerunningmodel
thecableisreplacedbyawirelesslinkofstandard802.11b/gtype.Theonlydrawbackofthisset
upisthesizeandweightoftheMGC+,whichmeansitcannotbeusedforreallysmallmodels.Also,
theamplifierisbynomeanswaterproof,whichmeansyoucaneasilydestroythisverycostlypiece
ofequipmentifthemodelgetsflooded.
Formeasurementofforcesonapropelleronathrusterorpod,NTNU,MARINTEKandthe
electronicscompanyNorbithavedevelopedameasurementsystemusingonwirelesstransmission.
Inthissystem,asmallamplifierandA/Dunitismountedtotherearendofthepropellershaft.In
thecentreofthisunitisaninfrared(IR)sender/receiverunitofthesametypeusedinmobile
phonesforthephonetocommunicatewithaPCoranotherphone.Directlyinfrontoftherotating
amplifierandA/DunitisasimilarelectronicsunitthatcontainsthesametypeIRsender/receiver.
Powerissuppliedtotheunitontherotatingshaftbymeansofacoilwithonerotatingandone
stationarypart,asseeninFigure4.20.Figure4.21showsthephysicaldimensionsoftheunit.
Page48
Figure 4.21
Principle of wireless data transmission from rotating shaft.
Figure 4.22
Sketch of electronics units for wireless data transmission from rotating shaft. The
end of the rotating shaft is seen to the right. To the left is drawn the electronics unit seen from the
rear
4.10
SamplingFrequency
Therecordingofthedataduringthetestisdonebysamplingofthesignal,i.e.thesignalisrecorded
andstoreddigitallyinthecomputerwithacertaintimeinterval,h,betweeneachsampling.1/his
calledthesamplingfrequencyfS.Therequireddatastoragecapacityforeachmeasuringchannelis
Page49
determinedbytheproductTfSnbit.,whereTisthetotalmeasuringtimeandnbitisthe
numberofbitsrequiredtostoreeachnumber.Thesamplingfrequencywillthereforedetermine
thedatastoragecapacityrequired,andthesizeoftheresultfilesisamajorreasonnottoselecta
higherthannecessarysamplingfrequency.
Thesamplingfrequencyhastoreflectthetimedependencyoftheprocesstoberecorded.Ithasto
bequickenoughtocoverallvariations.Ontheotherhandusinghighsamplingfrequencyincreases
theamountofdatacollectedthroughthetestsanddataprocessingandstoragewillbedemanding.
InFigure4.22isshownthatsamplingcanleadtogenerationoferroneouscomponentsinthe
record.Arelativelyhighfrequentsinusoidalissampledatasamplingfrequency1/h.Theapparent
signalstoredinthecomputerisamuchmorelowfrequentsinewave,whichdidnotexistinthe
originalsignal.Theinformationintheoriginalsignalislostandcannotberestoredinthe
subsequentanalysis.
Figure 4.23
Illustration of consequence of too low sampling frequency
Inordertodefinetheamplitudeandphaseofapuresinewavewetheoreticallyneedaminimumof
2samplesprcycle.Inotherwordsthehighestfrequencythatcanbedeterminedfromthesignalis:
fC
2h
ThisfrequencyiscalledtheNyquistfrequencyofthesamplingprocess.
IftheoriginalsignalcontainscomponentsabovefCtheywillbefoldedbackintothelow
frequencypartofthespectrumandappearthereaserroneous,nonphysicalcomponents.Thisis
showninFigure4.23.Twomethodscanbeusedtoavoidthiserror:
1. ChooseasufficientlyhighfSthatallpossiblefrequenciesinthesignalarecorrectly
recordedinthesampling
2. Applyanaloglowpassfilteringofthesignal,removingallsignalcomponentsat
frequencyabovefCbeforethesignalissampled.
Thelattermethodismostcommonlyappliedinpractice.Forpracticalmeasurements,itis
recommendedtosetthecutofffrequencyofthelowpassfiltersignificantlylowerthantheNyquist
Page50
frequency.Therecommendationistosetthelowpassfiltercutofffrequencyto1/10of
thesamplingfrequency.Sincethelowpasscutofffrequencymustbesufficientlyhightoretainall
frequenciesofinterest,followingtherecommendationleadstohighsamplingfrequencies.Thus,
compromisesmightbemade,butitisstronglyrecommendedtokeepthefiltercutofffrequency
wellbelowtheNyquistfrequency.
fc
f
Figure 4.24
Effect of Folding
Wavefrequencymotionswillfollowthewavefrequency,andamoderatesamplingfrequencyis
required.Typically,alowpassfilterfrequencyequaltominimum10timesthewavefrequency(or
peakfrequencyincaseofirregularwaves)shouldbeappliedforthispurpose.
Impactloadsisanexamplewhereveryhighsamplingfrequencyisrequired.Thisisespeciallythe
caseifthelocalriseangleatthepositionofimpactbetweenmodelandwavesurfaceiscloseto
zero.Anexampleofmeasuredpressureonahorizontalplatedroppedverticallytowardsawave
crestisshowninFigure4.11.Thetestswerecarriedouttosimulateimpactloadsagainsta
catamaranwetdeck.Therisetimeisseentobeabout0.0001sandasamplingfrequencyof100
kHzwasrequiredtocoverthepressurepeak.Thetimedurationoftheimpactisveryshortanditis
associatedwithveryhighlocalpressurepeaks.Thiswillalsorequirethattheamplifiershavea
sufficientlylargefrequencyrangewithlinearrelationbetweenmeasuredandamplifiedresults.For
thetransducersverylowrisetimeandhighresonancefrequencyarerequired.
Thisexampleillustratethatthepropertiesofequipmenttobeused,includingsensors,amplifiers,
filtersanddataacquisitionunithastobecarefullyselectedbasedontheactualbehaviourateach
application.Agoodunderstandingofthephysicsofthetestssituationisthereforeofvital
importancetodecidetypeofequipmentthatshallbeusedandhencetoachievereliableandhigh
qualitytestresults.
4.11
LengthofRecords
Requireddurationofthetestswilldependontypeoftesting.Forregularwavesashortdurationof
testisusuallyused.Typicallyonly10cyclesisusedfortheanalysis,butmakesurethattheactual
testissufficientlylongtoestablishasteadystateresponse.Fordecayteststherequirementsto
durationissimilar.
Page51
Forirregularwavesthestatisticalaccuracyofmeasureddataisimprovedbyincreasingthe
lengthoftherecord.Therequireddurationdependsonthefollowingparameters:
Theperiodofthemostlowfrequentphenomenawhichoccurinthetests
Thesystemdamping
Therequiredstandarddeviationofthequantitiesdeterminedbythestatisticalanalysis
Incommercialtestingthereisaverysimpleruleofthumbthatthetestdurationshouldpreferably
beatleast100timestheperiodofthemostlowfrequentphenomenatobeinvestigated.For
testingwhereonlythewavefrequencyphenomenaareofinterestthisgivesarequiredtimeof
typically1000sfullscaletime.Forcaseswhereslowdriftmotionsareimportant,naturalperiodsin
theorderof15mincanbeexpected.Thiswillrequiretestdurationupto10hours.Inpractice,
often3hourdurationoftestisusedforthiscase.
Page52
Referringtothespectralanalysisrequirementshowsthatthereexistcertainrelationships
betweenthefollowingquantities(seeBendatandPiersol(1966)forfurtherdetails):
Bh
T Nh
where:
B;
thedesiredfrequencyresolutionintheresultingspectrum(inHz)
h;
samplinginterval(ins)
m;
numberoftimeshiftsinthecalculationoftheautocorrelationfunction(fromwhich
thespectrumiscalculated,seechap9.5.2)
N;
numberofsamples
T;
lengthofrecording(ins)
normalisedstandarddeviationofthespectrumcalculation
Letusconsidermodeltestswithmeasurementsoftheheavemotionsofashipinirregularwavesas
anexample.Assumingthefollowingdata:
SpectralpeakperiodTP=10s.
ResonanceheaveperiodT3=8s.
Scaleratio=40.
Forthiscasewecanassumethattherewillbealmostzeroenergyoftheresponsespectrumfor
frequenciesabove0.25Hz.TheNyquistfrequencycanthenbesettofC=0.5Hz.Wantedfrequency
resolutionintheresultingspectrumissettoB=0.02Hz.Thisgives:
Samplinginterval
1
1 .0 s
2 fc
Numberoftimeshifts
1
50
Bh
Numberofsamples
Lengthofrecord
T Nh 2222s 22 min
2222
4.12
Page53
Calibration
ThedataacquisitionprocessdescribedsofargivesasignalinVolts(ormillivolts).However,whatis
neededisasignalintherelevantphysicalunit.Toobtainalinkbetweenthemeasuredvoltage
signalandthecorrectphysicalvalue,weusuallyapplycalibration.Theprocessofcalibrationisto
applyaknownloadtothetransducerandmeasuretheoutputvoltage.Thisisdoneforanumberof
differentloads,coveringtheexpectedrangeofmeasuredvalues.Then,acalibrationcurvecanbe
drawn.Foreaseofapplication,mosttransducersaremadesuchthattheywillgivealinearrelation
betweenloadandoutputsignal.Thecalibrationfactorwillthenbetheslopeofthestraightlinefit
tothemeasuredcalibrationdata(seeFigure4.24).
Tobeabletoaapplyaknownloadinaneasyandwellcontrolledmanner;thecalibrationofeach
transducerisusuallydonebeforethetestissetupbeforethetransducerismountedintheset
up.Whendoingthecalibrationthisway,onemustmakesurethatthemountingofthetransducer
inthetestsetupdoesntalterthecalibrationfactor.Also,becauseoneismeasuringtheamplified
signalinVolts,theamplifiersettingswillinfluencethecalibration.Thus,oneshouldmakesureto
usethesameamplifiersettings,andpreferablyalsothesameamplifierasintherealtestsetup.
Itisfurthermorerecommendedtoperformacheckofthecalibrationswhenthetestsetupis
completed.Thisensuresthatthecalibrationfactorshaventbeensignificantlychangedbythe
mounting,andalsothatallconnectionsarecorrect.Anexampleofsuchacheckiswhentheship
modelisconnectedtothecarriageandtheresistancedynamometerinpreparationforatowing
test,aknownforceisappliedtothemodelinthedirectionoftowingandtheresultingoutputof
theresistancedynamometeriscomparedwiththeknownforce.
Z Force
25
load [N]
20
15
y = 30.829x + 0.1564
10
R = 0.9997
5
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
output [V]
Figure 4.25 Example calibration curve for a force transducer. The calibration factor obtained from
this curve is 30.829 N/V.
4.13
Page54
Zeroing
Thecalibrationdescribedabovewillensurethattheproportionalitybetweentheoutputsignaland
thecorrectphysicalpropertyiscorrect(rememberthatthecalibrationfactoristheslopeofthe
curverelatingoutputinVoltstothephysicalunit).However,wealsoneedtomakesurethatthe
absolutevalueisknown.Thisisdonebydefiningareferencelevelandreferringallmeasurements
tothislevel.Typically,thereferenceleveliszero,andinthefollowing,weassumethatthisisthe
case.
Beforethetest,wemeasurethezerolevelofallrelevanttransducers.Forinstanceforaresistance
test,wemeasurethezerolevelforresistance,carriagespeed,andsinkageforeandaftwiththe
modelatrest.Theoutputmeasuredinthisconditionisstored,andlatersubtractedfromthereal
measurementsatthewantedforwardspeeds.ThedataacquisitionprogramsinuseattheMarine
TechnologyCentrehavezeromeasurementfunctionalitybuiltin.
4.13.1 Bridgebalancing
Thezeromeasurementoutlinedaboveislikeanordinarymeasurement,involvinganaverageover
atimeselectedbytheexperimenter.Inadditiontothiskindofzeroing,themeasurementamplifier
usuallyhasadditionalmeansofzeroingtheoutput.Themostbasiconeisbridgebalancing,whichis
toadjustthebuiltinresistancesinordertomakesurethattheWheatstonemeasurementbridge
forthetransducergiveszerooutputintheselectedcondition.Itisimportanttobalancethebridge
beforestartingthemeasurements,asthismakessubsequentmeasurementsmoreaccurate.
Inaddition,theamplifiermighthaveatareorzeroingfunction,whichinprincipleissimilartothe
zeromeasurementdescribedabove,exceptthatitbasesthezeroreadingonasingle,oravery
limitednumberofsamples.Thus,thiskindofzeroislessaccurate,duetotheriskofenvironmental
disturbances.
4.13.2 Temperaturedrift
Zeroreadingsaredonemanytimesduringameasurementcampaignbecausemanytransducers
haveatendencytodrift.Driftinatransducermeansthatforaconstantload,theoutputchanges
slowlywithtime.Zeroingmustbeperformedsufficientlyoftentoreducetheerrorcausedby
transducerdrifttoanacceptablelevel.Ifthedriftisquickcomparedtothelengthofa
measurement,itmeansthetransducerisnotsuitableforthetest.Transducerdriftforstraingauge
basedtransducersisusuallyrelatedtotemperaturechangesinthetransducer.Whenthe
temperatureincreases,thematerialtowhichthestraingaugeisattachedwillbeelongated,sothe
straingaugewillgetareadingthatisfalse.Astraingaugeemitssignificantamountsofheat
comparedtoitssmallarea,soshortlyafterthetransducerisconnectedtotheamplifier(orthe
amplifierturnedon),thetransducerwilltypicallydriftquitesignificantlyduetoheatingupofthe
transducermaterial.Thedriftduetoheatfromthestraingaugewillreachastableequilibrium
withinafewminutes(mightbeuptoabout30minutes),butwhentheenvironmentaroundthe
transducerchanges,forinstanceduetoachangeoftheairvelocityaroundthetransducer,the
equilibriumischangedanddriftwillagainoccur.Especiallyfortransducersimmersedinwater,the
changeofcoolingofthetransducerduetochangesinwatervelocitycancauseseriousproblemsfor
theaccuracy.
Page55
PHYSICALMODELLING
5.1
General
Designandconstructionofeffectivetestmodelsisanimportantpartofthemodeltestingprocess.
Typicalmaterialsusedforconstructionofshiphullmodelsarewax,wood,aluminum,glass
reinforcedplastic(GRP)andfoammaterial.UseofGRPwillrequirethataplugismadewiththe
exactfinishedshapeofthehull.Thetypeofconstructionmaterialtobeusedwilldependonshape,
modelsize,weightandstrengthrequirement,andcost.Forshiplikemodelscomputercontrolled
millingmachinesarecommonlyusedformodelproduction.
Foralmostalltypeofmodeltesting,veryaccuratemodelingofthepartofthemodelgeometrythat
isexposedtowaterwillberequired.Fortestingwhereviscousforcesareimportantalsothe
roughnessofthesurfacehastobecarefullycontrolled.
Theselectionofscalewillbelimitedbyseveralfactors:
Theexperimentalfacilityavailable
Requirementsfrominstrumentationandphysicalmodelingoftheactualstructure
Requiredscaletoavoidseverescalingeffects,veryoftenconnectedtoviscousforces
(Reynoldsnumber).
Costofmodelsandtestexecution
Ingeneralatoosmallscalewillgiveproblemswithscaleeffectsandmeasuringaccuracy,while
largemodelswillbecostlyandcanbedifficulttohandle.Ifthemodelsgetlargecomparedtothe
sizeofthetesttank,blockageeffectsarelikelytooccur,whichmeansthatthetankwallsinfluence
theresults.Requirementstocorrectlyscaledmassdistributionand(whenrelevant)structural
elasticitywillbemoredifficulttosatisfyforsmallmodels.
5.2
RigidModels
Fordynamictestingwherethemodelisfreelymovingandtheinertiaforceswillbeofimportance,
themassdistributionneedstobecorrect.Inpracticaltermsthefollowingrequirementsshouldbe
satisfied:
Totalmass
Momentofinertiaexpressedthroughthegyrationradius,rxxryyandrzz
Longitudinalandverticalpositionofcentreofgravity
Ifinternalloadsshallbemeasured,themassdistributionmustalsobecorrectly
modelled
Page56
Themassisdeterminedsimplybyweighingofthemodel,orbyensuringthatthemodelis
floatingatthecorrectwaterline.
ApracticaltoolfordeterminingthepositionofCoGandmomentofinertiaofamodelistousethe
pendulumtest.Themodelisarrangedinapendulum,freetorotateaboutapointA,asshownin
thesketchinFigure5.1.Theperiodofaphysicalpendulumisgivenfrom:
T0 2
Mgh
whereMisthemassofthemodel,IisthemomentofinertiareferringtothepointA,Gisthe
positionofcenterofgravity,histhedistancefromAtoGandgisgravity.Theaboveequationcan
berewrittenas:
4 2 I MgT0 h 0
2
Figure 5.1
Sketch of a Pendulum for determination of centre of gravity and moment of
inertia
InthependulumtestonefirstmeasuretheperiodT0.Thentwoadditionalmasses,m,arefittedat
eachendofthependulumatadistanceafromtherotationcentreA.ThenthependulumperiodT1
ismeasuredwiththeadditionalweightsfitted.Wenowhave:
4 2 ( I I ) ( M 2m) gT1 ( h h) 0
2
where I 2ma 2 and h
2mh
.Insertingintotheaboveequationgives:
( M 2m)
4 2 ( I 2ma 2 ) MmgT1 h 8 2 ma 2
2
Wenowhavetwoequationswithtwounknowns,Iandh.Thesolutionis:
Page57
8 2 ma 2
2
2
Mg (T1 T0 )
2
2ma 2To
2
2
T1 T0
Toobtainthemomentofinertiaofthemodelreferringtothecentreofgravitywehave:
I m I Mh 2
Theradiusofgyrationcanbeadjustedtotherequiredvaluesbymovingtheinternalballast
weights.Itisthereforeimportanttohavesufficientamountofballastweightstobeabletoachieve
thecorrectweightdistribution.
Whenthepositionofcentreofgravityisavailable,themetacentricheightisalsoeasilyobtained.It
iscommonpracticetomeasurethemetacentricheightalsobyastaticinclinationtestafterthe
modelisinthewater.Ifanydeviationfromtheresultsfromthependulumtestisobserved,the
inclinationtestisusuallyconsideredtobemostaccurate.
Whenthemodelisdividedinseveralsectionsformeasurementofgloballoads(shearforcesand
bendingmoments)ingiventransversecuts,itisnotsufficientthatthetotalmodelhasthecorrect
massandmomentofinertia.Forthiscaseeachsectionoftheshipmusthavecorrectmassand
momentofinertiatogetcorrectforces.Thependulumtestshavethentobecarriedoutforeach
section.
5.3
ElasticModels
5.3.1 General
Fortestconditionswheretheelasticdeformationofthemodelisimportanttheelasticproperties
ofthemodelneedtobecorrectlyscaled.Exampleswherethiswillbethecaseare:
Marinerisers(bendingstiffness)andloadinghoses(bendingstiffnessandaxial
elasticity)
TethersforTensionLegPlatforms(bothaxialandbendingstiffness)
Mooringlines(axialstiffness)
Springingandwhippingofships,bothmonohullsandcatamarans(bendingstiffnessand
torsionalstiffness)
Floatingbridges
Fishfarmingplants
Seismiccables
Thisimpliesthatforoffshoreandcoastalstructuretestingoneormoreelementswillusually
requiremodellingofelasticproperties.Foratestcasewheretheelasticityisnotimportant,the
Page58
modelismadesufficientstifforasstiffaspossibletoavoidanyartificiallyhydroelastic
effectsinthemodel.
Thegeneralscalinglawstobeappliedforelasticmodellingisdiscussedinchap.2.5.Asoutlined,a
directgeometricalscalingusingmaterialwiththesamemodulusofelasticity,givesamodelthatis
timestoostiff.Thisimpliesthatinpracticalmodellingtheproblemistogetthemodelsufficiently
elastic.
Forthedynamicresponseofanelasticstructurethemassdistributionandstructuraldamping
shouldalsobecorrectlymodelled.Itisthereforearequirementthatthemodellingdonotintroduce
additionaldamping.Materialsthatshowhystereticbehaviourshouldthereforenotbeusedfor
modelling.Othersourceforunwanteddampingcanbefrictionalforcesbetweendifferent
componentsinthebuildupofthemodel.
5.3.2 SlenderStructureModelling
Afrequentlyusedmethodformodellingoflongandslenderstructures(eg.riserortethers)isto
applyasteeloraluminiumcorewithdimensionsdeterminedtogivecorrectbendingstiffness.
Aroundthecoreisfittedbuoyancymaterialtoobtainthecorrectoutergeometryandweight.Using
thismethoditisimportanttoavoidmotionsandresultingfrictionbetweenthecoreandthe
buoyancymaterialtoavoidintroducingartificialstructuraldamping.InFigure5.2anexampleof
modellingofalongandslendertubebridgeusingthismethod,isshown.Frictionforcesbetween
coreandouterbuoyancyareinthiscaseavoidedbyconnectingthebuoyancyfoamtoanouter
pipe,whichisweldedtothecore.Thegapbetweenthebuoyancyelementsensuresthatthe
bendingstiffnessisnotinfluencedbythebuoyancyelements.
Figure 5.2
Example of elastic modelling of marine riser.
5.3.3 MooringLinesmodelling
Theaxialelasticityofmooringlinescanbemodelledbyintroducingaxialspringsinoneormore
positionsalongthelines.Thiswillbeimportantespeciallyformooringsystemincludingfibreropes,
butalsoforconventionalmooringsystemdesignsconsistingofchainand/orwiresegments,the
axialelasticitycanbeimportantforthetotalrestoringstiffnessandshouldthereforebeaccurately
modelled.
5.3.4 Shipmodelling
Forelasticmodellingofships,threedifferentsolutionshavesofarbeenused.(SeeMaeda(1991)):
Page59
Backbonemodel
Fullyelasticmodel
Hingedmodel
InFigure5.3thetwofirstalternativesareshownschematicallyforamonohull.Forthebackbone
modelling,theelasticityofthemodelisrepresentedbyanelasticbeamtowhichrigidsegmentsare
connected(similartothesolutiondiscussedabove).Usingthismodellingtechniqueitisrelatively
easytomodelthestiffnessandmaterialsassteeloraluminiumwithstableandwelldocumented
propertiescanbeused.Furtheritiseasytomodifythestructuralproperties,andthestructural
dampingislow.Oneproblemwiththismodellingisthegapbetweenthedifferentsections.They
maybeclosedusinganelasticmembrane,butitisdifficulttoavoidtransferoftensiontroughthe
membrane.Ifthegapsareopen,eachsectionhastobebuiltwatertight.Furtherthedynamic
pressureinthegapsmaytosomeextentinfluencetheresults.Forshipmodelswithforwardspeed
thegapswillgiveadditionalresistanceduetotheinfluenceontheflowfieldaroundtheship.
Figure 5.3
Methods for modelling of an elastic monohull
Thefullyelasticmodelisbuiltupusingcrosssectionswithoneortwolayerswithdifferentelasticity
asshowninFigure5.3.Glassfibreresinincombinationwithafoammaterialcanbeused.The
thicknessoftheinnerresinlayercanbevariedtoachievethecorrectelasticity.Thismethodof
modellingavoidsthegapproblems,butitisdifficulttoachievethecorrectbendingstiffness
distribution.Further,theuseoffoammaterialintroducessomehystereticeffectsandthestructural
dampingmaybetoohighforthemodel.Fortestingofspringingresponsethisiscriticalforthe
results.Forwhippingresponsethestructuraldampinglevelislesscritical.
Page60
Whilethebackboneandfullyelasticmodelisbestsuitedformonohullsthehingedmodel
solutionhasalsobeenusedforcatamarans,seeHermunstadet.al.(1995).Anexampleofelastic
modellingofacatamaranusingthehingedmodelisshowninFigure5.4.Eachhullisdividedinto
threerigidsegmentsthatareconnectedbysprings.Thespringsareslendersteelbeamswith
dimensionsdeterminedtogivecorrectbendingandtorsionalstiffness.Thetwohullsareconnected
troughthreetransversespringsasshowninthefigure.ThehullsegmentsaremadeofFoam/GRP
similartowhatisusedforstandardrigidmodelproduction.Tomakethesegmentsstiff,an
aluminiumframeismountedwithineachsection.Rubbermembranesareattachedbetweeneach
segmenttomakethemodelwatertight.
Ingeneral,arequirementforcorrectlyscaledelasticityofashipmodelwillsignificantlyincreasethe
complexity(andhencethecost)formodelproductionandalsofortestexecution.Inaddition
detailedinformationabouttheelasticpropertiesofthefullscaleshipwillberequired.
Figure 5.4
Hinged model of an elastic catamaran
Page61
CONVENTIONALSHIPTESTING
6.1
General
Conventionalshiptestingincludesthefollowingtypeofmodeltesting:
Towingtestforresistancemeasurements
PropellerOpenWaterTesttodeterminethepropellercharacteristicsinopenwater
(withoutashipmodelpresent)
Propulsiontestintowingtank,eithertodeterminethepropulsionpowerdirectly,orto
findthepropulsionfactors(thrustdeduction,effectivewake,andrelativerotative
efficiency)whendoneincombinationwithresistancetestandpropelleropenwater
test
Wakesurveytowingtestwherethevelocitydistributioninthepositionofthe
propellerismeasured.Thewakedistributionresultingfromthistestisimportantinput
toacavitationtestsandforthepropellerdesign.
Streamlinepainttestusuallyperformedwithworkingpropeller(s)todeterminethe
flowpatternaroundthehull,inordertodetectflowseparationandoptimiseinclination
ofpropellershaftbrackets,positionofbilgekeels,anddirectionoftunnelthruster
openinggrids.
Cavitationtestsforidentificationofpropellercavitationproblems.
Manoeuvringtestsforcheckofmanoeuvrability
6.2
Towingandpropulsiontestsintowingtank
Thetraditionalpurposeofshipmodeltests,andstillthemainactivityofcommercialtowingtank
testing,istopredictthespeedpowerrelationforashipbeforeitisbuilt.
Allshipbuildingcontractscontainstrictrequirementstothespeedthenewshipshalldoforagiven
enginepower.Failuretomeetthecontractualspeedrequirementleadstoheavyfinesfortheyard,
andultimatelythattheshipownermayrefusetotakeownershipofthevessel.Thus,itisimportant
fortheshipyardtodeterminebeforethebuildinghasstartedhowfasttheshipwillgoonthetrials.
Evenwhenmaindimensionsarefixed,thespeedperformanceofthedesigncanbeimproved
significantly(upto20%onpower)bycarefuldesignofbow(includingbulb!),sternandpropulsion
arrangement.Thus,itiscommontomakemodificationstothedetailsoftheshipdesignbasedon
theobservationsduringthemodeltests.
Conventionaltowingtests,propulsiontestingandscalingofresultstofullscalearediscussedin
detailsinthebasiccourseinHydrodynamics.ReferenceismadetoSteen(2011).Ashortsummary
willbegivenhere.
6.2.1 Towingtestsforresistancemeasurements
Inatowingtest,themodelisconnectedtothetowingcarriagethroughaforcetransducer,
commonlycalledresistancedynamometer,sothatallforcesinthedirectionoftowingistakenby
Page62
thetransducer.Inaddition,themodeliskeptonastraightcoursebysocalledtrimposts,
whicharedevicesthatonlyprovideslateralforces,butleavesthemodelfreetoheave,trim,and
surge.Usually,thetrimpostshaveanarrangementformeasurementofthesinkageforeandaft.
Thespeedisusuallymeasuredasthespeedofthecarriage.Asketchofthesetupfortowingtests
isshowninFigure6.1
Towing Carriage
Measurement of:
Model resistance RTm
Model speed
Sinkage fore and aft
Resistance
Dynamometer
Ship model
Flexible connection
Figure 6.1
Test set-up for towing tests
Theprocedureforthetestistoacceleratethemodeltowantedspeed,thenmeasurethe
resistanceatconstantspeedforatleasttenseconds,andthengraduallystopthecarriage.For
heavymodels,itiscommonpracticetohavealockingmechanism(clamp)tounloadthe
resistancedynamometerduringaccelerationanddeceleration.
Intheresistancetest,themodelisusuallyequippedwithrudderandpropellershaft(s),butwiththe
propeller(s)replacedwithdummybossesmadeoflead,sothattheweightofthedummyboss
equalstheweightofthepropellermodel.Furthermore,themodelisequippedwithaturbulence
stimulator,tomakesurethattheflowoverthehullisturbulentalsoatlowspeeds.Theturbulence
stimulatorisusuallyplaced5%ofLppaftofFP.Theturbulencestimulatoriscommonlya1mm
diametertreadgluedtothehullnormaltotheflowdirection.Forhighspeedmodels,studsare
commonlyusedforturbulencestimulation.Studsare23.5mmdiametercylindersmounted
normaltothehullsurface,protruding22.5mmfromthesurface,withabout2025mmdistance
betweenthestuds.Sandstripsarealsoused.Thatisa510mmwidestripofsharpedgedsandwith
grainsizeofabout0.5mmwhichisgluedtothehull.Turbulencestimulationmightinadditionbe
requiredonappendicesandseparatepartsofthehullprotrudingoutoftheboundarylayerofthe
hull,likeasonardome,orthekeelofasailingyacht.Onappendices,sandstripsarethemost
commonformofturbulencestimulation.
6.2.2 Propulsiontests
Inthepropulsiontest,themodelisthesameasfortheresistancetest,exceptthatthedummy
bossesarereplacedwithgeometricallyscaledmodelpropellers.Thepropellersaredrivenby
electricmotors.Betweentheelectricmotorsandthepropellersaremountedpropeller
dynamometers,whichmeasurepropellerthrustandtorque.Inaddition,thepropellerrevsare
measured.SeeFigure6.2forasketchofthesetup.
Forconventionallyshaftedpropellers,thepropellerdynamometersarelocatedinsidethehull.
Thus,thefrictioninthepropellershaftsealsandbearingswillinfluencethemeasurementoftorque
(sinceonemeasurethetorqueinsidethehull,butwanttoknowthetorquedeliveredtothe
propeller).Thus,itiscommontodomeasurementsofthesocalledidletorque,whichisthetorque
Page63
measuredwithonlythepropellerbosspresent.Thisisdoneforseveralpropellerspeeds,so
thatcorrectionsofthemeasuredpropellertorquecanlaterbedonebyinterpolation.
Sincethefrictionalresistancecoefficientislargerinmodelthaninfullscale,itisrequiredtopartly
towthemodel,inordertoobtainthecorrectloadingofthemodelpropeller.Thiscanbedonein
twodifferentways:
1. ApplicationofaconstantforceFD,byusingaweightandpulleysystemasindicatedin
Figure6.2.Thepropellerrevshastobeadjustedsothatthemodelreachesthespecified
speed.Thisiscalledcontinentalmethodofpropulsiontest.
2. Themodelisconnectedtotheresistancedynamometerinthesamewayasinthe
resistancetest.Thespeedisthendecidedbythecarriagespeed.Thepropellerrevsare
variedtoobtainatowingforceequaltoFD.Itisusuallyrequiredtodoaboutthreerunsin
thetankateachspeedtofindthepropellerrevsthatgiveatowingforceequaltoFD.Thisis
calledtheBritishmethodofpropulsiontest.Sinceitrequiresmoreruns,itislessused.
However,thefactthatitgivesresultsfordifferentvaluesofFDmeansthattheresultscan
easilyberescaledtodifferentscaleratiosanddifferentpoweringpredictionmethods.
ThetowingforceFDisfoundfromthedifferenceinresistancecoefficientsinmodelandfull
scale.Thisdifferenceisprimarilyduetothedifferenceinfrictionalresistancecoefficients,but
differencesinairresistance,transomsternresistance,andappendageresistancemightalsobe
included.
Towing Carriage Measurement of:

