200 Questions Answers

Chapter1BridgeWorks
1.Underwhatsituationshallengineersusejackingatoneendonlyandfromboth
endsinprestressingwork?
Duringprestressingoperationatoneend,frictionallosseswilloccurandtheprestressing
forcedecreasesalongthelengthoftendonuntilreachingtheotherend.Thesefrictional
lossesincludethefrictioninducedduetoachangeofcurvatureoftendonductandalsothe
wobble effect due to deviation of duct alignment from the centerline. Therefore, the
prestress forceinthemidspanorattheotherendwillbegreatly reducedincasethe
frictionallossishigh.Consequently,prestressing,frombothendsforasinglespani.e.
prestressingonehalfoftotaltendonsatoneendandtheremaininghalfattheotherendis
carriedouttoenableaevendistributionandtoprovidesymmetryofprestressforcealong
thestructure.
Infact,stressingatoneendonlyhasthepotentialadvantageoflowercostwhencompared
withstressingfrombothends.Formultiplespans(e.g.twospans)withunequalspanlength,
jackingisusuallycarriedoutattheendofthelongerspansoastoprovideahigherprestress
forceatthelocationofmaximumpositivemoment.Onthecontrary,jackingfromtheendof
theshorterspanwouldbeconductedifthenegativemomentattheintermediatesupport
controlstheprestressforce.However,ifthetotalspanlengthissufficientlylong,jacking
frombothendsshouldbeconsidered.
2.Whatispresetduringinstallationofbridgebearings?
Presetisamethodtoreducethesizeofupperplatesofslidingbearingsinordertosave
thematerialcost.Thenormallengthofaupperbearingplateshouldbecomposedofthe
followingcomponents:lengthofbearing+2xirreversiblemovement+2xreversible
movement. Initially the bearing is placed at the midpoint of the upper bearing plate
without considering the directional effect of irreversible movement. However, as
irreversible movement normally takes place at one direction only, the bearing is
displaced/presettedadistanceof(irreversiblemovement/2)fromthemidpointofbearing
inwhichthelengthofupperplatelengthisequaltothelengthofbearing+irreversible
movement + 2 x reversible movement. In this arrangement, the size of upper plate is
minimizedinwhichirreversiblemovementtakesplaceinonedirectiononlyandthereisno
needtoincludethecomponentoftwoirreversiblemovementsintheupperplate.
Note: Preset refers tothedisplacement ofacertain distanceofslidingbearings withrespect toupper
bearingplatesduringinstallationofbearings.
3.Inincrementallaunchingmethodofbridgeconstruction,whatarethemeasures
adoptedtoenhancesufficientresistanceofthesuperstructureduringthelaunching
process?
(i) Duringthelaunchingprocesstheleadingedgeofthesuperstructureissubjecttoalarge
hogging moment. In this connection, steel launching nose typically about 0.60.65
times spanlengthisprovidedattheleadingedgetoreducethecantilevermoment.
Sometimes, instead of using launching nose a tower and stay system are designed
whichservesthesamepurpose.
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(ii) Thesuperstructurecontinuallyexperiencesalternativesaggingandhoggingmoments
duringincrementallaunching.Normally,acentralprestressisprovidedinwhichthe
compressivestressatallpointsofbridgecrosssectionisequal.Inthisway,itcatersfor
thepossibleoccurrenceoftensilestressesinupperandlowerpartofthecrosssection
when subject to hogging and sagging moment respectively. Later when the whole
superstructureiscompletelylaunched,continuityprestressingisperformedinwhichthe
locationanddesignofcontinuitytendonsarebasedonthebendingmomentsinfinal
completedbridgeconditionanditsprovisionissupplementarytothecentralprestress.
(iii)Forverylongspanbridge,temporarypiersareprovidedtolimitthecantilevermoment.
4. In bridge widening projects, the method of stitching is normally employed for
connectingexistingdecktothenewdeck.Whataretheproblemsassociatedwiththis
methodintermsofshrinkageofconcrete?