Torque Q
Thrust T
RPM
Model speed
Sinkage fore and aft
Dynamometer
Figure 6.2
Tow rope FD
el. motor
Test set-up for propulsion tests. Continental method
6.2.3 Propelleropenwatertest
Thepurposeofthepropelleropenwatertestistomeasuretheperformanceofthepropelleralone,
withoutthehullpresent.Whencombinedwiththeresultsoftheresistanceandpropulsiontests
onecanidentifytheinteractioneffectsbetweenthepropellerandhull,likeeffectivewake,relative
rotativeefficiencyandthrustdeduction.
Inthepropelleropenwatertest,thepropellerismountedonapropelleropenwater
dynamometer,whichislikeanextremelyslenderthrusterwithpullingpropeller(seesketchin
Figure6.3).Thepropellerisequippedwithadummypropellercap.Theresistance(thrust)and
torqueofthedummypropellercapandpropellerhubismeasuredinseparaterunsandsubtracted
fromtheresults,sothatoneeffectivelygetstheperformancecharacteristicsofthepropeller
blades.Onemeasuresthepropellertorque,thrust,andrevs,aswellasthespeed.Testsareusually
Page64
doneatconstantpropellerrevs,varyingthespeedfromzerotoaspeedthatgiveszero
propellerthrust.
Measurement of:
Torque Q
Thrust T
Rate of revolutions n
Speed V
Water speed V
Figure 6.3
Test set-up for propeller open water tests.
0.7
T
n2 D4
Q
KQ
n2 D5
K J
T
2 KQ
KT
KT
10* KQ
0.6
etta0
KT, 10*KQ, 0
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Advance number J
Figure 6.4
V
nD
0.8
Propeller open water diagram, as resulting from a propeller open water test.
Theresultsoftheopenwatertestarecompiledintoanopenwaterdiagram,asshowninFigure
6.4.
Page65
Forshipswithductedpropellers,theductsarenotpresentintheresistancetest,but
includedinthepropelleropenwatertests.Inthepropelleropenwatertest,theductthrustis
measuredseparately.
Forshipswiththrusterpropulsion,theentirethrusterunitisusedforthepropelleropenwatertest.
Thus,thethrusterunititselfisconsideredasthepropulsor,andtheresistanceofthethruster
bodyshouldnotbeincludedintheresistancemeasuredintheresistancetest.
6.2.4 Poweringperformanceprediction
Thepurposeoftheresistance,propulsionandpropelleropenwatertestsismainlytodetermine
therequiredshaftpowerofthefullscaleshipatdifferentspeeds.TheITTCstandardforpowering
predictionisgiveninAnnexE.Adetaileddescriptionofpoweringperformancepredictionisalso
foundinSteen(2011).Thedetailsofthepoweringpredictionmethoddiffersbetweentowing
tanks,sothatforinstancethemethodinuseatMARINTEKisnotexactlythesameasthemethod
describedinAnnexE.Abriefoutlineoftheperformancepredictionmethodisgivenhere.
Withtheresultsfromthementionedtestsavailable,thepoweringperformancepredictionisdone
asfollows:
1. Themodelscalevaluesofthepropulsivecoefficientsthrustdeductiont,relativerotative
efficiencyR,andeffectivewakewarefoundfromanalysisofthepropulsiontestresult,
usingalsotheresistanceandopenwatertestresults.
2. Fullscalepropulsivecoefficientsaredeterminedbyassumingthatthrustdeductionand
relativerotativeefficiencyarefreeofscaleeffects,whilethewakeisscaled(atleastfor
singlescrewvessels).
3. Theresistanceisscaledtofullscale,byseparatingviscousandresidual(orwave)
resistance,andscalingthetwopartsdifferently.
4. Thepropelleropenwaterdiagramisscaledtofullscale.(Thisisnotdonebyallmodel
basinsMARINTEKisusingthemodelscaleopenwaterdiagramalsoinfullscale)
5. Thefullscalepropulsionpointisdeterminedbyinterpolationinthefullscalepropeller
openwaterdiagram.ThepropulsionpointmeansthevalueofJ,whichbyuseofthefull
scaleopenwaterdiagramgivesthevalueofKQ.
6. Thefullscalepropellerrevsandtorquearecalculatedfromthefullscalepropulsionpoint
valuesofJandKQ.Thenpoweriscalculated.
6.3
Cavitationtunneltests
6.3.1 General
Testingofcavitationproblemswillrequireafacilitythatgivesthepossibilitytotestwithcorrect
cavitationnumber.Cavitationtestingfacilitiesisdescribedinchapter3.3.Thepurposeofcavitation
testingcanbeoneormoreofthefollowingreasons:
Cavitationinducederosionofpropellerblades.
Page66
Effectofcavitationonpropulsionefficiency
Vibrationsandnoise.
Thepressurefluctuationscausedbythecavitationwillintroducepressurevariationsonthehull,
whichagaincanleadtohullvibrationsandgenerationofnoise.Anotherproblemisthatthe
cavitationinducedpressurepulsescanintroducenoise,whichisdisturbingtopassengers,or
affectingacousticpositioningsystemorothertypeofinstrumentation.Thistypeofnoisecanalso
beaproblemforfishingvesselsbythedirecteffectonthefish.
6.3.2 Modellingrequirements
Thecavitationtesthastobecarriedoutinsuchawaythatthemainforcesastrustandtorqueare
similarinmodelandfullscale.Inprincipalthiswillrequiregeometricalsimilarityofbothpropeller
shapeandshiphull.Duetothelimiteddimensionsofmostcavitationtunnels,therewillbea
problemwiththetunnelwalleffectsandwiththefreesurface.
Kinematicsimilarityrequiresthattheinflowvelocitydistributiontothepropelleriscorrectandthat
thetestsarerunatsameadvanceratioasinfullscale:
JM
VM
V
JF F
nM DM
nF DF
whereVisthespeedofadvanceofthepropeller,nistherateofrevolutionandDisthepropeller
diameter.
Forthedynamicsimilarityrequirement,itisoftenassumedthatthepropellerissufficientlywell
submergedtoavoidsurfacewaves.TherequirementtoequalFroudenumbercanthanbe
abandoned.TheReynoldsnumberhastobehighenoughtoensureturbulentboundarylayeratthe
propellerblades,astheactualflowregimewillinfluencethecavitation.Asapracticallowerlimit,
Re
UL
5 105 isoftenused.Lisheretakenasthechordlengthofthepropellerbladeat0.7
radius.
Toensurethesameriskofcavitationinmodelandfullscale,equalityincavitationnumberis
requiredasdiscussedinchapter2.6.
TheWebernumber(seechap2.3.5)mayalsohaveaneffect,especiallyforthestartupof
cavitation.Closelyrelatedistherequirementofacertainamountofcavitationnucleiinthewater,
seeHuse(1999).Thephysicsofincipientcavitationissuchthatifthewateriscompletelypure,the
cavity(cavitationbubble)mustnecessarilystartasaninfinitelysmallbubble,withinfinitelysmall
radiusofcurvatureandthusinfinitelylargeinsidepressureduetothesurfacetension.Butwithan
insidepressurelargerthanthesaturatedvapourpressurethecavitywillcollapse.Thus,infinitely
smallcavitiescannotexist,andsincelargercavitieshavetostartasinfinitelysmallones,they
shouldalsobephysicallyimpossible.Innaturalseawatertherewillalwaysbeacertainamountof
cavitationnucleisandthecavitationprocesscandevelop.Itisthereforeveryimportantthatthe
gascontentinthewaterinthecavitationtunnelissufficientlyhightoprovideanadequatelevelof
cavitationnuclei.
Page67
6.3.3 TestProcedure
Thestandardprocedurefortestingincavitationtunnelscanbesummarisedasfollows,seealso
Huse(1999):
1. Chooseflowvelocityintestsectionbasedonactualadvanceratio,J.
2. Installaftbodymodelandadjustwakefieldbymeshscreens
3. Installpropellermodel
4. Withatmosphericpressureinthetunnel,adjustpropellerrateofrevolution(and/or
flowvelocity)untilthepropellerthrustiscorrectaccordingtoopenwaterand
propulsiontestsinthetowingtank.Thisiscalledthethrustidentityprinciple.
5. Keepingflowvelocityandrateofrevolutionfrombullet4constant,reducethetunnel
pressureuntilthespecifiedcavitationnumberisachieved.
6. Donecessarycavitationobservationandmeasurements.
Duringthetestthefollowingparametersaremeasured:
Propellerrateofrevolution
Thrust
Torque
Statictunnelpressure
Waterspeedinthetestsection
Inadditiontotheabovemeasurements,visualobservationofthepropellercavitationisan
importantpartofthetests.Thevisualobservationsaredonebystroboscopicilluminationat
differentangularpositionsoftheblades.Photographyandhighspeedfilmorvideorecordingis
oftenusedfordocumentation.Basedonexperienceonecanalreadyfromthevisualobservations
drawconclusionswhethertheactualcavitationisacceptableornot,and,ifrequired,which
modificationsofthepropellergeometryshouldberecommendedtoimprovetheperformancewith
respecttocavitation.Forinstance,experienceisthaterosioniseasilyproducedbybubble
cavitation,particularlyifthebubblescollapseonthebladesurface,whilelimitedamountsofsheet
andvortexcavitationareconsideredharmless.
6.4
Maneuveringtests
6.4.1 General
Thepurposeofmanoeuvringmodeltestsistwosided:
1. Directtestofthemanoeuvringbehaviouroftheshipwithactiveuseofrudderduringthe
test
2. Establishthehydrodynamicquantitiesrequiredintheinthemanoeuvringequationsfrom
thetests
Page68
Foritem1,alargespacewillberequiredandthesetypesoftestsarecommonlycarriedout
inseakeepingbasins.Afreerunning,selfpropelledmodelwithsteeringgearandpossibilityof
automaticruddercontrolisused.Maneuveringtestsareusuallycarriedoutaccordingtospecified
standardmaneuvers.Duringthetestsaprescribeduseofrudderisappliedasinput.Thehorizontal
motionsofthemodel(i.e.surge,swayandyaw)andtheactualrudderanglearemeasuredduring
thetests.Thetestsresultsareusedfordeterminationofthemaneuveringperformanceofthe
model.Themostusedstandardmaneuversarethezigzagtest,thespiraltestsandturningcircle
test.
TherequirementtoscalingformaneuveringtestsistouseFroudescalinginadditiontothe
geometricalsimilarityrequirements.Fordynamictestsalsotheinertiadistributionmustbe
correctlyscaled,seechap5.2.Possiblescaleeffectswillbeintroducedfromviscousforces.
Themostcommonandreliablemethodtodeterminethecoefficientsinthemanoeuvring
equations,seeBerg(2000),isstillmodeltestresults.Thecoefficientsfrommodeltestcanbe
obtainedeitherfromanalysisoftestsresultswithfreerunningmodelsorfromtestwithfixed
modelwheretheforcesandmomentsactingonthemodelismeasuredduringthetests.Fortesting
withfixedmodelthreedifferentapproachesisused:
PlanarmotionMechanism(PMM)tests
Towingtanktests
Rotatingarmtests
Thesemethodsarediscussedinthefollowing.
6.4.2 TowingTanktests
Inatowingtankthemodelcanbetowedatconstantspeedandyawangle.Themodelmustbefree
topitch,rollandheave,butrestrainedinswayandyaw.Theswayforcesandyawmomentare
measuredasafunctionoftowingspeedandyawangle.Boththelinearandquadratictermsare
obtainediftestsarecarriedoutforseveraltowingspeedsandyawangles.Theyawanglesare
usuallylimitedtobewithin10degreesasthisisconsideredasarealisticmaximumdriftangle
duringmanoeuvringoperations.
Similartestcanalsobecarriedoutfordifferentrudderangles.Therudderforcesaremeasured.
Fromthesetestsalsotheinfluenceoftherudderonyawmomentandswayforcescanbe
established.
6.4.3 PlanarMotionMechanism(PMM)
Thisisthemostusedmethodfordeterminationofthehydrodynamiccoefficientsinthe
maneuveringequations.PMMismountedtothetowingcarriageinatowingtankoraseakeeping
basin.AtypicalexampleofPMMsetupisshowninFigure6.5.Thetankhastobesufficientlywide
toavoidinterferencebetweenthemodelandthetankwall.Forshallowwaterteststhewater
depthshouldbecorrectlyscaledasthebottomeffectmayinfluencethemeasuredforces.
Page69
Figure 6.5
Planar Motion Mechanism
ThemodelisusuallyconnectedtothePMMsuchthatitisfreetoheaveandpitchandfixedinroll.
Greatcareisrequiredwhenaligningthemodelandthisshouldbecheckedbeforeandafterthe
test.
Thefollowingsequenceoftestsshouldbecarriedout:
1. Obliquetowingtests,
2. Pureswaytests
3. Pureyawtests
4. Yawingwithdrift.
Duringtheteststhehullforcesinsurgeandswaydirectionandtheyawmomentarerecorded.If
rudderisappliedtherudderliftforcesshouldalsobemeasured.Theoscillationfrequencyshould
beselectedsufficientlowtobefreefromfrequencydependence.Furtherinterferencewithtank
wallmustbeavoided.Thedriftangle,driftanglespeedandswayspeedshouldbevariedtocover
therealisticrangeduringmanoeuvringconditions.
AfurtherdescriptionofrecommendedtestsprocedureforPMMisgivenbyITTC(1996),
ManoeuvrabilityCommittee.
PMMtestsareregardedasthemostreliableandcontrolledmethodfordeterminationofthehull
forcesasinputtothemanoeuvringequations.ThemaindrawbackwithPMMtestingisthe
complexityandcostconnectedtorunningthesetests.Toestablishacompletesetofhullforces
dataalargenumberoftestcasesarerequired.
6.4.4 Rotatingarm
Inrotatingarmteststhemodelismovedinacircularpathbyamechanicaldrivenrotatingarm.The
principleisshowninFigure6.6.Themodelisrestrainedinroll.Itispossibletovarytheradiusof
rotationandalsothedriftanglecanbevaried.Withthissetupthemodelwillhaveacorrect
combinationofspeedandradiusforaturningcircletest.
Page70
Duringtheteststheswayforceandyawmomentaremeasured.Withthistestmethodthe
swayandyawcoefficientstogetherwiththedifferentnonlinearcouplingtermscanbeestablished.
Inadditionsurgeandheelmomentduringturningcanbemeasured.
Figure 6.6
Rotating arm Planar Motion Mechanism
Page71
SEAKEEPINGTESTING
7.1
General
Conventionalshiptestingasdescribedintheprevioussectioncoverthecalmwatertestingfor
ships.Thisiswhatweoftencalltheclassicalmodeltesting.Inthischaptertestingofshipsinwaves
willbediscussed.
Forseakeeping,atermthatcanbeinterpretedasshipbehaviourinroughweather,thefollowing
typeoftestresultswillbeimportant:
1. Shipmotions(heave,rollandpitch)andaccelerations
2. Slammingloads(bottomslamming)
3. Greenwaterondeck
4. Addedresistanceandspeedreductioninwaves
5. Globalloadsinhullbeam
Thefirstitemisimportantforcomfortevaluation(crewandpassengers)andevaluationofcriteria
forvoluntaryspeedreduction.Slammingloadsareimportantforstructuralstrengthbothlocally
andglobal(whipping)andwillinfluencevoluntaryspeedreduction.Greenwaterisimportantfor
safetyandpossibleloadingondeckhousesandequipment.Addedresistancedeterminedthe
involuntaryspeedreductionandisanimportantparameterforfuelconsumption.Optimisationof
resistanceperformancebasedononlycalmwaterresistancecanendupwithadesignsolution
whichisnottheoptimum,astheshipwillseewaveconditionswhereaddedresistancegivesa
significantcontributiontothetotalresistance,inalargepartofthetotaloperationtime.Fora
generaldiscussionofseakeepingperformance,seeLloyds(1989).
Seakeepingtestscanbecarriedoutintowingtanks(equippedwithwavemakerorinseakeeping
basins/oceanlaboratories.Towingtanktestingislimitedtoheadandfollowingsea,whileinlarger
basinsarbitrarywaveheadingcanbecovered.
7.2
TestRequirement
Fortestinginwaves,gravityforceswillbethegoverningforcecontributionandtheFroudescaling
hastobeapplied.Forscalingofwavesthisimpliesthatthewaveheightfollowsthegeometrical
scaleratioandthewaveperiodfollowsthesquarerootofthescaleratio,seealsochapter2.4.
Forseakeepingtestingthedynamicmotionsofthemodelarethekeyresultsandhenceinertia
forceswillbeimportant.Thisimpliesthatthemassdistributionofthemodelneedstobecorrectly
scaled,asdiscussedinchapter5.2.
Forseakeepingtestingthemaintopicofinterestisusuallythewavefrequencyresponse.If
slammingforcesisapartofthepurposeoftestingonehastoensureadequateequipmentand
Page72
sufficientsamplingfrequencytocovertheveryfastresponseofthistypeofloading,see
alsothediscussioninchapter4.10.
Themodelsusedforseakeepingtestingareusuallyconsideredtobeinfinitelystiff.Ifwhipping
and/orspringingresponsesareapartofthetestpurpose,alsotheglobalelasticpropertiesofthe
hullmodelneedstobecorrectlyscaled.Thisisdiscussedindetailinchapter5.3.Forthese
resonancefrequencyphenomenatheresponsecanbeconsideredtobehighfrequency(HF)and
wellabovetherangeofthewavefrequency.
7.3
Testsetup
Possibleprinciplearrangementsforconnectionsbetweenthemodelandcarriageareillustratedin
Figure7.1.Connectiontypea)isonlyusedformeasurementofwaveexcitationforces.For
alternativeb),c)andd)themodelisfreetoheaveandpitch,butwithdifferentlevelofconstraining
thesurgemotions.Intowingtanktesting(onlyheadandfollowingseas)alternativec)andd)are
mostcommonlyused.Alternatived)willrequireaselfpropelledmodel.Forthiscasethesurge
connectionhastobewithverylowfriction.Thiscanbeachievedbyusinghingedmechanism,
restrainedsideways,butfreetomoveverticallyandlongitudinally,connectedatbowandsternof
themodel.
ForSeakeepingbasintestingalternativee)isthemostcommonlyused.Inthissetuponlythe
poweringandinstrumentationcablesareconnectedbetweenthemodelandcarriage.The
connectionhastobesufficientlysofttoavoidinfluenceontheshipmotions.Thisalternativewill
requireaselfpropelledmodelwithheadingcontrol.Acarriagesystemthatisabletofollowthe
modeltrackwillalsoberequired.Fortestinginarbitrarywaveheadingacarriagewithasub
carriagefortransversemotionswillberequired.
Alternativef)isacompletelyfreerunningmodel.Allinstrumentationandpoweringsupplyhaveto
becarriedbythemodel.Themeasurementsmustberecordedonboardortransmittedby
telemetry.Thissetupdoesnotrequireanycarriagesystem.Howevertheequipmentonboardis
heavy,especiallybatteriesforpropulsionpower,andwillthereforerequireaquitelargemodel.
Alternativef)ismainlyusedfortestingmodelsoutsidelaboratories,onlakesandinthesea.
Page73
Figure 7.1
Possible arrangement for mounting the model under the carriage

(From Lloyd (1989))
7.4
TestProcedure
Forseakeepingtesting,bothregularandirregularwavesarecommonlyused.Regularwavetesting
isnormallyusedforobtainingthemotionRAOsandaddedresistanceatthewavefrequencyandis
oftenusedforverificationofnumericalcalculations.Irregularwavesareusedtostudythe
performanceandestablishdesignvaluesatactualconditionsincludingstatisticaldistributionand
extremevalues.
Thewavecalibrationshouldbecarriedoutpriortothetestingandwithouttheshipmodelinthe
tanktoavoidwavereflectionfromthemodelonthewavemeasurements.Inalongandnarrow
towingtankthewavecharacteristicscanvaryalongthetanklength.Thisisinparticularaproblem
forshortandsteepwaves.Thisvariationisconnectedtothestabilityofthewavesasthey
propagatedownstreamthetankandalsototheeffectofthetankwalls.Duringthewave
calibrationthewavemeasurementsshouldthereforebecarriedoutindifferentpositionsalongthe
tanktodeterminepossiblepositiondependencyforthewaveheight(forregularwaves)and
spectralshape(forirregularwaves).
Page74
Ifthephaseinformationbetweenthewaveelevationandmotionresponseofthemodelis
required,itisnecessarytomeasuretheincidentwavebyawavegaugemountedatthecarriagein
aknownpositionrelativetothepositionofthemodel.Thedifferenceinpositionbetweenthewave
gaugeandmodel(measuredinthewavedirection)hastobeaccountedforwhencalculatingthe
relativephase.Itisalsoimportanttolocatethewavegaugeinapositionwherethedistortionof
thewavecausedbythemodelisavoided.
Bothselfpropelledandtowedmodelareusedinseakeepingtests.Intowingtestsaprescribed
towingspeediskeptconstantduringtherun.Forselfpropelledmodelstwodifferentprocedures
canbeapplied:
Constantpropulsionpowerappliedduringtherun.Thecarriagespeedadjustedto
followthemodel
Constantcarriagespeed.Propulsionpoweradjustedduringtheruntofollowthe
carriage.
Themeasurementsduringthetestwilldependontheactualpurposeofthetests.Atypicalsetof
measurementsduringaseakeepingtestwillbe:
Towingresistance(whentowingthemodel)
Thrust,torqueandrateofrevolution(forselfpropelledmodels)
Speed
Shipmotions;alwaysheaveandpitch,butalsosurge,sway,rollandyawmaybe
measured,dependingonsetup.
Verticalacceleration;typicallyatFP
Relativemotions;typicallyinbowandsternareas
Greenwaterondeck;measuredbywavegaugesondeckorbyforcetransducersto
measureamountofgreenwater
Impactloads;bottomslamming,bowflareorotherexposedlocations.Measuredby
pressurecellsorforcepanels.
Videorecording
Foramodelrunningatawaveheading,,( 180 isheadsea)theencounterfrequency, e ,is

givenfrom:
2U
g
cos
where isthewavefrequencyandUtheshipspeed.Whentestinginfollowingwavesthe
encounterfrequencymaybeverylow.Thiscanintroduceapracticalproblemasthenumberof
wavesencounteredduringonerunalongthetankwillbelow,andanumberarepetitionrunswith
differentrealizationsoftheincomingwaveswillberequiredtogetaproperconfidenceofthe
statisticaldistributionoftheresponses.
7.5
Page75
Tankwalleffects
Theshipmodelwillgenerateitsownwavesystem,bothduetodiffractedwavesandradiated
wavesduetotheshipmotions.Thesewaveswillreachthetankwallandbereflectedbacktothe
modelasshowninFigure7.2.Ifthemodelspeedislowthereflectedwaveswillhitthemodelas
shownontheupperdrawinginFigure7.2,andtheresponseofthemodelwillbeinfluenced.
Figure 7.2
Illustration of tank wall effects. (From Lloyd (1989))
Thephasevelocityoftheradiatedwavesis:
ce
2e
Thetravellingdistanceisfromtankcentre(assumingthemodelinthisposition)tothetankwall
andbacktothemodel,i.e.equalthebreadthofthetowingtank,B.Thetravellingtimeisthen
tw B
ce
.Interferencewilloccurifthemodelmovesadistancelessthanitsownlength,LM
duringthetimetw.i.e.if:
U Ucrit
LM
tw
Combinedwiththeequationforencounterfrequency, e ,thefollowingrelationisobtainedforthe
criticalmodelspeedinheadseawaves:
U crit
2 LM
g
1
1
2
B
Page76
Here,isthewavecircularfrequency.Itfollowsthatthecriticalspeedincreaseswiththe
wavelength.TheresultingcriticalFroudenumberisshowninFigure7.3forheadseaandfollowing
waves.Forfollowingwavestankwallinterferencewillalwaysoccurformodellengthsgreaterthan
B/4,whichisusuallythecase.
Thetankwalleffectasanerrorsourcewillbefurtherdiscussedinchapter10.
Figure 7.3
Critical Froude number for tank wall effects. (From Lloyds (1989))
Page77
OFFSHORESTRUCTURETESTING
8.1
General
Inthischaptertestingofoffshorestructureswillbediscussed.Typicalshiptestingasdescribedin
thetwoprevioussectionscovershipsdesignedandusedforconventionaltransportationpurposes.
Thetermoffshorestructuresisinthispresentationinterpretedasallotherapplications.
Exampleswillbemoored,floatingplatformsandshipsappliedforproductionand/orstorageof
oil/gas,fixedstructures,risers,mooringsystems,floatingandsubmergedbridges,fishfarming
structures,etc.
Testingofoffshorestructurescoverawiderangeofmodeltestingfromsimpledecaytestincalm
waterintendedtodeterminehydrodynamiccoefficientstosetupswherecomplexplatform
structuresincludingmooringandrisersystemexposedtowaves,windandcurrentaremodelled.
Typicalobjectivesfortestingofoffshorestructuresincludes:
1. Determinehydrodynamicdamping,addedmass,motionRAOsandother
hydrodynamicquantitiesusedasinputtonumericalsimulations.
2. Verifyconceptstoensurethatallimportantphysicalphenomenaareproperly
understoodandaccountedforduringthedesignphase.
3. Establishoperationallimits.
4. Generatedataforcalibrationandverificationofnumericaltoolsforactualtypeof
structureandloadingconditions.
Fornewtypeofconceptsitem2willoftenbethemostimportant.Manyexamplesexistwhere
modeltestinghasrevealedunexpectedproblemswithnewconcepts.Insomecasestheproblems
areofsuchnaturethattheymaketheconceptunfeasible.Inothercasestheproblemsmaybeof
suchanaturethattheycaneasilybesolved,onceyouareawareofthem.
InAppendixBanexampleofaspecificationfortestingofanoffshorestructureispresented.The
actualcaseisaturretmooredfloatingproductionandstoragetanker(FPSO).
8.2
TestRequirements
Testingofoffshorestructuresisformostcasescarriedoutforfixedormooredstructures,which
meanszerospeed.Problemswithwallreflectioneffects(seechap.7.5)willthereforemaketheuse
ofrelativelynarrowtowingtanksveryquestionableforthistypeoftesting.Alsotherequirements
towindandcurrentgenerationareingeneralnotavailableintowingtanks.Oceanlaboratorieswill
thereforeberequiredinmostcasesforoffshoretesting.
Therequirementstoscalingofmodelsandwavesaretoalargeextentsimilartoforseakeeping
testing(seechapter7.2).Requirementstomodellingofmooringsystemsaregiveninsection5.3.3.
Themotionresponsesthatcanbeobservedforoffshorestructuresaresplitintodifferent
frequencyregimesdependentonexcitationsourceanddynamicpropertiesofthestructures:
Wavefrequency(WF)motions,i.e.motionstakingplaceinthefrequencyrangeofthe
usedwavespectrum.Theexcitationismainlylinearwaveforces.
Page78
Lowfrequency(LF)motions,i.e.motiontakingplaceatresonantfrequencywell
belowthewavefrequencyrange.Theexcitationismainlynonlinearwaveforces(wave
driftforces),butalsothedynamicwindandforsomespecialcasescurrentinduced
oscillationcanbeimportantexcitationsources.Thislowfrequencyresponseisalso
oftencalledslowdriftmotion.
Highfrequency(HF)motions,i.e.motionstakingplaceatresonancefrequencieswell
abovetherangeofthewavefrequency.Theexcitationismainlynonlinearwaveforces
includingimpactloads.
Thelowfrequencymotionswillbeimportantforalltypeofmooredstructures.Dependingonthe
waterdepth,typicalresonanceperiodscanbeintherange40500s.Thelowfrequencymotions
areoftenfoundtobethemainsourcebothforplatformmotionsandmooringforces.
ThehighfrequencymotionshavebeenaproblemforTensionLegPlatforms(TLP).Theaxial
stiffnessoftheverticaltethers(usuallysteeltubes)connectingtheTLPtotheseabedintroducesa
resonancefrequencyinheave,rollandpitch.Typicalresonanceperiodswillbe2.54s,whichwill
bewellbelowthewaveperiodrangeforwaveexcitation.AnotherexampleofHFmotionsis
whippingandspringingofships.
8.3
Deepwaterstructuresrequirements
Thediscussionofscalinghassofarbeenlimitedtocaseswhereitispracticallypossibletoachieve
geometricalsimilarity.Anexamplewhereitisdifficultorimpossibletocorrectlymodeltheactual
geometryofthesystemisoffshorestructuresindeepwater.Deepwaterisusuallydefinedaswater
depthsgreaterthan1000m.
Traditionally,offshorestructuretestinghasbeencarriedoutatascaleofabout1:50.Ithasbeen
shownthatwhenusingstandardequipment(wavemakers,instrumentation,etc.)thescaleratio
canbeextendedtoabout1:100withoutseverereductionofqualityofmeasurement.The
maximumwaterdepthinexistingtestfacilitiesis10m,seechapter3.4.Thislimitsthepractical
waterdepthto5001000mforstandardtestinginexistingtestbasins.Basinswithmuchlarger
depthsarenotconsideredfeasibleofeconomicalreasons.Itshouldbenotedthatalsothe
length/breadthhavetobeincreasedaswelltobeabletomodelthehorizontalextentofthe
mooringsystem,seeFigure8.1
Differentsolutionsoftheproblemhavebeensuggested;seeStansberget.al.(2000)andBouchner
et.al.(1999):
1. Useofultrasmallscalemodeltesting(=1:>>100).
2. Passiveequivalentmooringsystemortruncatedhybridsystem.
3. Solutionswithactivecontrolsystems,basedonrealtimesimulationofthemooring
systemresponse
4. Outdoortesting
Forcase1thecompletesystemismodelledandnonumericalcalculationswillberequired.
Howeverincreasingscaleratiowillincreasethescaleeffects,especiallyforcaseswhereviscous
forcesareimportant.Physicalmodellingwillbedifficult.Notethatmassandloadscaleswiththird
Page79
powerofscalefactor( 1 3 ).Asenexamplescale1:200givesthat1ginmodelscale
correspondsto8tonnesinfullscale.Windandwavecurrentgenerationwillbecomeincreasingly
problematicandwaveswillbesignificantlyinfluencedbysurfacetension.
Exististing
basins
Mooring lines
Deep water
Figure 8.1
Required basin size for testing in deep water
Forcase2anequivalentandmoreshallowwatermooringsystem,withpropertiesassimilaras
possibleasthedeepwatersystem,isestablishednumerically.Theequivalentortruncatedsystem
isusedinthetest.AnexampleofmooringsystemtruncationisshowninFigure8.2.Themooring
stiffnesscanusuallybecorrectlymodelledbythismethod,butmooringlineandriserdynamicswill
notbecorrect.Thismethodwillthereforerequireextensivenumericalsimulationsafterthetests,
wherethedynamiccouplingoftheplatformandmooring/risersystemistreated.Thisprocessis
illustratedinFigure8.3.Usingthismethodconventionalmodelscaleratioscanbeusedtocover
applicationsinverydeepwater.Thedisadvantageisthatonehastorelyonnumericalcalculations
(calibratedtowardstheshallowwatertests)toestablishdesignvaluesfortheactualdeepwater
system.
Figure 8.2
Illustration of truncation of mooring system. Left; Full system, Right; truncated

system. ( from Stansberg et.al. (2000))
Case3isinprinciplesimilartocase2usingatruncatedsystem,butnowwithactivenumerical
controlatthemooringlineintersectionswiththebasinbottom.Theintentionwiththecontrolisto
Page80
simulateasimilarbehaviourasthepartofsystemnotmodelledwouldhavegenerated.
Complexonlinesimulationsystemswillberequiredforthisapproachandtheperformanceofthe
systemwillbedependentoncorrectlysimulatedcontrolactions.Alsothissolutionwilltherefore
havetorelayontheaccuracyofnumericalcalculations.
Case4withoutdoortestingmaybeafeasiblesolutionforsomecasesandhasbeenused,e.g.for
testingoflongrisersinacurrent.Howeverthefundamentalproblemwiththisapproachiscontrol
ofenvironmentalconditions.
Figure 8.3
Illustration of hybrid verification procedure (from Stansberg et.al. (2000))
8.4
TestProcedure
Foroffshorestructuretesting,irregularwavesaremostfrequentlyused.Inatypicaltestsetup
bothtestsinshortcrestedandlongcrestedwavesareoftenincluded.Forgenerationofdatafor
verificationandcalibrationofnumericalmethodslongcrestedwavesareusuallyused.
Asmentioned,testingofoffshorestructurescancoverawiderangeofcomplexityintestsetups,
fromsimpledecaytestsincalmwatertomultibodyarrangementsincludingmooringandriser
systemexposedtowaves,windandcurrent.Thetestprocedurewillvaryaccordingly.Fortestingof
mooredstructuresthemainstepsinthetestprocedurecanbesummarisedasfollow:
Environmentcalibrationtests,includingwaves,windandcurrent.Carriedoutwithout
themodelinstalled.Thecalibrationhastobecarriedoutatthecorrectwaterdepth
andfortheactualcombinationofwaveandcurrentconditions.Duringthecalibration
themeasurementsarecarriedatthemeanpositionofthestructure.
Installationofmooringandrisersystemandmodelinthebasin.Inbasinswithmovable
bottom,mostofthisworkwillbedonewithbottominsurfaceposition.
Page81
Staticcalibrationtestsforverificationandcalibrationofsystemproperties,
includingheeltestofplatformmodelformetacentricheightverification,pullouttests
forverificationofmooringandrisertensionandgeometry,etc.
Decayteststoverifynaturalperiods,dampingandgeneraldynamicperformance,
typicallyincludingplatformheave,rollandpitchmotionsaswellassurgeandsway
motionsformooringsystem.
Testsinthedefinedwave,windandcurrentconditions.
Testsareoftencarriedoutfordifferentloadingconditionsoftheship/platformtocovertheactual
workingrange,typicallyfullyloadedandballastconditionwillbecovered.Asresponseofmoored
structurewillbesensitivetotheheadingoftheenvironment,severalcombinationsofwindwaves
andcurrentheadingsareusuallycoveredbythetestprogramme.
Thepurposeoftestsisoftentoverifythesystemperformanceintypicaloperatingconditionsand
toestablishthedesignvaluesoftheresponsesinextremeenvironmentalconditions.In
combinationwithdifferentenvironmentaldirectionsandloadingconditionsacomprehensivetest
programwithasignificantnumberoftestswillberequired.
Themeasurementsduringthetestwilldependontheactualpurposeofthetests.Atypicalsetof
measurementsfortestingofamooredplatform/shipwillbe:
Mooringlinetensioninallmooringlines
Risertensionandshearforces/bendingmomentsatplatformconnection.
6degreeoffreedomplatformmotions.
Accelerationsatspecifiedpoints
Relativemotionsandwaverunupatcolumns/bowarea
Forshipstructures;Greenwaterondeck,Impactloads;bottomslamming,bowflareor
otherexposedlocations.
ForPlatforms;Impactloadstowardsdeckstructuresandotherexposedareas.
Videorecording
Typicaldurationoftestsinirregularwaveswillbe36hours(fullscaletime).
Analysisofthemeasurementsisdiscussedinchapter10.
Page82
REALTIMEHYBRIDMODELTESTING
Realtimehybridmodeltestingmeansmodeltestinginrealtimecombinationwithnumerical
simulation.Theideaisnotreallynew,butthepossibilitytorealizetheideaisjustrecentlyoccurred,
duetothedevelopmentofsimulationsandactuatortechnology.
Theconceptofrealtimehybridmodeltestingisbestexplainedbyanexample;Passiveantiroll
tanksareextensivelyusedonmanytypesofoffshoreships,sincetheyprovideeffectiveroll
dampingregardlessoftheforwardspeedoftheship.Thesloshingflowinsidethetankishardto
calculatebynumericalmethods,andtheviscouseffectsrequireamodelofthetankwhichisfairly
large(morethanameterinlength).Thereisofcourseaclosetwowaycouplingbetweenthe
sloshingwatermotionsintheantirolltankandtherollingmotionsoftheship.Therollmotionsof
theshipcanbesimulatedfairlyeasilyandaccuratelybyindustrystandardprogramslikeShipX
Vesim,Shipmo,orWases.Thus,onehavesetupahybridmodeltestingschemewheretheship
motionsaresimulatedusingtheshipsimulatorVesim(whichisusingmotioncalculationsfrom
ShipXVeres),themotionscalculatedbyVesimarefedtoarigholdingthemodeloftheantiroll
tank,whichthenshakesthetankaccordingtothesimulatedshipmotions,andthentheresulting
forcesfromthetankontherigaremeasuredandfedbackasinputtothesimulatorinthenext
timestep.ThisisillustratedinFigure9.1below.
Figure 9.1Principle sketch of hybrid testing of passive anti-roll tank
Page83
Therearemanytypesoftestswhichmaybenefithugelyfromuseofrealtimehybridmodel
testingtechniques.Herearesomeexamples:
9.1
Testingoffloatingoffshoreshipsandplatformswithmooringandflexiblerisersystems.
Currently,thewaterdepthneedstobemodelledinthesamescaleastheplatformfortheriser
andmooringsystemdynamicstobemodelledcorrectly.Thisplacesseverelimitsonpossiblemodel
scalesforverificationofdeepwaterinstallationsorrequirestheconstructionofextremelycostly
deepwatermodelbasins.Thecurrentsolutionistotesttruncatedsystems,butthisisnotreallya
satisfactorysolution.Inahybridmodeltestingschemeonewouldforinstancemodeltheplatform,
simulatethemooringandrisersystems,applythecalculatedforcesontheplatforminrealtime
andfeedtheplatformmotionsbacktothesimulations.
9.2
Testingofhydrofoilships.
ThehydrofoilsrequirehighReynoldsnumberandcorrectlymodelledcavitationforcorrect
performance,whiletheshiphullrequiresFroudescalingandafreewatersurface.Together,this
requiresalargetowingtankwithcontrolledairpressure(vacuumtank)withaveryhighspeed
carriage,somethingthatdoesntexist.Thehybridmodeltestingsolutionwouldbetotesttheship
hullinatowingtankwhilesimulatingtheforcesfromthefoilsystem,and/ortotestthefoilsystem
inahighspeedcavitationtunnelandsimulatetheshipperformance.
9.3
Testingoffloatingoffshorewindturbines.
Duetowindgustsandthemotionsofthefloatingturbinetower,theforcesfromtheturbineonthe
towerarehighlydynamic.Inaddition,theelectricgeneratorandthepitchcontrolsystemofthe
turbineareimportantfortheresponse.Allthismightbemodelledinalargeoceanbasinwitha
powerfulwindgeneratingsystem,butitrequiresalargemodelandacorrespondinglyhugebasin.
Thehybridmodeltestingsolutionisforinstancetotestthetowerinanormallysizedwavebasin,
simulatetherotorandgeneratordynamicsandapplythesimulatedforcesfromtheturbineonthe
turbinetowermodelinrealtime.
9.4
Challengesinhybridmodeltesting
Hybridmodeltestingasoutlinedabovemightseemlikeaverysimpleandattractivetechnique,but
therearegoodreasonswhythistechniqueisstillnotinroutineuseinmostmodelbasins.The
initialexamplewiththeantirolltankissimplerthantheotherthreeexamplesbecauseitismotions
andnotforcesthatareappliedonthephysicalmodel.Applyingspecifiedforcesaremore
challenging.Theelectrical(orhydraulical)actuatorsthataretypicallyusedwillprovideaspecified
position.Itisthenpossibletoplaceforcetransducersbetweenthemodelandtheactuator,and
thenhavealocalcontrollooptocontroltheactuatortogivethewantedforce,butitadds
complexitytothesystem,andtheinevitablesmalltimedelaysinsuchacontrolloopmight
introduceunwanteddynamicsandeveninstabilitytothesystem.Figure9.2showsanothersetup
forahybridtestofafloatingoffshorestructure,wheretheactuatorsareapplyingcalculated
displacementstotheendsoftruncatedmooringlines.Inthismanner,oneavoidstheproblemof
applyingknownforces,butontheotherhand,onegetstheadditionalproblemofsimulatingthe
dynamicresponseofthetruncatedmooringlines.
Intherealtimehybridtestingcontrolloopthestateofthemodelisfirstsampled,thentherequired
actuationiscomputedbasedonsimulationofthepartofthesystemnotincludedinthemodeltest.
Page84
ThesamplingrequiresuseofalowpassfiltertoavoidNyquistdownfolding,andadditional
filteringmightberequiredtoremovenoisefromthesignal.Asdiscussed
Mooring lines
Basin
Mooring line servo units
Full water depth
Floater motions
Output motions
of mooring line end
A/D
Mooring line tension
Mooring line
servo unit
D/A
Control system
Control
signals
Power
T
h
e
Figure 9.2 Possible solution for hybrid model test of floating offshore structure.
Timedelayisalsoaproblemforthesimulationpart.Timescalesas 1/ ,sotimegoesquickerin
modelscale.Thus,thesimulationsmustbefairlysimpletobeabletoruninrealtimeinmodel
scale.Thismeansthatonemighthavetomakespecial,simplifiedsimulationmodelsforthe
purposeofhybridmodeltesting.Thisisforinstancethecaseforthefloatingmooredoffshore
structure,whereafullsimulationofthedynamicresponseofthemooringandrisersystems
certainlywontruninrealtimemodelscale.Thisproblemisbecomingsmallerascomputer
calculationspeedisincreasing,butitwillcontinuetobealimitationfortheforeseeablefuture.
Page85
10
ANALYSISOFMEASUREDDATA
10.1
General
Themeasurementsfrommodeltestswillberecordingsoftimehistoriesfromallapplied
transducersinthetestsetup.Theanalysisofmodeltestdatawillthereforebeconcentratedon
timeseriesanalysis.Thetypeofanalysistobeperformedwilldependonwhichtypeofteststhat
havebeencarriedout.Typicaltypeoftestswillbe:
1. Statictests
2. Decaytests
3. Regularwavetests
4. Irregularwavetests
Analysisofeachofthedifferenttypeoftestsisdescribedinthefollowing.
10.2
Statictests
Withstatictestswemeanteststhatareexpectedtogiveaconstantmeasuredvalue.Typical
examplesofsuchtestswillbe:
Towingtestsandpropulsiontestsincalmwater
Pullouttests
Forsuchteststhemeanvalueistheonlytestresultofinterest.Howeversomecareisrequiredto
avoidincludingthetransienteffectsduringstartup.Itwillthereforeberequiredtoremovethis
partbeforethemeanvalueiscalculated.Plotofthemeasuredtimehistorywillgiveagoodcontrol
thatsteadystateconditionhavebeenreached.
10.3
Decaytest
Decaytestswillgiveimportantinformationaboutnaturalfrequencies,addedmassanddampingof
adynamicsystem.AnexampleofmeasuredresponsefromadecaytestisshowninFigure10.1.
Letusconsideraonedegreeoffreedomsystemwithnonlineardamping.Thedifferentialequation
describingthemotionsis:
Mx B1 x B2 x x Cx 0
whereMisthemass(includingaddedmass),Cistherestoringstiffness,B1isthelineardamping
andB2isthequadraticdampingterm.Thenaturalfrequencyoftheundampedsystemisgivenas:
Page86
Fromameasurednaturalperiodofthesystemandaknownrestoringstiffnessthetotalmasscan
becalculatedfromtheaboveequation.Theaddedmassisnowdeterminedbysubtractingthe
knownstructuralmassofthesystem.
Figure 10.1
Example of measured response from a decay test
Inthefollowingthemethodfordeterminationoflinearandnonlineardampingisoutlined.The
equationofmotionscanbedividedbyMandwegetthestandardform:
Page87
x p1 x p2 x x p3 x 0
Theanalysisofthisequationisbasedonwellknownsolutionofalinearoscillatingsystemin
combinationwiththetechniqueofequivalentlinearization.Equivalentlinearizationimpliesthatthe
nonlineardampingtermisreplacedwithalinearterm.Theequivalentlineartermisdetermined
fromtherequirementofequaldampingenergypercycle.Thisrequirementissatisfiedusing:
pEQ p1
8
x0 p2
3
wherex0isthemotionamplitudeoftherelevantcycleandistheoscillationfrequency.The
linearizedequationofmotioncannowbewrittenas:
x pEQ x p3 x 0
Assumingxi1andxiaretwosucceedingamplitudes,thelogarithmicdecrementisdefinedas:
ln(
xi
)
xi 1
Theamplitudesxiandxi+1shallbespacedonedampednaturalfrequency,Td,apart.Thedamping
ratio isdefinedastheratiobetweenactualandcriticaldamping:
p
p
pcr 2 M 0
Thegeneralrelationbetweenthelogarithmicdecrementandthedampingratioisgivenas:
0Td 2
1 2
Forlowdampingratios,typically < 0.2,thisrelationmightbeapproximatedby:
Theequivalentdampingcoefficient,pEQ,isgivenfrom:
pEQ 2 M 0
2C
pEQand cannowbeobtainedforeachcyclefromthemeasuredlogarithmicdecrement.The
resultsfor foreachperiodareplottedversusthemeanamplitude(meanoftwosuccessive
8 xi
.Anexampleisshownin
amplitudes)oralternativelyagainstthetheequivalentvelocity
3
Figure10.2.p1isfoundfromthefigurefromtheintersectionwiththeabscissaandp2isfoundfrom
theslopeofthecurve.Oneshouldavoidusingthefirstoscillation,duetotransienteffects,andthe
smallestamplitudesatthetailofthedecay,duetoinaccuracy.
Page88
Figure 10.2
Example of measured damping from a decay test
Thenaturalfrequencyofthedamped,freelyoscillatingsystem,d,isgivenfrom:
d 0 1 2
where0isthenaturalfrequencyoftheundampedsystemdefinedaboveandistherelative
dampingofthesystem.
10.4
RegularWaveTest
RegularwavetestsarenormallyusedforobtainingtheRAOsofmotionsandloads.Theanalysisof
regularwavesrequiresthattheinputwaveissufficientlyclosetosinusoidalandthatthewaveis
stableandstationarylongenoughtoobtainsteadystatevesselmotions.Steepregularwavesmay
tendtobeunstableastheypropagatefromthewavemakeranddownthetank.Wavebreakingor
transferofenergytootherwavefrequenciesmayoccurandtheinputwavereachingthevesselis
nolongersinusoidal.Tankwallreflectionwillbeanotherproblemfortestinginrelativelynarrow
Page89
tanksandintroduceanonstationaryeffect.Wavereflectioneffectsasanerrorsourcewill
befurtherdiscussedinchapter12.
Itisimportanttoensurethatasteadystateresponsehasbeenachievedforthetimewindowused
fortheanalysis.Forwaveperiodsclosetoanyresonanceperiodofalightlydampedsystemseveral
oscillationswillberequiredtoachieveasteadystateresponse.Carefulinspectionofthemeasured
responsetimehistorywillthereforeberequiredbeforeperformingtheanalysis.
Assumingaharmonicinputwavesignal:
x(t ) X A sin(1t )
where X A isthewaveamplitudeand 1 isthewavefrequency.Foralinearsystemthemeasured

responsesignal,y(t),willalsobeaharmonicsignal.Theamplitude YA ,canbeeasilyobtainedfrom
themeasuredmaximaandminimaofthe y (t ) signal.Thephaseangle ,isobtainedfromthe
phaselagbetweentheinputwavesignalandthemeasuredresponse.TheRAO(Response
AmplitudeOperator)ortransferfunctionisdefinedastheratiobetweentheresponseamplitude
andinputwaveamplitude:
RAO
YA

XA
Asdiscussedabovetheinputwavemaynotbecompletelyharmonic.Also,thetestedsystemmay
introducenonlinearityseitherduetononlinearwaveloadingeffectsormechanicalnonlinearities
(e.g.mooringforcesorstructuralnonlinearitysinthemodel).InpracticalmodeltestingFourier
analysisofthemeasuredresultsisalmostalwaysused.FromtheFourieranalysistheamplitudeand
phaseofthedifferentharmoniccomponents, Yi and i ,areobtained.Thefundamental
componentisatthefrequencyofwaveexcitation 1 andthehigherordercomponentsareat
frequencies n n1 , wheren=2,3.TheRAOsarenowdefinedastheratiobetweenthe
fundamentalcomponentofthemeasuredresponseandthewave:
RAO
Y1
X1
InFigure10.3atypicalexampleofplotsofmeasuredresponsesinregularwavesareshown.The
caseconsideredisverticalwaveforcesactingonafixedhorizontalcircularcylinderwithdiameter
D=0.5m.Thefirstcaseshowstheresponseforasmallwaveheight,H=0.04m.Thesystemisclose
tolinear.Thesecondcaseisforthesamewaveperiod,butwithwaveheightincreasedtoH=0.4m.
Strongnonlinearitiesareobserved.
Page90
Figure 10.3
Examples of measured responses in regular waves. Vertical wave forces on

horizontal circular cylinder. a: Input wave for H=0.04 m, b: Vertical forces for
H=0.04 m, c: Vertical force for H=0.4 m
Page91
TheresultsfromtheFourieranalysisarealsoincludedintheFigure10.3.Forthefirstcase
almostallenergyisconcentratedonthefundamentalfrequency(e.gtheinputwavefrequency).
Forthelastcasesignificantcontributionsatthehigherharmoniccomponentsareobserved.The
inputwavesignalisseentobealmostcompletelysinusoidal.
Testinginregularwaverequireonetestforeachfrequency.Itwillthereforeberelativelytime
consumingtoobtainacompletetransferfunctioncoveringanactualfrequencyrange.Typically10
15testsatdifferentfrequencieswillberequired.
10.5
IrregularWaveTest
Irregularwavesareintendedtorepresentarealisticseastateandarethereforeusedforstudying
theactualresponsesincludingnonlinearphenomenaashighfrequency(HF)andlowfrequency
(LF)responses,impactloadsandsurvivabilityinextremeseastates.Toachieverealisticwave
frequencyresponsetheenergyspectrum(i.etheenergyfrequencydistribution)oftheinputwaves
mustbecorrect.Forthelowfrequencymotionsitisalsorequiredthatthewavegroupspectrumis
correctlymodelled.Thewavegroupspectrumisthespectrumoftheenvelopecurveofthewave
train,seeFigure10.4.
Figure 10.4
Envelope curve of the wave train.
10.5.1 Generalaboutstochasticprocesses
Themeasuredtimehistoryfromirregularwavetestswillbeastochasticprocessthatisa
continuousfunctionoftime.Itisthereforenecessarytodiscusssomecharacteristicsthatclassifya
randomprocess.
Stationarity:
Testinginirregularwavesisalmostexclusivelybasedonthattheinputwavesignalisastationary
process,whichmeansthatallthestatisticalproperties,includingprobabilitydistributionand
densityfunctionoftheprocessareunchangedbytime.Thismeansforexamplethatfortheprocess
x(t):
E x(t ) E x(t )
Page92
whereE[x]istheexpectedvalueofx.
Homogeneousprocess
Itiscommonlyassumedinanalysisofwavesthattheprocessisnotonlystationaryintime,butalso
homogeneousorstationaryinspace.Thisassumptionimplythatnochangewouldbemadeofthe
statisticalpropertiesifthepositionofthemeasurementswhereshiftedtoanewlocation.
Ergodic
Astationaryprocessiscalledergodicwhenitisallowedtoreplacetheaveragingoverspacebyan
averagingovertime.Thisimpliesforexamplethatforstationaryandergodicprocessx(t)wecan
write:
E x1 (t ) E x2 (t ) E x(t )
whereE[x1]istheexpectedvalueofxatposition1.Thisassumptionmakesitpossibleto
interchangetheexpectedvalueoffunctiong(x)withthetemporalaverageofg(x):
Lim 1 T / 2
E g ( x)
g ( x)dt
T T T / 2
Aconsequenceoftheergodicpropertyisthatthewaveregistrationatonesinglepointcanbeused
forcharacterisationoftheseastate.
Inthefollowinganalysiswewillassumethatthemeasuredresponseisastationaryandergodic
stochasticprocess.Applyingtheseassumptions,largelysimplifythestatisticaltreatmentofthe
measuredstochasticprocesses.Detaileddescriptioncanbefoundintextbookstreating
stochasticallyanalysis,e.g.PriceandBishop(1974),BendatandPiersol(1966).
Theautocorrelationandcrosscorrelationfunctions
Theautocorrelationfunction R xx ( ) correlatesthevalueofthestochasticprocessxattimettoits
valueatalaterstage(t+).Inthisway R xx ( ) givesameasureofthecorrelationofthesignals
dependentonthetimelag.Theautocorrelationfunctiongivesameasureoftheperiodicityofthe
timeseries.AtimeserieswithwhichisperiodicwithperiodTwillhaveapeakinthe
autocorrelationfunctionat Rxx ( T ) .Theautocorrelationfunctionisdefinedas:
Rxx ( )
Limit 1 T
x(t ) x(t )dt
T T 0
Appliedontwodifferentsignalsx(t)andy(t)wherex(t)isthereferencesignal(waveinput)and
y(t)isthemeasuredresponse,thecrosscorrelationfunctionisgivenfrom:
Rxy ( )
Limit 1 T
x(t ) y (t )dt
T T 0
Thisisausefulexpressionforachievingarelationbetweenthewaveinputandmeasuredresponse
inamodeltestsetup.
Page93
10.5.2 SpectralAnalysis
Inanalysingmodeltestresultsitwilloftenbeveryconvenienttotransformthemeasuredtime
historysignalx(t),tothefrequencydomain.Thiscanbeobtainedbyaspectralanalysisinwhich
thespectraldensityofthesignalisdeveloped.ThespectralanalysisisusuallydonebytheFast
FourierTransform(FFT)technique.
Assumingtheprocesstakesplaceoverthetimeinterval (0 t T , T ) .Thepowerspectrum
ofx(t), S xx ( ) isdefinedastheFouriertransformoftheautocorrelationfunction R xx ( ) :
S xx ( )
xx
( )e ( i ) d
Thecrossspectrumbetweentwosignalsx(t)andy(t)wherex(t)isthereferencesignal(wave
input)andy(t)isthemeasuredresponseisgivenfrom:
S xy ( )
xy
( )e( i ) d
Thelineartransferfunctionbetweenresponseandwavecanbeestablishedfromthecross
spectrumbetweentheresponseandtheinputwavesignalandthewavespectrumasfollows:
H ( )
S xy ( )
S xx ( )
H ( ) isthecomplextransferfunction.TheResponseAmplitudeOperator(RAO)canbedefinedas
themodulusof H ( ) andthephase,(),isthephaseangleof H ( ) .
AlternativelytheRAOcanbeobtainedfromtheinputwavespectrumandmeasuredresponse
spectrumdirectlyas:
H ( )
2
S yy ( )
S xx ( )
Usingthisformulationnophaseinformationisobtained.Theprinciplesofthisrelationare
illustratedinFigure10.5.
InFigure10.6anexampleofresultsfromaspectralanalysisofmeasuredpitchmotionsareshown.
Themeasuredwavespectrum,Pitchresponsespectrum,RAOandrelativephasebetweenthewave
elevationandPitchmotionsareshown.TheRAOandrelativephaseareobtainedfromthecomplex
transferfunction H ( ) .
Thereferencewaveusedinthecalculationofthetransferfunctionshouldbetakenasthewave
measuredatthereferencepositionwithoutthemodelpresent.Thisisinordertoavoidtheeffect
ofthewavesystemgeneratedbythemodel.Fortestwithastationarymodel(e.g.fixedstructures
ormooredvessels)thisisstraightforwardtoobtain,butfortowedorfreerunningmodelsthe
referencepositionisnotwelldefined.
Page94
Figure 10.5
RAO.
Example of relation between input wave spectrum, measured response spectrum and
Thenthmomentsofthespectrumisdefinedas:
mn n S ( )d
Thedifferentmomentscanbeinterpretedasfollows:
n=0:
m0=variance(2)oftheprocessormeansquareresponseorareaofspectrum
n=2:
m2=secondmomentofthespectrumormeansquarevelocityofresponse
n=4:
m4=meansquareaccelerationofresponse
Thefollowingparameterscanbecalculatedfromthespectralmoments:
m0
Standarddeviationofresponse:
Significantvalueofresponse: x1
4 m0
Page95
Averageperiodofresponse:
T1
Averagezerocrossingperiod: T2
m0
m2
m0
m1
Page96
Figure10.6
Exampleofresultfromspectralanalysis(fromMARINTEKReport).
Page97
AtypicalexampleofresultsfromspectralanalysisforamodeltestsetupisshowninTable
10.1.Foreachofthemeasuringchannelsalltheabovediscussedparametersarelisted.
Table10.1
Exampleoftabulatedresultsfromspectralanalysis(fromMARINTEKReport).
Page98
10.5.3 Statisticalanalysis
Thestatisticalanalysisofthemeasuredsignalsconsistsincalculatingthestatisticalparametersand
thestatisticaldistributionoftheprocess.Theprobabilitydistributionfunctionorthecommutative
probability,P(x),istheprobabilitythatageneralvalueoftheprocessx(t)islessthanorequalthe
valueofxbeingconsidered.Thisiswrittenas:
P ( x ) P ( x (t ) x)
Theprobabilitydensityfunctionisdefinedfromtherelation:
p ( x)
dP ( x )
dx
orinotherwords:Theprobabilitythata<x(t)<bisgivenbytheprobabilitydensityfunctionsuch
that:
b
P (a x (t ) b) p ( x )dx
Twodifferentprobabilitydistributionsareofinterestinthestudyofrandomwavegenerated
responses:
Thedistributionoftheprocessitself,e.g.thedistributionofthewaveelevationx(t)and
themeasuredresponsey(t).
Thedistributionofamplitudes;e.g.distributionofthewaveamplitudesxAand
measuredresponseamplitudes,yAinthetests.
ThewaveelevationforrandomwavesiscommonlyadaptedasaGaussian(ornormaldistributed)
process.ThewaveamplitudescanthenbeassumedtofollowtheRayleighdistribution.The
amplitudedistributionisthemostinterestingquantitiesinthemeasurementofwaveinduced
motions.Thisdistributionwillthereforebediscussedinsomemoredetails.
ThecumulativedistributionfortheRayleighdistributionisgivenas:
1 x 2
X
P ( x) 1 exp
for x 0
2 X
Here X isthemeanorexpectedvalueofx(t),definedas:
X E x xp( x)dx
X2 isthevarianceofx(t),definedas:
2
X2 E x X E x 2 X 2
ForameasuredtimeserieswithNsamplesthemeanvalueandthevariancearecalculatedas
follows:
Page99
X2
1
N
x
i 1
1 N
( xi X )
N 1 i 1
CurvesshowingthecumulativedistributionandtheprobabilitydensitydistributionfortheRayleigh
distributionareshowninFigure10.7.
Figure 10.7
The Rayleigh distribution (a) cumulative distribution, (b) probability density.
AsmentionedabovethewaveamplitudescanbeassumedtofollowtheRayleighdistribution.For
waveinducedlinearresponsesthesameassumptioncanbemade.Howeverforabroadrangeof
practicalimportantproblemscoveredbymodeltestingofshipsandoffshorestructuresthe
responseisnotlinear.Nonlinearitiescanbeintroducedbeseveralreasons.Examplesare:
Surfacezonenonlinearitycausedbynonverticalstructuresidesorstructureinandout
ofwater
Excitationfromhigherorderwaveforces(driftforces)
Nonlineardragforces
Nonlineardamping(importantifresonanceoscillationoccur)
Page100
ImpactLoads
Nonlinearrestoringstiffness(importantformooredstructure)
Forallthesesituationsthedistributionoftheresponseamplitudeswill/maynotfollowtheRayleigh
distribution.ThemoregeneralWeibulldistributionisthereforecommonlyusedforfittingthe
measureddatatoaknowndistribution.Toachievethisfitthestatisticaldistributionderivedfrom
themeasurements,P(xA),isplottedinWeibullscale.ThisisachievedbyusinglogarithmicaxisforxA
andtheP(xA)axisplottedas ln ln(1 P( xA )) .UsingtheWeibullscaleplottingwillalso
emphasisethetailofthedistribution,whichwillgovernthepredictionoftheextremeamplitude
values.FromplottingthecumulativedistributionsinWeibullscaleitispossibletoanalysewhether
largeextremevaluesmeasuredinthetestsaresimplyresultsofstatisticaluncertainties,orresults
fromamoresystematictrend.
TheWeibulldistributionisgivenas:
1 x A X G
P ( x A ) 1 exp

G
whereasbefore X isthemeanvalueoftheprocessx(t),isthestandarddeviationofthe
processandGistheshapeparameterdescribingtheslopeoftheWeibullcurve.ForG=2givesthe
RayleighdistributionandG=1givestheExponentialdistribution.
Anexampleofplotsofmeasuredcumulativeprobabilitydistributionofresponseamplitudesis
showninFigure10.8.ThestraightlineshowninthediagramsrepresentG=2,i.etheRayleigh
distribution.ItisseenthatforthefirstcasethedistributionfollowscloselytotheExponential
distribution,whileforthesecondcasethedistributionisclosetoRayleighdistributed.
Figure10.8
ExamplesofcumulativeprobabilitydistributionsplottedinWeibullscale.
Page101
Inadditiontothecumulativeprobabilitydistributiondiscussedaboveanumberof
statisticalparametersareobtainedfromthestatisticalanalysis.Theyaresummarisedinthe
following.
SignificantValues:
Significantmaxima; xA1/ 3 :
themeanofthehighestonethirdofthecrestto
zerovaluesofxA,
Significantminima; xA1/ 3 :
themeanofthehighestonethirdofthetrough
tozerovaluesofxA,
Significantdoubleamplitude;2 x A1/ 3 :
meanofthehighestonethirdofthemaximum
tominimumvaluesofxA,
Maximum/MinimumValues:
MaximumValue; x A, MAX :
Measuredmaximumvalueintherecord.
MinimumValue; x A, MIN :
Measuredminimumvalueintherecord.
Largestdoubleamplitude; 2 xMAX : Largestmeasuredcresttotroughvalueinthe
record.
SkewnessandtheKurtosis.
TheSkewnessisdefinedasthethirdcentralmomentoftheprocess:
1 E ( x X )3
m3
X3
Theskewnessprovideanindicationofthedegreeofasymmetryintheprobabilitydistribution
aboutthemeanvalue.ForaGaussiandistributiontheskewnesswillthereforebezero,butnonzero
foraRayleighdistribution.
TheKurtosisisdefinedas:
2 E ( x X )4 3
m4
X4
TheKurtosisiszeroforaGaussianprocess.
AtypicalexampleofresultsfromstatisticalanalysisforamodeltestsetupisshowninTable10.2.
Foreachofthemeasuringchannelsalltheabovediscussedparametersarelisted.
Page102
Table10.2
Exampleofresultsfromstatisticalanalysis(fromMARINTEKReport).
11
Page103
FULLSCALEMEASUREMENTS
Fullscalemeasurementsareintheselecturenoteshandledastheexception,ratherthantherule.
Thismightatfirstseemabitawkward,sincefullscaleisclosertothetruesituation.However,
testinginfullscaleisusuallytimeconsuming,verycostly,andeveniftheuncertaintyofscalingis
avoidedtheuncertaintyintroducedbyanuncontrollableenvironmentmightmaketheresultsless
reliable.
Fullscaletestsareusuallycarriedoutinthreedifferenttypesofcircumstances:
Deliveryofnewbuildings(Seatrials)
Ifaspecialproblemhasarisen,likepropellernoiseorexcessivefuelconsumption
ForResearchpurposes
Wewillnowdiscusseachofthesethreecases,beforesomegeneralconsiderationsaboutthe
specialchallengesoffullscaletrialsaremade.
Inadditiontothiscomesshipmonitoringsystems.Bythis,wemeansystemsthataremonitoring
aspectsoftheperformanceoftheshipduringnormaloperation.Shipmonitoringiscoveredina
separatesectionattheendofthischapter.
11.1
Deliverytrials
Inalmostallshipbuildingcontractstherearespecificrequirementsforthespeedtheshipshall
obtainatcertainenginepowerlevels.Therearealsoveryspecificandgraveconsequencesfor
deviationsfromthecontractedspeed.Iftheshipspeedissmallerthanthecontractspeedby,
typically,0.2knots,theshipyardwillhavetopayafeetotheshipowner.Ifthedeviationislarge,
forinstance1knot,orevenassmallas0.5knots,theshipownerhastherighttorefusetotake
ownershipofthevessel.Ontheotherhand,iftheshipisfasterthancontracted,theyardusually
getsabonus.Onemightthenthinkthatthistemptstheyardtoquotealowspeed,orspecifya
largeenginetoreachthespecifiedspeed,butdoingthiswillmostlikelyresultintheyardlosingin
thecompetitionforgettingthecontractinthefirstplace.Withthisbackgrounditiseasyto
understandwhydeliverytrialsareimportant.Itisalsoeasytounderstandwhycarefulmodel
testingtodeterminethetrialspeedbeforetheshipisbuiltissocommon.Ifthemodeltestshows
thattheshipisnotgoingtomeetthespeedrequirementitisstilltimetodofinetuningoflinesor
propellerarrangementtoimproveperformance.Aftertheshipisbuiltitistoolate.
Deliverytrialswillalwaysincludespeedtrials.Usuallydoubleruns(runningthesamestraighttrack
inbothdirections)atnotlessthanthreedifferentenginepowerlevels.Othertypesoftests
commonlyperformedaremaneuveringtrials,toensurethattheshipfulfillstheIMOrequirements
formaneuverability.Forhighspeedcrafts,thenewIMOHighspeedcraftcodealsoincludes
requirementsforseakeepingtests(seeIMO:2000HSCCode(IMO185E),Annex9).Inaddition,
therewillusuallybealotoftestsrelatedtothecorrectperformanceofonboardsystems,butthese
testsareoflittleinteresttohydrodynamicists,andwillnotbediscussedhere.
Page104
11.1.1 Organizationofdeliverytrials
Whenparticipatinginaseatrialitisimportanttobeawareoftheorganizationandwhois
responsible,sowewillgiveabriefoverview:TheShipbuilderisresponsiblefororganizingand
executionoftheseatrials.TherewillnormallybeappointedaTrialLeader,whoisemployedor
hiredbytheShipbuilder.TheTrialLeaderisresponsibleforallphasesofthetrial,butlikeallgood
executiveshemightdelegateexecutionofdifferenttrialstodifferentpersons.Whenyou
participateintheseatrialsitisveryusefultolocateandcontacttheTrialLeader.
Thenthereareusuallyseveralshipmasterspresent.Theshipyardwillhaveatrialmastertobe
responsibleforthehandlingoftheship.Theshipownerwillusuallyhaveoneormoreshipmasters
present,usuallythemastersthataregoingtosailontheshipafterdelivery.
Measurementsareperformedbypersonnelengagedbytheshipbuilder,orbythirdparties(like
MARINTEK).
11.1.2 Speedtrials
Thepurposeofthespeedtrialsistodeterminethespeedpowercharacteristicsoftheshipatthe
contractualconditions,whichisusuallydeep,calmwater,nowind,seatemperatureof15degC,at
aspecifieddraught,usuallydesigndraught.Sincethetestscanrarelybecarriedoutunderthese
conditions,resultswillusuallyhavetobecorrectedforthedifferencebetweenspecifiedandactual
conditions.
ProceduresforhowtodoseatrialsaregivenintheinternationalstandardISO19019andinthe
ITTCstandardprocedureProcedureforthePreparationandConductofSpeed/PowerTrials.A
shortsummaryisgivenhere:
Measurements:
Thespeedismeasuredby(D)GPSorbyclockingthetimeusedtotravelameasuredmile.
TheshaftpowershouldbefoundfromRPMandshafttorquemeasuredbystraingauge
measurementonthepropellershaft(s),orbyspecialtorquemeters.Inpractice,theextra
costofshaftmeasurementsisoftenavoidedandpowerisfoundfromfuelconsumption
readings,butthismethodreliesonenginemanufacturerdataonspecificfuelconsumption,
whichisoftennotveryreliable.
Watertemperatureshouldbemeasured.Waterdensityshallpreferablybemeasured,but
isoftenfoundfromthetemperatureandstandardtables,basedonassumedsalinity.
Windspeedanddirectionshouldbemeasured.Onboardwindindicatorsmightbeutilized,
butitispreferabletobringaportablewindmeterforanextracheckastheship
instrumentsmightnotbeproperlycalibrated.
Waterdepthshallbenotedandincludedinthereport.Foundfromechosounderorcharts.
Waveconditionsshallbedocumented.Wavemeasurementsbywavebuoyarepreferable,
butseldomdone.Instead,visualobservationandestimationofwaveheightanddirectionis
made.Thebestwaytodothisistohaveseveralexperiencedpersonsdotheirown
estimates,andthentaketheaverage.
Page105
> 5 min and 1 mile

Steady Approach
Steady Approach
> 5 min and 1 mile
Figure11.1
Recommendedtrackforconductingspeedtrials
Figure11.2
Measurementofshafttorque
Page106
Figure11.3
Measuredmile
Performance:
Thespeedtrialsshouldalwaysbedonerunningthesametrackinbothdirections.Aftercorrecting
theresultofeachrunforwindandwaves,theresultsareaveragedinordertocorrectfortheeffect
ofcurrent.
Itisimportantthatthecourseandspeedhavereachedsteadyconditionsbeforetherunstarts.This
isachievedbyasuitableapproachrun,asindicatedinfigures11.1and11.3.
Useofrudderduringtherunshouldbeminimized.Iftheshipisreasonablydirectionallystable,itis
besttoturnofftheautopilotandrunwiththerudderfixed,orcontrolledbyanexperienced
helmsman.Ifuseofrudderisrequireditshouldbenotedinthereport.
Environmentalconditions:
Typicalcontractualconditions:
Seastate:
o
Nowaves
Inpractice:Beufort1(Waveheight0.1m)
Wind
o
Nowind
Page107
o
Inpractice:Beufort2(Windspeed6knots)
Waterdepthh
o
Deep,
Inpractice:
6.0
and
(AMismidshipsectionarea)
Current
o
Nocurrent
Nopracticallimitforwhencorrectionsaremade.Useofdoublerunsmeansthat
correctionsarealwaysincluded
Maxacceptabletrialconditions:
Seastate
o
Preferablyseastate3
Ultimatelyseastate5(oruptoseastate6forshipswithL>100m)
Wind
o
Beufort6(20knots)(forshipswithL>100m)
Beufort5(forshipswithL100m)
Waterdepthh
o
o
6.0
and
2 (AMismidshipsectionarea)
Smallerdepthsrequirecorrectionsforshallowwater
Current
o
Currentofmorethanafewknotsisunacceptable
Whenenvironmentalconditionsareabovethecontractualconditions,correctionswillhavetobe
done.ProceduresfordoingsuchcorrectionsaregiveninInternationalStandardISO15016,andin
ITTCstandardprocedureProcedurefortheAnalysisofSpeed/PowerTrialData.Correctionsfor
smalldifferencesindraught,differenceinwatertemperatureanddensity,wind,andshallowwater
arestraightforwardtoapplyandfairlyaccurate,whilecorrectionsforwavesanduseofrudderis
difficultandnotveryreliable.Fordetails,youarereferredtotheabovementioneddocuments.The
ITTCstandardisfairlyclosetotheISOstandard,butusingbothmightbehelpful.
11.1.3 Bollardpulltests
Testingofbollardpulliscommonaspartofdeliverytrialsfortugsandanchorhandlers.Avery
ruggedpullmeterisapplied.Theimportantpartoftheprocedureistominimiseeffectsof
boundaries(quay,bottom)(seeFigure11.4),andlookforeffectsofwaterrecirculation(seeFigure
11.5).
Page108
Goodlocation
Poorlocation
Figure11.4
Goodandbadlocationsforbollardpulltest
Figure11.5
Selectingtheproperpartofthetimeseriesfromabollardpulltest.
11.1.4 Manoeuvringtrials
Trialtypesandexecutionarethesameasinmodelscale.Standardtestsarezigzag,turningcircle
andstoppingtest.
Measurements:
(D)GPSpositionmeasurement
Gyrocompasscourse
Rudderangle
Propellerrevs
Page109
11.1.5 Highspeedcraft
Highspeedcraftwilltypicallydospeedtrialsthesamewayasconventionalships.ThenewIMO
Highspeedcraftcodeincludesrequirementsforseakeepingandmaneuveringtests(seeIMO:2000
HSCCode(IMO185E),Annex9).Thesetestscanbesummarizedasfollows:
Stopping
o
Normalstopfrommaxspeedtozero
Emergencystop
Crashstop
Cruiseperformanceintwoseastates
o
Normalconditions
Worstintendedconditions
Measurementsofaccelerations,speed,waveheading
Failuretests
o
Checkthattheship,crewandpassengersarenotatriskifforinstancethesteering
fails
11.1.6 Wavemeasurements
Oneofthemaindrawbacksoffullscaletestingistheproblemofcontrolandmonitoringofthe
environment,andespeciallythewavecondition.Controlofthewavesisofcourseoutofthe
question.Wavemonitoringisalsosurprisinglydifficult.Thereareseveralalternatives:
Visualobservationcheapandeasy,butnotreliable.Especiallywavelengthismissing.
WavebuoyThebestalternative,butwhenthereisnostationarybuoyinthearea
deployingandespeciallyrecoveringthebuoywilloftenrepresentaseriouspractical
challenge.
WaveradarThereareseveraldifferentconceptsonthemarket.Dedicatedmicrowave
radarsarebigandusuallymuchtoocostlyforordinaryseatrials.SystemsusingtheXband
radaralreadyontheshipareusedonshipstosomeextent,buttheyhavehadproblems
measuringthecorrectwaveheight.Distributionofdirectionandwaveperiodisfairlygood
onthesesystems.OneexampleofsuchaproductisWavex,manufacturedbyMirosA/Sin
Asker,Norway.Thecomplexityofinstallationofsuchsystemsmeansthattemporary
installationforthepurposeofseatrialsisnotanattractiveoption.
Bowmountedaltimeter.Measurestherelativedistancebetweenthebowandthewaves.
Requiresthenaccuratemeasurementoftheverticalmotionsatthebow.Effectonthe
incomingwavesfromthepresenceoftheshipmightbeaproblem.Fairlyreliableheight
andperiod,butwavedirectionmustbevisuallyestimated.
Forvisualobservations,theBeufortwindandwavescaleisuseful.However,itshouldbenotedthat
therelationbetweenwindandwaveheightisonlyvalidforopensea.Withlimitedfetch,thewaves
willbelower,shorterandsteeper.Waveheightandperiodcanalsobedirectlyestimatedfrom
windspeedandfetchlength.
Page110
Sea Description term
Beufort state Wind
0
0 Calm
1
0 Light air
2
1 Light breeze
3
2 Gentle breeze
4
3 Moderate breeze
5
4 Fresh breeze
6
5 Strong breeze
7
6 Near gale
8
7 Gale
9
8 Strong gale
10
9 Storm
11
9 Violent storm
12
9 Hurricane
13
9 Hurricane
14
9 Hurricane
15
9 Hurricane
11.2
Wave
Calm
Ripples
Small wavelets
Large wavelets
Small waves
Moderate waves
Large waves
Large waves
Moderately high waves
High waves
Very high waves
Exceptionally high waves
Wind sp. [knots] Wave height [m]

min
max
Probable Max
0
1
3
6
10
16
21
27
33
40
47
55
63
71
80
89
1
0
0
3
0.1
0.1
6
0.2
0.3
10
0.6
1
16
1
1.5
21
2
2.5
27
3
4
33
4
5.5
40
6
7.5
47
7
10
55
9 12.5
63
11.5
16
71
14
16
80 >14
>16
89 >14
>16
99 >14
>16
Table11.1
TheBeufortwindandwavescale.Seealso
http://ioc.unesco.org/oceanteacher/resourcekit/M3/Formats/Codes/SeaState.htm
Shipmonitoringsystems
Shipmonitoringsystemsaresystemsthatmonitorcertainaspectsoftheperformanceoftheship
duringnormaloperation.Thus,thisisgenerallysystemsthatarepermanentlyinstalledonboard.
Thisisafieldinrapiddevelopment,drivenbytechnologicalprogressandtheincreasingneedfor
shipownerstogetdetailedandreliableinformationabouttheperformanceoftheirfleet.Examples
ofsuchmonitoringsystemsarediscussedbelow.
Figure11.6
Hullmonitoringsystem
Page111
11.2.1 Hullmonitoring
Thisismonitoringofstrainatstrategiclocationsinthehullgirder.Theprimarypurposeisto
monitorthedevelopmentoffatiguedamage.Itismandatorytohavesuchasystemonbulkcarriers
above20000tonnes.Thesystemwillmonitorthelocalstrainandcomputetheexpectedremaining
fatiguelife.Itisalsousedtoavoidoverloadingwhenloadingandoffloading.Therearemany
suppliersofsuchsystemsandthetechnologyiswelldeveloped.Straingaugesarebyfarthemost
commonsensortechnologyforthispurpose,butfiberopticshasalsobeenused.Figure11.6shows
anexampleofhullmonitoringsystem.
11.2.2 Performancemonitoring
Monitoringofspeedandpowerperformanceisperformedinordertooptimizetheoperationand
maintenanceofmerchantships.Theshipownerwantstomonitorhowthepowerrequirement
increaseswithtime,sothatoptimumintervalsforcleaningofhullandpropellercanbeachieved.
Thepowersuppliedtothepropellerismeasured,preferablybyatorsion(orpower)meterinstalled
onthepropellershaft.SpeedismeasuredbyspeedlogandGPS.Itisthespeedthroughwater,
whichiswhatthespeedlogissupposedtomeasure,thatisneededfortheperformance
evaluation.However,thespeedlogmeasurementsarenotoriouslyunreliable,sincetheyare
locatedinthevicinityofthehull,sothattheyareinfluencedbytheboundarylayerandlocal
pressurefield.Sincethelocalpressurefieldmatters,wavesandshipmotionswillcausenoiseinthe
measurement.Marinegrowthonthesensorsisalsoacauseofmeasurementerror.
Amajorproblemwithperformancemonitoringistocorrectthemeasurementresultsforeffectsof
wind,waves,currentandloadingcondition.Tohelpinthecorrection,extrameasurements,like
shipmotions,incomingwaves,windetc.mightbeaddedtothesystem.
Traditionally,themonitoringofspeedandpowerperformancewasmadeintermsofnoonreports
madebythecrewandsenttotheheadofficebyfaxortelex.Increasingly,systemsthat
automaticallylogdataatmuchhighersamplingintervalsthanonceperdayareinstalled.The
systemsmightcollectthedataonboardorsendthemtoshorebysatellitelink.Thereisarapid
technologicaldevelopmentinthisfield.
11.2.3 HEMOSHealthMonitoringSystem
Anovelkindofmonitoringsystemismonitoringtheperformanceofonboardsystems,withtheaim
ofdetectingpossiblefaultsandtoseehowthesystemsareoperated.Aprimaryexampleofsucha
systemistheHEMOS,developedbyRollsRoyceMarine,inclosecooperationwiththeshipowner
Farstad.AsisillustratedonFigure11.7,thesystemiscollectingdatafrompropulsionunits,engines,
tunnelthrusters,aswellasoperationaldatalikespeed,headingandpositionandsendingthese
datainrealtimetoRollsRoyceofficesonshore.Thus,thisisprimarilyasystemthatallowsthe
equipmentsupplier,inthiscaseRollsRoyce,tomonitortheperformanceoftheirequipment.By
doingthis,theequipmentsuppliercanlearnmoreabouthowtheirequipmentisactuallyused,and
theymightpotentiallydetectfailingequipmentbeforeitcompletelystopsworking.Theideaforthe
systemistakenfromtheairenginebusinessofRollsRoyce,whereasimilarsystemhasbeenin
operationformanyyears,onmostoftheenginessoldbyRollsRoyce.CompetitorsofRollsRoyce
areworkingonsimilarsystems.
Page112
Figure11.7
HEMOSHealthMonitoringSystembyRollsRoyceMarine
Page113
12
ERRORANALYSIS
12.1
Introduction
Itisimportanttokeepinmindwhenperformingallkindsofphysicalexperimentsthatthereis
inherentuncertaintyinallmeasureddata.Atestresultisreallyjustoneexampleoftherangeof
possibleoutcomesoftheexperiment.Iftheexperimentisrepeateditisveryunlikelythatexactly
thesamemeasurementresultisobtained.Itisofcourseveryimportanttoknowhowfarthe
measuredvaluecouldbefromtheunknown,truevalue.Toknowthis,onehastoperformsocalled
uncertaintyanalysis.Systematicuseofuncertaintyanalysisinshipandoffshoremodeltestingisa
relativelynewphenomenon,whichhasarisenduringthelast10years.Agooduncertaintyanalysis
isespeciallyimportantwhenusingexperimentstoverifycomputercodesoratheoreticalmethod.
VerificationofCFDcodesbymodelexperimentshasbeenadrivingforceinincreasingthe
awarenessofuncertaintyinconventionalhydrodynamictesting.
Whendesigninganexperimenttoansweracertainquestion,forinstanceiftheproposedbulb
designchangeofashipwillactuallydecreasethefuelconsumption,oneshouldalwayskeepin
mindwhatistheuncertaintyoftheexperimentcomparedtotherequiredaccuracyoftheanswer
tothequestion.Forthementionedexample,ifthemeasuredresistancereductionis2%andthe
uncertaintyofmeasurementis3%,wehaveinfactnotdocumentedaresistancereduction.To
documentaresistancereductionof2%,wewillneedtoperformanexperimentwithanuncertainty
thatissignificantlylessthan2%.
Inthischapterwewillstartwithashortintroductiontouncertaintyanalysisofexperimentsin
general.Thissection(11.2)isreliesheavilyonthelecturenotebySveinErsdal,whichisincludedin
AnnexD.ForanindepthtreatmentofthissubjectwerecommendthebookbyColemanandSteele
(1999).DetailsofuncertaintyanalysisoftowingtanktestsarefoundinLongoandStern(2005)and
intheITTCRecommendedProcedures,whichcanbefoundattheITTCPermanentwebsite:
http://ittc.sname.org/documents.htm
Afterthesectionongeneraluncertaintyanalysis,wegoontodiscussspecificerrorsourcesof
specialimportanceinexperimentalhydrodynamics.
12.2
Uncertaintyanalysis
12.2.1 BasicConcepts
Theaimofanuncertaintyanalysisistogiveaquantitativemeasureofhowreliableameasuredor
calculatedvalueis.Theworderrorisusedforthedifferencebetweenameasurementresultand
thetruevalue,whileuncertaintyisthestatisticalrepresentationoferror.
Theuncertaintyisusuallyquantifiedintermsoftheconfidenceinterval.A95%confidenceinterval
offorinstance2Nmeansthat95%ofallreadingsofaparticularmeasurementwillbewithin2N
fromthetruevalue.Inotherwordsitmeansthattheprobabilitythatthetruevaluewillbewithin
theconfidenceintervalis0.95.
Twotypesoferrorsareconsideredintheanalysis:biasandprecisionerrors.Biaserrorsare
systematicerrors,errorsthatarenotrevealedbyrepetitionoftheexperimentwhileprecision
Page114
errorsarescatterintheresults,foundbycomparingtheresultsofrepeated
measurement.Thereisreallynocleardistinctionbetweenthetwo,sincetheamountofbiaserror
dependsonhowlargepartoftheexperimentisrepeated.Forinstance,incaseofatowingtestofa
shipmodel,thebiasandprecisionerrorswillbeverydifferentiftherepetitiononlyincludes
runningthemodelseveraltimesinthetank,orifitinvolvesbuildinganew,butsupposedlyequal
modelandtestingitinanotherfacility.Itisstillimportanttodistinguishbetweenthetwotypesof
uncertainty,andwhenperformingtheuncertaintyanalysis,wemustchoosethereplicationlevel,
thatishowlargepartoftheexperimentalsetupthatisremadeaspartoftherepetition.Including
morefactorsintherepetitionreducesthebiaserror,andthatisagoodthing,sincethebiaserror
cannotbemeasured,butmustbeestimatedbysomekindofqualifiedguess.Calibrationisthe
keytoreductionandquantificationofbiaserror.Bymeasuringaknownquantitywiththesame
testsetupasusedontherealexperiment,onecanatleastintheory,eliminatethebiaserror.
12.2.2 Calculationofprecisionerror
Theprecisionerrorcanbecalculatedfromrepeatedmeasurements,andwewillshowthe
procedurehere.Forastart,itiscommontoassumethatifameasurementisrepeatedinfinitely
manytimesthemeasuredvalueswillfollowaGaussiandistributionaroundamean.TheGaussian
distributioniscalledtheparentdistribution.TheGaussiandistributionisgivenas:
1
f X
e
2
2 2
Whereisthemeanandisthestandarddeviation.ForNsamples,themean X isgivenas:
1 N
Xj
N
j 1
AndthestandarddeviationSxisgivenas:
1 N
XjX
N 1
j 1
Sx
Itshouldbenotedthatthemeanisitselfnormallydistributedwithmean.Thestandarddeviation
ofthemeansdependsonthenumberofsamplesaccordingtothefollowingrelation:
SX
SX
Fortheparentdistributiontheconfidenceintervalofasampleisgivenby:
Prob X j t X j t
Whereistheconfidenceinterval,typically=0.95.t1.96foranormaldistributionwhen=0.95
.Forafinitenumberofsamplesthestandarddeviationoftheparentdistribution,,isunknown.
Alsotisthenunknown.Thisequationcanberewrittenas:
Page115
Xj
Sx
Prob t
Wherethevariable
Xj
SX
israndomandfollowsaStudentstdistributionwithN1degreesof
freedom.Thevalueoftmaythenbefoundfrom:
t F 1 12 (1 )
WhereF1()istheinverseofthecumulativedensityfunctionforthetdistribution.Notethat
F1isafunctionofdegreesoffreedomN1.Nisstillnumberofsamples.Therelationshipbetweent
andnumberofsamplesisgiveninFigure12.1.Itisseenthatwhenthenumberofsamplesincrease
thevalueoftgoestowardsthevalueoftforanormaldistribution.tcanbecomputedinExcelby
thefunctionTINV(10.95;N1)(inthiscasefor95%confidence).
Theprecisionlimitforasampleisnoweasilyfoundfrom:
Px t S x
Notethatthisistheprecisionlimitofonesampleofanexperiment,butthattocalculatethis
precisionlimityouneedtohavemorethanonesample.Wewilldiscussthismorethoroughlylater.
TheprecisionlimitofthemeanofNrepetitionsisgivenby:
PX t
SX
8
95% confidence
99% confidence
6
Weight t
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Degrees of freedom (N-1)
Figure12.1
TheweighttforestimatingconfidenceintervalsusingStudentstdistribution
Page116
ItisseenfromFigure12.1thatthevalueoftdecreasesrapidlywithincreasingnumberof
samplesforlessthanabout10samples.Fromthepreviousequationitisseenthatthiswillresultin
rapiddecreaseintheprecisionlimitofthemeanofthesamples.Thus,repeatingexperimentsupto
about10timesisanefficientwayofdecreasingtheprecisionlimit.Theprecisionlimitofone
sampleshallideallynotchangewithchangingthenumberofsampleswhenNisincreasingtwill
decrease,butSXwillincreaseduetomoresamples.ThatisthepointoftheStudentstdistribution,
tocompensateforthefactthatSXwillbemuchsmallerthanwhenthenumberofsamplesislow.
However,theuncertaintyofSXwilldecreasewithincreasingnumberofsamples.Thus,tocalculate
asensiblevalueforSXyouneedseveralsamples.
Soinaworldwithoutsmallbudgetsandnotenoughtimeallexperimentswouldberepeatedat
least10times,sowecouldcalculatetheprecisionerrorandalsoreducetheuncertainty.Inpractice
thisisseldompossible.Itisalsousuallynotrequiredtorepeattheexperimentinordertoreduce
theuncertainty.Inordertocalculatetheprecisionerroritisstillrequiredtohaverepeatedtests.
Thisisoftensolvedbyrepeatingonlyoneofmanyconditions,andassumethattheprecisionlimit
foundforthisconditionisrepresentativealsofortheotherconditions.Forinstanceforatowing
testwithashipmodelyouwouldonlyrepeatoneofthespeeds,notall,andonlyatoneloading
condition.Itcouldalsobearguedthatyoucouldusetheprecisionlimitfoundforonelargetanker
modelforallsimilarlysizedtankermodels,andsoon.
Example:Calculationofprecisionlimitforatowingtest
Thetowingtestwithashipmodelisrepeated15timesforonespeed.
Thestandarddeviationofthemeasuredresistanceforthe15testsisSX=0.185N.
Thisgivesaprecisionlimit PX S X t15 0.185 2.145 0.396 N
Theaverageresistanceofthe15testsis41.65N.Theuncertaintyoftheresistancemeasurement
(ofasingletest)isthen:
0.396
0.0095 0.95%
41.65
Thestandarddeviationofthemeanofthe15testsis
0.185
0.0478 .
15
Thisgivesaprecisionlimitforthemean PX S X t15 0.0478 2.145 0.102 ,whichgivesan