Inthemethodofstitching,itisanormalpracticetoconstructthewideningpartofthe
bridgeatfirstandletitstayundisturbedforseveralmonths.Afterthat,concretingwillthen
becarriedoutforthestitchbetweentheexistingdeckandthenewdeck.Inthisway,the
deadloadofthewidenedpartofbridgeissupportedbyitselfandloadsarisingfromthe
newlyconstructeddeckwillnotbetransferredtotheexistingdeckwhichisnotdesignedto
takeuptheseextraloads.
Oneofthemainconcernsistheeffectofstressinducedbyshrinkageofnewlywidenedpart
ofthebridgeontheexistingbridge.Toaddressthisproblem,thewidenedpartofthebridge
isconstructedaperiodoftime(say69months)priortostitchingtotheexistingbridgeso
that shrinkage of the new bridge will take place within this period and the effect of
shrinkagestressexertedonthenewbridgeisminimized.
Trafficvibrationontheexistingbridgecausesadverseeffecttothefreshlyplacedstitches.
Tosolvethisproblem,rapidhardeningcementisusedforthestitchingconcretesoasto
shortenthetimeofsettingofconcrete.Moreover,thestitchingworkisdesignedtobe
carriedoutatnightsofleasttraffic(Saturdaynight)andtheexistingbridgemayevenbe
closedforseveralhours(e.g.6hours)toletthestitchingworkstoleftundisturbed.
Sometimes, longitudinal joints areusedinconnecting newbridgesegments toexisting
bridges.Themainproblemassociatedwiththisdesignisthesafetyconcernofvehicles.
Thechangeoffrictionalcoefficientsofbridgedeckandlongitudinaljointswhenvehicles
change traffic lanes is very dangerous to the vehicles. Moreover, maintenance of
longitudinaljointsinbridgesisquitedifficult.
Note:Stitchingreferstoformationofasegmentofbridgedeckbetweenanexistingbridgeandanewbridge.
5.Whataretheadvantagesofassigningthecentralpierandtheabutmentasfixed
piers?
(i)
Forabutmentpiertobeassignedasfixedpierwhilethebridgeisquitelong,the
longitudinal loads due to earthquake are quite large. As the earthquake loads are
resisted by fixed piers, the size of fixed piers will be large and massive. In this
connection,forbetteraestheticappearance,theselectionofabutmentasfixedpiers
couldaccommodatethelargesizeandmassivenessofpiers.Normallyabutmentsare
relativelyshortinheightandforthesamehorizontalforce,thebendingmoment
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(ii)
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inducedissmaller.
Forthecentralpiertobeselectedasthefixedpier,thebridgedeckisallowedtomove
startingfromthecentralpiertotheendofthebridge.However,ifthefixedpieris
locatedattheabutment,theamountofmovementtobeincorporatedineachbearing
duetotemperaturevariation,shrinkage,etc.ismorethanthatwhenthefixedpieris
located at central pier. Therefore, the size of movement joints can be reduced
significantly.
6.Sometimesthesideofconcretebridgesisobservedtoturnblackincolour.Whatis
thereasonforthisphenomenon?
In some cases, it may be due to the accumulation of dust and dirt. However, for the
majorityofsuchphenomenon,itisduetofungusoralgaegrowthonconcretebridges.
Afterrainfall,thebridgesurfaceabsorbswaterandretainsitforacertainperiodoftime.
Hence,thisprovidesagoodhabitatforfungusoralgaetogrow.Moreover,atmospheric
pollution and proximity of plants provide nutrients for their growth. Improvement in
drainage details and application of painting and coating to bridges help to solve this
problem.ReferenceismadetoSandbergConsultingEngineersReport18380/X/01.
7.Inprestressingwork,ifmorethanonewireorstrandisincludedinthesameduct,
whyshouldallwires/strandsbestressedatthesametime?
If wires/strands are stressed individually inside the same duct, then those stressed
strand/wireswillbearagainstthoseunstressedonesandtrapthem.Therefore,thefriction
ofthetrappedwiresishighandisundesirable.
8. In the design of elastomeric bearings, why are steel plates inserted inside the
bearings?