uncertaintyof
0.102
0.002 0.2% .
41.65
Thus,itisseenthatanumberofrepeatedtestsisrequiredtocalculatetheprecisionerrorofa
singletest,andthattheuncertaintyofthemeanofseveraltestsissignificantlysmallerthanthe
uncertaintyofasingletest.
Page117
12.2.3 Chauvenetscriterionforrejectingoutliers
Datasamplesthatdeviatesignificantlyfromthemajorityofthedatasamplesarecalledwildpoints,
oroutliers.Ifnophysicalexplanationisfound,thedatapointmightstillbedisregarded,evenifno
particularerrorsourceisidentified.Anacceptedcriterionforrejectionofasample,whenno
particularreasonfordeviationisfound,isChauvenetscriterion.Itstatesthatsampleswithina
bandaroundthemeanwithprobabilityofexceedencelessthan 1 21N shouldberetained.This
limitcanbeexpressedasaweightonthestandarddeviation:
tchauvenet F 1 12 (1 p)
Where p 1 21N isthelimitprobabilitybasedonNsamples.NotethatinthiscaseF()isthe
cumulativedensityfunctionofthenormaldistribution,alsoforsmallvaluesofN.Valuesoftchauvenet
isplottedinFigure12.2.
Sampleswithhigherdeviationfromthemeanthan:
X j X tchauvenet S x
maythenbedisregarded.
Figure 12.2
The weight tchauvenet in Chauvenets criterion for rejection of outliers
12.2.4 Estimatingbiaserrors
Incontrasttoprecisionerrors,thereisingeneralnostraightforwardwayofquantifyingbiaserrors.
ITTChasprovidedanexamplecalculationofuncertaintyofatowingtest,whichcanbeusedasan
exampleofhowtoestimatebiaserrors.Agoodexamplethereistheestimationofthebiaserror
Page118
relatedtotheaccuracyofthegeometricalshapeofthemodel.Itisassumedthatthe
modelingaccuracyis1mm,andthatthemodelisballastedtocorrectweight,notdraught.The
maximumerrorindisplacementcanbecalculatedfromthemodelingaccuracy,andtheeffecton
resistanceofincreasedordecreaseddraughtduetoerrorinvolumeiscalculated.Thisthen
representthebiaserrorofmodelingaccuracyonmodelresistance.
Animportantsourceofbiaserroriscalibration.Ifthecalibrationofasensorisincorrect,thiswill
turnoutasabiaserror.Uncertaintyofcalibrationfactorscaninturnsbedividedinprecisionand
bias,wheretheprecisionerrorcanbefoundfromrepeatedcalibrations.Biaserrorsofthe
calibrationcanbehardtodetermine,anditcouldbetemptingtoignoreit.Goodcalibration
procedureswillensurethatcalibrationbiaserrorsaresmall.
Anothersourceofbiaserrorisblockageeffect,andtheprocedureusedtocorrectforblockage
effect,ifthatisapplied.Inthiscaseitseemsreasonabletosearchtheliteratureforalternativeways
ofcorrectingforblockage,comparethem,andmakeaqualifiedguessoftheuncertaintybasedon
thecomparison.
12.2.5 ErrorPropagation
Whencalculatingtheuncertainty,oneshouldconsiderthefinalendresult,andbyfinalendresult
wemeantheanswertothequestioninitiallybeingasked.Ifthequestioniswhatisthetotal
resistanceofaparticularshipmodel?,askedforinstanceaspartofvalidationofaCFDcode,one
neednotincludethescalingtofullscaleintheuncertaintyanalysis.Ifthequestioniswhatisthe
shipresistance?,alsotheconversiontofullscalemustbeincluded.Theequationsrelatingthe
measuredquantities(intheaboveexamplethatmightbethenumberofpulsesfromthecarriage
speedpulsecounterandthevoltagereadfromthedynamometerstraingauges)withthefinalend
result,arecalleddatareductionequations.Thedatareductionequationsaffecthowthe
uncertaintyofindividualfactorsinfluencesthetotaluncertainty.Thedatareductionequations
mightalsocontributetothebiaserrors,incasetheyarenotanentirelytruerepresentationofthe
realworld.Anexampleofthisisthescalingofshipresistancetofullscale;somethingthatwe
knowisonlyanimperfectassumptionofarealitytoocomplextomodelentirelycorrect.
Wewillnowbrieflyshowhowtheinfluenceonthefinalendresultofthedifferenterrorsourcesis
calculated.Thereductionequationcaningeneralbewrittenas:
X f r Y1 , Y2 ,..., YN ,
WhereXistheresultforwhichtheuncertaintyissought,fristhefunctionalrelationandYiisthe
parametersonwhichXdepends.AssumingthatasmallchangeinaparameterYiresultsinasmall
changeinX,Taylorexpansiongives:
X
1 2
X
Yi
Yi 2 O(Yi 3 )
2
2
Y
Y
i 1
i
i
N
X
X
X
Yi
X
i 1 Yi
i
Fromthistheinfluencecoefficientisdefinedas
Page119
Yi
andtheelementalerroristhen:
ei X Yi i Yi
Yi
Theelementalerrorsarecalculatedindependentlyforbiasandprecisionerrors.Forprecision
errors Yi canbefoundfromrepeatedmeasurements,whileforbiaserrors Yi mustbe
estimated,asdiscussedpreviously.Therecommendedpracticeistocalculate Yi to95%
confidencelimit.Calculationoftheinfluencecoefficientsrequiresknowledgeofthemathematical
relationbetweentheparametersandtheresult.Ifelementalerrorsourcesareindependentthe
combinedeffectoftheerrorsarefoundbysummationas:
ei 2
i 1
Tofindthetotalerror,biasandprecisionerrorsmustbecombined.Approximately95%coverageof
thetruevalueisreachedbyusing:
e eS2 eB2
WhereeSisprecisionerrorandeBisbiaserror.SimplesummationofeSandeBgivesabout99%
coverage.
If
X isthemeasurementandeisthetotalerrorfoundusingtheaboveprocedurewitha
confidenceintervalof95%,thenweknowthatthetruevalueXisfoundintheinterval
X
X e
withaprobabilityof95%.Thus,theerroreisgiveninthesamephysicalunitasthemeasurementX.
Itiscommontoquotearelativeerror,definedas:
e
er
X
12.3
DiscussionofErrorSources
Performinguncertaintyanalysisasbrieflyoutlinedabove,andasdescribedbyforinstanceColeman
andSteele(1999),mightbeverytimeconsuming,easilymoretimeconsumingthantheexperiment
itself.Inroutinetesting,oneusuallyreliesonpastexperienceofagreementbetweenmodeltest
resultsandfullscaletrials,whichgivesagoodindicationoftheinherentuncertaintyoftheend
result.Duetothedifficultiesinestimatingthebiaserrors,thisgutfeelingfortheuncertainty
mightbejustasreliableastheresultsofaformaluncertaintyanalysis.However,theformal
uncertaintyanalysiswillprovidedocumentation,anditwillgiveinformationaboutwhatarethe
mostimportantcontributionsforthetotaluncertainty,thusgivinginformationaboutwhatpartsof
Page120
theexperimentalsetupthatshouldbeimproved.Fornoveltesttypes,wherethereisno
largedatabaseofexperiencetoprovideproofthatthetestgivesvalidresults,itisindeed
recommendedtoperformanuncertaintyanalysisasanintegralpartoftheplanningandsettingup
oftheexperiment.
InadditiontoColemanandSteele,theproceedingsandRecommendedProceduresofITTCprovides
specificguidanceonhowtoperformuncertaintyanalysisofstandardshipmodeltests.Asastarting
pointwewillinthefollowingdiscusssomeofthemostimportanterrorsourcesofmodeltestingof
shipandoffshorestructures:
1. Scaleeffects
2. Incorrectmodellingofstructures(geometry,weightdistributionetc)
3. Incorrectmodellingofenvironment
4. Instrumentationandmeasurementserror
5. Errorinanalysisandinterpretationoftestsresults.
Thelasterrorsourcearenotlimitedtomodeltests,butareequallyimportantforevaluationof
numericallyobtainedresultsandforresultsfromfullscalemeasurements.
Itshouldbenotedthatexceptitem4Instrumentationandmeasurementserrorinthelistabove,
thisismostlysourcesofbiaserror.Theprecisionerrorsareeasiertoidentify,butharderto
generalise,sincetheyusuallydependontypesoftransducersanddetailsoftheexperimental
facilitiesandtestsetup.
12.3.1 Reynoldsnumberscaleeffects
Asdiscussedinchapter2thedifferentrequirementstoachievedynamicsimilarityinmodelandfull
scalecaningeneralnotbesatisfiedsimultaneously.Testingofshipsandoffshorestructuresarefor
mostpracticalsituationinfluencedbysurfacewaveeffects,eitherfromincomingwavesorwave
generatedbythemotionsofthestructure.Gravitationalforceswillgovernsurfacewaveformation.
ThisimpliesthatfortheseconditionsequalityinFroudenumberinmodelandfullscalemustbe
achieved.Froudescalingisthereforeassumedasbasisforthediscussionofscaleeffects.
ApplyingFroudescalingthedifferenceinfullscaleandmodelscaleReynoldsnumberwillbe
(assumingthesamefluidviscosity):
3
ReF
LU
F F 2
ReM LM U M
Usingascaleratioof1:50givesafactorforReynoldsnumberequaltoabout350.Thedifferencein
Reynoldsnumberisthemainsourceforscaleeffectsinmodeltestingofshipandoffshore
structures.Theimportanceofthescaleeffectsandhowtoaccountforthemwilldependonthe
actualtypeoftests.Scalingoftowingresistanceofshipsistheclassicalscalingproblemanditis
probablytheonlycaseforwhichareasonablyrationalandprovenscalingprocedureexists.The
scalingproceduresusedtodayforshipresistanceisaresultoflargeeffortsoveraverylongperiod
oftime.ThistopicisdiscussedindetailinthebasiccoursesinHydrodynamicsandwillnotbe
treatedhere.ReferenceismadetoSteen(2011).
Inthefollowingscaleeffectswillillustratedbyconsideringtwodifferentcases,thewake
distributionatpropellerpositionofashipandthedragforcesoncylindricalelements.
Page121
12.3.2 ScalingofWakedistribution
DuetothedifferencesinReynoldsnumberinmodelandfullscaletheremaybescaleeffectsonthe
wakedistribution.Differenceinwakefractionwillinfluencepropellerthrustandruddernormal
forces.Itisthereforeimportanttoaccountforthescaleeffects.Apracticalmethodtoscalethe
wakedistributionhasbeensuggestedbySasajimaandTanaka(1966).Thebasicideasofthe
methodare:
Theviscouswakefieldisobtainedbysubtractingthepotentialwake(obtainedfrom
calculationsorexperiments)fromthemeasuredtotalwake
Theviscousmodelwakeshouldbecorrectedinsuchawaythatwhengoingfrommodel
tofullscalethemomentuminthewakeshouldbereducedbythesamefractionasthe
viscousresistance.Thisisobtainedbymovingallpointsonthewakecontoursinthe
maptowardsthecentreplanebytheratiooffullscaletomodelscaleviscous
resistance
Addthefullscaleviscouswakefieldtothepotentialwake(notinfluencedbyscale
effects)toobtainthecompletefullscalewakedistribution.
AnexampleofmeasuredandscaledwakedistributionisshowninFigure12.3.(fromHuse,1974).
Figure 12.3
Original model wake distribution (left) and scaled wake distribution (right).
Page122
12.3.3 Scalingofdragforces
InFigure12.4andFigure12.5thedragcoefficientforasquaredshapedcylinderwithsharpcorners
andacircularcylinderareshownasfunctionofReynoldsnumber.ThedragcoefficientsCDisgiven
fromthedragforceaccordingto:
dFD 1 2 C D DU 2
Theresultsareforsteadyflow.Forthecylinderwithsharpcorners,Figure12.4,itisseenthatthe
dragforceisalmostindependentofRe.Thisimpliesthatforstructureswithsharpcornersthescale
effectswillbenegligibleandFroudescalingcanbedirectlyappliedwithoutcorrections.
ForthecircularcylindercaseapronouncedeffectofReisobserved.Fourdifferentflowregimesare
defined.ThedefinitionoftheseregimesisincludedinFigure12.5.(fromSarpkayaandIsaacson
(1981)).ThescaleeffectscaninprinciplebeevaluatedusingtheresultsgiveninFigure12.5by
comparingtheCDvalueformodelscaleandfullscaleRevalues.Forfullscaleconditionswewillfor
mostcasesbewithinthePostSupercriticalflowregime(Re>3*106),whichgives C D 0.7 ,see
Figure12.5.InmodelscalewewillusuallybewithintheSubcriticalflowregime,whichgives
C D 1.2 .Thisimpliesthatforthiscasetheviscousdragforcesaresignificantlyoverpredictedin
themodeltests.Thescalingerrorisobtainedastheratiobetweenthemodelscaleandfullscale
C D values.
ThedragforcewillinadditiontotheReynoldsnumber,dependonanumberofparameters,
includingsurfaceroughness,KCnumber,shapeofthestructure,orientationofstructurerelativeto
flowdirection,interactioneffectbetweendifferentmembersetc.TheRedependencywillin
generalbedifferentdependingontheactualcondition.Thisimpliesthatthesimplescalingmethod
appliedaboveforsteadyflowpastacircularcylindercanonlygivearoughestimateoftheactual
scaleeffects.Insummarynorationalprocedureexistsforaccuratescalingofdragforcesfora
generaltestcondition.
Figure 12.4
Drag coefficient for squared cylinder with sharp corners in steady flow.
Page123
Figure 12.5
Drag coefficient for circular cylinder in steady incident flow.
12.3.4 Scaleeffectsonresponses
Ingeneralscaleeffectsmaybeimportantforallcaseswhereviscousforcesgivesasignificantforce
contribution,eitheraspressuredragorasskinfrictionforces.Tomakeanevaluationofpossible
errorsourcesfromscaleeffectsitisthereforenecessarytohaveagoodunderstandingofthe
physicsoftheactualhydrodynamicproblem.
Forwavefrequencymotionsonfloatingstructurestheexcitationforcesarenormallydominatedby
massforcesandnotbydragforces.Ifthefrequencyrangeisfarfromresonancefrequencies,the
motionresponsewillnotbeinfluencedbydampingforcesandthescaleeffectswillbenegligible.
Closetoresonancefrequency,dampingisimportantandthescaleeffectsforthewavefrequency
motionscanbeimportant.
ForHighfrequencyandLowfrequencymotionsofstructureswearedealingwithalowdamped
systematresonance.Forsuchsystemsthemotionresponseswilldependonthedampingandscale
effectswilloccurifviscousforcesrepresentanimportantdampingcontribution.Thisisoftenthe
case.InANNEXCapracticalproceduretoquantifythescaleeffectsonLowFrequencymotionsofa
mooredvesselisgiven(HuseandMatsumoto,(1989)).
Page124
12.3.5 Errorsduetostructuralmodelling
Itisofpracticalreasonsnotpossibletoincludealldetailsandmechanicalpropertiesofafullscale
structureintoamodel.Simplificationshavetobemade.Errorsduetostructuralmodellingcanbe
spitintotwodifferentcategories:
1. Modellinginaccuraciesthatincludeerrorsinshape,weightdistributionetc.
2. Modellingsimplifications.
Modellinginaccuraciescanbecontrolledbycarefulcheckingofthemodelpriortotesting.Itis
commonpraxistocheckallmaindimensionsofthemodelaswellasweigh,draft,trimand
metacentricheight(byinclinationtests)beforethetestprogramisstartedandanydeviationcanbe
identified.
Itismoredifficulttoassesstheeffectofmodelsimplifications.Asanexample,themooringsystem
offloatingstructureswasintheearlystageoftestingofoffshorestructure,oftenmodelledwith
horizontal,abovewatersprings.Theideawastogetthecorrectrestoringeffect.Lateronitwas
foundthatthedynamicsofthemooringlinescouldgivealargecontributiontothelinetensionand
alsogiveanimportantcontributiontothelowfrequencydamping.Theusedsimplificationin
mooringsystemmodellingcouldthereforeintroducealargeunderestimationthemaximum
mooringlineforcesandalsooverpredicttheslowdriftmotions.
Ingeneraloneshouldalwaystrytomodelthepropertiesofthefullscalestructureascloseas
possible.Ifsimplificationsareintroduced,possibleconsequencesforthetestresultshavetobe
carefullyevaluated.
12.3.6 ErrorsduetoEnvironmentalmodelling
Modellingoftheenvironmentinmodeltestingcanrepresentanerrorsourceduetothefollowing
factors:
1. Waves(waveheightandperiod),windandcurrentmodelling
2. Physicallimitationsofthetestfacility.
Forwaves,windandcurrentthevariationinspaceandtimecanrepresentanimportanterror
source.Themostimportantphysicallimitationsofthetestfacilityarethetankwallsandthelimited
waterdepth.
12.3.6.1
Waveparametersandspectralshape
Whenpropagatingfromthewavemakerthepropertiesofthewavesmaychangedownstream.This
isinparticularaproblemforshortandsteepwavesandmostpronouncedinalongandnarrow
towingtank.Duringthewavecalibrationthewavemeasurementsshouldthereforebecarriedout
indifferentpositionsalongthetanktoverifythewavedataalongtheentiretesttrack.
Fortestinginirregularwavestheshapeofthewavespectrumisanimportanterrorsource,see
GuedesSoares(1990).Characterisationoftheusedspectrumonlybythestandardparameters,Hs,
Tpandisthereforenotsufficientanditisrequiredtoensurethatthemeasuredspectrumshapeis
inagreementwiththetheoreticalshape.Forcomparisonwithnumericalcalculationsthemeasured
spectralshapeshouldbeusedinthecalculations.
Page125
12.3.6.2
TankWallEffectsWavereflection
Themodelwillgenerateitsownwavesystem.Fortestingofstationarystructuresdiffractedwaves
andradiatedwavesduetotheship/platformmotionswillbegenerated.Thesewaveswillreachthe
tankwallandthewavegeneratorandwillbereflectedbacktothemodel.Inthiswayatransverse
wavesystemwillgraduallybedeveloped.Forshipswithforwardspeed,thestationarywavesystem
duetotheforwardspeedwillalsobereflectedfromthetankwalls.
Thetankwallinterferenceeffectscanhaveaveryimportanteffectontheexperimentalresults.In
Figure12.6resultsfrommeasurementsofverticalwaveforcesactingonafixedhemispherein
regularwavesareshown,seeZhaoet.al(1988)forfurtherdetails.Thetestwascarriedoutina
conventionaltowingtank.Theintentionwiththetestwasvalidationofanumericalcode.
Calculationswerecarriedoutbothwithandwithouttankwalleffects.Itisseenfromthefigurethat
thetankwalleffectsareveryimportant.Atsomewavefrequencies,correspondingtothe
resonancefrequenciesofthetransversewavesysteminthetank,theverticalforcedropstoavalue
thatisanorderofmagnitudelowerthanthepredictedvaluewithoutwallreflections.Includingthe
tankwalleffectinthenumericalmodelisseentogiveaverygoodagreementbetweentestsresults
andcalculations.Thisexampleclearlyillustratestheimportanceofusingequivalentconditions
whencomparingmodeltestresultsandnumericalcalculations.
Figure 12.6
Comparison between numerical and experimental results for first order vertical
wave forces on a hemisphere Effect of tank wall interference
TheresultsinFigure12.6clearlyshowthelimitationofusingconventionaltowingtanksfortesting
ofstationaryorlowspeedmodels.Ifusedforthistypeoftestinggreatcareisrequiredinthe
interpretationofthetestresults.Usingalargebasinwithwavebeachesattwosideswilllargely
reducethisproblem,butthereflectedwavesfromthewavemakerandthesidewithoutabeach
maystilltosomeextentinfluencetheresults.
12.3.7 Instrumentationandmeasuringerrors
Theaccuracyoftransducerswillbeinfluencedbytheactualmeasuringrange,linearity,possible
hysteresis,tendencyofdrift,calibrationaccuracyetc.Itisthereforeveryimportanttoensurethat
theusedinstrumentationintestsetuphavetherequiredproperties.Choiceofinstrumentationhas
Page126
tobemadebasedonagoodunderstandingofthegoverningphysicalandhydrodynamic
phenomenatobetested.
Transducersareofteninfluencedbythetemperature.Forslowvariationsintemperaturethiscan
introducedriftinthemeasuredsignal.Thiseffectcanbecontrolledbyregularlyupdating
measurementstowardsaknownvalue(oftenbasedonzeroreadings).Ifthetemperaturechanges
abruptlyitwillbemuchmoredifficulttoidentifythetemperatureeffectonthemeasurement.An
exampleismeasureofimpactpressure.Whenthepressurecellhitthewaterthetemperature
changeabruptlyduetodifferenceinairandwatertemperature.Thetemperaturechangeoccursat
thesametimeastheimpactpressureanditisverydifficulttosplitbetweenthetwocontributions.
Directuseofthemeasuredsignalcanthereforegivetotallymisleadingresultsforthiscase.
Manysensorsbasedonstraingaugesexperienceanotabledriftinthesignalshortlyafterthe
amplifierhasbeenturnedon.Thisisduetotheheatproducedbythecurrentgoingthroughthe
straingauge,whichiscausingsmallthermaldeformationsofthemetaltowhichthestraingauges
areglued.Tominimisesucherrors,azeroreadingshouldbemadesometimeafterturningonthe
amplifiers.
Carefulcalibrationproceduresareimportanttominimisemeasurementerrors.Atcommercial
modeltestinstitutionsstandardproceduresforinstrumentcalibrationisincludedasapartofthe
QualityAssurance(QA)system.
Asaroughestimatethefollowingmeasuringaccuracycanbeapplied(basedonmodelscale):
Waveprobes:
1mm
Accelerometers:
0.5%ofmeasuredvalue
Forcetransducers:
15%ofmeasuredvalue
Opticalpositionmeasurements
0.5mm
Opticalanglemeasurements
0.1deg.
Page127
13
MODELTESTSVSNUMERICALCALCULATIONS
13.1
General
InTable12.1anoverviewofthemostimportantqualitiesofphysicalmodels(whichmeansmodel
testing)andnumericalmodelsareshown.ThetableistakenfromAage(1992).
Qualities
PhysicalModels
NumericalModels
Representation
VeryGood
Limitedbyavailabletheoriesand
computerpower
Accuracy
Good
Goodwithinvaliditylimits
ScaleEffects
Yes
No
Reliability
VeryGood
Riskofhumanerrors
Credibility
VeryGood
Primafacienotgood
Flexibility
NotGood
Good
Execution
Long
Lowwithstandardprograms
Cost
High
Developmentcosthigh
Table12.1
PhysicalversusNumericalModels(fromAage(1992))
Thecommentslistedinthetablerepresentgeneralevaluationofthecapabilitiesofthetwo
differenttoolstoobtainreliableresults.Therankingwillofcoursedependontheactualcase,the
complexityoftheproblemandhowappropriatetheavailabletestfacilityandthenumericalcode
arefortheactualcase.
Themainadvantageofmodeltestsisthepossibilitytomodelverycomplicatedsituations.
Assumingarealisticmodelling,onecanbequitesurethatallimportantphysicalphenomenaare
properlycovered.Thisisinparticularlyimportantfornewconceptsorfornewapplicationsof
establisheddesignsolutions.Themainproblemswithmodeltestsarethelackofflexibilityin
changingdesigncondition,scaleeffects,andcosts.
Fromthetableitisconcludedthatmodeltestinghasanimportantroletoplayintheanalysisof
complexdesignsappliedingeneralenvironmentalconditions.
Asnumericalcalculationsevolveandbecomemoreaccurateandeasiertouse,theimportanceof
modeltestingforroutineverificationoftheperformanceofshipsandoffshorestructurebecomes
smaller.Calculationsareslowlytakingovertheroutinework,buttheneedforverificationof
numericalmethodsandthedevelopmentofnewandtechnologicallydemandingstructuresmeans
thatexperimentsandmodelbasinsarealmostasimportanttodayastheywere30yearsback.
13.2
Page128
ModeltestsforValidationofNumericalCalculations
Validationofanumericalcodemeanstocheckthatthecomputerprogramisconsistentwiththe
physicalreality.Forthispurposemodeltestsplaysanimportantrole.
Tocarryoutacomputercodevalidationusingmodeltestresultsweneedtoidentifyerrorsources
bothforthemodeltestsandforthenumericalmodel.Inprincipleanuncertaintyanalysisshouldbe
appliedtobothnumericalanalysisandexperimentalresults.Aprocedureforuncertaintyanalysis
forseakeepingcalculationsisgivenbyFaltinsenandSvendsen(1990).Theerrorsourcesinthe
numericalcalculationsareclassifiedasnumericalerrors(meaningerrorsrelativetothetheoretical
basisoftheprogram),physicalerrors(whichiserrorscausedbythetheoreticalassumptionsand
simplificationsusedasbasisforthetheory)andhumanerrors.Theeffectofeacherrorsourcemust
besystematicallyinvestigatedbynumericalcalculations.
Itisnotpossibletodefineadetailedgeneralvalidationprocedure.Thevalidationprocedurewillbe
dependentontheactualproblemtobeconsidered,thenumericalcodetobevalidatedandwhat
typeofexperimentaldatathatisavailable.Apossibleprocedureforvalidationofacomputer
programforseakeepinganalysisisoutlinedinthefollowing.
Stepsinavalidationprocedureforwaveinducedshipmotions:
1. Equalmodelloadingcondition;Ensurethatthefollowingparametersisthesameinthe
modeltestsandnumericalcalculations:
Geometry
Vesseldraftandtrim
Metacentricheight(GMTandGML)
Radiusofgyrationrxxryyandrzz
2. Equalenvironmentaldata;Examinetheenvironmentaldatausedinmodeltests.
WaveheightHandperiodTatpositionoftestingforregularwaves.For
irregularwavesHs,TPandspectralshape.
Possibledeviationinwavedataalongtesttrack.
Effectofwaterdepth?Ifyes,shallowwatertobeincludedincalculations
Testresultsinfluencedbydiffractedandreflectedwaves,includingtankwall
effects?
3. Equaltestcondition;Ensurethatthemodeltestsandcalculationsarecarriedoutfor
thesametestcasesincludingparametersas:
Forwardspeed
Waveheading
Transienteffectsinmodeltests(andalsoincalculationsiftimesimulations)
Page129
4. Naturalperiods;Comparecalculatedandmeasuredresonanceperiodsin
heave,rollandpitch.Causestopossibledeviationstobeexplained(masstermsor
restoringterms,ifdecay;dampingcontributions).
5. Influenceofdifferenceinconditionsbetweenmodeltestsandprototype;Establishby
numericalcalculationstheeffectofpossibledifferencesbetweenmodeltestconditions
andcalculationconditioncaseontheresults.
6. Influenceoferrorrangesonresults;Establishbynumericalcalculationstheeffectof
errorrangesforthedifferentparametersonthefinalresults.
7. Comparisonofwaveresults;
RegularWaves:
RAO
Phase
Addedresistance/speedreduction
Irregularwaves:
Standarddeviation
Statisticaldistribution
Extremevalues
RAOs
Addedresistance/speedreduction
(Greenwater,ImpactLoadsetc.,dependingonactualcase)
14
Page130
REFERENCES
Aage,C.(1992),RelevanceofModelTestinginIrregularSeasandCurrent,Proc.ofOMAE1992.
Bendat,J.S.andPiersol,A.G.(1966).MeasurementsandAnalysisofRandomData,JohnWiley&
Sons,Inc.
Berg,T.E.(2000),ShipManoeuvring,DepartmentofMarineHydrodynamic,NTNU.
Buchner,B,Wichers,J.E.W.anddeWilde,J.J(1999),FeaturesoftheStateoftheArtDeepwater
OffshoreBasin,OffshoreTechnologyConference,paperOTC10814,Houston,Texas
Chakrabarti,S.K(1999).ModelingLawsinOceanEngineering,inDevelopmentsinOffshore
Engineering,WavePhenomenaandOffshoreTopics,EditedbyJ.B.Herbich,GulfPublishing
Company,ISBN0884153800
Coleman,H.andSteele,W.G.(1999).ExperimentationandUncertaintyAnalysisforEngineers,
SecondEdition,WileyInterscience,ISBN0471121460
Dean,R.G.andDalrymple,R.A.(1991).WaterWaveMechanicsforEngineersandScientists,in
AdvancedSeriesonOceanEngineeringVolume2.WorldScientific,USA
Dunn,P.F.(2005),MeasurementandDataAnalysisforEngineeringandScience,McGrawHill.
ISBN0072825383
Goldstein,R.J(1983).(ed.)FluidMechanicsMeasurements,HemispherePublishingCompany,
Washington,USA
GuedesSoares,C.(1990),EffectofSpectralShapeUncertaintyintheShortTermWaveInduced
ShipResponses,AppliedOceanResearch,Vol12,pp.150159.
Hermundstad,O.A,Aarsnes,J.V.andMoan,T.(1995),HydroelasticAnalysisofaFlexible
CatamaranandComparisonwithExperiments,FAST95,Lybeck,Germany,VolI,pp487500
Huse,E.(1999).ExperimentalMethodsinMarineHydrodynamics,DepartmentofMarine
Hydrodynamic,NTNU.
Huse,E.(1974).Effectsonafterbodyformsandafterbodyfinsonthewakedistributionofsingle
screwships.,NSFIreportR31.74..
Huse,E.andMatsumoto,K.(1989).ViscousSurgeDampingofFloatingProductionVesselsMoored
atSea,8thOMAEConference,TheHague.
Huse,E.andTrum,A.(1981).NHLOceanLaboratoryDesignPhilosophy,Int.Symp.on.
HydrodynamicinOceanEngineering,Trondheim,Norway
ITTC(1996).ReportfromPropulsorCommittee,21theint.towingtankconference,Trondheim,
Norway
ITTC(1996).ReportfromManoeuvrabilityCommittee,21theint.towingtankconference,
Trondheim,Norway
Page131
ITTCSymbols&Terminology,RecommendedProceduresandQualitySystemsmanual:
http://ittc.sname.org/documents.htm
Lloyds,A.R.J.M.(1989),Seakeeping,shipbehaviourinroughweather,EllisHoreoodLimited.West
Sussex,England
Longo,J,Stern,F.(2005),UncertaintyAssessmentforTowingTankTestsWithExampleforSurface
CombatantDTMBModel5415,JournalofShipResearch,Vol.49,No.1,March2005,pp.5568
Maeda,H.(1991).Modellingtechniquesfordynamicofships,Phil.TransR.Soc.London,Vol334,
pp339355.
Naeser,H.(1981).NHLOceanBasinCapabilitiesandLimitations,Int.Symp.on.Hydrodynamic
inOceanEngineering,Trondheim,Norway
Newland,D.E.(1975).RandomVibrationsandSpectralAnalysis,Longman,London
OlsenO.A.(1992).Instrumenteringsteknikk,TapirTrondheim.
Sasajima,H.andTanaka,I.(1966),OntheEstimationofWakeofShips11thInternationalTowing
TankConferenceProceedings,Tokyo.
SNAME(1967).PrinciplesifNavalArchitecture,ThesocietyofNavalArchitectsandMarine
Engineers,NewYork.
Sarpkaya,TandIsaacson,M.(1981),MechanicsofWaveForcesonOffshoreStructures,Van
NostrandReinholdCompany.
Stansberg,C.T.,ritsland,O.andKleivan,G.,(2000),VERIDEEPReliableMethodsforLaboratory
VerificationofmooringandStationkeepinginDeepWater,OffshoreTechnologyConference,
paperOTC12087,Houston,Texas
Steen,S.,(2011),MotstandogPropulsjon.Propellogfoilteori,KompendiumUK201199i
TMR4247MarinTeknikk3.InstituttforMarinTeknikk.
Stoot,W.F.(1959)SomeAspectsofNavalArchitectureintheEighteenthCentury,Transactionof
InstitutionofNavalarchitects,101,31
Taylor,E.S.(1974).Dimensionalanalysisforengineers,ClarendonPress,Oxford
Walderhaug,H.(1983),EksperimentellMarinHydrodynamikk,DepartmentofMarine
Hydrodynamic,NTNU.
White,F.M.(2005)FluidMechanics,fifthedition,McGrawHill,ISBN0071243437
Zhao,R.Faltinsen,O.M.,Krokstad,J.andAanesland,V.(1988),WaveCurrentInteractionEffects
onLargeVolumeStructures,BOSS88,Trondheim,Norway.
15
Page132
INDEX
6DoF,35
accelerometer,36
ADconverter,30,46
ADconverter,48
range,48
resolution,48
addedmass,79
Addedresistance,73
afterbodymodel,20
amplifier,30,46
frequencyrange,52
risetime,52
analog,30
atmosphericpressure,15
autocorrelationfunction,94
BendatandPiersol,54,94
Berg,70
biaserror,115,119
blockageeffect,57
bollardpull,109
Bouchner,80
boundarylayer
turbulent,68
bridgebalancing,46,56
bridgeexcitation,46
Britishmethod,65
BuckinghamsPitheorem,8
bulkcarrier,113
calibration,29,55
calibrationcurve,55
calibrationfactor,55
capacitancetransducer,34
carriage,74
catamaran,59
cavitation,15,68
pressurepulses,68
cavitationnumber,15,18,20
cavitationtests,63
cavitationtunnel,15,16,20
centreofgravity,57
CFD,115,120
Chakrabarti,8
chargeamplifier,46
Chauvenetscriterion,119
ColemanandSteele,115
commutativeprobability,100
confidenceinterval,115
continentalmethod,65
Crashstop,111
crossspectrum,95
crosstalk,44
crosscorrelationfunction,94
current,29
currentgenerator,29
DAconverter,48
dataacquisition,30,46
decaytest,87
digital,30
dimensionlessquantities,12
Dopplershift,42
Dunn,5
dynamicsimilarity,8,9,68
dynamometer,43
elasticfluidforces,9
elasticmodel,13,34,61
Backbonemodel,61
Hingedmodel,61
elasticmodels,9
environmentcalibration,82
equivalentdampingcoefficient,89
ergodicprocess,94
error,115
Excel,117
Farstad,113
FastFourierTransform,95
fatiguelife,113
FFT,95
fieldmeasurementtechnique,43
filter,30
filters,46
bandpass,46
highpass,46
lowpass,46
flapwavemaker,23
Floatingbridge,59
floatingplatforms,79
folding,51
Froudenumber,10,68,122