Forelastomericbearingtofunctionasasoftspring,thebearingshouldbeallowedfor
bulginglaterallyandthecompressionstiffnesscanbeincreasedbylimitingtheamountof
lateralbulging.Toincreasethecompressionstiffnessofelastomericbearings,metalplates
areinserted.Aftertheadditionofsteelplates,thefreedomtobulgeisrestrictedandthe
deflectionisreducedwhencomparedwithbearingswithoutanysteelplatesunderthesame
load.Tensilestressesareinducedinthesesteelplatesduringtheiractioninlimitingthe
bulgingoftheelastomer.Thisinturnwouldlimitthethicknessofthesteelplates.
However,thepresenceofmetalplatesdoesnotaffecttheshearstiffnessoftheelastomeric
bearings.
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Fig.1.1Effectofsteelplateinelastomericbearing.
9.Howtodeterminethesizeofelastomericbearings?
For elastomeric bearing, the vertical load is resisted by its compression while shear
resistanceofthebearingcontrolsthehorizontalmovements.Thedesignofelastomeric
bearingsarebasedonstrikingabalancebetweentheprovisionofsufficientstiffnessto
resist high compressive force and the flexibility to allow for translation and rotation
movement.
Thecrosssectionalareaisnormallydeterminedbytheallowablepressureonthebearing
support.Sometimes,theplanareaofbearingsiscontrolledbythemaximumallowable
compressivestressarisingfromtheconsiderationofdelaminationofelastomerfromsteel
plates.Inaddition,thesizeofelastomericbearingsisalsoinfluencedbyconsideringthe
separation between the structure and the edge of bearing which may occur in rotation
becausetensilestressesderivingfromseparationmaycausedelamination.Thethicknessof
bearingsisdesignedbasedonthelimitationofitshorizontalstiffnessandiscontrolledby
movementrequirements.Theshearstrainshouldbelessthanacertainlimittoavoidthe
occurrenceofrollingoverandfatiguedamage.Theverticalstiffnessofbearingsisobtained
byinsertingsufficientnumberofsteelplates.
10.Inacurvedprestressedbridge,howshouldtheguidedbearingsinpiersofthe
curvedregionbeorientedwithrespecttothefixedbearinginabutment?
Todeterminetheorientationofguidedbearings,oneshouldunderstandthemovementof
curvedregionofaprestressedbridge.Movementofprestressandcreeparetangentialtothe
curvatureofthebridge(oralonglongitudinalaxis)whilethemovementduetotemperature
andshrinkageeffectsareinadirectiontowardsthefixedpier.Ifthedirectionofguided
bearingsisalignedtowardsthefixedbearingintheabutment,thedifferenceindirectionof
pretress and creep movement and the guided direction towards fixed bearing would
generate alockedinforceinthebridgesystem.Themagnitude ofthelockinforceis
dependentonthestiffnessofdeckandsupports.Iftheforceissmall,itcanbedesignedas
additionalforceactingonthesupportanddeck.However,iftheforceislarge,temporary
freedomofmovementattheguidedbearingshastobeprovidedduringconstruction.
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Fig.1.2 Thediagramshowinghowtheguidedbearingsinpiersofthecurvedregionis
orientedwithrespecttothefixedbearinginabutment.
11.Intheconstructionofatwospanbridge(spanlength=L)byusingspanbyspan
construction,whyisalengthofabout1.25Lbridgesegmentisconstructedinthefirst
phaseofconstruction?
Basically,therearemainlythreereasonsforthisarrangement:
(i)
Thepermanentstructureisastaticallyindeterminatestructure.Duringconstruction
byusingspanbyspanconstruction,ifthefirstphaseofconstructionconsistsofthe
firstspanlengthLonly,thenthesaggingmomentinthemidspanofthepartially
completedbridgeislargerthanthatofcompletedtwospanpermanentstructure.To
avoidsuchoccurrence,0.25Lofbridgesegmentisextendedfurtherfromthesecond
pier which provides a counteracting moment, thereby reducing the midspan
momentofthepartiallycompletedbridge.
(ii)
Thepositionof1.25Lcounteringfromthefirstpieristheapproximatelocationof
pointofcontraflexure (assumethatthetwospanbridgeisuniformlyloaded)in
which the bridge moment is about zero in the event of future loaded bridge.
Therefore,thedesignofconstructionjointinthisparticularlocationhastheleast
adverseeffectonthestructuralperformanceofthebridge.
(iii)
Incaseofaprestressedbridge,prestressingworkhastobecarriedoutafterthe
constructionoffirstsegmentofthebridge.Iftheprestressingworkisconductedat
thefirstpierwhichisheavilyreinforcedwithreinforcement,itisundesirablewhen
comparedwiththeprestressinglocationat1.25Lfromthefirstpierwherethereis
relativelymorespacetoaccommodateprestressingworks.
Note:Spanbyspanconstructionmeansthatabridgeisconstructedfromonebridgespantoanotheruntilits
completion.
12.Whataretheadvantagesofpiersconstructedmonolithicallywiththebridgedeck
overusageofbearings?
Basically,piersconstructedmonolithicallywiththebridgedeckareadvantageousinthe
followingways:
(i)
Movementofthebridgedeckisachievedbythebendingdeformationoflongand
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(ii)
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slender piers. In this way, it saves the construction cost of bearings by using
monolithic construction between bridge deck and piers. Moreover, it is not
necessarytospendextraefforttodesignfordrainagedetailsandaccessforbearing
replacement.Ontheotherhand,inmaintenanceaspectsubstantialcostandtime
savings could be obtained by using monolithic construction instead of using
bearingsasbridgearticulation.
MonolithicconstructionpossessestheshortesteffectiveEulerbucklinglengthfor
piersbecausetheyarefixedsupportsattheinterfacebetweenbridgedeckandpiers.
Note:Monolithicconstructionmeansthatpiersareconnectedtobridgedeckswithoutanyjointsandbearings.
13.Arediaphragmsnecessaryinthedesignofconcreteboxgirderbridges?
Diaphragmsareadoptedinconcreteboxgirderbridgestotransferloadsfrombridgedecks
tobearings.Sincethedepthofdiaphragmsnormallyexceedsthewidthbytwotimes,they
areusuallydesignedasdeepbeams.However,diaphragmsmaynotbenecessaryincase
bridgebearingsareplaceddirectlyunderthewebsbecauseloadsinbridgedeckscanbe
directlytransferredtothebearingsbasedonJorgSchlaich&HartmutScheef(1982).This
arrangement suffers from the drawback that changing of bearings during future
maintenanceoperationismoredifficult.
Infact,diaphragmsalsocontributetotheprovisionoftorsionalrestrainttothebridgedeck.
14.Whatistheadvantageofslidingbearingsoverrollerbearings?
Inrollerbearingforagivenmovementtherollerbearingexhibitachangeinpressure
centre from its original position by onehalf of its movement based on David J. Lee.
However,withslidingbearingaslidingplateisattachedtotheuppersuperstructureandthe
moving part ofbearingelement is built inthe substructure. Itfollows that there is no
changeinpressurecenterafterthemovement.
15.Whatarethethreemajortypesofreinforcementusedinprestressing?
(i) Spallingreinforcement
Spallingstressesareestablishedbehindtheloadedareaofanchorblocksandthiscauses
breakingawayofsurfaceconcrete.Thesestressesareinducedbystrainincompatibility
withPoissonseffectsorbytheshapeofstresstrajectories.
(ii) Equilibriumreinforcement
Equilibrium reinforcement is required where there are several anchorages in which
prestressingloadsareappliedsequentially.
(iii) BurstingReinforcement
Tensilestressesareinducedduringprestressingoperationandthemaximumburstingstress
occurswherethestresstrajectories areconcavetowardsthelineofactionoftheload.
Reinforcementisneededtoresisttheselateraltensileforces.
16.Whyisthespanlengthratioofendspan/approachspantoitsneighboringinner
spansusuallyabout0.75?
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Fromaestheticpointofview,anoddnumberofspanswithadecreaseinlengthinthe
directionofabutmentisdesirable.Moreover,spansofequallengtharefoundtobeboring.
However,thearrangementofirregularspanlengthsisnotrecommendedbecauseitgivesa
feelingofuneasiness.