Froudescaling,12,13,28,70,122
Froude,William,6
fullbridge,33
Gaussiandistribution,116
Gaussianprocess,103
GeneralAcoustics,45
geometricalsimilarity,8,14
geometry,60
globalloads,59
Globalloads,73
Goldstein,30
GPS,110
gravitationalforces,9
Greenwater,73
gyrationradius,57
gyro,35
Gyrocompass,110
halfbridge,33
HEMOS,113
Hermunstad,62
Highspeedcraft,111
homogeneousprocess,94
Hottinger,48
hullmonitoringsystem,113
hullvibrations,68
Huse,5
hydrodynamicdamping,79
hydroelastic,60
hydroelasticproblems,13
hydroelasticity,13
icetank,18
IMO,105
HighSpeedCraftcode,105
impactloads,39,52,80
inductivetransducer,33
inertiaforces,9,57
ISO,109
ITTC,42,71,109,115,119,122
JONSWAP,26
KeuleganCarpenternumber,12
kinematicsimilarity,8
kinematicviscosity,10
Kurtosis,103
LaserDopplerVelocimetry,42
LDV,40,42
seeding,42
Page133
Lengthofrecord,54
LeonardodaVinci,6
logarithmicdecrement,89
lowfrequencymotions,80
Machsnumber,10
Maeda,60
manoeuvring,69
manoeuvringtests,63
Marin,29
MarineCyberneticLaboratory,23
mass,57
distribution,57
MCLab,29
measurementbridge,32
metacentricheight,59
momentofinertia,57
monohull,59
mooringline,34
mooringlines,13
Mooringlines,59
mooringsystem,60
multidirectionalwaves,26
Newland,26
noise,68
normaldistribution,116
NPDspectrum,29
Numberofsamples,54
Nyquistfrequency,51
oceanbasin,16
oceanlaboratory,22
offshorestructures,79
Olsen,30
operationallimits,79
opticalsystem,34
ParticleImageVelocimetry,43
Peerlesspool,5
pendulumtest,58
phaseangle,91
piezoelectric,37
pitottube,40
PIV,43
seeding,43
PlanarmotionMechanism,70
PlanarMotionMechanism,70
PMM,70
positionmeasurement,34

potentiometer,35
powerspectrum,95
Prandtlpitottube,40
precisionerror,115
precisionlimit,117
Pressurecell,38
pressureforces,9
Pressuremeasurements,37
PressureProfileSystems,39
pressuresensingfilm,39
pressuresensitivepaint,40
pressuretransducers,37
PriceandBishop,94
probabilitydistribution,100
propeller
diameter,68
speedofadvance,68
thrust,43
torque,43
propellerdynamometer,64
propulsiontest,63
PSP,40
RAO,79,90,95
Rayleighdistribution,100
regularwave,90
replicationlevel,116
resistancedynamometer,63
resistancemeasurement,63
ResponseAmplitudeOperator,95
Reynoldsnumber,10,68,122
riser,34
risers,13,59
RollsRoyce,113
Rotatingarmtests,70
rudder,69
samplingfrequency,46,48,50
SamuelFortey,6
sandstrip,64
SarpkayaandIsaacson,124
Sasajima,123
scaleeffects,122,125
scalingratios,12
seatrials,106
Seatrials,105
seakeeping,73
seakeepingtest,18
Page134
seismiccables,59
servoneedlewaveprobe,46
Shipmonitoringsystem,112
Shipmotions,73
signaltonoiseratio,49
Significantvalue,96
similarity
dynamic,8,9
geometrical,8
kinematic,8
Sixdegreesoffreedom,34
Skewness,103
slamming,39,73
Slowdriftmotion,80
slowdriftmotions,29,53
spectralanalysis,95
speedlog,113
speedtrials,106
springing,13,59
standarddeviation,116
Standarddeviation,96
Stansberg,80
stationaryprocess,93
Steen,S.,63,67,122
stochasticprocess,93
stoppingtest,110
straingauge,31,33
Strouhalnumber,12
Studentstdistribution,117
studs,64
surfaceforces,9
Swedenborg,Emanuel,6
Tanaka,123
tare,56
Tekscan,39
temperaturedrift,56
TensionLegPlatforms,59,80
testduration,53
towingcarriage,18
towingtank,16
towingtest,63
transducer,30,31
resonancefrequency,52
transducerdrift,56
transferfunction,25
TrialLeader,106

trimpost,64
turbulencestimulator,64
turningcircle,110
UltraLab,45
ultrasoundwaveprobe,45
uncertainty,115
uncertaintyanalysis,115
vacuumtank,18
validation,130
vapourpressure,15
variance,96
velocitymeasurement,40
nonintrusive,43
ultrasonic,40
videobasedsystems,34
viscousforces,9
voluntaryspeedreduction,73
wakefraction,123
Walderhaug,5
wave
amplitude,91
frequency,91
waveabsorption,27
Page135
wavebeach,18,27
wavedriftforces,29
waveelevation,44
Wavefrequency,79
wavefrequencyphenomena,53
wavemaker,18,23
waveprobe,44
wavereflection,27
wavespectrum,25
Webernumber,68
Webersnumber,11
Weibulldistribution,102
Wheatstonebridge,31,33
whipping,13,59,73
White,8
Windgeneration,28
Youngsmodulus,14
zerocrossingperiod,97
zerolevel,56
Zeroing,56
Zhao,127
zigzag,110
Page136
ANNEXA
EXAMPLEOFREPORTINGFROMMODELTEST
Thecontentofamodeltestreportwilldependonthetypeoftesting,theextentofthetestsand
requirementstoreportingformtheclient.Atypicallayoutofthemodeltestreportmaybeas
follows:
Summary
Summaryofthetestresultsandthemainconclusionfromthemodeltest.
Introduction
Generalinfoabouttheproject
Objectivesofthetest
DescriptionofTestSetUp
Modelscale
TestFacilities
Testarrangement
Modeldescription;maindimensions,loadingconditionsetc.
Modelcalibrationandverification
MeasurementsandDataAcquisition
Descriptionofusedinstrumentation(typeoftransducers).Positionoftransducersonmodelor
inbasinetc.
Notionandsignconventions
Coordinatesystemappliedforthemeasurements
Dataacquisition,filtering
Measuringaccuracy
Controlandcheckroutines
EnvironmentalConditions(onlyrelevantfortestinginwaves)
Wave,windandcurrentdatausedinthetests(whenrelevant)
Calibrationofenvironmentalconditions
Page137
TestProgramme
Detaileddescriptionofthetestprogramforeachtypeoftest(statictests,decaytests,regular
wavetestsorirregularwavetests)withnumberingoftests.Allrelevantinputparameterstobe
specified(i.ewave,windandcurrentcondition,speed,loadingconditionetc.)
DataAnalysis
Scalingofresultsfrommodeltofullscale
Filteringappliedduringthemeasurementsandanalysis
Analysiscarriedoutandmethoddescriptionfordifferenttypeoftests(statictest,decaytests,
wavetestsetc.)
PresentationanddiscussionofResults
Presentationofmainresults(DetailedresultsusuallyinAppendixes)
Interpretationonevaluationofresultsformainparameters.
Evaluationofscaleeffects
APPENDIXES
Willtypicallyincludemoredetailedinformationfromtheteststhanwhatisgiveninthemain
report.Exampleswillbe:
Detaileddescriptionofcalibrationproceduresandresults
Wavecalibrationtests
Descriptionofanalysismethods
MeasuredTimeseries
Detailedresultsfromanalysis(filtering,spectralandstatisticalanalysis)
Page138
ANNEXB
EXAMPLEOFMODELTESTSPECIFICATION
Introduction
Modeltestswithaturretmooredtankershallbecarriedout.ThetankermodelisastandardNorth
Seashuttletanker.
Thetestsshallcoverenvironmentalconditionscorrespondingtotypicaloperationalconditionsas
wellasdesignconditionbasedonthe100yearsreturnperiodstorm.
ThemodeltestwillbeperformedatMarintek,Trondheim.
Objectives
Themainpurposeofthemodeltestswillbeverificationofthepresentdesign.Themotionsand
seakeepingperformanceofthetankeraswellasthemooringloadsaredeterminedforboth
operatingandextremeenvironmentalconditions.Theresultswillalsoserveasinputtocalibration
andverificationofthetheoreticalandnumericaldesignanalyses.
The objectives of the model tests with the moored tanker can be summarized as follows:
Toverifynumericalpredictionsofsystemglobalresponses,maximumoffsetsandmooring
linetensions;
Toverifynumericalpredictionsofthevertical,horizontalandmomentloadstransferred
fromtheTurretsystemtothetanker.
Tomeasureandestimatethegreenwatereffectsandpossiblebottomslammingloads
Toestablishthemaximumrollandpitchmotions
Toquantifythedampingofthelowfrequencymotion;
Forcesinthemooringsystem
Toidentifythemostcriticalcombinationofmetoceanloadsandvalidatethedesignofthe
mooringsystem;
Toinvestigateanypotentialinterferenceproblemsbetweentankermooringsystemand
flexibleriser;
Page139
Modeldescription
Themodelsshallbeconstructedtoalinearscaleof1:50.
Thewaterdepthisxxxm.
Thetotaltestsetupincludethefollowingcomponents:
Tanker
Turret
MooringSystem
RiserSystem
TankerDescription
Maindataforthetanker:
Parameter
LengthbetweenPerpendiculars,LPP
Lengthoverall,LOA
DraftatF,dFP
DraftatAP,dAP
BreadthMoulded,B
TransverseWindArea
LongitudinalWindArea
Freeboard,maindeckfMD
FreeboardatBow,fBOW
FreeboardatTrunkdeck,fTD
Displacement
RollRadiusofGyrationrxx
PitchRadiusofgyrationryy
YawRadiusofgyrationrzz
Transversemetacentricheight,GMt
Table1
MainParticularsofTanker.
Loaded
Ballast
Boththeloadedandballastconditionshallbeused(seealsoTable1):
The tanker model shall be constructed in accordance with the Yard drawings. The main dimensions,
mass and inertia properties of the tanker shall be accurately modeled. The tanker model shall match
the prototypes characteristics including the superstructure.
Themodelwillbefittedwithequipmentformeasuringbendingmomentsandshearforces,attwo
stationsofthetanker,atmidshippositionandaftoftheTurret.Bendingmomentsshallbe
measuredrelativetothepitch,rollandyawaxesofeachstationandshearforcemeasurementsshall
includebothhorizontalandverticalcomponents.Theinstrumentationshallbedesignedsoasnotto
distortthemodelsglobalresponses.
Page140
TurretModel
The turret model will be constructed to scale in accordance with the turret design and the line
attachment positions will be according to design drawings. The position of the turret will be at
position xxx* Lpp from FP.
The loads shall be measured in 5 degrees of freedom; forces in x-, y- and z-direction and moment
about x- and y-axis. Hence the turret will be free to rotate about the vertical z-axis.
MooringSystem
Themooringsystemconsistof8evenlydistributedmooringlines(i.e.45betweeneachline).
Mooringline1shallbedirectedtowardslargewavemaker.
Eachoftheeightmooringlineshasthefollowingcomposition:
Segmenttype
Length
(fromanchor)
Chain
WireRope
Chain
WireRope
Nominal
diameter
Mm
Axialstiffness
EA
kN
Weightinair
kN/m
Submerged
weight
kN/m
Linepretension
xxxkN(fairleadatdepth15m)
Horisontaldistancebetweenanchorandfairlead
xxxxm
Waterdepth
xxxm
All mooring lines shall be physically modeled in terms of mass, submerged weight and total leg
elasticity.
RiserSystem
TherisersystemconsistsofoneoffxxflexibleriserinSteepWaveconfiguration
Thefollowingparametersdescribetheconfiguration:
Horizontaldistancebetweentopandbottomendconnection :
xxm
Lengthofbarerisersectionbelowbuoyancysection
xxm
Lengthofbuoyancysection
Lengthofbarerisersectionabovebuoyancysection
xxm
Netsubmergedweightofbaresection
xxxkN/m
Netbuoyancyofbuoyancysection
xxxkN/m
Outerdiameterofbareriser
xxxm
xxm
Page141
The riser configuration will be modeled geometrical correct from the turret table to the sea
bottom with the above weight distribution.
TestProgram
StillWaterTests
Thefollowingstillwatertestsshallbeperformed:
(a) Staticoffsetteststoverifystiffnesscharacteristicsofthemooringsystem.
(b) Extinctionteststomeasurethelowfrequencysurgedampingandnaturalperiod.
(c) Pitch,heaveandrollnaturalperiodsforallloadingconditions.
(d) Currentloadtesttoverifyloadsappliedbyspecifiedcurrentvelocity.
(e) Windloadteststesttoverifyloadsappliedbyspecifiedwindvelocity.
IrregularWaveTest
In Table 2 tentative test program for the irregular wave are specified. The following notations are
used:
HS :
Significant wave height
TP :
Spectral Peak period
Wave Spectrum Peaked-ness parameter
WAVE : Wave heading relative current

UW :
Wind speed, 1 hour mean, at 10 m above sea level
Wind : Wind heading relative current

UC :
Current speed
Thewindandwaveheadinggiveninthetablerepresenttheheadingrelativetocurrentdirection.
(fixedinthelaboratory).ThewindspectrumistobetakenastheNPDspectrum.
Intact mooring system is assumed except for one test condition where the most loaded line shall be
broken.
For offloading conditions, sufficient combinations of directions of wind, current and wave direction
shall be investigated to ensure the critical cases are found.
Page142
Test
No
Waves
HS
Table2
TP
Wind
WAVE
WAVE
UW
Testdefinition,irregularwavetests.
Current
UC
Loading
Condition
Instrumentationanddataacquisition
Instrumentation
Theinstrumentationandmeasurementsduringthetestsshallasaminimuminclude:
Waveelevationat.
Currentvelocityprofile
Referencewindvelocity
Relativewaveelevationat...
Deckwetness(greenwater)atthe..
Sixdegreeoffreedommotionsoftanker.
Page143
Verticalaccelerationat.
Globalbendingmomentsandshearforcesintwotransversecuts
Tensioninmooringlinesandriser.
Dataacquisition
DatashallbesampledatminimummodelscalerateofxxxHzfortheirregularwavetests.Forthe
measurementofpressureandimpactforcesasamplingrateofxxxHzshallbeappliedfortests
usingthedesignseastates.
Thedatarecordingdurationinirregularwavesshallbelongenoughtoachievesufficientlysmall
bandwidthinthespectralanalysis.Thetestdurationshallnotbelessthan3hoursprototypetime.
Asufficientlapseoftimeshallbeallowedbetweenteststoavoidanydistortionofthenew
generatedenvironmentbytheprevioustest.
Analysis
Allcalculationsofspectralanalysisandmooringlinetensiontransferfunctionsshallbedocumented
withbandwidth,recordlength,samplingestimates.Alldataanalysisshallbeprovidedinboth
tabularandplotformat.Statisticalandspectralanalysisshallbecarriedoutonallchannels.
Statisticalanalysisshallincludemean,standarddeviation,zerocrossingperiods,andminimumand
maximumvalues.Allresultsshallbepresentedinprototypescale.
Requiredtestaccuracy
1) Mooringsystem
Extinctionteststocalibratestiffnessandnaturalperiodsofthemooredsystem.Themeasured
stiffnessandnaturalperiodsshallbewithinx%.
2) CurrentandWindGeneration
The current velocity profile over the top x % of the water depth shall be modeled in still water.
Wind simulation will be performed by fans. The speed of fans shall be adjusted so that the mean
value of analytical or measured data obtained from wind tunnel test is matched for the various
tested wind headings.
3) WaveGeneration
Acceptable tolerances on the values of significant wave height (Hs), and spectral period (Tp),
shall be x %. Wave envelope spectral shall be provided to verify the absence of unrealistic
wave reflection in the basin.
Page144
TestDocumentation
Thefinalreportshallcontain,asaminimum:
Detaileddescriptionoftestsetupsandprogram;
Descriptionofmodels;
Descriptionofwind,waves,andcurrentmodeling;
Resultsofstaticdeflection,extinctionandcurrenttests;
Zerocrossingstatisticsofallchannels;
Responseamplitudeoperatorplotsofallrelevantchannels(includingphaseangles);
Weibullextremevalueplotsofallchannels;
Mean,standarddeviation,minimumandmaximumvaluesofallchannels;
Selectedtimehistoriesofrepresentativeportionsofeachtest;
Firstandsecondorderwavesspectracomparingmeasuredandtheoretical;
Highandlowfrequencynumericalfilteringofmainloadsandmotions.
StillPhotographyandVideo
Stillphotographsshallbeprovidedtankermodel,themooringlegsandforcetransducers,thetank
setupsincludingwaveprobes,andthewindandcurrentmeasurementpositions.
Videorecordingofallwavetestsbythefollowingcameras:
Abovewatercamera(roofandside)
Twounderwatercameratoobservethemooringlinesandriserresponse
Page145
Page146
ANNEXC
VISCOUSSURGEDAMPINGOFFLOATINGPRODUCTION
VESSELMOOREDATSEA
Huse,E.andMatsumoto,K.8thOMAEConference,1989,TheHague.
Annex C
Annex D

!"# %$ '&%()) "*+)

,.-0/!132547698
:<;>=?; 2A@CB"DFE0G9D?DIH
J KML!NFOAPNRQ>LSQ>OANRQ7OTPUN
XV WZYS[]\_^`bac[]deY5fgfh`bf.[]di[bjlknmg\_m7\omqpg`srt\lutYv[xwzyi[bdtph\{p|[}ph\lutY^~Y5[bmgyZfhY`]aRWi`}fhYAj_\o[]Zj_Yv[x^~Y3[bmgyZfgY3`bf.5[]joTyZjo[}phY5u}[bjlyZY
\omAxv`bfh^[]j_jlkphWZ\_mS\omSZfgY3mY5dzpgY5C[bmS[<A`bdn9nYAdiAY\_dzpgY5fgu}[]jYb r<ztsVXWZ\omS^~Y5[]dImphWi[}ppgWiYifg`ti[]Z\_j_\{pkpgWI[}pSpgWZY
phfgyZYu}[]j_yZY\omSU\{phWZ\_dpgWiYrt\lutYAd\_dzpgYAfhu}[]jF\_mi znSdpgWZYa`tjlj_`}U\ldirpgWZY`bf|YAfhfg`tfvU\_jlj>9YyImY3pg`nY5mhTfh\_IYspgWZY
n\omph[]dITYx9YTpYAY5d[^~Y5[tmyZfhY5`tf5[]joTyZjo[}phY5u}[]j_yZY[bdipgWiYxpgfhyZYt9iynpyZdizdi`}UdRIu}[bjlyZYtvVXWZY.`tfhyZdiAYAfgph[b\ldzpk
^[ke 9Y!yimgY5a`bfXpgWiYxmp|[}pg\ompg\oA[]jcY5mpg\_^~[]pgY`]aFpgWiYxmg[b^YSphWZ\ldiri
j_j7[]di[bjlknmg\_mWZYAfhYxfhYTaYAf|mUph`<mgÀ[bjlj_Y5ph\l^~YU\_mgYsYA"9YAfh\_^Y5dzphm5I\ YtUpgWiYs^~Y5[tmyZfhY5wzyi[bdzpg\lpk<\omv^~Y3[bmgyZfgY3[}pS[
mg\ldirbj_Y0jl`n5[}pg\_`bd![]pn\l9Y5fgY5dtpcpg\_^Y3mA>VXWZYq[bj{phYAfhdi[}ph\lutYbmg[b^~ZjlYAph`]mg[b^~ZjlY>YA"9YAfh\_^Y5dzphm53\_d!UWZ\o|WpgWZYwzyi[]dzpg\lpkSu[bfg\_Y5m
\_dCmgi[bAYsZyZpdi`]p\ldpg\_^Y~^[k\ldC^[]fh\ldZY~[]iZjl\oA[]pg\_`bdim9YsphWZY~\ldzpgY5fgY3mph\ldirea`bf![bZZj_\_5[}pg\_`bdIm[tmphWZYAfh^~`"ZkzdI[]^~\_
Zfh`b9YAfgpg\_Y5mS`ba.X[}pgY5f![]diC^[}pgY5fg\o[]j7ifg`tIY5fph\lY3m`ba.^[}phYAfh\_[bj~Z`tfSpgWZY~ph`}U\ldZr<ph[bdZYA"9YAfh\_^Y5dzphm!T`tdimg\_nY5fgY3WZY5fgY
mgyi|Wu[bfg\o[}ph\l`tdimX[]fhYdZ`]pvA`bdimg\_ZYAfhY5
7g )>9SvZ"q7vn7n7RZZ0
VX`xpk"9Y5mX`]aYAfhfg`tfhm.[]fhYSA`bdimg\_ZYAfhY5\_dphWZY[]di[bjlknmg\_m5XAx[bdi~?g|To}YAfhfg`tfhm5VXWZY!n\l?YAfhYAdiAY\om\lj_jlyImphfh[]pgY5\ld
irtyZfhYp|[]tYAdafg`t^.`tjlY5^~[bd[]dizphYAYAj_Y5bttT0VXWZY!irtyZfgY![bj_mg`\lj_j_yimphfh[]pgYphWZY]]>YAfhfg`tfX[tmXpgWiYxmyZ^`]a>Z\o[bm
[bdieZfhY5A\_mg\_`bdeY5fgfh`bf|mA ^~[b\ld[bmhmyi^Zpg\_`bd\_dephWZ\omU[]di[bjlknmg\_m.\_m.phWi[}pU\la[]d<\ldnIdZ\{phYdzyi^s9YAfX`]ac^~Y3[bmgyZfgY5^~YAdzphmYAfhY
p|[]bY5dphWZYxZfhY5A\_mg\_`bdYAfhfg`tf`byij_<a`bj_j_`}
[e[]yImgmg\_[bdZ\_mpgfh\liynpg\_`bdR.VXWZYxZ\o[bmXY5fgfh`bfX`byZjo<pgWZY5dIYphWZYsn\l9Y5fgY5diTY
9YTpYAY5d~pgWZY^~Y3[]d~`]a?pgWi\_m.n\_mpgfh\_Zynpg\_`bd[bdipgWZYpgfhyZYu}[]j_yZYb>VXWZYUphfg`tyZZj_YUU\{phW~pgWZY3mYnYTidi\{ph\l`tdim0\om7`]aRA`byZf|mYphWi[}p
phWZYpgfhyZYu}[]j_yZY!\_mXyidZ"dZ`}UdRimg`\_dZf|[bph\_AY![[bj{phYAfhdi[}ph\lutY!nYTidi\{ph\l`td\omXdZY5Y5nY3
V`n`~pgWi\_mpgWZYsA`bdiAYAnp`]a>fgY5Zjl\oA[]pg\_`bdj_YAubY5jc\omU\_dtphfg`nnyITY5R.WZY5dfgY5IY3[}ph\ldZre[bdYTn9YAfh\l^~YAdzpUphWZYxfhYAZj_\_5[}ph\l`td
j_YAutYAj0nY3mgAfg\_IY3mUWi[}p!YAn[tphjlk\omfhYA9Y5[}phY5cWZYAfhY~\ldpgfhYAY~j_YAutYAjomA p!pgWiY5YAfh`]phWC`tfhnY5ffgY5Zjl\oA[]pg\_`bdCpgWZY^~Y3[bmgyZfgY3
wzyi[bdtph\{pk\_m.[bmhmyi^Y3[]img`bj_ynphYAj_kT`tdimph[]dzp0\_d~pg\_^~Ybnm`phWi[}p.`bdZj_ku}[bfg\o[}ph\l`tdim>\ldiWZYAfhYAdzpq\_d~pgWZY^~Y5[bmgyZfhYA^~YAdzpqmgknmphYA^
\lp>mgYAj_ubY3mA`bdzpgfh\_ZynpgY3mRph`vphWZYYAfhfg`tf5ci`bfFYTZ[]^~Zj_Yb]5[]j_\lifh[]pg\_`bdx`baZjl`z[bsAYAj_j_m9YTa`bfhY^`tyZdzpg\_dZrv\lp7\ldspgWZYYTn9YAfh\l^~Y5dtp|[]j
mgYTphyZmgWZ`tyZj_rb\_ubYAYAfh`]phW`tfhnY5ffhYAijl\oA[]pg\_`bdRxdpgWZ\om!A[tmYpgWiYphfgyiYu}[]j_yZY\_m"dZ`}Udc?mg`Z\_[tm[]diZfgY3T\om\_`bdA[bd
9YY3mph\l^[]pgY5e\ldpgWZYdZ`bfh^[]j?mY5dimYt pif|mpg`tfhZYAf0fhYAZj_\oA[}ph\l`tdej_YAubY5jZphWZY\_dimpgfhyZ^~YAdzph[]pg\_`bd[bdiemgYTphyZ\om0i"Y3"Zynp
phWZY~pg\_^~Y\_mfhyZdZdZ\_dZrI~VXWi\_m!A`bfhfgY3m9`bdiimvph`fgY5IY3[}pg\_dZrpgWiYYTnIY5fg\_^~YAdzp!bY5YAZ\_dZr<pgWZY\_dimpgfhyZ^~YAdzph[]pg\_`bdT`bdImp|[]dzp5
UY5IY3[}phY5CfgyZdIm\_d)[eph`}ph[bdZ\om![rt`"`"YTZ[]^~Zj_Yb~x pgWj_YAubY5j7fgY5Zj_\_5[}pg\_`bdC\ldITj_yinY5m![bjlj>`bpgWZY5fS9`tmhmg\lZj_Y|Wi[]dirbY5m
UWZY5d~fgY5IY3[}pg\_dZrphWZYUYTn9YAfh\l^~YAdzp3]a`bfh^|WI[]dZrt\ldZr[ZfhY5mhmyifgYUTY5jlj]ph`!IY5fa`tfg^~\_dZr![!m\_^~\ljo[]f7YAnIY5fg\_^~YAdzp0\lde[bdZ`]phWZYAf
jo[]9`bf|[}ph`bfhkbzU\{phWZ\{?YAfhYAdzp9YAf|m`tdZdZYAj
"\_diTYSphWZYZ\_[tmYAfhfg`tf.\_dephWZYAYAfh`]phWj_YAutYAj?fgY5Zj_\_5[}pg\_`bd<yimgyi[]j_jlke5[]d<IY![b5T`tyZdzpgY5a`bfX\ld<pgWiY5[]j_\lifh[]pg\_`bde^~`nnYAj
[^~`bfhYXZf|[bph\_5[]jZn\ompg\_diph\l`tdIYAp.Y5YAd~ZfhY5T\omg\l`td[bdiZ\_[tm>YAfhfg`tf7\_mq[bmFa`bj_j_`}mAFVXWZYZfhY5A\_mg\l`tdY5fgfh`bf>\om7rb\_ubY5d"kspgWZY
u}[]fh\o[}pg\_`bd`]a0if|mpS`tfhnY5ffhYAijl\oA[]pg\_`bdUWZ\_j_YZ\o[bmSY5fgfh`bf\_mS\_diTj_yinY3C[]ps phWC`tfhnY5ffhYAijl\oA[]pg\_`bdR!VXWZ\omS\l^~^~Y5n\o[}phYAj_k
fhYAutY5[]jpgWiY^[b\ldZfh`bZj_YA^`baqYAu}[]j_yi[]pg\_dZrphWZY~Z\o[bmYAfhfh`bf3I\lpsA[bd\_dCZf|[bTpg\oTYdZ`]p9Y^~Y3[bmgyZfgY3.mph\l^[]pgY5m^syImp
9Yi[bmgY5C`bdYTn9YAfh\lY5diTYe[bdiC^`tfgY~`tf!jlY3mgmY3nyiA[]pgY3CrtyZY5mhmgY5m5dpgWiY`]pgWiYAf!Wi[bdiphWZYeZfhY5A\_mg\_`bdY5fgfh`bf!5[]dIY
Y3mph\l^[}phY5<pg`[fhY5[bmg`bdI[]Zj_YSZYArbfhYAYS"kfhYA9Y5[]pg\_dZrpgWZY!YA"9YAfh\_^Y5dzp5
7 X>S!0FZq7v?.USvcv?gqnRZF7
apgWZY^~Y5[tmyZfhYA^~Y5dtpX\omXfgY5IY3[}pgY3[bd<\_dnidZ\lpgYd"yZÎY5fU`]acph\l^~Y3mA"phWZY^~[b\ld[bmhmgyZ^~npg\_`bd<WZYAfhY\_m.pgWI[}pXpgWZY!^~Y3[bmgyZfgY3
u}[]j_yZYxU\_j_j9YxdZ`tfg^[]ji`tf[]yImgmg\_[bdRIZ\_mpgfh\liynpgY3[]fh`byZdI[e^Y3[]dRVXWi\_mUZ]gTI}oAn}\_m|Wi[]f|[bTpgY5fg\_AY3"k
phWZY!^~Y5[]d[]dipgWZYxmph[bdiZ[bfhnYAu"\o[}ph\l`td>i[bdiYTnZfhY5mhmY3e"k
C0 c } Y}b T l
3
WZY5fgY Cn\ompgWiY!Zfg`ti[]i\lj_\{pk~phWi[}pv[~mg\ldirbj_YS^~Y3[bmgyZfgY5^~YAdzpU'U\_jljcjl\_YIYAp.Y5YAd[bdi<Sn>VXWZY!^~Y5[tmyZfhYT
^~YAdzpX\_m`baT`tyZfhmgYvdiYAubY5f.fhYA9Y5[]pgY3e[]d<\ldnIdZ\{phYdzyi^s9YAfX`]aph\l^~Y5m50VXWZYmp|[}ph\_mpg\ovifg`tIY5fph\lY3mq`bac\ldzphYAfhY5mp\om0phWZYAfhYTa`tfgY
F\_rbyZfhYtg}| Z~|ngTI!!
}}bAl > blsg|b] .~qg|b} }. 0I I~|A
g|b} } Rg! #"0}l })}9%
$I|Tl' &()+*,)
i[tmY3`bd<[A!v9lXZ|9nl]]pgWi[]pXA`bdimg\omp`]ac[!IdZ\{phYd"yZÎY5f.`bamh[]^~Zj_Y5mqZfh[Udafh`b^phWZYI[]fhYAdzp.n\omphfg\_Zynph\l`tdR
i`bfXpgWiYxmg[bîjlY9`bZyZjo[}ph\l`tdphWZY!^~Y5[bd\omXrb\_ubY5d<"k
- / . 0
b
02143
UWZY5fg5Y -\_mFd"yZ^s9YAf7`baImh[]^~Zj_Y5mU^~Y3[bmgyZfgY5^~YAdzphm|R 0 7VXWZYZfgY3T\om\_`bd\ldInYT]`tf>mph[bdiZ[bfhnYAu"\o[}pg\_`bdc}`]aiphWZYUmg[b^~ZjlY
9`bZyij_[]pg\_`bd\_mZYTidZY3zk
.
687 ; 9:: / 0 < >
?t
-=<
02143
`bfh"\ldZrU\lpgW[mh[]^~Zj_Yx9`bZyij_[]pg\_`bdRnphWZYs^~Y3[]d\ldY3wzyi[}ph\l`tdbXU\_j_jnY5IY5di`bdphWZYsmgYTpv`ba7mh[]^~Zj_Y5mUph[]tYAdafh`b^
phWZY~i[]fhYAdzp!I`tZyZjo[}ph\l`tdRVXW"yimSphWZY~^~Y5[]d\lpsmY5jlutY5mS\_mdi`bfh^~[bjlj_kn\omphfg\_ZynphY5U\{phW^Y3[]dC^Y3[]d`]a.pgWZY~i[bfgY5dtp
n\ompgfh\lZyZpg\_`bdIX[bdi<mph[bdiZ[bfhnYAu"\o[}ph\l`td @fgY5k"mgA\_r5btt
6 7 6A7
C Bz
Z`tfXpgWZY!I[]fhYAdzpn\_mpgfh\_Zynpg\_`bdphWZYxT`tdnInY5diTY\_dtphYAfhu}[]j`]a7[~mg[b^~ZjlY\omUrb\_ubY5d"k
DE!FG} 0 <IHK
JI J 0 L HR0N M
b
UWZY5fgOY HP%+ Q + Ra`bf[di`bfh^~[bjcn\omphfg\_Zynph\l`td[]diT`tdnInY5diTY!j_YAutYAAj MS Q znn\ YphWZYszt A`bdnIZYAdiAY!\ldzpgY5fgu}[bjqi`bf
phWZYmh[]^~Zj_Yv9`bZyij_[]pg\_`bdRzpgWiYmph[]dIZ[]f|nYAu"\o[}ph\l`tde\_m.yZdZ"dZ`}Ud~phW"yim.pgWZYu[bjlyiYv`]8a H7\om.dZ`]prb\_ubYAdc>.wzyi[}ph\l`tdbqA[bd
9Y!fgY5Ufg\lpphYAd
0 < J HNM
Rt
6 7
UWZY5fgYspgWZYu}[]fh\_[bZj_Y
\_mfh[bdin`t^[bdia`tjlj_`}m[zpgyInYAdzp5 m Hvn\omphfg\_Zynph\l`tdRU\lpgWK- <nY5rbfhYAY5mv`]a0afhYAY3n`b^
VXWZY!u}[bjlyZY`ba H.^~[kIYa`tyZdi<afg`t^ C@fhYAknmgA\_r<3btt
H0 3 . MR
]
UWZY5fgY 3 \_mFphWZYU\_dzutYAf|mY.`]a9pgWZYUAyZ^syZjo[}ph\lutYUnYAdimg\lpk!ayZdiTpg\_`bda`bf>pgWiY Hn\omphfg\_Zynph\l`tdRb[brt[]\_dsU\lpgW%- <UnY5rbfhYAY5m
`baFafhYAY3n`b^XF\lrtyZfgYsrt\lutY5mUu}[bjlyZY3m`ba Ha`bfStz []dItzMT`bdZInYAdITYx\_dzpgYAfhu}[]jomAXZ`tf - ?tpgWZYxu}[bjlyZYOHX
\_m
[tATY5nph[bZj_Y~dzpgYAfhdi[]pg\_`bdi[bj?V`}U\_dZrV[bdZ.`bdZaYAfhYAdiAY3btt>VXWZY!ZfhY5A\_mg\_`bdjl\_^~\{pUa`tf[mh[]^~Zj_Y\_mUpgWZY5d
D 7 H 6A7
t
[bdiea`tfXpgWZY!^~Y3[]d`]a -'fhYA9YTph\{ph\l`tdim
6A7
D7 H
t
DE!FGH J
3.5
12
/ .0 2.5
30
10!"$#%&15'(*)+%, 1 20. 3 25
F\_rbyZfhYn54 ZqA n8H4T]ST } |}.tT?hS IA }} 76 )98;: |} bA9|=<?>?>%)+)!:
CBbos|}hi}9}x')98DM: |}.tT?h T}se9]~]F}oTn} E(+ )GF
0
|} bA9|A@Xg] 9}
7 IH JLKv7UqcvM?inRiqON|0ZQPzc9ZgSRqUZRi
TS[}p|[<mh[]^~Zj_Y5mvpgWi[]p[bZ9Y5[]f|mSm\_rbdZ\lI5[]dzpgj_k`bynpS`]aqj_\ldiYU\lpgWCpgWZY^[VU`tfg\lpk`]aqmh[]^~Zj_Y5m[]fhYsA[bjlj_Y5 7 lI`t\ldzphm5?`bf
]nA|>aIphWZYfhY5[bmg`bda`bf.myi|Wn\omhTfhYAi[bdiTkx\om7`tzu"\_`byim7[bdiubY5fg\lI[]ijlYtbmyI|W9`b\_dzphm05[]d~9Yvn\omfhYArz[]f|nY5cdeA[bmgY5m
UWZY5fgYpgWiYfhY5[tm`td\_mWI[]f|nYAfpg`YTnZjo[]\_dRR[]d[b5TYAZph[]ijlY~Tfh\{phYAfh\l`tda`bffhY UY3pg\_`bdC`]a.[mh[]^~Zj_Y\ompgWZY.Wi[byZubY5dZYTp3 m
Afg\lpgY5fg3 \_`bdR>VXWZ\omUmp|[}phY5m.pgWi[]pmg[bîjlY3mXU\{phWZ\ld[i[]di[]fh`byidiphWZY^Y3[]d<U\{phWifg`ti[]Z\_j_\{pk~`]aFYTZTY5Y5nY5diTYSj_Y5mhmqphWi[]d
< > . mWZ`tyZjo<9Y!fhYTph[b\ldiY57VXWZ\omUj_\l^~\lpvA[]d9Y!YTnZfhY5mhmY3<[tmU[YA\_rbWzpU`bd<pgWiYxmp|[]diZ[bfhnY5uz\o[}ph\l`tdR
HXWY%Z=[%\=]^Q]_0 3 .a`?
5t
UWZY5fgY `< < > 3. \om.pgWZYSjl\_^~\{pUZfh`bI[]Z\_jl\lpk~i[bmgY5e`bd -'mg[b^~ZjlY3mA7v`]pgYpgWI[}pX\ldpgWZ\omXA[bmgbY X .\om.pgWZYTyZ^yZjo[}pg\_ubY

nY5dimg\{pkayidiph\l`tdC`baqpgWiYdi`bfh^~[bj7n\_mpgfh\_Zynpg\_`bdcc[]jomà`bfxmg^[]j_jFu}[bjlyZY3m`]a -d c0[bjlyZY3mS`]a HXWYeZf[e\=]^9]_[bfgYZj_`]pphY5C\ld
irtyZfhY ?i
n[bîjlY3mUU\{phWWZ\lrtWZYAfZYAu"\_[]pg\_`bd<afg`t^ pgWiY!^Y3[]d<pgWi[bdR
gg 0 < gg H WYeZf[e\=]^9]_ 6 7
b3
^[kpgWZY5d9YSZ\_mgfgY5rt[bfhnY3t[bdidZY5^~Y5[bd[]di<mp|[]dii[]f|nYAu"\o[}pg\_`bd<A[]dIYa`byZdIei[tmY3`bdphWZYSfgY5^~[b\ldi\ldZrZ[}p|[Z
VXWZY!ifg`nTY3nyZfhYS5[]d`bdZj_k9Y!9YAfga`bfh^Y3`tdiTYt
?
4.5
4