Fromstructuralpointofview,foramultispanbridgewithequalspanlength,thesagging
momentatthemidspanoftheendspan/approachspanislargest.Inordertoreducethis
moment,thespanlengthofendspan/approachspanisdesignedtobe0.75ofinnerspans.
However,thisratioshouldnotbelessthan0.40becauseoftheeffectofupliftingattheend
span/approachspansupport.
Note:Endspanreferstothelastspaninacontinuousbridgewhileapproachspanreferstopthefirstspanofa
bridge.
17.Inthedesignofasimplysupportedskewbridge,whichdirectionofreinforcement
shouldbeprovided?
Intheconventionaldesignofsteelreinforcementforasimplysupportedskewbridge,aset
ofreinforcement isusuallyplacedparalleltofreeedgewhiletheothersetisdesigned
paralleltothefixededge.However,thiskindofarrangementisnotthemostefficientway
ofplacingthereinforcement.Thereasonisthatinsomepartsofthebridge,themomentof
resistance is provided by an obtuse angle formed by the reinforcement bars which is
ineffective in resisting flexure. In fact, the most efficient way of the arrangement of
reinforcementundermostloadingconditionsistoplaceonesetofbarsperpendiculartothe
fixededgewhileplacingtheothersetparalleltothefixedendasrecommendedbyL.A.
Clark(1970).Inthisway,considerablesavingswouldbeobtainedfromtheorthogonal
arrangementofreinforcement.
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Fig.1.3Thearrangementof
reinforcementinskewedbridge.
18.Whatarethefunctionsofgroutinsidetendonducts?
Groutinprestressingworksservesthefollowingpurposes:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Protectthetendonagainstcorrosion.
Improvetheultimatecapacityoftendon.
Provideabondbetweenthestructuralmemberandthetendon.
Incaseoffailure,theanchorageisnotsubjecttoallstrainenergy.
19.Whatistheconsiderationinselectingtheorientationofwingwallsinthedesignof
bridgeabutments?
TherearethreecommonarrangementsofwingwallsinbridgeabutmentsbasedonDr.
EdmundCHambly(1979):
(i)Wingwallsparalleltoabutments
Thisisthesimplestandshortesttimetobuildbutisnotthemosteconomicaldesign.This
designhastheadvantagethatithasleastdisturbancetoexistingslopeembankment.
(ii)Wingwallsatanangletoabutments
Thisisthemosteconomicaldesignamongthethreeoptionsintermsofmaterialcost.
(iii)Wingwallsperpendiculartoabutments
Though it is not the most economical design, the wing walls provide a continuous
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alignment with bridge decks which provide supports to parapets. However, they cause
disturbancestoadjacentstructuresandutilityservicesduringconstruction.Moreover,ifthe
bridgeiscurved,thewingwallsmayhindertheroadcurvature.
Onetheotherhand,whenthewingwallsarestructurallyconnectedtotheabutment,then
structuraladvantagecanbetakenbythestabilityofboxstructure.
Fig.1.4Differentorientationofwingwalls.
20.Injointsofprecastconcretebridgesegments,whatarethefunctionsofapplying
epoxyadhesive?
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Epoxyadhesiveisappliedinthesejointsforthefollowingpurposesaccordingto
InternationalRoadFederation(1977):
(i)
Itsealsupthejointscompletelybetweenprecastconcretesegmentstoprotectthe
prestressingtendons;
(ii) Byfillingvoidsandirregularitiesalongthesegmentjoints,ithelpstoreducestress
concentrationsotherwiseitwillbedeveloped;and
(iii) Ithelpsintransferringofshearbetweenthejointsincasealargesingleshearkeyis
used.
21.Underwhatsituation should engineers usepotbearings instead ofelastomeric
bearings?
Intheeventofhighverticalloadscombinedwithlargeangleofrotations,rubberbearings
are undesirable when compared with pot bearings. For instance, elastomeric bearings
requirelargebearingsurfacessothatcompressioncanbemaintainedbetweenthecontact
surfacesbetweenthebearingsandpiers.Moreover,italsoleadstounevendistributionof
stress on the piers and some of these highly induced stresses may damage the piers.