3.5

3
12
/ .0 -
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
10
1
10
()e!"10)
I+.
"
3
10
4
10
F\_rbyZfhYO?Z 4 Z q T " H WYeZf[e\=]^Q]_ Z} }A9A A A}

T}sgA|A]s}nA|
7 )>RZZ0ctZFZq
VXWZYsZfgY3T\om\_`bdj_\l^~\lphm\ldY3wzyi[}ph\l`tdt[]diY3wtyI[}pg\_`bd)tU\om`tdZj_ku}[]j_\_a`tfphWZYsZfhY5A\_mg\_`bdi[]fgp`]a>phWZYsY5fgfh`bf3nUWZ\_jlY
phWZYsZ\o[bmSA[bdZdZ`bpvIYspgfhY5[]pgY5pgWZ\omvX[kbVXWZ\_mva`bj_j_`}mUafh`b^nYTidi\{ph\l`tdR9pgWZYZ\_[tmvY5fgfh`bfn`"Y5mdi`]pS|WI[]dZrtYxUWZYAdpgWZY
^~Y5[tmyifgY5^Y5dzp\om!fhYA9Y5[]pgY5R`bpgY~pgWI[}p!pgWiYeWZ\_rbWZY5fpgWZYefhYAijl\oA[]pg\_`bdjlY5ubYAjq`]aXfgY5IY3[}pgY3^~Y3[bmgyZfgY5^~YAdzphm5RphWZY~aYAYAf
yZdizdi`}UdsZ\o[bmYAfhfg`tfhmRpgWZY5fgYX[]fhYq\_dxphWZYXfgY3myij{p|mAFVXWZ\_mF^~Y5[bdimpgWi[]pFY5fgfh`bf|mphWi[}p7^yimp>9Y.Y3mph\l^[}phY5\{aipgWZYXYTn9YAfh\l^~Y5dtp
\omXIY5fa`tfg^~Y3`tdZjlk<`bdiAYbn^~\_rbWzpUIY!\_diTj_yinY3\ld[mph[}ph\_mpg\oA[bjR[]di[bjlknmg\_m\laphWZY!YTn9YAfh\l^~Y5dtpU\omUfhYA9Y5[}phY5
@dZ`}Ud[]di<.Y5jljRZYTidZY3Z\_[tmYAfhfg`tfhm5tj_\_bY!T`tdimp|[]dzppgYAfh^mX\ld[~A[bjl\_Zf|[}pg\_`bd^`nnY5jI[]fhYyimgyi[bjlj_keT`tfgfhY5TpgY5ea`bf
[bdidi`]p!\ldITj_yinY5\_dphWZYYAfhfh`bf[]di[bjlknmg\_m5VXWiYfhY5mp5Ra`bf!YTZ[bîjlYpgWZYyidiTY5fp|[]\_dtpk`baqphWZYeT`tdimp|[]dzppgY5fg^\_dCpgWZY
5[]j_\lZf|[}ph\l`td^~`nnYAj^syimpIY~Y5mpg\_^[}phY5\_dCmg`b^~Y[kt!VXWZY[bZZfh`t[t|W\_mph`<Y3mp|[]Zj_\_mgWC[Z\o[bmSYAfhfg`tfvj_\l^~\lp MphWi[}p
U\lpgW[rt\lutYAdT`bdZInYAdITYfgY5ZfgY3mY5dzphmpgWZY~yZdizdi`}UdZ\o[bm5xd`bf|nYAfSpg`Y5mph[bZj_\_mgWphWZ\_mj_\_^\lpsmg\l^~Zj_\{IY5CY5mpg\_^~[]pgY3mA
YA"9YAfh\_YAdiAYS`tfU^~`bfhY`tfUjlY3mgmXY3nyiA[]pgY3<rtyZY5mhmgY5m^syimp9Yx[]ZZj_\_Y5_

!#"$&%7
L ')(*"+P &%FQ>LxO "Q ,.-/"L '0,<NFOAN
VXWZY!I[]f|[]^~YTphYAf[bTpgyi[bjlj_ke^~Y5[tmyifgY3\ommgYAjon`b^ pgWZYidI[]jRfhY5mgyZjlp`]aFpgWZYphY5mp5.i`bfUYAn[b^~ZjlYtZUWZY5d^~Y3[bmgyZfg\_dZra`bf|TY
U\lpgW[mpgf|[]\_dCrz[]yZrtY5mSphWZYei[bfh[b^YApgY5f[tphyi[]j_jlkC^~Y5[bmgyZfhY5C\_m[]dYAj_Y5Tpgfh\_5[]j7fhY5mg\_mph[bdiTYt2 1X[bmgY5C`bdpgWiY|Wi[]dirbY~\ld
fhY5mg\_mph[bdiTYt][a`tfhAY.\om7A[bj_AyZjo[}pgY3][]dIxphWZYAdyimgyi[]j_jlk!di`bd~n\l^~Y5dim\_`bdI[]j_\l5Y5FVXWZYidi[]jnfhY5mgyZjlpF\omFpgWiYAfhYTa`bfhYX[ayZdIpg\_`bd
`baimY5ubYAf|[]jti[]f|[]^~YApgYAf|m539`]phWs\_dZWZY5fg\lp\_dxphWZY.^~Y3[bmgyZfgY5^~YAdzp^~YTphWZ`ns[bdix\_d!pgWiY.ZfhYTaY5fgfhY5x[kpg`SZfhY5mgYAdzpcphWZY.fhY5mgyZjlp5
Xg 3 cv9Zq5 4XvZq
VXWZYayidiph\l`tdi[]jfhYAjo[}ph\l`tdimWi\l\_mU5[]j_jlY3<pgWZYg|]iT}C7 6Ai}}[]di<\_mYTnZfhY5mhmY3
9 8 : 39; : > ; Q Q Q ; : .
3b
UWZY5fgYX\_mFphWZYU^~Y5[tmyZfhYA^~Y5dtpmg[bîjlY[bdipgWZYXfhY5nyIpg\_`bdY5wzyi[]pg\_`bd 9 8 \_mq[vayidiph\l`td`ba -i[bfh[b^YApgY5fhm : 3 QQ Q<: .
0n[b^~ZjlY3m?a`bfcpgWZY.YTn9YAfh\l^~YAdzp|mR\_d!j_[]pgYAfF|Wi[]ZpgYAfc`]aimgyi|W!i[]f|[]^~YApgYAf|m[]fhYq5[]j_\lZf|[}ph\l`tdSa[bph`bf|mA5pg`})mgIY5Y5![bdi^~`"ZYAj
n\_^~YAdimg\_`bdimZynp[bj_mg`j_Y5mhm`b"u"\l`tyimqa[bph`bf|mjl\_bYpgY5^9YAf|[}phyZfhY[bdiphWZYAfh^~`nnk"di[]^~\ovZfh`b9YAfgpg\_Y5m`baX[}pgY5f5>VXWZYSif|mp
mpgY5<`bacpgWiYSY5fgfh`bfX[]dI[]j_k"mg\om.\ompg`~Y3mp|[]Zj_\_mgW<[j_\_mpU`]aFi[]f|[]^~YTphYAf|m.pgWi[]pX^yimpX9Y!T`tdim\onY5fgY3>dphWZYa`bj_jl`}U\_dZrpgWZY3mY
i[bfh[b ^~YTpgY5fhmX[bfgYnYAdi`]pgY3)Tl TI]Th}A}ng|T
mhmgyZ^~\ldZrphWi[}p[m^[]j_j|Wi[]dirbYS\ld[I[]f|[]^~YTphYA=f :?>FfhY5mgyZj{p|m\ld[mg^[]j_jR|Wi[]dirbYv\_d<pgWZY^~Y5[tmyZfhY5u}[]j_yZYbnVF[kzj_`bf
YA"I[]dimg\l`tdrt\lutY5m5
?t
@ BA : @ >9C : > A >: >D@> C : > > FEHG C :>KI J
A
A
P @ A @ :L>
Bz
:
A 9> C
ifg`t^ pgWZ\om5npgWZY iT?h|5 AAiX\_mvnYTidiY5[bm

[bdiephWZY!YAj_YA^~Y5dtp|[]jRY5fgfh`bf\omA
A : @ >
>
3b
Rt
A : @ >9C : > > C : >
d^~`tmpvA[tmY3mpgWZYx[bim`tjlyZpgY!u}[]j_yZY!`]a C : > \_mUdi`]A pv"dZ`}UdR0v[}pgWiYAf\lpv\omUrb\_ubY5d[tm[ZfgY3T\om\_`bdj_\l^~\lpi[bmgY5`td[
A`bdnIZYAdiAY\_dzpgYAfhu}[]j>[bmnY3mgAfg\_IY3\_dphWZY~ZfgY5u"\l`tyimmgY5Tpg\_`bdRxVXWiYfhY5A`b^~^~YAdinY3Zf|[bTpg\oTY\_mpgWiYztT`tdnInY5diTY
\_dzpgYAfhu}[]jnUWZYAfhYSpgWZY!ifg`ti[]Z\_j_\{pke`bacphWZYx[bTpgyi[bj C : > 9YA\_dZrj_Y5mhmX`bfXY5wzyi[bjpg`pgWiY!Y5mpg\_^~[]pgY3<u}[bjlyZY\omtz
: > N
D 0 D >
e ]
C
`tfXa`bfUZ\o[bmXY5fgfh`bf
: > > >
5t
C
WZY5fgYOD>0[]dI >0[]fhYpgWZY!ZfhY5A\_mg\_`bd[]di<Z\o[bmXj_\l^~\lpv`]aFi[]f|[]^~YTphYA+f :L>7fgY3m9Y5Tpg\_ubY5jlkt
X ZZq vi0v? R0FZq
a[]j_jnYAj_YA^~YAdzp|[]jZY5fgfh`bf>m`tyZf|TY5m7[bfgY\_dinYA9YAdInYAdzp5tpgWiYT`b^Z\_dZY5YT?Y5Tpq`bdpgWZYU^~Y3[bmgyZfgY3su}[bjlyZY!YAfhfg`tfFifg`ti[]rz[}pg\_`bd9
\omA
; 9:: /> . > > >
5t
143
VXWZY!ZfhY5A\_mg\_`bd[]di<Z\o[bmXYAfhfh`bf|m[bfgYA[bj_AyZjo[}pgY3<mgYAI[]f|[}pgY5jlk?
]t
; 9:: /> . > D > >
>

143
.
; 9:: /> > > >

n3
143
UWZY5fgY!mgyZimhTfh\lZp D\omUnYAdZ`bpgY3mXZfgY3T\om\_`bd[]dI n Y5dZ`]phY5mUi\_[tmXYAfhfg`tf5
VXWZYph`]ph[bjYAfhfg`tfX^~[kIYa`tyZdi"k
>
>
bb
AT`tfhZ\ldZrph`C.`bj_YA^[]d[]di)zphYAY5jlY5bttvpgWi\_m!rt\lutY5m![bZZfh`"\_^[}phYAj_k[ttT`}ubY5fh[brbY`]apgWZYphfgyiYu[bjlyiYbVXWZY
[bj{phYAfhdi[}ph\lutY\omXpg`mgyZ^MphWZY!YAfhfh`bf|m

?t
VXWZ\omrb\_ubY3mbzT`}ubY5fh[brbYx\lapgWZYZ\o[bm[bdiZfgY3T\om\_`bdCYAfhfg`tfhmS[]fhY`]apgWZYmh[]^~Y~`bf|nYAf![]dICztA`}ubYAf|[]rtYx\la`tdZY~\_m
dZY5rbj_\lrt\lijlYA`b^~i[bfgY3pg`phWZY`]pgWiYAf3dzpgYAfhdi[]pg\_`bdi[bj.V`}U\ldZrCV[bdZ .`bdnaY5fgY5diTY5tbt!fgY3T`b^~^~YAdIZmx9`]phW)pg`CIY
fhYA9`bfgpgY3nZynp`tdZjlkepgWZYa`tfg^~YAfUU\_j_jRIYxZ\_mhTyimhmgY5<\ldjo[}pgY5f|Wi[]ZpgYAf|m5
a @ \_m.pgWiYY5fgfh`bdZY5`byimq^~Y5[bmgyZfhYA^~YAdzpX[]di \om.pgWZYpg`bph[bj9Y5fgfh`bfqafg`t^ Y5wzyi[}ph\l`tdtbTtphWZYSpgfhyZYvu}[bjlyZYS\om.a`byZdi
\_dpgWZY!\_dzpgYAfhu}[]j
@
! Bz
U\lpgW[~ifg`ti[]Z\_j_\{pk`]a0tzXVXWi\_mv`]a0T`tyZfhmgY!fhY5wzyZ\_fgY3mXpgWi[]pvphWZYstzMA`bdn9nYAdiAYx\_dtphYAfhu}[]jR\omvyImY3pgWZfh`byZrtWZ`byZpUpgWZY
[bdi[]j_knm\omAp\omq[bj_mg`s[tmgmgyZ^~Y5phWi[}p.pgWZYZ\_[tmqY5fgfh`bf7\ommk"^~^~YTpgfh\o]zUWZ\_|W\_mqdZ`]pX[]j_[knm>phWZY5[bmgYbFaRdZ`]p3"[xWZ\lrtW[]dI
j_`}j_\l^~\lp^syimp9Y!Y5mph[]ijl\omWiY5afg`t^MY5wzyi[]pg\_`bdbt
Y5fgYpgWiYY5fgfh`bfWi[bmvpgWiY~mh[]^~YyZdZ\lp![tmphWZY~^~Y5[bmgyZfhY5u}[bjlyZY\lpmgYAj_ubY3mA d[]jlpgY5fgdI[}pg\_ubY\_mph`nYAidZY~[gAl] }
Ag}"
8
bb
@
mg`pgWi[]p
@ 8
Rt
VXWZY!fhYAjo[}ph\lutYY5fgfh`bfU5[]dIYx5[]joTyZjo[}phY5<zkyim\_dZr[gAl} }x .iA9|h3 ATIT
A @
8>
9]
@ A : >
\_dY5wzyi[}ph\l`tdimbt.vZ3

L!N$%
#"Q %
% %7N
VXWZYxa`bj_jl`}U\_dZrempgYAImv[]fhY!j_\_mpgY3\lddzpgY5fgdI[}pg\_`bdI[]jcV`}U\ldireV[bdZ.`tdnaYAfhYAdITYe3btt\_d`bf|nYAfUphèTfhY5[]pgYs[bdyidiTY5f
p|[]\_dtpk\ldzpgY5fgu}[bj?a`bf[^~Y5[bmgyZfhYA^~YAdzp3
tX\_nY5dzpg\lak[bjljY5fgfh`bfXm`tyZf|TY5m
ZUnYTphYAfh^\_dZYphWZY!\ldIn\lu"\onyi[bjRZfhY5T\omg\l`td<[]dI<i\_[tmXYAfhfg`tfhmqa`bfUY3[b|WYAfhfg`tfXmg`byifhAY
?iUnYTphYAfh^\_dZYphWZYxmY5dimg\{ph\lu"\lpke`]aFpgWZY!Y5difgY3myij{pXpg`~Y5fgfh`bfUmg`byZf|TY3m
BIUTfhY5[}phYSpgWZYph`]ph[bjZfhY5T\omg\l`td<\_dzpgYAfhu}[]j
ZUTfhY5[}phYSpgWZYph`]ph[bjZ\o[bmUyZdITYAfgph[b\ldzpk
RiUT`b^Z\_dZYpg`bph[]ji\_[tmU[]di<ZfhY5T\omg\l`td<Y5\{phWZYAf"k[tZn\lpg\_`bd`bf!g3}. M 6Ai}gx^YApgWZ`nY3wzyi[}ph\l`tdbb
nUnY5Aj_[bfgYfhY5mgyZj{p|mafg`t^ Bz RzmY5i[]f|[}phYAj_kb
VXWZY!IfhmpUp.`mpgY5im[]fhYpgWiYpg`byirbW`bdZY3mA I`zmgmg\_ZjlYx[bZZfh`t[t|W<\omXpgèmph[bfpU\lpgWphWZYxfhY5nyiTpg\_`bdY5wzyi[]pg\_`bd[]dI
phWZYAdT`tdim\onY5f.\lphmXi[bfh[b^~YTpgY5fhm[]dIeUWi[]pX^~\_rbWzpX\ld
IyZYAdiAYSpgWZY5^0VXWiYAd<pgWZYfhYAZj_\_5[}ph\l`tdj_YAubY5j?^syimpUIY!T`tdimg\_nY5fgY3
\_d`tfhZYAfpg`)n\omph\ldZrtyZ\omWIYAp.Y5YAdZfgY3T\om\_`bd[]di Z\o[bmYAfhfg`tfhm5VXWZYwzyZY5mpg\_`bd\_mpk"Z\oA[bjlj_k)\lavpgWiYYAnIY5fg\_^~YAdzp\_m
fhYA9Y5[]pgY5RZ[]diUWZ\o|W<yidiTY5fp|[]\_dtph\lY3mU[]fhY!T`}ubY5fgY3"kfhYA9YTph\{ph\l`tdR
VXWZY\ld
iyZYAdITYT`"Y eA\lY5dtp|mv\oma`byZdI"ki[]fgpg\o[]j>nY5fg\_u}[}pg\_`bd`]a0phWZYfhY5Zyiph\l`tdY5wzyi[]pg\_`bdRY5\{phWZYAf[]di[bjlkzph\_5[]j_jlk\la
9`tmhm\_Zj_Y`bfUd"yZ^~YAfh\_5[]j_jlk"k|Wi[]dZrt\ldir\_dZZynpI[]f|[]^~YTphYAf|mqphè[dzyi^Y5fg\oA[bjZfh`"AY5nyifgYt
VXWZYVUVvfhYA9`bfgp0yimY[smj_\lrtWzpgj_kn\l9Y5fgY5dzp0[k!ph`sA[bj_AyZjo[}pgYXphWZYUZfhY5A\_mg\l`td~YAfhfg`tf>pgWi[bdphWZY`tdZYU`bynphjl\_dZY3[]9`}ubYb
[]pgWZY5fXpgWi[bdY5mph[]ijl\omWi\ldZr[ZfhY5A\_mg\l`tdj_\l^~\lp Da`tfUY5[t|W<i[bfh[b^~YTpgY5+f :ei[pg`bph[bjZfgY3T\om\_`bdj_\l^~\lp\_m5[]joTyZjo[}phY5
.
6 8 ][ _ ; 9:: / >7> >
]t
> 143
VXWZY!ifgY3T\om\_`bd<YAfhfg`tf\ompgWiYAdrb\_ubY5d<"k
H 6 8 ] [ _
]t
UWZY5fgKY H \omephWZYCYA\_rbWzpi[bmgY5`td[ zt T`tdnInY5diTYC\ldzphYAfhu[bjS[bdi \ompgWZYd"yZ^s9YAf`]a!ph\l^~Y3mphWZYCpgY5mp\_m
fhYA9Y5[]pgY5RXVìdI H afg`t^[empgyInYAdzp5 mUpSn\_mpgfh\_Zynpg\_`bdC[]d[ubY5fh[brbYnYArtfgY5Y!`]a>afhYAY5Z`b^\_mvfgY3wtyi\lfhY5i.Y5\lrtWtphY5"k
phWZY^[]rbdi\{phyinYe[]dICnY5rbfhYAY~`]aafhYAY5Z`b^m`]apgWZY\_din\_u"\_Zyi[]j0ifgY3T\om\_`bd\ldInYTnY5m 6 > eVXWZ\om!\omxn`tdZY~zkpgWZYYAjo|Wn
n[]pphYAfgpgW"[b\{phY![]ZZfh`n\l^[]pg\_`bdR
G 6 > > J >
8 ][ _
?bt

,
VXWZ\omn`di`]pmgYAY5^Mpg`rt\lutYx[~m\_^~Zjl\lI5[}pg\_`bdA`b^~i[bfgY3ephèA[]joTyij_[]pg\_dZre[~ZfhY5T\omg\l`td<j_\l^~\lpa`bfvY5[b|WYAj_YA^~Y5dtp|[]jYAfhfg`tf
mg`byZf|TYtnm`pgWi\_mU^~YApgWZ`n\_mdZ`]p[]iZjl\_Y5WZY5fgYt

'AO ""! &%
% %7N
VXWZY!`bf|<^`nnY5jR\omUyimgY5<\ld[]pXj_Y5[tmpUphWZfhYAYxn\l9Y5fgY5dzpvT`bdzphYT"phmX\_dpgWZ\omXpgWiY5mg\_m5qF\lf|mpUpgWZY5fgY!\ompgWZYsZW"k"mg\oA[]j^~`nnY5j_m
yimgY5\ldpgWZYYTn9YAfh\l^~YAdzp|mA\ YspgWZYWi[bfhnX[]fhYs[tpgyI[]j_jlkZynp\_dpgWiYX[}phYAfS\ldC`bf|nYAfvpg`^~Y3[bmgyZfgYsa`bf|TY`bfSfgY3m9`bdimgYb
vYT"ppgWZY5fgY\_mphWZY~^~[]pgWZY5^[}pg\oA[bj>^`nnY5j7yimgY5ph`nY5mhTfh\l9Y~m`t^YZW"knm\oAm5?I`zmgmg\_Zjlk`tdmgYAutYAf|[]jjlY5ubYAjom5sVXW"yimpgWZY
W"knnfh`"ZkzdI[]^~\_a`tfhAYU^~`"ZYAj9\_m.[^~[]pgWZY5^[}pg\oA[bji^~`nnYAjIyimgY5~\_dpgWZYm\_^syZjo[}ph\l`td`]a?pgWiY^~`]pg\_`bd`baR[xA[bZjlYtz[Wi\lrtWZYAf
j_YAutYAjR^[}phWZYA^[]pg\oA[]jc^`nnY5jXF\ldI[]j_jlkpgWZY5fgY!\omv[~d"yZ^~YAfh\oA[]j^~`nnY5jIWZYAfhY!yimgY5pgèZY5mhTfh\l9YpgWZYs\l^~Zj_YA^~YAdzp|[}pg\_`bd`ba
[^[}phWZYA^[}ph\_5[]j>^~`nnYAjRphWzyIm\ldiAjlyIn\ldir<phWZYd"yZ^~YAfh\_5[]j>^~YTphWZ`nZmx[]dI`bpgWZY5f[bZZfh`n\l^[}ph\l`tdim^~[tnYpg`[bTpgyi[bjlj_k
mg`bj_ubY!phWZYsY3wzyi[}ph\l`tdimrt\lutYAd"kpgWZY^~[]pgWZY5^[}pg\oA[bjc^~`nnYAjom5 `tIYAayZj_jlk\lpU\_jljF9YAjlY3[]fUafh`b^pgWiYT`tdzpgYT"pSUWi[}pS\_m
[tpgyI[]j_jlke^~Y3[]dzpU\ldY5[t|W5[bmgYb
VXWZ#Y
I`}n\o[]rtfh[b^%\_dIrbyZfhY B!\_mq[bZ[bnpgY3safh`b^dzpgYAfhdi[]pg\_`bdi[bjiVc`}U\_dZr!VF[]dZ.`bdnaY5fgY5diTYx5bttF[]dIZY5mhTfh\l9Y5m
phWZY^~`"ZYAj_\ldZr[bdiu}[bjl\oZ[}ph\l`tdCifg`nTY3mgm5`bpgYpgWZYeZ\_mpg\_diph\l`tdIYAp.Y5YAdubYAfh\lIA[]pg\_`bdC[bdiCu[bjl\oZ[]pg\_`bdRcpgWZY~a`tfg^~YAf
9YA\_dZr~pgWiYxZfh`"AY5mhmX`]a7|WZY5|"\_dZrpgWi[]pUpgWZYs\l^~Zj_YA^~YAdzphY5T`nnYx[tpgyI[]j_jlk<rb\_ubY5mU[phfgyiY!fgY5ZfgY3mY5dzph[}ph\l`td`baphWZYx^[}phWZYT
^[}ph\_5[]j?^~`nnYAjm|nUWZ\_j_YvphWZYj_[]ppgY5fX\_m.pg`~utYAfh\{akpgWI[}pXpgWZYSd"yZ^~YAfh\_5[]j?^~`nnYAj?\omU[]d<[tnY5wzyi[]pgYfgY5ZfgY3mY5dzph[}ph\l`tde`]acpgWZY
ZW"knmg\_5[]j9fgY3[]j_\{pkt>`byZrtWZjlkemg9Y5[]"\_dZrxphWZYubY5fg\lIA[]pg\_`bdeU\_j_j\ldpgWZYSa`bj_j_`}U\ldZr9YSn`tdZY"keT`b^~i[bfg\omg`bd~pg`[bdi[]j_kzpg\oA[]j
fhY5mgyZ jlphma`bfmg9Y5T\o[]j?phY5mpvA[tmY3mAnUWZ\_j_YSu}[bjl\on\lpk`]aFpgWiY!dzyi^Y5fg\oA[bj?^`nnY5jR\omUi[bmgY5<`bdT`t^~i[]fh\_mg`bdpg`~YTn9YAfh\l^~Y5dtp|mA
T`tdnInY5diTY\_dzpgYAfhu}[]jX`]apgWZYd"yZ^~Y5fg\oA[bj^~`nnY5jU\_m~Y3mp|[]Zj_\_mgWZY3 \_d phWZYmg[b^~YX[k[bma`tf~pgWZYYTn9YAfh\l^~Y5dtp|[]j
fhY5mgyZjlphm5.T`tdimg\_nY5fg\_dZrpgWZYd"yZ^~YAfh\_5[]jX^~`nnYAjv[CfhY5nyiTpg\_`bdY5wzyi[]pg\_`bd[bdiY5mpg\_^~[]pg\_dZrjl\_^~\{p|m~a`bf~Y5[t|W i[bfh[b^~YTpgY5f5
qfgfh`bfXm`tyZf|TY5m.phÌYxA`bdimg\_ZYAfhY5[bfgY\_din\oA[]pgY5\_dIrbyZfhY Bi

Reality
Neglected Physical
Effects
Mathematical
Models
Representation
errors
Discretization
errors
Programming
errors
Verification
Numerical
model
Validation
Conceptual
Model
Computer
Code
Numerical
inaccuracies
Computation
Results
Comparison with
- analytical results
- Other numerical results
- experimental results
(benchmarks)
F\_rbyZfhY BI3bA ~}?O }}t}}s9g3||5g g||! T?b}}iU IA9]]9] 4i7 a4i]'"0} TAgA9|
&(),)
g JC.>i RUc7v X!cic.

d A`b^~i[bfg\_dZr^~Y5[tmyifgY3[]di A[]joTyij_[]pgY5fgY3myZjlphmxpgWZYn\omph\ldIpg\_`bdIYAp.Y5YAd^~Y3[bmgyZfgY5^~YAdzpsYAfhfh`bf|ms[]dI)^~`"ZYAj_\ldZr
Y5fgfh`bf|m>[]fhYdi`]pq[]j_X[k"mF`tzu"\_`byim5>VXWZ\_m0\_m>phWZYA[tmYXa`tf7i[]f|[]^~YApgYAf|m>dZ`bp0YTnZj_\_A\{phjlkmp|[}pgY3\ld~phWZYUfgY3nyiTpg\_`bd~Y5wzyi[]pg\_`bdR
mg`~pgWi[]pv[~d"yZ^~YAfh\_5[]j^~`nnYAj\_mUdiY5TY3mgmh[]fhkph`Y5mpg\_^~[]pgYxmgYAdimg\lpg\_uz\lpkb.dpgWZY!a`tjlj_`}U\_dZr~i[]f|[]^~YTphYAf|mX`]aFpgWZ\omUpk"9Y!U\lj_j
9Y~pgfhY5[]pgY5[bm^~`nnY5jl\_dZrYAfhfg`tfhmUWZ\_jlY~phWZYpgY5fg^'^Y3[bmgyZfhYA^~YAdzpYAfhfg`tfhmSU\_jlj79YfgY3mY5fgutY5a`bf!yZdiAYAfgph[b\ldzpg\_Y5mS\_dpgWZY
[tpgyI[]j^~Y5[tmyZfhYA^~Y5dtp3
0j_`]pgpg\_dZrYAnIY5fg\_^~YAdzph[bjfhY5mgyZjlphmS[]diYAfhfg`tfhmU\_dphWZY~mg[b^YZj_`]phmS[bmd"yZ^~YAfh\_5[]jFfgY3myij{p|m[bdiYAfhfh`bf|mrb\_ubY3mv[rb`"`n
\_^~ZfgY3mgmg\_`bd`ba0pgWZY~`}utYAfhj_[b`]a0phWZYp.Ì9iynp!^\_rbWzpfgY3wzyZ\lfhY[<j_`]p`]aqZj_`]p|mA dC[bj{phYAfhdi[}ph\lutYbwzyi[]dzph\{p|[}pg\_ubYX[k`ba
ZfhY5mgYAdzph\ldZrphWZYxT`tÎ[]fh\_mg`bde9YTpYAY5d^`nnY5jc[]dIYA"9YAfh\_^Y5dzp\_mUmgyZrbrtY5mpgY3eph`9Yb
C H 6 W| >. >
]
?Z3
] 7
vYAfhY 6 W \om>pgWZYmp|[]diZ[bfh~nY5u"\_[]pg\_`bd`]a?pgWZYn\{?YAfhYAdITYU9YTpYAYAdphWZYd"yZ^~YAfh\_5[]ji[bdiYTn9YAfh\l^~YAdzp|[]ji[bdimYAf3! H>\_m7pgWZY
YA\_rbWzp[]dimgWZ`tyZj_A`bfhfgY3m9`bdiepg`~phWZYxYA\_rbWzpyimgY5\ldphWZYxYAfhfh`bfXY5mpg\_^[}pgY3mA ] 7 \_mXphWZYxY3mph\l^[}phY5YTn9YAfh\l^~Y5dtp|[]j
Y5fgfh`bfv[bdi !phWZYY3mph\l^[]pgY5^~`"ZYAj_\ldZr<YAfhfg`tf5VXWZYsa`tfg^yZjo[\_mSi[tmY3`bdC[T`t^~^Y5dzp"k.`bj_YA^[]d[bdizphYAY5jlY
5btt`td fhYArtfgY3mgmg\l`td)yZdiAYAfgph[]\_dzpkb)VXWZY\_ZY5[\ompgWi[]pphWZYn\_mhTfhYAI[]diAk9YTpYAY5d ^~`nnYAjU[bdiYA"9YAfh\_YA^~dzp^syImp
9YA`bdimg\onYAfhY5ph`brtWZYTphYAfU\{phWpgWiY<^~Y5[tmyifgY5^dzp[]di^`nnY5jl\_dZrYAfhfg`tfhm5apgWZYf|[}pg\_` ]~\omyidZ\{pk)`tfj_Y5mhm5>pgWZY
u}[]j_yZY~Y5mpg\_^[}phY5afg`t^pgWZY~^~`nnYAj7\omU\lpgWZ\_dpgWZYT`t^sZ\_dZY3yZdITYAfgph[b\ldzpk`baqpgWiY^~Y3[bmgyZfgY5^~YAdzp5~VXWZ\om\_mSphWZY~IY3mp
A`b^~i[]fh\om`tdpgWi[]pA[]d<IY`tnph[b\ldZY3eU\lpgW<pgWZYYA"9YAfh\_^Y5dzph[]jZ[]ph[~mgYTp5n[bdiephWZY^~`"ZYAjRmgWZ`byZjophWZYAd9Y[tAAYAnp|[]Zj_Yb
i`bf ]sjo[]fhrbY5fpgWi[bdyZdZ\lpkphWZYe^~`nnYAj0U\lpgWphWZYej_`}.Y3mpxf|[}ph\l`rt\lutY5mphWZYIY3mpfgY5ZfgY3mY5dzph[}ph\l`tdC`baXpgWZYe^~Y3[bmgyZfgY3
u}[]j_yZYtVXWZ\omfhZfhY5mgYAdzph[]pg\_`bd.`tfgnmX9Y5mp\la>pgWZYxY5fgfh`"Y\ldphWZYx^~Y5[tmyifgY3i[}ph[Z`zY3mUdZ`bpvu}[]fhkepg`^syi|Wafh`bÂ[bmgYpg`
5[bmgYb

<L ' "O !$
Q # D% +P "Q &!L =P , '5O "" &%
dphWZ\_mvYTZ[]^~Zj_Y!phWZYxj_\{a p39`tfUpgf|[]dImutYAf|mYSa`bf|TY3mAi`bd[~fh\lrt\_Akzj_\_dinYAf[}pvj_`}[bdZrbj_Yx`ba7[]pp|[b|nmU[]fhY!^~Y5[bmgyZfhY5UVXWZY
YA"9YAfh\_YA^~dzph[]j.mYApgyZ)\omxmgWZ`}Ud\ldirtyZfhYn<VXWiYAfhY\_m[a`bf|TYemgYAdimg`bf!\_d)Y5[t|WY5di`]aXpgWiYpgY3mpmgY5Tpg\_`bdRpgW"yim!pgWZY
ph`]ph[bj?a`bf|TYS\_mX[~mgyZ^M `]ap.`^~Y5[tmyZfhYA^~Y5dtp|mA7VXWZYa`bf|TY!mgYAdimg`bf|m[]fhYS[mp|[]dii[]f|mpgf|[]\_drt[byZrbY3mi[bmgY5<nY5mg\lrtd<yImY3
YAzphYAdimg\_ubYAj_k"(k ' UVU @~FUWZ\lj_Y[]j_j.utYAj_`"A\{ph\lY3m[bfgYYAdiA`"ZYAf`bynphZynphmafh`b^pgWiY5[]fhfg\o[]rtY5m5VXWZY<^~`nnY5jX[bm

VF[]Zj_Y~bU]g!TA|x!ZsT0A|T}
cYAdZrbpgW

Z ,?^
T\_[b^YApgY5f

i zn^
TfhkYA\_rbWzp
b $ ] @r
[]pgYAfZYAdimg\{pk btZ @r ^ > I
Tkzdc7uz\omhT`tmg\lpk
b t
U3 ^ ]m

RY5dZr]phWphèn\o[]^~YTphYAfUf|[}pg\_`
?tZ
zpgfhyiphyZf|[]j^[bmhmpg` ZnY5^[bmhmXf|[}pg\_`
i BR

U`tyZrbWidZY5mhm ]S Q 5
|f []d9`]phWC\_dphWZY~j_[bfgrtYxph`}U\ldZrph[bdZ[]di\ld('C[]R!dI`bpgWCj_[bI`tfh[]pg`bfh\_Y5mv[ Y5\_ZYAWZY5\ld('xUYAfhYsyimgY5a`bf
[bîjl\lIA[]pg\_`bdR3ijlpgY5fg\_dZrS[]dix[bdi[]j_`brpg`Z\lrt\{p|[]j"T`bd"utYAf|m\_`bd`]ai[bjljz^~Y5[tmyZfhYA^~Y5dtp|mA jlpgWZ`tyZrbWsmh[]^~Y.^~[bbYq[bdi!^~`nnYAj
p`n\l?YAfhYAdzpUyZdZ\lphmXYAfhYvyimgY5>d<pgWZYSph`}U\ldZrsph[bdZe[mh[]^~Zj_YafgY3wtyiYAdiAk`]aFbb v![]di<[xijlpgY5fUTynph`]afhY5wzyZYAdITk
`ba3b !YAfhYyimgY5RqZ`tfXpgWZYa`tjlj_`}UyZYTnIY5fg\_^~YAdzphmX\_dpgWZY ' pgWZYxmh[]^~Zj_\ldirafhY5wzyZY5diTk[tmXfgY3nyiTY3eph`3b
vbZIj{phYAfh\ldZr<[}p Bz b jljca`bf|TYxmg\lrtdi[]jomUYAfhY!fgY3T`bf|nY3\_ad c7`bjlphm5IUWi\lj_YsA[bjl\_Zf|[}ph\l`td[bdi[]j_jZ[]ph[[bdi[]j_knm\omUYAfhY
9YAfga`bfh^~Y5<`bd[
XyIm\_dZr ' V 1

y
x
B
F\_rbyZfhYSZ54 Z 5tT8}nI|n9tTSZx|} t T>AhA} }hhTAZA] i}" "A9s3bi}

]9~n!"$#b b
^~I`tfp|[]dzpi[bfh[b^YApgY5fhm[]fhYrb\_ubYAd\_d<p|[]Zj_Y~b
dpgWZYXph`}U\ldZrph[bdZ? Y3[b|WfgyZd.Y5fgY9YAfga`bfh^Y3s\_dI`bpgW~n\lfhY5Tpg\_`bdima`tf7Y5[b|WT`t^sZ\_di[}ph\l`tds`baIubY5jl`nA\{pkx[bdis[bdZrbj_Yb
"\lfhYA9YTpg\lpg\_`bdIm[bfgYepgWZYAa`bfhY[u}[]\_jo[]Zj_Ya`bfphWZY5mgYi[}ph[I`t\ldzp|mA)VXWZ\omU\lj_jXIYyimgY5ph`C\_j_jlyimpgf|[}phYphWZYn\{?YAfhYAdiY5TY
9YTpYAY5d[t mp[]di[en di<`bf|nYAfXfhYAZj_\_5[}ph\l`td[bdi[]j_knm\omA
%Xg 3 cv9Zq
4XFZq
VXWZYZfhY5mgYAdzphY5efhY5mgyZjlphm`]apgWZYYA"9YAfh\_^Y5dzphm\_mphWZYjl\la pT`"YT?Y5A\lY5dzpU[tmX[sayidiph\l`td<`baF[]dirbj_Yv`][]ph[t|' &)T`"Y eT\_YAdzp|mA
TYAdZ`bpg\_dZrSpgWZYU^~Y3[bmgyZfgY3xa`tfhAY5mFafh`b^phWZYXpà`tfhAYUmY5dim`tfhmFU\lpgWmgyZIY5fhmhTfh\_nphm []di)
(!a`tf>a`bfh[bfh[]di[}a pqmgYAdimg`bf

fhY5mgIY3ph\lutYAj_kb"pgWiY!fgY3nyiph\l`td<Y3wzyi[}ph\l`td<\om
>
&
Z

3
> >
?tb
?+?t
[bdifhYAZfhY5mgYAdn
V`srtYAdZY5fh[bjl\_AYt]pgWiYfhY5nyIpg\_`bdY5wzyi[}ph\l`tdimqA`bdzph[b\ld^Y3[bmgyZfhY5a`bf|TY3mA"[sZkzdI[]^~\_vZfhY5mhmyZfhY! >3 >

p|[}pg\_ubY!n\_^~YAdimg\_`bdim50VXWZYYAfhfg`tfUm`tyZfhAY5mX[]fhYrbfh`byZ9Y5<[b5T`bf|n\_dZrpg`~pgWi\_m5
%X CZc"q 7
7g Z N|0 Nhqi?R7"icc.n

i`bfXpgWiYa`bf|TY^~Y5[bmgyZfhYA^~YAdzp|mAzpgWiYAfhYx[]fhYvphWZfgY5Y!fgY5Zj_\_5[}pg\_`bdIm.j_YAutYAjomU[u}[]\_j_[bZjlYt
VXWZY<mgYAdimg`bf|mxYAfhY5[]j_\lZf|[}phY5)[]a pgYAf[bmhmY5^sZj_kb 1.kfh`]p|[}pg\_dZrphWZY<mgYAdIm`tfs[]di)pgWZYmI[bTY5fx\lpX[bms^`tyZdzpgY3
`bdR9"dZ`}Ud.Y5\lrtWzphmU`baX3}]trtfh[b^mU.Y5fgYx[bZZj_\lY3\ldCn\lfhY5Tpg\_`bdimZ bil]Z_5tZ ! BzZt[bdi9]nYArtfgY5Y5mUU\lpgW
fgY3m9Y5Tp!pg`pgWiYeI`zm\lpg\_ub Y [}n\omA<VXWZ\_mxrt[ubY~^~`bfhYpgWi[bd 3]9`b\_dzphm!`tdUWi\_|WpgìyZ\ljo)[ TM5[]j_\lZf|[}ph\l`td
^`nnY5jR\_diT`tfg9`bf|[}ph\ldZr~Tfh`tmhmp|[]j_~[bdi[]j_\lrtdZ^~YAdzpUYAfhfg`tfhm5
ê
3 3 > >
?Bz
YAfhY ^ \_mspgWiYe"dZ`}Uda`bf|TYe\_dn\_fgY3ph\l`td 7 [bfgYepgWZYe^~Y3[bmgyZfgY3ub`tj{p|[]rbY3m\ldpgWZYp`n\_fhY5ph\l`tdimx`ba
pgWZYmY5dim`tf[]di 3 [bdi > []fhYxT`"Y eT\_YAdzp|mUa`byidi 3 "> kepgWiYsj_Y5[bmpvmhwtyI[]fhYZpv^~YTphWZ`nUVXWZYxfhY5mgyZj{p\_m BemYAphm`ba
T`"Y eT\_YAdzp|mA0VXWZ\omX\omXpgWZY!5YAfh`]phW<fhYAZj_\oA[}ph\l`td<j_YAutYAj
VXWZYx^~Y5[tmyZfhYA^~Y5dtp|mU[]fhYSpg\_^YmY5fg\_Y5mXUWZY5fgYphWZYpg\_^~YsmgYAfh\lY3mU[]fhY[]pvj_Y5[bmp!3~mgY5A`bdiZmXj_`bdiriqVXWZYa`tfhAY5mUyImY3
\ldpgWiYx[]di[bjlknmg\_mX\ompgWZY!^~Y3[]d`]aFpgWZ\omXpg\_^~Y!^~Y5[bmgyZfhYA^~YAdzp|m[bdifgY5ZfhY5mgYAdzphmX[b mpUfhYAZj_\oA[}ph\l`td<j_YAutYAj
pj_Y5[tmpUm`t^~Yv`]aphWZYpg\_^Y!mgYAfh\lY3mq[bfgYfgY5IY3[}pgY3emg\{ph\l^~Y5m5"fgY5ZfhY5mgYAdzpg\_dZrs[n die`tfhnY5fqfhYAZj_\oA[}ph\l`tdej_YAubY5jIU\lpgW
?ZYArbfhYAY3mS`]aqafhYAY3n`b^ Y5fgY~u}[]fh\o[}pg\_`bdIm\_d[]j_\lrtdZ^~YAdzpx[]diCubY5jl`nT\lpk[]fhY~\ldITj_yinY5C\_dCphWZYZ[}p|[mYAp5mg`<pgWZY
ZfgY3T\om\_`bdj_YAubY5jRmWi`byZjoIY!WZ\_rbWiYAfa`bfXphWZ\_mvA[bmgYb
0fhY5A\_mg\_`bdj_\l^~\lphm[]fhYrb\_ubY5d\ldp|[]Zj_YSZFi`bfAY5fg`bpgW`bf|nY5f0fgY5Zj_\_5[}pg\_`bd~phWZYSu[bjlyiY\_mqpgWiYtzT`bdZInYAdITY\_dzpgYAfhu}[]j
`ba7pgWZYA[]j_\_Zfh[]pg\_`bd^~`nnYAjVXWiYb mpv`bf|nYAfjlY5ubY5jcyimgY5mvpgWZYsa`bfh[bfhfhyZdim`bdphWZYsphWZ\_fhi[kb9UWZ\lj_YxphWZYZ dI`bf|nYAf
\_diTj_yinY3m.[bjlj9^~Y5[tmyZfhY5Z[}p|[Z0"\li[}ph[sI`t\ldzp|mq\om.[tmgmgyZ^~Y5a`bfX[]j_j9[bdZrbj_Y5m.\ldepgWZ\omXA[bmgYb>Z`tfqphWZYSWZ\lrtWZYAf.`bf|nYAf.jlY5ubY5j_m
phWZY!ZfhY5T\omg\l`td\omUrb\_ubY5d<"k?
6 7
D7 H
?tb
dph[bZj_YspgWZY!^~Y5Z\_[bd\omUrt\lutYAdfh[]pgWZY5fXpgWi[bdpgWZYx^~Y3[]dRqVXWiY!^Y3n\o[]d\omXpgWZY!u}[bjlyZYa`tfUWZ\o|WpgWZYxifg`ti[]Z\_j_\{pk
`baFYAnAYAY3nYAdiAY\_mvbz7d`]phWZYAfU`bf|Zm5nWi[]jlaphWZYxA[bj_AyZjo[}pgY3j_\_^\lphm[]fhYIY5jl`}pgWZ\omUj_\l^~\lp5I[bdiWi[]jlaFpgWZY!j_\l^~\lphm[]fhY
[bI`}utYx\{p3s"\_diTYfgY5j_[]pg\_ubY5jlkaYA u[bjlyiY5m~^~`tmpgj_k &]zv[bfgYwtyi\{phYWZ\_rbWCT`b^~i[bfgY3pg`<pgWiYj_\l^~\lpa`bfS^`zmp!A[tmY3mA
phWZY^~Y5n\o[]d\_mq^`tfgYUfhYAifgY3mY5dtp|[}ph\lutY.phWi[]depgWZY^~Y3[]dR7Zfh`b^\_dim9Y5Tpg\_`bd`ba9phWZYvf|[ Z[}p|[\{p[tm>a`byZdI~pgWi[]p0a`bfb mp
`tfhnY5fXfgY5Zjl\oA[]pg\_`bd<pgWZY!u}[bjlyZY!n`"Y3mUdZ`]pUu}[]fhkeU\lpgW[]dirbj_YS`baF[]pph[t|?"pgW"yimXphWZY!u}[]fh\_[]pg\_`bd\omU^[]\_dZj_knyZYph`~ubYAj_`nT\lpkb
Z`tf & ] phWZYx^~`nnYAj[tmX`bimgYAfhubY3ephè`tmhT\_j_j_[]pgY![]diphWZYsmph[bdiZ[]f|nYAu"\o[}pg\_`bd`baFphWZY!ph\l^~YsmgYAfh\lY3mX\ldITfhY5[bmgY5m
"k[a[tpg`tf7iutY`tf0^~`bfhYbFVXWZ\_m0\_m7fhY
IY5phY5\_d~pgWZYU^[}u}[]j_yZYU`]a9pgWZYvZfgY3T\om\_`bdj_YAubY5j>Z`tf0mY3T`tdi`bf|nYAf>fhYAZj_\_5[}ph\l`td
phWZYZ\lfhY5Tpg\_`bdfhY5mgyZjlphmU[bfgY^syi|WWZ\_rbWZY5f.phWi[]dYTn9Y5TpgY5Rni[]fgpg\oTyZjo[]fhj_kem\_diTYpgWiY5mgYSu}[bjlyZY!mgWZ`byij_<IYj_Y5mhmXmY5dim\lpg\_ubY
ph`mg^[]j_j>u[bfg\o[}ph\l`tdimS\ld[]dirbj_Y`ba[}pgph[t|pgWi[bdphWZYkzn\_fhY5ph\l`tdRVXWi\_mS^[k\_îjlkyidimphY5[tnk
i`}%I[}pphYAfhda`tfSpgWZY
WZ\_rbW[]dirbj_Y5m5
VXWZYWZ\_rbWZY3mpXj_\l^~\lphmU[]fhYa`byZdiea`bfpgWiYSWi\lrtWZY5mp^~Y3[bmgyZfgY3eu}[]j_yZY3mAnmg`sphWZYfgY5j_[]pg\_ubYvY5fgfh`bf\om.^~`tfgYT`tdimp|[]dzpqphWi[]d
phWZYsZfhY5A\_mg\_`bdjlY5ubY5j_mv\ldiZ\_5[}pgY3mAV.k"Z\oA[]j_j_kbZphWZYsifgY3T\om\_`bdj_\l^~\lp\omv[]9`byZptM`]a>phWZYs^~Y5[tmyifgY3u[bjlyiY5m5I[}pjlY3[bmpv\ld
phWZY!kzn\_fhY5ph\l`tdR
VXWZYen di`bf|nYAfSjlY5ubY5jF\omWZY5fgY\ldITj_yinY5a`bfT`t^~i[]fh\_mg`bd`bdZj_kbn\ldiAYpgWZY5fgY\_m[mg^~[bjlj7n\l?YAfhYAdiAY\_dmg9YAY5\ld
a`tfgX[]f|[]di)I[b|X[]f|ZmsfgyZdImAFpgWiYfhY5mgyZj{ph\ldirZfhY5T\omg\l`td)jl\_^~\{p|ms\omxph`"`WZ\_rbWRWZYAdY3mph\l^[]pg\_dZrphWZYeidI[]jYAfhfg`tf
afh`b^fgY5IY3[}pgY3fgyZdImAipgWZYsA`"Y eT\_YAdzphmv[]fhY5[]joTyZjo[}phY5<a`bfS[]j_jcZ[]ph[mgYAfh\lY3mAnphWZYAdphWZYx^~Y5[bd[]diphWZY!ZfhY5T\omg\l`tdj_YAutYAj
\omXY5mph[bZjl\omgWZY5
nY5dtph\{IY5m`tyZf|TY5mX`baZ\o[bmXY5fgfh`bf|m\ld<pgWiYa`bf|TY^~Y5[bmgyZfhYA^~YAdzp|mU[]fhY
!#"%$&('<) 3+* "\_diAYpgWZYph`]ph[bja`bf|TY`tdAkzj_\_dinYAfU\omU^~Y5[tmyifgY3Z[]j_j\ldiYAfgpg\o[sa`tfhAY5mUnyiYpg`~u"\lZf|[}ph\l`td<\_dinyITY5
zkphWZYS5[]fhfg\o[]rtY[]die\{p|m.nfh\_ubYmgknmphYA^ []fhY\_diTj_yinY3e\_dpgWiY^~Y5[tmyifgY5^Y5dzphm5 1ynp.pgWZY3mY[]fhYv[bmhmgyZ^~Y5~ph`sWi[utY
AYAfhè^~Y5[bdRiY5dipgWiYsYT?Y5Tp\om\_diTj_yinY3\_dpgWZYZfgY3T\om\_`bdY5fgfh`bf|mX\ldp|[]Zj_YZUVXWZYxYT?Y5Tp`ba>u"\_Zf|[}pg\_`bd`tdpgWZY
[ubYAf|[]rtY5W"knnfh`nnk"di[]^~\oZ[b^~Z\ldirsa`tfhAY5mXnYA9YAdIZmU`bdpgWZY!`bfhn`bdiYS"kphWZY!Tk"j_\ldiZYAfU`bd<pgWiY
IyZ\_RZUWZ\o|W
[]rt[b\ldnY5IY5diZmx`tdpgWZYe[tpgyI[]j7^~`]ph\l`td`ba.phWZYAkzj_\_dinYAf3ifg`t^ nY55[kpgY3mp`]apgWZY^~`nnYAjq^`tyZdzpgY3C`tdpgWZY
VF[]Zj_YZhhAo}]9)A<{ xh}zT}?I~|]}ZI& - } T]g| ~|}|nh TI 5 }Tl3A T]9

] bl! ?Tit|+ & ( ?}Xhb?|bAl
UY5Zjl\oA[]pg\_`bd n[b^~ZjlY3m YA\_rbWzp
ktn\_fgY3ph\l`td
Tn\_fgY3ph\l`td
cYAubY5j
p ^\_d ^[} ^~Y5Z\_[bd

^~\_d ^[} ^~Y5Z\_[bd
Z pgW
]
Z Z
i z]
t mp
Bzbb
i zn i Ri R Z Bt
i z] Z !Bt Z +R+R
n di
R
Z $ ?i Ri3 Z b+ R
i +B Z ?t Z ?t
1\_[tmYAfhfg`tfhm
cv\_Zf|[}pg\_`bd
)
Z Z_3 i ttt b
U3 Z bb Z bZ
.k"jl\_dinY5f0di ) >3 i ttb BI B U5
(
"pgfhynp[bbY ) I
(
i tZ3
^
'Y3[bmgyZfgY3<i`bf|TY
?G" ?b$ Z RZ3 Bi b! U5 b bZ Z ?+Rb
A []fhfh\_[brbY!phWZY~jl`}Y5mpY5\lrtYAdnafhY5wzyZY5diTk\oma`byZdipg`9Y~ tsVXWZY~WZ\_rbWZY3mp!mgWZY5ZZ\ldZr<afhY5wzyZYAdITk\omva`tyZdia`bf
n e^ }mph`} m9YAY3C[bdiI?bZYArbfhYAY3mvkz[ []dirbj_YbsVXWZYY5mpg\_^[}phY5Cu[bjlyiY\om \ BSQ < RSQ ,ReUWZY5fgYpgWZY~j_`}
u[bjlyiYT`tfgfhY5mgI`tdiZmpg`CmyZ?Tfh\lpg\oA[]j
i`}zpgfh`byiWi[]j0d"yZÎY5f 6 _ Q b[bdipgWiYeWZ\_rbWjl\_^~\{pT`bfhfhY5mgI`tdiZmSpg`
pgf|[]dimhTfh\{ph\_5[]j
I`}! 6 _ S Q bI[]jlpg\_dimY5d5tbzFn\ldiAYUpgWiYv\_dejl\_dZY`zmgA\lj_jo[}pg\_dZr!a`tfhAYUWi[bm0pU\_AYUpgWiYafhY5wzyZYAdITk
`]a9pgWZYUut`bfgpgYTsmgWZY3Zn\_dZri}phWZYAfhYX\_m7[S9`tmhm\_Z\_jl\lpkx`ba9^[}p||WZ\_dZrjl`z[bs[bdiYA\_rbY5dnafgY3wzyZYAdiAka`bf>phWZYUYT"pgfhYA^~YUA[tmY3mA
SmgA\lj_j_[]pg\_`bd`]aZphWZYX^`nnY5j"[tm`timgYAfhubY5R39`]phWsu"\omyi[bjlj_kx[]dIx\_dsphWZYqa`tfhAY.^~Y3[bmgyZfgY5^~YAdzphm5a`bfFubY5jl`nT\lpg\_Y5m>[bI`}utY
b !^ }m[]di[]dZrtjlY3m.[bI`}utY]xZYArbfhYAY3mA>Z`tfqphWZYSfgY5^~[b\ldi\ldZrxpgY5mphmdZ``tmhT\_jljo[}ph\l`td`]aphWZY^~`nnY5j9X[bmq`bimgYAfhubY3
[]di<pgWiY!^`bpg\_`bd`]aFpgWiYxTk"jl\_dinY5f\om[bmhmyi^Y3j_\_^\lpgY3pg`pgWiYsZ_^^Tj_Y5[bfh[bdiTY`]apgWZYsZ\ld`baphWZYxmY5dimg`bfXpg`
pgWZYZpgpg\_dZr\ldpgWZYpgY3mp!Tk"j_\ldInYAf3sZ`tfvphWZYA[tmY`]a c csi[bj{ph\ldImY5d5bttrb\_ubY[mg\l^~Zj_YfhYAjo[}ph\l`td9YTpYAY5d
nfh[brT`"Y eT\_YAdzp[]dI[b^~Zjl\lpgyInY!`]aF`tmhT\_jljo[}ph\l`tdR

%. Z 7
?+Rt
)
YAfhY )!\omUpgWiYsnf|[]rT`"Y eA\lY5dtpU\{phWZ`bynpuz\_Zf|[}ph\l`tdR \omXpgWiYs[]^~Zj_\{phyinYs[bdi e\omUphWZYsTk"j_\ldInYAfvZ\_[b^YApgY5f5
jlpgWZ`tyZrbWpgWiYeTyZfhfgY5dzp!5[bmgY\om!dZ`b5p cv csRpgWZ\om!fhYAZfhY5mgYAdzp![]dyZZ9YAf!j_\l^~\lp5VXWiYi\_[tm!nyZY~pgù"\_Zfh[]pg\_`bdA[bd
pgWZY5dIY!YA"ifgY3mgmgY5
) 3
?$]
Z 7 ) Q b+ B9 )
WZYAfhAY )!\omXphWZY!^~Y5[bmgyZfhY5ea`bf|TYb

$ $ +& ' ) > * V`~YAdimgyZfhYvphWi[}p[bjlj?a`tfhAY5mX[bTpgyi[bjlj_krb`"Y5mphfg`tyZrbWpgWZYSa`tfhAYSmgYAdimg`bfU[rt[b<9YTpYAY5d
pgWZY.pgY3mp7Tk"j_\ldiZYAf>[]dixpgWZYmyZiI`tfp>\_mdZY3TY5mhmh[]fhkbcVXWZY9`byZdii[]fhkjo[kbY5fRpgWi\_|"dZY3mgmF[}ppgWZY.a`bfh[bfhrz[]x\omca`byZdi
pg` P, Q x^^n[]9`byZpqpgWiYmh[]^~Y[tm7pgWiYsv^~^ rz[]`b9YAdi\ldZrI>p.\om0phWZYAd[bmhmyZ^~Y3pgWi[]p.phWZYp|[]dZrtYAdzpg\o[]j
i`}
ubYAj_`nT\lpk[]p0pgWZYvrt[]~\omqmg^[]j_ji[]diphWi[}p.I`bpgYAdzph\_[bjZa`bf|TY3m>afh`b^mgyiZZYAde|Wi[bdZrbYU\_den\o[]^~YTphYAfq5[]d9YdZYArtjlY3phY5
VXWZYs[]dI[]j_k"mg\om.\omXphWZYAdj_\l^~\lpgY3pg`\_diTj_yinYafh\_Tpg\_`bdi[bja`bf|TY3mUnyZYph`jl`}m9YAY3
i`}
9YTpYAY5dpgWZY!`tynpgY5fZjo[}pgY
`]a>pgWZYmyZiI`tfpv[bdi<pgWZYxifg`bpgfhyim\_`bd[}pUphWZYsAkzj_\_dinYAfvYAdiXVXWZ\omU\omv[bmhmgyZ^~Y5pgè9Ysmg\l^~\_j_[bfXpg`[eQ T%|Wi[]didZYAj
i`}!mgYAYfh\lrtWzpI[]fgpx`]airbyZfh%
Y RZVXWiYWZYA\_rbWzpx`]apgWiY|Wi[]didZYAj7\om ^~^pgWZYZfhY5[]pgW G~ B^~^ pgWZY
jlY5dZr]phWe`]aphWZYifg`bpgfhyim\_`bd~`tdpgWZYSTk"j_\ldiZYAfqY5diiT"[bdi~phWZYvj_YAdZrbpgW c >3 > "\ YWi[]jlapgWiYT\_f|TyZâYAfhYAdITY`bapgWZY
Tk"jl\_dinY5f50ifg`t^ 1jlY5u"\ldim!5ttnnVF[]Zj_Y ?] B"7phWZYxmgWZY5[bf.a`tfhAY`bd<pgWZY!X[]j_j_mU[bfgYt

?bt
` 3 < ` >
YAfhY ` 3 < ` > \_m~phWZYZfhY5mhmyifgYnfh`bpgWZfh`byZrtW phWZY|Wi[bdZdZY5jVXWZYZfhY5mhmgyZfgYn\l?YAfhYAdiAY`tdpgWZYyZImphfgY3[]^
[]diCjlY5YAX[]f|3 mg\_ZY`baqpgWiY~Ak"jl\_di> nY5fxA[]dCIYY3mph\l^[]pgY5C"kpgWZYnk"di[b^~\_ZfhY5mhmyifgY`]a0phWZYeTfh`tmhm
i`} mg`phWi[}p
` < ` P m\_dc ( ` ("g \{phWY3wtyI[]j
I`}`td9`]pgWCm\onYs`ba7pgWZYZfh`]pgfhyimg\l`tdRZphWZYxph`]p|[]ja`bf|TYx`tdpgWZY
Tk"3jl\_dinY5f> YAdI> \om
) > +G G Cmg\ld &> >

?bt
$ ! &! &#" " &)VXWZYvyimY`]aR[xYAj_jIZ`"AyZ^~YAdzpgY3e[]dIpgY5mpgY3~pg`"`tjij_\ltY ' V 1 mWZ`tyZjofgY3nyiAYUpgWZYd"yZ^s9YAf

`]aZZyZrzmc\_d!phWZY.A`b^~ZynphYAf[bdi[]j_knm\omcmhTfh\_nphm53[bdiphWZYAfhYq\omRdZ`[kvpg`SwtyI[]dzpg\la kSpgWZY.I`zmgmg\li\lj_\{pkS`]aZiyZrtm5 dZ`]phWZYAf
wtyiY5mpg\_`bd~\_m0UWZ\_|W~i[bfp7`baIphWZY^~Y5[tmyZfhY5spg\_^~YmY5fg\_Y5mFph`!yimgYU\ld[]dI[]j_k"mg\omA j_jZfgY3T`tfhn\_dZrzmYAfhYUmp|[]fgpgY39YTa`tfgY
5

Force Sensor
A
1 mm Gap
2D channel flow
0.1 mm
Gap
A-A
F\_rbyZfhYORZ3bAFbA} I4 qT|A]A9
A
VF[]Zj_YO?ZhhAo})}?<A! AT}'& e}CgCTAgA9| Al3T #+ 8 }Tl3A T}?]blx ?T{ib|+

?}|b?|bAl
UY5Zj_\_5[}pg\_`bd n[]^~Zj_Y5m CY5\lrtWtp
V`}
mg9YAY5 ^']m
cYAutYAj
p
b t
n
n
t mp
Bzbt
Z ] U3 t U5 b b U5 b t U5
1\o[bmXYAfhfh`bf|m
UY3m\onyi[bj
i`} )
i t B
SYAdZY5fh[]pgY5<X[ubY5m ) RZ U3 Z bt$ i ib
i z! B
& (
pgWZY[bphyi[]jfgyidR9mg`phWi[}p[]j_jRpgf|[]dIm\_YAdzpvYA9Y3phmS[]fhY!ZfhY5mgYAdzpv\_dpgWiYxpg\_^~YmgYAfh\lY3mAVXWiYxi[]fgpv`ba7pgWZYspg\_^YmY5fg\_Y5m
yimY3\ld)[ubY5fh[brb\_dZr<[bfgY~\onYAdzph\{iY3i[bmgY5`bdCpgWiYpg`}ubYAj_`nT\lpkbU\{phW[<ph\l^~YnY5j_[kafg`t^ T`tdimp|[]dzp!ubY5jl`nT\lpk
[tmv[b|Wi\lY5ubY5ph`<[tmgmgyZ^~Y5mpgY3[bnkmph[}phYxa`tfhAY5m`baq[}pSjlY3[bmpmgY5A`bdiZm5vifg`tû"\omyI[]jc\_dimgIY3ph\l`td`]aqmgYAj_Y5TpgY3
a`bf|TYSpgf|[bAY5mXdZ`pgf|[]dIm\_YAdzphmXYAfhYS`bimgYAfhubY3e9YAkb`tdi<pgWZ\omXph\l^~YbiZynpdZàyZfgpgWZY5fv[]dI[]j_k"mg\om.YAfhY!n`bdiYb

" &! !&' ) I * dZjo[]didZ\ldirxpgWiYSYAnIY5fg\_^~YAdzphm.\{pXX[bm.Y5mpg\_^~[]pgY3pgWI[}ppgWZYSZfhY5mhmyZfhYvfhY5A`}ubY5fgk\ldpgWZY
[bbYX`]aR[!mg\ldZrtjlYmpgfhynpqmgWZ`byij_9YvwzyZ\_|YAdZ`tyZrbWmg`pgWi[]p0\{pn\_~di`]pqTfhY5[]pgY[Sa`tfhAY`tdpgWZYUphY5mp.mgY5ph\l`tdR>Zfh`b^
fgyZdImU\lpgWAY5fg`[bdZrbj_Y!\{p\_mmY5YAdpgWi[]ppgWiYAfhYx\_mv[em^[bjljRutYAfgpg\oA[bj?a`bf|TY!`bdphWZY!a`tfgX[]f|<mgYAdIm`tf5VXWZ\_m\_mv^`zmp
jl\_bY5jlknyZY~pg`phWZYeT`t^sZ\_dZY5YA9Y3px`]aX[]j_j7pgWifgY5Y~mpgfhynp|mA"\_diAY~pgWZYYA9Y3px`]aU[]dirbj_Y`baX[]pp|[b|\om!yZdiAYAfgph[]\_dR
\{p5[]dZdi`]pvmg\l^~Zj_k9YsmgyZnpgf|[bTpgY3afh`b^ pgWZYsfgY3myZjlphm5ZZyZpv\_m\ldiAjlyInY5[tmU[]dZ\o[bmUyZdITYAfgph[b\ldzpk<jl\_^~\{p|mA.pv`bdZj_k
\ld
IyZYAdiAY5mXa`tfhAY\ldpgWiY!Tn\lfhY5Tpg\_`bdR
Z`bfpgWiYkzZ\lfhY5Tpg\_`bd)\lp\omxa`tyZdi)phWi[}ppgWZY<ZfhY5mgYAdiAYe`]aUphWZY<mpgfhynphmWi[utY[^V[ U`tfs\_d
iyZY5diTY<`bd)phWZY\_dZ\lpg\o[]j
ub`bfgpgYA<a`tfg^[]pg\_`bd`bdphWZYAk"jl\_dinY5fvdZ`zmYtVXWZ\_mvYT?Y5Tp\ommpgyiZ\lY3"kA`b^~i[]fh\_dZrfg`bph[]pg\_`bd\_dkt[pgèfhY5mgyZjlphm
afg`t^ fh`]ph[]pg\_dZr\ldZ\lph|W\_d<phWZYxn\omgAyimhm\_`bd`]apgWZY!fhY5mgyZjlphm5
VXWZYf|[]dirbY[]dI^~Y3n\_[bd`]a?pgWiYZ\o[bm7j_\l^~\lphm.[]fhYUrb\_ubYAd~\_d~ph[bZjlYSn>Z`bf0pgWZY^~`zmpqI[]fgp5]phWZYZ\o[bm0YAfhfg`tf7\_m0[bd`bf|nYAf
`ba^[]rtdZ\{phyinY!j_`}.Y5fpgWi[bd<phWZY!ZfhY5A\_mg\l`tdj_\l^~\lphm5
%XI H CZc"q 7
7g Z N|0 7 vZc""i

VXWZYxZkzdI[]^~\_SZfhY5mhmgyZfgYS\omUrb\_ubY5d"k
! >
CBtt
va>pgWiY5mgYxi[]f|[]^~YApgYAf|mX`bdijlk<pgWZYm9YAY3\_mv^Y3[bmgyZfhY5i[bdi[]jomg`fgY5ZfgY3mY5dzpUpgWZYxjo[]fhrbY3mpyidiTY5fp|[]\_dtpk<U\{phWfgY3m9Y5Tppg`
Z\o[bm5Zmg`phWZYx[]dI[]j_k"mg\om.U\_j_jcT`tdiTY5dtphfh[]pgYS`bdpgWi\_m5
VXWZYspg`}m9YAY3\omv^~Y5[tmyifgY3<"k[eA`byZdzpgY5fv^~`byidtphY5`tdpgWZYA[bfgfh\_[brbYf|[]\_j_m5VXWZYsifgY3T\om\_`bdY5fgfh`bfU\omvrt\lutYAd"k
Y3wtyI[}pg\_`bd) ?tb[]dij_\_mpgY3a`bfxt mpv`tfhnY5fUfgY5Zj_\_5[}pg\_`bd\_dph[bZjlY ?ZUVXWZYsmgIY5Y5\omvmgjl\_rbWzphjlkn\{?YAfhYAdzpv`tda`bfh[bfh[]dI
i[t|"[bfhfgyZdZyZY!pg`~phWZYsmgIY5Y5A`bdzpgfh`bj`td<phWZYs5[]fhfg\o[]rtYbZmg`phWZYAfhYx\omXpgèaYAZ[}p|[~I`t\ldzp|mXpgè\_diAjlyiZYsn di`bf|nYAf
fhYAZj_\oA[}ph\l`td<WiYAfhYb
VXWZY!Z\o[bmXY5fgfh`bf|mX[]fhYb
&+! " ' ) * VXWZYeX[]\lpg\_dZrph\l^~Ye9YTpYAY5d)fgyZdImxX[bm!^~\_dZ\l^yZ^ B^~\ld"ynphY5m5>i[bmgY5`bd)YAnIY5fg\_YAdiAY[]dI
uz\omgyi[]jR`timgYAfhu[]pg\_`bd<`]aFpgWZY!X[ubY3m.\_dpgWZYp|[]dZ? dY3mph\l^[]pgY!`]aFpgWiY!jlY5ubYAj`baFfhY5mg\onyi[]j
I`}
A[bd<I[bmgY5`bd<a[]f
b
[bbY~pgWiYA`bfhkbVXWZY^Y3[]d)utYAj_`"A\{pknYT9T\lp[}pspgWZYAYAdzpgY5fs`baU[ij_[bdZY`tf}TX[]bY\omxrt\lutYAd"k 1jlY5uz\_dim
5bzn"R RG]

3
C Bi3
, Q

Z`bf[bd[}n\{mgkz^~^~YTphfg\oI`nnkpgWZY!fhYAjo[}ph\l`td<\om

3 S Q ?z
C Bzb

YAfhY \omvpgWZY^[}n\l^yZûbY5jl`nT\lpk\ldphWZY[bbY pgWZY~|Wi[]f|[bTpgY5fg\omph\_![bfgY3[~`bdUWi\_|W \omI[bmgY5?[]di
pgWZYafhYAY!3 mpgfhY5[]^ ubYAj_`nT\lpkb7qwzyi[]pg\_`bdim BIS[bdi B"fg YAaYAf|mqph`[A`"`bf|n\ldI[}pgY!mgknmphYA^ ZnY3eph`phWZY!^~`}u"\ldZr9`"Zkb
"U\{p||WZ\_dZrdZ`}
pg`[~Zjo[]dZYsZnY5U\lpgWfhY5mgIY3pph`pgWiY
iyZ\o[bdidZ`bfh^[]jph`pgWiYn\_fgY3ph\l`td`]a7^~`]pg\_`bdc9[tmU\ld
T!vpUpgWZY5`bfhkb"pgWiYxn\{?yimg\l`td`]acphWZY!X[]bYS9Y5T`t^~Y5m[ayZdiTpg\_`bd`]aFpg\_^~Y!"kpgWZYxmgyZimpg\lpgyZpg\_`bd
_
H
C B,?t
3 , Q

H

C B+Bz
%
S
Q
z
?
3

a`bf7Zjo[]dZYU[bdi~[}n\{mgkz^~^~YTphfg\o.[bbY5mfhY5mgIY3pg\_ubY5jlktdpgWi\_m>i"Y3sij_[bdZYpgWZYUutYAj_`"A\{pk 3 \omFpgWZY[tpgyI[]j"ubY5jl`nT\lpk
[}p7pgWiYTYAdzphYAf0j_\ldiYbbdi`]p7pgWiYUubYAj_`nT\lpksnYAIT\lp5zm\_diTYXphWZYU9`"ZkxZnY5~A`z`tfhZ\ldi[]pgYX^~`}ubY3m>U\{phW~[SutYAj_`"A\{pk U\lpgW
fgY3m9Y5TpUpg`pgWZYi"Y3<mgknmphYA^0VF[]Zj_Y Bj_\omp|mXpgWZY!fhY5mgyZjlpg\_dZrubYAj_`nT\lpka`bfXphWZYxTk"j_\ldInYAfx[}n\{mgkz^~^~YTphfg\o5[bdi<[
mphfgynpZjo[]dZYX[}p Hg BtmAVXWZYpg`}mgIY5Y5\_mvmYAppg` Q ^ }m[bdi\{pv\om[tmgmgyZ^~Y5<pgWI[}pUpgWiYsn\l9yimg\_`bd\ld
pgWZYZnY3Zjo[]diY\omXdZ`]p[]9Y3pgY3"kphWZYSa[bTpphWZYSpgWZY^~`]ph\l`td<`bacphWZY!Tk"jl\_dinY5f[bTpgyi[bjlj_kWi[bmXmpg`tZIY3<[]pm`t^Y
pg\_^Y H ! Bti
VF[]Zj_OY Bi . ~]|h }i] }T_5A # 3 |T InT

VcY3mpS.k"j_\ldiZYAf i i Q ?t > Z b3z
zpgfhynp il
Z ZS^
Z b+B

VXWZYfgY3myij{pa`bfphWZYempgfhynpx\_m!pgWZY5dyImY3\_dph[]ijl'Y ?i~VXWiYAfhY\omx[bj_mg`phWZY9`tmhm\_Z\_jl\lpk`ba.fhY5mg\_nyI[]j
i`}nyZY~pg`
fgY5^~[b\ldi\ldZr~X[ubY3mA"Zynpvmg\_diTYSpgWiY5mgYxT`byij_<dZ`]p9Y!`bImY5fgutY5phWZ\omU\_mXdiYArbj_Y5TpgY3
$ &' ) * VXWZYnYAnphW)[}pxUWZ\o|WphWZYeTk"j_\ldInYAf!\omSpg`}Y5C\_m![<phfh[tnY~`]aXIYAp.Y5YAdfg\_rb\on\lpk`]a.pgWZY
^`nnY5j[]di~phWZYS\ld
IyZYAdiAY`bapgWZYafhYAYmgyZfga[bAYbFdepgWi\_mXA[tmYpgWZYTk"j_\ldiZYAf[tm7pg`}Y5[}p[nYAZpgW`baZ Bx^"`bf
i0VXWZY![bîjl\lpgyiZY!`]a>ubYAj_`nT\lpk[}p[rb\_ubY5dZYAnphW\om
Y
C Bzb

UWZYAfhY
Q B^\_mphWZYpg`}MnY5npgWR \_mphWZYT\_fhAyZj_[bfsafhY5wzyZY5diTk)`bapgWiYX[ubYt0[]di \ompgWZY
[]^~Zj_\{phyinYS`]apgWiYX[ubYUY5jlY5u[]pg\_`bd[]pqphWZYmgyZfga[bTYtFVXWiYvYTnZfhY5mhmg\l`tdyimY3m.[tmgmgyZ^~Y5mq\ldZidZ\lpgYS[]pgYAfnYAZpgWR0VXWZY
[utYvd"yZ^s9YAfX\omrb\_ubYAdzk Z > UWZY5fgYvpgWZY^[}eX[ubYvjlY5dZr]phW\om ] a`bfpgf|[]dimgubY5fhmgYX[ubY3mq[]dI
a`tfSZ\lutYAfhrbYAdzpX[ubY3mxI[]jlpg\_dimY5dC]t B" \_rbW[utY!dzyi^s9YAf|m^~Y5[bdimmgj_`}.Y5fvnY55[k<U\lpgWCnYAnphWR
m`~phWZY!I pgf| [] dImutYAf|mYS[utY5mXmgWZ`byZjoIYTfh\{ph\_5[]jdpgWZY!`bpgWZY5fWi[]dInpgWiYx`bdZj_kX[ubY3m.pgWi[]pT`tyZj_9Y!`bimgYAfhubY3
nyZfh\ldZrphWZY!YTn9YAfh\l^~YAdzpYAfhYSZ\lutYAfhrbYAdzpUX[ubY5mqafh`b^ phWZYxmphfgyZp50VXWZYxifg`tyinYd"yZ^s9YAfXa`tfXpgWZYxmpgfhynphmX\om!t + B
a`bf + Q '^ ]m!UWZ\o|W\_ms\ld)[f|[]dZrtY~UWZYAfhY~pgWZY<n\lutYAfhrbY5dtp!X[ubY3m![]fhY~Z`b^~\ldI[]dzp<I[]jlpg\_dimgYAd ]t B"2 1k
`bimgYAfhu"\ldZrspgWZYSX[bmgW`bdepgWZYSph[bdZX[]j_j_m5t\lpU[tm.A`bdiAjlyInY5epgWi[]p.phWZY[utYv[]^~Zj_\{phyinYdZY5ubYAfYTZAYAY5ZY5<sT^
VXWZY!Z\o[bmXj_\l^~\lpv\_mphWZYAdY3mph\l^[}phY5"k?
Q ts^
C B,Rt
?