Consequently, potbearings arebetter alternatives thanelastomeric bearings insuchan
scenarioassuggestedbyDavidJ.Lee.
22. What are the shortcomings of grillage analysis which is commonly used in
structuralanalysisofbridges?
GrillageanalysissuffersfromthefollowingshortcomingsbasedonE.C.Hambly:
(i)
(ii)
Forcoarsemesh,torquesmaynotbeidenticalinorthogonaldirections.Similarly,
twistsmaydifferinorthogonaldirections.
Momentinanybeamsismainlyproportionaltoitscurvatureonly.However,moment
inanelementdependsonthecurvaturesinthebeamsdirectionanditsorthogonal
direction.
23.Polytetrafluoroethylene(PTFE)iscommonlyusedinslidingbearings.Why?
Thechoiceofslidingsurfaceofbearingsisofvitalimportancebecausetheslidingsurfaces
generatefrictionalforceswhichareexertedonthebearingsandsubstructureofthebridge.
Forinstance,PTFEandlubricatedbronzearecommonlychoicesofslidingsurfacesfor
bearings.PTFEisaflurocarbonpolymerwhichpossessesgoodchemicalresistanceandcan
functioninawiderangeoftemperature.Themostimportantcharacteristicofthismaterial
isitslowcoefficientoffriction.PTFEhasthelowestcoefficientsofstaticanddynamic
frictionofanysolidwithabsenceofstickslipmovement(DavidJ.Lee).Thecoefficientof
frictionisfoundtodecreasewithanincreaseincompressivestress.However,PTFEdo
havesomedemeritslikehighthermalexpansionandlowcompressivestrength.
IndesigningthecomplementarycontactplatewithPTFEslidingsurface,stainlesssteel
platesarenormallyselectedwheretheplatesshouldbelargerthanPTFEsurfacetoallow
movementwithoutexposingthePTFE.Moreover,itisrecommendedthatthestainlesssteel
surfacebepositionedontopofthePTFEsurfacetoavoidcontaminationofdirtandrubbish.
LubricantsaresometimesintroducedtoreducethefrictionbetweenthePTFEsurfaceand
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theupperstainlesssteelplate.Hence,thePTFEmaybedesignedwithdimplestoavoidthe
lubricantfromsqueezingoutunderrepeatedtranslationmovements.
24.Shouldrakingpilesofabridgeabutmentbeplacedunderanembankment?
For a bridge abutment to be supported on raking piles with different orientations, the
movementbetweenthegroundandthepilegroupisdifficulttopredict.Forinstance,if
someoftherakingpilesofthebridgeabutmentareextendedbeneathanembankment,then
the settlement of embankment behind the abutment may cause the raking piles to
experienceseverebendingmomentanddamagethepilesasrecommendedbyDr.Edmund
CHambly(1979).
25.Howdoengineerdeterminethenumberofcellsforconcreteboxgirderbridges?
If the depth of a box girder bridge exceeds 1/6 or 1/5 of the bridge width, then it is
recommendedtobedesignedasasinglecellboxgirderbridge.However,ifthebridge
depthissmallerthan1/6ofthebridgewidth,thenatwincellormultiplecellisabetter
choiceassuggestedbyJorgSchlaich&HartmutScheef(1982).However,oneshouldnote
thatevenforwiderbridgeswithsmalldepths,thenumberofcellsshouldbeminimized
becausethereisnotmuchimprovementintransverseloaddistributionwhenthenumberof
cellsofboxgirderisincreasedtothreeormore.
26.Whatissuckerdeckprincipleforvariabledepthbridgedecks?
For a variable depth bridge deck, the depth of continuous multispan bridge deck is
increased inpiersupports andthisabsorbs saggingmoments inthemidspanwiththe
consequentincreaseinhoggingmomentsinpiersupports.Asaresult,themidspandepth
can be significantly reduced due to the reduction in sagging moment. In essence, this
sucker deck principle is applied in locations where headroom requirement is of great
concern. Moreover, in terms of structural performance, sucker decks are effective in
reducingdeadloadsthanvoidedslabofequivalentuniformdepthforspanlengthbetween
2040m.Intermsofaestheticspointofview,thepublictendstoappreciatethestructural
formofarchesandcurvedsoffitratherthanboringuniformdeckalignment.Referenceis
madetoBrianPritchard(1992).
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Chapter2ConcreteStructures
1.Whatarethefunctionsofdifferentcomponentsofatypicalexpansionjoint?
Inatypicalexpansionjoint,itnormallycontainsthefollowingcomponents:jointsealant,
jointfiller,dowelbar,PVCdowelsleeve,bondbreakertapeandcradlebent.
Jointsealant:itsealsthejointwidthandpreventswateranddirtfromenteringthejointand
causing dowel bar corrosion and unexpected joint stress resulting from restrained
movement.
Joint filler: it is compressible so that the joint can expand freely without constraint.
Someonemaydoubtthatevenwithoutitspresence,thejointcanstillexpandfreely.In
fact,itspresenceisnecessarybecauseitservesthepurposeofspaceoccupationsuchthat
even if dirt and rubbish are intruded in the joint, there is no space left for their
accommodation.
Dowelbar:Thisisamajorcomponentofthejoint.Itservestoguidethedirectionof
movementofconcreteexpansion.Therefore,incorrectdirectionofplacementofdowelbar
willinducestressesinthejointduringthermalexpansion.Ontheotherhand,itlinksthe
twoadjacentstructuresbytransferringloadsacrossthejoints.
PVCdowelsleeve:Itservestofacilitatethemovementofdowelbar.Ononesideofthe
joint,thedowelbarisencasedinconcrete.Ontheotherside,however,thePVCdowel
sleeveisbondeddirectlytoconcretesothatmovementofdowelbarcantakeplace.One
maynoticethatthedetailingofnormalexpansionjointsinHighwaysStandardDrawingis
insuchawaythatpartofPVCdowelsleeveisalsoextendedtotheotherpartofthejoint
where the dowel bar is directly adhered to concrete. In this case, it appears that this
arrangement preventsthemovement ofjoint.Ifthisisthecase,whyshoulddesigners
purposelyputupsucharrangement?Infact,therationalebehindthisistoavoidwater
fromgettingintocontactwithdowelbarincasethejointsealantfails.AsPVCisaflexible
material,itonlyminutelyhindersthemovementofjointonlyunderthisdesign.
Bond breaker tape: As the majority of joint sealant is applied in liquid form during
construction,thebondbreakertapehelpstopreventflowingofsealantliquidinsidethe
joint.
Cradlebar:Ithelpstoupholdthedowelbarinpositionduringconstruction.
2.Ifonsiteslumptestfails,shouldengineersallowthecontractortocontinuethe
concretingworks?
Thisisaveryclassicalquestionraisedbymanygraduateengineers.Infact,therearetwo
schoolsofthoughtregardingthisissue.
Thefirstschoolofthoughtisratherstraightforward:thecontractorfailstocomplywith
contractualrequirementsandthereforeasperG.C.C.Clause54(2)(c)theengineercould
ordersuspensionoftheWorks.UndertheconditionsofG.C.C.Clause54(2)(a)(d),the
contractor is not entitled to any claims of cost which is the main concern for most
engineers.ThisisthecontractualpowergiventotheEngineerincaseofanyfailureintests
requiredbythecontract,eventhoughsomeengineersarguethatslumptestsarenotas
importantasothertestslikecompressiontest.
Thesecondschoolofthoughtistoletthecontractortocontinuetheirconcretingworksand
later on request the contractor to prove that the finished works comply with other
contractual requirements e.g. compression test. This is based upon the belief that
workabilityismainlyrequiredtoachievedesignconcretecompressionstrength.Incasethe
compression test also fails, the contractor should demolish and reconstruct the works
accordingly.Infact,thisisaratherpassivewayoftreatingconstructionworksandisnot
recommendedbecauseofthefollowingreasons:
(i)
(ii)
Workabilityoffreshlyplacedconcreteisrelatednotonlytostrengthbutalsoto
durabilityofconcrete.Evenifthefuturecompressiontestpasses,failinginslump
testindicatesthatitmayhaveadverseimpacttodurabilityofcompletedconcrete
structures.