>
C BG]
)
? Y
C Btt
3

VXWZYxmgY5A`bdi<i[bfh[b^YApgY5f\_dpgWZYnk"di[]^~\oifgY3mgmgyZfhYS\ompgWiYx[]pgY5fXZYAdimg\{pktqVXWZYxnY5dimg\{pk[bdiu"\_mhT`zm\lpke`]apgWZYs[]pgYAf
\_dpgWZYsph[bdZyimgY5a`tf5[]joTyZjo[}ph\ldZreZkzdI[]^~\_xZfgY3mgmgyZfhYx[]diYAk"dZ`bjoZmUd"yZÎY5f[bfgY!rt\lutYAd\ldp|[]Zj_Ye tXVXWiY5mgYxu}[]j_yZY5m
[bfgY~i[tmY3C`td)[<^~Y3[bmgyZfgY3[]pgYAfphYA^~9YAf|[}pgyifgY`baS3 Q []diCph[bbY5dCafh`b^ph[]ijlY3m!yimgY5[}p ' UvVU @~VXWZY
u}[]fh\o[}pg\_`bd`]a?phWZYXpgY5^9YAf|[}phyZfhY\ldphWZYUph[bdZs\om0utYAfhkxj_`}!tmg`pgWZYmh[]^~YXpgY5^~IY5fh[]pgyZfhYU\_mqyimgY5a`bfq[bjljIZ[knmA>VXWZYUZ\o[bmgY5m
[bfgYt
TvY5dim\lpk
) Z_

Tvk"di[b^\o7 cv\omgA`tmg\{pk n U5
VXWZYZkzdI[]^~\_u"\omgA`tmg\{pk)\om`tdZjlkyimgY5UWZYAd5[]joTyZjo[}phY5UYAk"dZ`tj_Zmedzyi^s9YAf3[bdi\_mdi`]pe\_diTj_yinY3\_dpgWZYYAfhfg`tf
Y3mph\l^[}phYbU
%X CZc"q 7
7g Z N|0 R.vc.)>vgv"q

%$ $ VXWZYUkt[[]dZrtjlYXX[bm>mYAp0^[]d"yi[]j_j_k!yim\_dZr![SZnY5Zfh`]phfh[tpg`tf5VXWZY[]dZrtjlYX[bm7mgYTp7"k!pgWZYmh[]^~YX9YAf|m`td
[]j_jcZ[kbnY5dimgyZfg\_dZrpgWi[]pUpgWZYxmh[]^~YfhYTaYAfhYAdITY[tmXyimgY5<Y5[b|W<pg\_^~Yb0VXWZY!i\_[tmXjl\_^~\{pvX[bm.phWZYAdY5mpg\_^[}phY5<pg`
) S Q b
C Btt

UyZdZdZ\_dZr9`]pgWn\_fgY3ph\l`tdimSU\{phWC5YAfh`<[]dirbj_Y`ba[}pgph[t|fhYAutY5[bjlY3dZ`n\l9Y5fgY5diTY\ldTn\_fgY3ph\l`tda`bf|TYpgW"yimdZ`
YAfhfg`tfF\_d~Z\lph|W[]j_\lrtdZ^~YAdzpqT`tyZjos9YU`bimgYAfhubY3Fn\ldiAYmyI|Wsa`tfhAY5m>^[kx9YUubYAfhksmg^[]j_jb[ifgY3T\om\_`bdYAfhfg`tfFY3wzyi[]j
pg`~pgWiY!kt[ZfhY5A\_mg\_`bd[]fhYS[bZZj_\lY3[bd"kzX[kb
" $&+#"%$ & '<)
* jlj>n\_^Y5dimg\l`tdim[]fhY!bY5npA`bdimph[bdtpvZyZfg\_dZre[bdi[]j_knm\omAZpgW"yimUphWZYAfhYxmgWZ`byZjo9YxdZ`ZfhYT
T\om\_`bdYAfhfh`bf|mA>VXWZY!j_YAdZrbpgW[]din\o[]^~YApgYAfU`baphWZY!phY5mpvmY3pg\_`bdYAfhYS^~Y3[bmgyZfgY3ephè[]d[b5TyZf|[bAke`]a S Q s^~^
VXWZYAd
)
Q }^~^
]t
%X % z
Svcv? JCX qZ
VXWZY!\_d
iyiYAdiAYA`"Y eT\_YAdzp9Y5T`t^~Y5m
@
> A
n3
: >
UWZY5fgY : > \_mpgWZYi[]f|[]^~YTphYAf|mX\ldY5wzyi[}ph\l`tdC ?,?t+ 1YAj_`}!ZphWZA YsI[]f|[]^~YTphYAf|mU[]fhYx\ldInYT"kphWZY[bjlZWI[]9YTpvf|[}phWZYAfUphWi[]d
d"yZÎY5fhm5"pg`mgYAi[bfh[]pgYSafg`t^MYAfhfh`bfUm`tyZf|TYS\ldiZYTnY5m50VXWZY!mY5dimg\{ph\lu"\lpkpgù}[]fh\o[}pg\_`bd<\ld[~mg\ldZrtjlYxmgYAdIm`tf\om
Z

Z A
bb

3
> >
3
> >
[bdi<mg\_^\_jo[]fXa`bfS Z 0i`bfUY5fgfh`bfX\_d<phWZY!ubY5jl`nA\{pk~phWZYxmY5dimg\{ph\lu"\lpk\om
Z
Z
q A 3 > <v 3
?t
I
A
>
>

a`tfUI`bpgWdZ`bfh^[]j?a`tfhAY5mX[]di^~`b^~Y5dtp|mA7VXWZYxmgYAdIm\lpg\_u"\{pkphù}[]fh\_[]pg\_`bd\_dnYAdIm\lpke\om
Z
Z
Wq A 3 > < 3 > >
!Bz
A
>
>

[bdieIdi[]j_jlka`bfUu}[]fh\o[}pg\_`bd<\ldn\o[]^~YApgYAf
Z
Z
3
< 3
bb
A
A
> O>
> > >

[bdi<mg\_^\_jo[]fXa`bfUu}[bfg\o[}ph\l`td<\_djlY5dZr]phWR
VXWZYs[bdZrbj_Y!`]a0[]pph[t| & \_mUdi`]pv\_diTj_yinY3\ldphWZYxfhY5nyIpg\_`bdY3wzyi[}ph\l`tdimAIm`~phWZYsmgYAdimg\{ph\lu"\lpk<5[]dZdZ`bpv9YxYTnZfhY5mhmY3
phWZ\_m[kt 1.yZpm\_diAYpgWZYx[bdZrbj_Y`]a7[}pp|[b|<\_mUu}[bfg\_Y5"phWZYxfhYAjo[}ph\l`tdimWi\lIYAp.Y5YAdpgWiYa`bf|TYx[]dIphWZYx[]dirbj_YS`ba0[}pp|[b|
\omq"dZ`}Udeafg`t^ pgWZYSYTn9YAfh\l^~YAdzp3>VXWi\_m.`]aA`byZf|mgY\_m.phWZYfhY5[tm`td~a`bfXn`b\_dZrspgWZYSYTn9YAfh\l^~YAdzp|mq\_dephWZYvIfhmpij_[tTYb7VXWZY
mgYAdimg\lpg\_uz\lpk ]SA[]d<pgWiYAfhYTa`bfhYIY!Y3mph\l^[]pgY5"k[d"yZ^~YAfh\_5[]jRnY5fg\_u}[}ph\l`td<`baphWZY!^~Y5[bmgyZfhY5<fgY3myij{p|mAnU\lpgWfhY5mgIY3pUpg`
phWZY!rb\_ubY5d[bdZrbj_Y`ba>[]pp|[b|?
?
X 7n7scZZ0ctZF"
V`[ut`b\oen\_u"\_mg\l`td"kAY5fgÙWZYAdA[bj_AyZjo[}pg\_dZr[sfhYAjo[}ph\lutYvYAfhfh`bf3t`tdZjlk'&
[bfgYS\_diTj_yinY3e\_dphWZYSa`bj_jl`}U\_dZrsfhY5mgyZjlphm
F\_rbyZfhYbSmWi`}mFpgWZYfhYAjo[}ph\lutYXYAfhfg`tfhma`bf R5[]joTyZjo[}phY5i[tmY3s`td~pgWZYXa`tfgX[]f|sfhyZdim7pgWZY ?i f|~Z[kb>VXWZ\om7fhYAZfhY5mgYAdzphm7[
t mp.`tfhnY5fqfhYAZj_\oA[}ph\l`tde[]Zifg`z[b|WRFVXWZYvi[bfhm.rb\_ubY3m7phWZYA`bdzpgfh\liynpg\_`bdimqafh`b^pgWZYm`tyZf|TYvnY3mgAfg\_9Y5e[bI`}utYb>VXWZYvi[bfp
`baqpgWiYi[]f|mSfgY5ZfgY3mY5dzpg\_dZra`tfhAY[bdink"di[]^~\oifgY3mgmgyZfhY #} gT \ldiAjlyInY5m9`]phWifgY3T\om\_`bd[]diCZ\o[bmYAfhfh`bf|m
a`tf!pgWZY3mYm`tyZf|TY5m5<VXWiY<mg`bj_\_j_\ldZYrb\_ubY5m!pgWZYpg`]p|[]j.YAfhfg`tfafg`t^ Y5wzyi[]pg\_`bdbbTcphWZY<wzyi[tnf|[}pg\omgyZ^'`baXpgWZY<YAfhfg`tf
A`bdzpgfh\liynpg\_`bdim5
%
1 3"# ) %) $
1 3"# %) $
Q
#C*
D&
) C
()
45

!
"

45
40
35
40
35
30
30

25
25
20
20
15
15
10
10
0
1
8 10 12 16 20 25 30

1 > # ) %) $
8 10 12 16 20 25 30

1 > # %) $
45
40
40
35
35
30
30
25

25

20
20
15
15
10
10
0
1
8 10 12 16 20 25

8 10 12 16 20 25

F\_rbyZfhY " vAl] }Ag]|x|}T|} ( X]gbA!g9|]])]9] #o 0" ]lTn_}}o T]

%&
^>
F\lrtyZfhYsrb\_ubY3mXpgWiYsfhYAjo[}pg\_ubY!Y5fgfh`bf|mafh`b^pgWZY~n di`bf|nY5ffgY5Zj_\_5[}pg\_`bdcdphWZ\om5[bmgYs[eT`"Y A\lY5dzpv\_mA[bj_AyZj_[]pgY3

a`tfvY5[t|WfgyidR[]diphWZYsifgY3T\om\_`bdY5fgfh`bf\omi[bmgY5`tdpgWZYu}[]fh\_[]pg\_`bd`]a7phWZY5mgYsu}[bjlyZY3mAS"\{fhYA9YTph\{ph\l`tdim[bfgY[bmhmyZ^~Y3
a`tfv[]j_j[bdZrbj_Y5m5 1kfgY5IY3[}ph\ldZr~phWZY!phY5mpmY5fg\_Y5mYAfhfg`tfhmUnyiY!pgèu}[bfg\o[}ph\l`td`ba>pgWZYsmgYTpS[]dZrtjlYx[bdipgWZYsfgY3m\onyi[bjRubY5jl`nT\lpk
U\_jljF9Ys\_diTj_yinY3\ldpgWZYZfgY3T\om\_`bdi[bfp39mg2` ) []di )
s[]fhYxdZ`bp\_diTj_yinY3\_dpgWZYZ\o[bmY5fgfh`bfUY3mph\l^[]pgY5m5vVXWZ\om\_m
phWZY^[b\ldCfgY3[bmg`bda`bffhYA9Y5[]pg\_dZrephWZYYAnIY5fg\_^~YAdz phm5!`]phYZ\{?YAfhYAdiAY\_dj_YArtYAdiIYAp.Y5YAdpgWZYp.`<Zj_`]phm5!Z`tf!Z dI
`tfhnY5fvfhYAZj_\oA[}ph\l`tdpgWZY5fgY\omv`tdZjlk`tdZYsZfhY5A\_mg\_`bdYAfhfh`bfv[bdi\lp\omSrb\_ubYAdmgYAI[]f|[}pgY5jlktVXWZYfgY5^[]\_dZ\ldir<mg`byZf|TY3mv[]fhYs[bjlj
Z\o[bmXY5fgfh`bf|m5
.`b^~i[bfg\_dZrpgWZYp.`<^~YTpgWi`"imA?phWZY<t mp`bf|nYAffgY5Zjl\oA[]pg\_`bdrt\lutY5mWZ\_rbWY5fgfh`bf|mXa`tfSj_`}%[]dirbj_Y5mS[]di[<j_\{pgpgj_Yj_`}
Y5fgfh`bf|mSa`bf^~Y5n\_yZ^[]diWZ\lrtW[]dZrtjlY3msA`b^~i[]fhY5ph`Cn di)`tfhZYAfxfhYAZj_\oA[}ph\l`tdR
7[bfph\_AyZj_[bfgj_k[]pspgWiYj_`}.Y3mp[bdZrbj_Y5m
\lpmgYAY5^~mxpgWi[]pxpgWiYYAfhfh`bfxnyZYpgù}[bfg\o[}ph\l`td\_d [bdZrbj_Y`]av[]pph[t|\omxj_`}.Y5f!pgWI[]dpgWiYY5mpg\_^[}phYe\ld )
i`bfxWi\lrtWZYAf
[bdZrbj_Y5m0pgWZYST`b^~i[bfg\omg`bd~\_m.fhY5[bmg`bdI[]Zj_YbtUWZ\_|WWZ`b9YTayZj_j_k\_din\oA[]pgY3m0phWi[}pdZ`sjo[]fhrbYUY5fgfh`bfqmg`byifhAY5mq[bfgYv`b^~\{pgpgY3\ldepgWZY
[bdi[]j_knm\omA
B
1 3"# ) %) $
1 3"# %) $
18
18
16
16
14
14
12

12

10
Q
D&
#C*
D&
) C

6
4
2
6
4
2
0
1
8 10 12 16 20 25 30

1 > # ) %) $
8 10 12 16 20 25 30

14
14
12
12
10
10

1 > # %) $
16

10

6
6
4
2
0
0
1
8 10 12 16 20 25

8 10 12 16 20 25

\_rbyifgY!Z T_} Th}|s|A|} ? <]gbA!g9|}}]9} #|o 0" }_Tnl]]Co T]

&
^>
P N
! &%
#" +

5ttbT .b?| qn) #}9!T}?b|5 } @fg\_YArtYAf
0yiZjl\omgWZ\ldire.`t^~i[]d"kb
"!#"$%&!('*)+-,/.0 5bttT BTZA TI]]]921?|T} I # ?} #o T]
] ?|T|3b`td
\lj_YAk[]di"`bdImA
45!6.0
7 ##89:2F5tbz $?|<;c3b}x] $ " I]9 @>=Ui}g$IiAngTi[]^sifg\onrbY?di\lutYAf|m\lpk
0fhY5mhm5
45!6.0
7 ##89:2F]tB" knnfh`nnk"di[]^~\oAm`]a>WZ\_rbWnmgIY5Y5<^~[bfg\_dZYubY5WZ\oTj_Y5m5 RY5TpgyZfhYdZ`]phY5m5
dzpgYAfhdi[]pg\_`bdi[bj"V`}U\_dZrSVF[]di.`bdnaY5fgY5diTY3btt i}7 X Z U}?T?}A @I}t}}' g3|h]ngT|bdtphYAfhdi[}ph\l`tdi[]j
Vc`}U\_dZrV[bdZ.`tdnaYAfhYAdiAYb3Z pgWR
BDC0 EGFH
JIKL<c5tbtT v ]9|| ] ?|T } Z }< RY5 M 3t`bd\_jlY5k<[]dI"`tdim5

&
Annex E
ITTC Recommended
Procedures and Guidelines
Performance, Propulsion
1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
7.5 02
03 01.4
Page 1 of 10
Effective Date
2008
Revision
02
Table of Contents
1.
PURPOSE OF PROCEDURE
2.
DESCRIPTION OF PROCEDURE
2.1 Modifications of the 1978 ITTC

Performance Prediction Method.........2
2.2 Definition of the Variables...................2
2.3 Analysis of the Model Test Results .....3
2.4 Full Scale Predictions ...........................4
2.4.1 Total Resistance of Ship ............... 4
Edited by 22nd ITTC QS Group 1999

15th ITTC 1978 pp388 402
17th ITTC 1984 pp326 - 333
18th ITTC 1987 pp266 - 273
Date
2.4.2 Scale Effect Corrections for

Propeller Characteristics. ........................ 7
2.4.3 Full Scale Wake and Operating
Condition of Propeller .............................. 7
2.4.4 Model-Ship Correlation Factor ...... 8
3.
VALIDATION
3.1 Uncertainty Analysis ............................9

3.2 Comparison with Full Scale Results ...9
4. REFERENCES
Approved
15th ITTC 1978, 17th ITTC 1984
th
and 18 ITTC 1987
Date
ITTC Recommended
Method
7.5 02
03 01.4
Page 2 of 10
Effective Date
2008
Revision
02
1978 ITTC Performance Prediction Method

1.
PURPOSE OF PROCEDURE
The procedure gives a general description

of an analytical method to predict delivered
power and rate of revolutions for single and
twin screw ships from model results.
CF
CFC
CNP
CP
2.
DESCRIPTION OF PROCEDURE
CN
2.1 Introduction
The method requires respective results of
a resistance test, a self propulsion test and the
characteristics of the model propeller used
during the self propulsion test,
The method generally is based on thrust
identity which is recommended to be used to
predict the performance of a ship. It is supposed that the thrust deduction factor and the
relative rotative efficiency calculated for the
model remain the same for the full scale ship
whereas on all other coefficients corrections
for scale effects are applied.
In some special cases torque identity
(power identity) may be used, see section
2.4.4.
CR
CT
D
FD
J
JT
JQ
KT
KQ
KQT
k
kP
NP
n
nT
2.2 Definition of the Variables

CA
CAA
CApp
CD
Correlation allowance
Air resistance coefficient
Appendage resistance coefficient
Drag coefficient
P
PD, PP
PDT
Frictional resistance coefficient

Frictional resistance coefficient
at the temperature of the self
propulsion test
Trial correction for propeller
rate of revolution at power
identity
Trial correction for delivered
power
Trial correction for propeller
rate of revolution at speed
identity
Residual resistance coefficient
Total resistance coefficient
Propeller diameter
Skin friction correction in self
propulsion test
Propeller advance coefficient
achieved by thrust identity
achieved by torque identity
Thrust coefficient
Torque coefficient
Torque coefficient achieved by
thrust identity
Form factor
Propeller blade roughness
Number of propellers
Propeller rate of revolution
Propeller rate of revolution,
corrected using correlation factor
Propeller pitch
Delivered Power, propeller
power
Delivered Power, corrected
using correlation factor
7.5 02
03 01.4
Page 3 of 10
ITTC Recommended
Method
PE, PR
Q
RC
Re
RT
S
SBK
T
t
V
VA
w
wQ
wR
wT
Z
CF
CFC
wC
D
H
0
R
Effective power, resistance

power
Torque
Resistance corrected for temperature differences between
resistance- and self propulsion
test
Reynolds number
Total resistance
Wetted surface
Wetted surface of bilge keels
Propeller thrust
Thrust deduction factor
Ship speed
Propeller advance speed
Taylor wake fraction in general
Taylor wake fraction, torque
identity
Effect of the rudder(s) on the
wake fraction
Taylor wake fraction, thrust
identity
Number of propeller blades
Appendage scale effect factor
roughness allowance
Individual correction term for
roughness allowance
Individual correction term for
wake
Propulsive efficiency or quasipropulsive coefficient
Hull efficiency
Propeller open water efficiency
Relative rotative efficiency
Water density in general
Subscript M signifies the model

Subscript S signifies the full scale ship
2.3 Analysis of the Model Test Results
The calculation of the residual resistance
coefficient CR from the model resistance test
Effective Date
2008
Revision
02
results is found in the procedure for resistance

test (7.5-02-02-01).
Thrust TM, and torque QM, measured in
the self-propulsion tests are expressed in the
non-dimensional forms as in the procedure for
propulsion test (7.5-02-03-01.1).
KTM =
TM
M DM4 nM2
and
KQM =
QM
M DM5 nM2
Using thrust identity with KTM as input

data, JTM and KQTM are read off from the model
propeller open water diagram, and the wake
fraction
wTM = 1
J TM D M
VM
and the relative rotative efficiency
R =
KQTM
KQM
are calculated. VM is model speed.

Using torque identity with KQM as input
data, JQM is read off from the model propeller
open water diagram, and the wake fraction
wQM = 1
J QM D M
VM
VM is model speed.
In case of using torque identity the relative
rotative efficiency
R = 1.0
The thrust deduction is obtained from
ITTC Recommended
Method
t=
TM + FD RC
TM
where FD is the towing force actually applied

in the propulsion test. RC is the resistance
corrected for differences in temperature between resistance and self-propulsion tests:
RC =
(1 + k ).CFMC + CR R
(1 + k ).CFM + CR TM
where CFMC is the frictional resistance coefficient at the temperature of the self-propulsion
test.
2.4 Full Scale Predictions
2.4.1 Total Resistance of Ship

The total resistance coefficient of a ship
without bilge keels is
CTS = (1 + k )CFS + CF + CA + CR + CAAS
is the form factor determined from the

resistance test, see ITTC standard procedure 7.5-02-02-01.
- CFS
is the frictional resistance coefficient

of the ship according to the ITTC1957 model-ship correlation line
- CR
is the residual resistance coefficient

calculated from the total and frictional
resistance coefficients of the model in
the resistance tests:
CR = CTM (1 + k )CFM
The form factor k and the total resistance coefficient for the model CTM
Effective Date
2008
Revision
02
are determined as described in the

ITTC standard procedure 7.5-02-02-01.
The correlation factor for the calculation of
the resistance has been separated from the
roughness allowance. The roughness allowance CF per definition describes the effect of
the roughness of the hull on the resistance.
The correlation factor CA is supposed to allow
for all effects not covered by the prediction
method, mainly uncertainties of the tests and
the prediction method itself and the assumptions made for the prediction method. The
separation of CF from CA was proposed by
the Performance Prediction Committee of the
19th ITTC. This is essential to allow for the
effects of newly developed hull coating systems.
The 19th ITTC also proposed a modified formula for CA that excludes roughness allowance, which is now given in this procedure.
- CF is the roughness allowance
k 3
1
C F = 0.044 S 10 Re 3 + 0.000125
LWL
where
-k
7.5 02
03 01.4
Page 4 of 10
where kS indicates the roughness of

hull surface. When there is no measured data, the standard value of
kS=15010-6 m can be used.
- CA
is the correlation allowance.

CA is determined from comparison of
model and full scale trial results.
When using the roughness allowance
as above, the 19th ITTC recommended
using
CA = (5.68 0.6 log Re) 103

to give values of CF+CA that approximates the values of CF of the
original 1978 ITTC method. It is recommended that each institution main-
ITTC Recommended
Method
tains their own model-full scale correlation. See section 2.4.4 for a further
discussion on correlation.
7.5 02
03 01.4
Page 5 of 10
Effective Date
2008
Revision
02
scale. The following alternative methods are

well established:
1) Scaling using a fixed fraction:
- CAAS is the air resistance coefficient in full

scale
CAAS =
1
A
AVS2CDA VS
2
SS
where, AVS is the projected area of the

ship above the water line to the transverse plane, SS is the wetted surface
area of the ship, A is the air density,
and CDA is the air drag coefficient of
the ship above the water line. CDA can
be determined by wind tunnel model
tests or calculations. Values of CDA are
typically in the range 0.5-1.0, where
0.8 can be used as a default value.
If the ship is fitted with bilge keels of
modest size, the total resistance is estimated
as follows:
CTS =
SS + S BK
[(1 + k )CFS + CF + CA ] + CR + CAAS
SS
where SBK is the wetted surface area of the

bilge keels.
When the model appendage resistance is
separated from the total model resistance, as
described as an option in the ITTC Standard
Procedure 7.5-02-02-01, the full scale appendage resistance needs to be added, and the
formula for total resistance (with bilge keels)
becomes:
CTS =
SS + S BK
[(1 + k )CFS + CF + CA ] + CR + CAAS
SS
+ CAppS
There is not only one recommended

method of scaling appendage resistance to full
CAppS = (1 ) CAppM
where (1-) is a constant in the range
0.6-1.0.
2) Calculating the drag of each appendage separately, using local Reynolds
number and form factor.
n
C AppS = (1 wi ) 2 (1 + ki ) C FSi
i =1
Si
SS
where index i refers to the number of

the individual appendices. wi is the
wake fraction at the position of appendage i. ki is the form factor of appendage i. CFSi is the frictional resistance coefficient of appendage i, and Si
is the wetted surface area of appendage
i. Note that the method is not scaling
the model appendage drag, but calculating the full scale appendage drag.
The model appendage drag, if known
from model tests, can be used for the
determination of e.g. the wake fractions wi. Values of the form factor ki
can be found from published data for
generic shapes, see for instance Hoerner (1965) or Kirkman and Kletsli
(1980).
ITTC Recommended
Method
7.5 02
03 01.4
Page 6 of 10
Effective Date
2008
Revision
02
ITTC Recommended
Method
2.4.2 Scale Effect Corrections for Propeller

Characteristics.
The characteristics of the full-scale propeller are calculated from the model characteristics as follows:
7.5 02
03 01.4
Page 7 of 10
Effective Date
2008
value of which is set kP=3010-6 m. Rec0 must

not be lower than 2105.
2.4.3 Full Scale Wake and Operating Condition of Propeller
The full-scale wake is calculated by the
following formula using the model wake fraction wTM, and the thrust deduction fraction t
obtained as the analysed results of selfpropulsion test:
KTS = KTM KT
KQS = KQM KQ
where
wTS = (t + wR ) + ( wTM t wR )
P cZ
KT = CD 0.3
D D
KQ = CD 0.25
cZ
D
CD = CDM CDS
where
5
t 0.044
C DM = 2 1 + 2
1
2
c (Rec 0 )6 (Rec 0 )3
and
t
c
= 2 1 + 2 1.89 + 1.62 log

c
kP
(1 + k )C FS + C F
(1 + k )C FM
where wR stands for the effect of rudder on

the wake fraction. If there is no estimate for
wR, the standard value of 0.04 can be used.
The difference in drag coefficient CD is
CDS
Revision
02
2.5
In the formulae listed above c is the chord

length, t is the maximum thickness, P/D is the
pitch ratio and Rec0 is the local Reynolds
number with Kempfs definition at the openwater test. They are defined for the representative blade section, such as at r/R=0.75. kP
denotes the blade roughness, the standard
If the estimated wTS is greater than wTM,

wTS should be set as wTM.
The wake scale effect of twin screw ships
with open sterns is usually small, and for such
ships it is common to assume wTS = wTM.
For twin skeg like stern shapes a wake correction is recommended. A correction like the
one used for single screw ships may be used.
The load of the full-scale propeller is obtained from
KT
S
CTS
= S2
2
J
2 DS (1 t ) (1 wTS ) 2 N P
where NP is the number of propellers.

With this K T / J 2 as input value the full
scale advance coefficient JTS and the torque
coefficient KQTS are read off from the full scale
7.5 02
03 01.4
Page 8 of 10
ITTC Recommended
Method
propeller characteristics and the following

quantities are calculated.
- the rate of revolutions:
(1 wTS ) VS
nS =
J TS DS
(r/s)
- the delivered power of each propeller:

K
(kW)
PDS = 2 S DS5nS3 QTS 10 3
- the thrust of each propeller:

K
TS = T2 J T2S S DS4nS2
J
Effective Date
2008
Revision
02
In the following, several different alternative concepts of correlation factors are presented as suggestions. It is left to each member organisations to derive their own values of
the correlation factor(s), taking into account
also the actual value used for CA.
(1) Prediction of full scale rates of revolutions
and delivered power by use of the CP - CN
correction factors
Using CP and CN the finally predicted trial
data will be calculated from
nT = C N nS
(N)
(r/s)
for the rates of revolutions and

- the torque of each propeller:
K QTS
QS =
S DS5 nS2
PDT = CP PDS
(Nm)
(kW)
for the delivered power.
the effective power:

1
PE = CTS SVS3SS 10 3 (kW)
2

and delivered power by use of CFC - wC
corrections
the total efficiency:

N P
D = P DS
PE
In such a case the finally trial predicted

trial data are calculated as follows:
the hull efficiency:

1 t
H =
1 wTS
2.4.4 Model-Ship Correlation Factor

The model-ship correlation factor should
be based on systematic comparison between
full scale trial results and predictions from
model scale tests. Thus, it is a correction for
any systematic errors in model test and powering prediction procedures, including any
facility bias.
KT
S
CTS + CFC
= S2
2
J
2 DS (1 t ) (1 wTS + wC ) 2 N P
With this KT/J as input value, JTS and KQTS

are read off from the full scale propeller characteristics and the following is calculated:
(1 wTS + wC ) VS
(r/s)
J TS DS
K
= 2 S DS5nT3 QTS 10 3
R
nT =
PDT
(kW)
ITTC Recommended
Method
At the point of KT-(J)-Identity the condition is

reached where the ratio between the propeller
induced velocity and the entrance velocity is
the same for the model and the full scale ship.
Ignoring the small scale effect KT on the
thrust coefficient KT it follows that J-identity
correspond to KT- and CT-identity. As a consequence it follows that for this condition the
axial flow field in the vicinity of the propeller
is on average correctly simulated in the model
experiment. Also the axial flow of the propeller slip stream is on average correctly simulated. Due to the scale effects on the propeller
blade friction, which affect primarily the
torque, the point of KQ-identity (power identity) represents a slightly less heavily loaded
propeller than at J-, KT- and CT-identity. At
the power identity the average rotation in the
slipstream corresponds to that of the actual
ship and this condition is regarded as important if tests on stator fins and/or rudders are to
be done correctly.
In this case, the shaft rate of revolutions is
predicted on the basis of power identity as
follows:
KQ
1000 CP PDS
3 =
2 3
3
J T 2 S DSVS (1 wTS )
KQ 0
J3
nS =
K
= Q3 RM
J T
(1 wTS ) VS
J TS DS
Effective Date
2008
Revision
02
nT = CNP nS

and delivered power by use of a CNP correction
For prediction with emphasis on stator fins
and rudder effects, it is sometimes recommended to use power identity for the prediction of full scale rates of revolution.
7.5 02
03 01.4
Page 9 of 10
3.
VALIDATION
3.1 Uncertainty Analysis
Not yet available

3.2 Comparison with Full Scale Results
The data that led to 1978 ITTC performance prediction method can be found in the
following ITTC proceedings:
(1) Proposed Performance Prediction Factors
for Single Screw Ocean Going Ships
(13th 1972 pp.155-180) Empirical Power
Prediction Factor ( 1+X )
(2) Propeller Dynamics Comparative Tests
(13th 1972 pp.445-446 )
(3) Comparative Calculations with the ITTC
Trial Prediction Test Programme
(14th 1975 Vol.3 pp.548-553)
(4) Factors Affecting Model Ship Correlation
(17th 1984 Vol.1 pp274-291)
4. REFERENCES
(1) Hoerner, S.F. (1965) Fluid-Dynamic

Drag. Published by the author.
(2) Kirkman, K.L., Kletsli, J.W. (1980)
Scaling Problems of model appendages, 19th American Towing Tank Conference, Ann Arbor, Michigan
ITTC Recommended
Method
7.5 02
03 01.4
Page 10 of 10
Effective Date
2008
Revision
02

Experimental Methods in Marine Dynamics

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Experimental Methods in Marine Dynamics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

FAKULTET FOR INGENIRVITENSKAP OG TEKNOLOGI NTNU TRONDHEIM

Revised August 2014

INSTITUTT FOR MARIN TEKNIKK

MARINE TECHNOLOGY CENTRE

DEPARTMENT OF MARINE TECHNOLOGY

Figure 1.1 Model tests in Peerlesspool in London in 1761

Figure 3.1 Overview of test facilities at MARINTEK

A typical towing carriage design.

Ship model manufacturing

Towing Tanks at MARINTEK.

Free to surge rig in front of towing carriage.

Cavitation Tunnel at MARINTEK.

Carriage system in Ocean Basin (from SSPA, Sweden).

Wave-maker theory, Wave height to stroke ratio as function of relative depth.

S ( ) g 2 5 exp 1.25( 0 ) 4 exp ( 0 )

Typical example of theoretical JONSWAP spectrum and measured wave spectrum in

( x, y, t ) a n cosk n ( x cos n y sin n ) n t n

COMPUTER DATA BUS

Schematic of typical set op of a data acquisition system for model testing

Examples of strain gauges designs

Vin V ABC V ADC

Figure 4.3 Wheatstone bridge circuit

Examples of half-bridge circuit for measurements of change of resistance of strain

LVDT transducer for displacement measurements.

Capacitance transducers for displacement measurements.

Principle of a gyro for measurement of roll and pitch.

Example of using potentiometers for measurements of heave and pitch motions in

Piezo electric material exposed to surface pressure.

Piezoelectric pressure transducer for pressure measurements.

Prandtl pitot tube.

Pitot tube arrangement for measurement of velocity in several positions.

Principles of a LDV measurement system

Principles of a PIV measurement system

Dynamometer for measurements of propeller thrust and torque.

Example of wave transducers for measurements of relative motions.

Low pass filter

High pass filter

Band pass filter

Illustration of different type of filters.

Figure 4.20 Illustration of time-delay due to filtering

Principle of wireless data transmission from rotating shaft.

Illustration of consequence of too low sampling frequency

where I 2ma 2 and h

Example of elastic modelling of marine riser.

Methods for modelling of an elastic monohull

Hinged model of an elastic catamaran

Test set-up for towing tests

Towing Carriage Measurement of:

Test set-up for propulsion tests. Continental method

Test set-up for propeller open water tests.

Planar Motion Mechanism

Rotating arm Planar Motion Mechanism

Possible arrangement for mounting the model under the carriage

Foramodelrunningatawaveheading,,( 180 isheadsea)theencounterfrequency, e ,is

Illustration of tank wall effects. (From Lloyd (1989))

Required basin size for testing in deep water

Illustration of truncation of mooring system. Left; Full system, Right; truncated

Illustration of hybrid verification procedure (from Stansberg et.al. (2000))

Figure 9.1Principle sketch of hybrid testing of passive anti-roll tank

Mooring line servo units

Full water depth

Example of measured response from a decay test

Forlowdampingratios,typically < 0.2,thisrelationmightbeapproximatedby:

UWZY5fgY `< < > 3. \om.pgWZYSjl\_^~\{pUZfh`bI[]Z\_jl\lpk~i[bmgY5e`bd -'mg[b^~ZjlY3mA7v`]pgYpgWI[}pX\ldpgWZ\omXA[bmgbY X .\om.pgWZYTyZ^yZjo[}pg\_ubY

F\_rbyZfhYO?Z 4 Z q T " H WYeZf[e\=]^Q]_ Z} }A9A A A}

ifg`t^ pgWZ\om5npgWZY iT?h|5 AAiX\_mvnYTidiY5[bm

; 9:: /> > > >

g JC.>i RUc7v X!cic.

F\_rbyZfhYSZ54 Z 5tT8}nI|n9tTSZx|} t T>AhA} }hhTAZA] i}" "A9s3bi}

V`srtYAdZY5fh[bjl\_AYt]pgWiYfhY5nyIpg\_`bdY5wzyi[}ph\l`tdimqA`bdzph[b\ld^Y3[bmgyZfhY5a`bf|TY3mA"[sZkzdI[]^~\_vZfhY5mhmyZfhY! >3 >

7g Z N|0 Nhqi?R7"icc.n

VF[]Zj_YZhhAo}]9)A<{ xh}zT}?I~|]}ZI& - } T]g| ~|}|nh TI 5 }Tl3A T]9

) > +G G Cmg\ld &> >

$ ! &! &#" " &)VXWZYvyimY`]aR[xYAj_jIZ`"AyZ^~YAdzpgY3e[]dIpgY5mpgY3~pg`"`tjij_\ltY ' V 1 mWZ`tyZjofgY3nyiAYUpgWZYd"yZ^s9YAf

VF[]Zj_YO?ZhhAo})}?<A! AT}'& e}CgCTAgA9| Al3T #+ 8 }Tl3A T}?]blx ?T{ib|+

7g Z N|0 7 vZc""i

7g Z N|0 R.vc.)>vgv"q

F\_rbyZfhY " vAl] }Ag]|x|}T|} ( X]gbA!g9|]])]9] #o 0" ]lTn_}}o T]

F\lrtyZfhYsrb\_ubY3mXpgWiYsfhYAjo[}pg\_ubY!Y5fgfh`bf|mafh`b^pgWZY~n di`bf|nY5ffgY5Zj_\_5[}pg\_`bdcdphWZ\om5[bmgYs[eT`"Y A\lY5dzpv\_mA[bj_AyZj_[]pgY3

\_rbyifgY!Z T_} Th}|s|A|} ? <]gbA!g9|}}]9} #|o 0" }_Tnl]]Co T]