In case the compression test fails, the contractor has to deploy extra time and
resourcestoremovetheworkandreconstructthemonceagainandthisslowsdown
theprogressofworkssignificantly.Hence,inviewofsuchlikelyprobabilityof
occurrence,whyshouldnttheEngineerexercisehispowertostopthecontractor
andsavetheseextratimeandcost?
3.Whatisthefunctionofshearkeysinthedesignofretainingwalls?
Indeterminingtheexternalstabilityofretainingwalls,failuremodeslikebearingfailure,
slidingandoverturningarenormallyconsideredindesign.Inconsideringthecriterionof
sliding,theslidingresistanceofretainingwallsisderivedfromthebasefrictionbetween
thewallbaseandthefoundationsoils.Toincreasetheslidingresistanceofretainingwalls,
otherthanprovidingalargeselfweightoralargeretainedsoilmass,shearkeysaretobe
installedatthewallbase.Theprincipleofshearkeysisasfollows:
Themainpurposeofinstallationofshearkeysistoincreasetheextrapassiveresistance
developedbytheheightofshearkeys.However,activepressuredevelopedbyshearkeys
alsoincreasessimultaneously.Thesuccessofshearkeysliesinthefactthattheincreaseof
passivepressureexceedstheincreaseinactivepressure,resultinginanetimprovementof
slidingresistance.
Ontheotherhand,frictionbetweenthewallbaseandthefoundationsoilsisnormallyabout
afractionoftheangleofinternalresistance(i.e.about0.8 )where istheangleof
internalfrictionoffoundationsoil.Whenashearkeyisinstalledatthebaseoftheretaining
wall,thefailure surfaceischangedfromthewallbase/soilhorizontal planetoaplane
withinfoundationsoil.Therefore,thefrictionanglemobilizedinthiscaseisinsteadof
0.8inthepreviouscaseandtheslidingresistancecanbeenhanced.
4.Indesigningconcretestructures,normallymaximumaggregatesizesareadopted
with ranges from 10mm to 20mm. Does an increase of maximum aggregate size
benefitthestructures?
Toanswerthisquestion,letsconsideranexampleofacube.Thesurfaceareatovolume
ratioofacubeis6/bwherebisthelengthofthecube.Thisimpliesthatthesurfaceareato
volumeratiodecreaseswithanincreaseinvolume.Therefore,whenthesizeofmaximum
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aggregateisincreased,thesurfaceareatobewettedbywaterperunitvolumeisreduced.
Consequently,thewaterrequirementoftheconcretemixesisreducedaccordinglysothat
thewater/cementratiocanbelowered,resultinginariseinconcretestrength.
However, an increase of aggregate size is also accompanied by the effect of reduced
contact areas anddiscontinuities created bytheselarger sizedparticles. Ingeneral, for
maximumaggregatesizesbelow40mm,theeffectoflowerwaterrequirementcanoffset
thedisadvantagesbroughtaboutbydiscontinuitiesassuggestedbyLongmanScientificand
Technical(1987).
5. In concrete compression test, normally 150mmx150mmx150mm concrete cube
samplesisusedfortesting.Whyisnt100mmx100mmx100mmconcretecubesamples
usedinthetestinsteadof150mmx150mmx150mmconcretecubesamples?
Basically,theforcesuppliedbyaconcretecompressionmachineisadefinitevalue.For
normal concrete strength application, say below 50MPa, the stress produced by a
150mmx150mmx150mmcubeissufficientforthemachinetocrushtheconcretesample.
However, if the designed concrete strength is 100MPa, under the same force (about
2,000kN)suppliedbythemachine,thestressundera150mmx150mmx150mmcubeisnot
sufficienttocrushtheconcretecube.Therefore,100mmx100mmx100mmconcretecubes
areusedinsteadtoincreasetheappliedstresstocrushtheconcretecubes.
For normal concrete strength, the cube size of 150mmx150mmx150mm is already
sufficientforthecrushingstrengthofthemachine.
6.Whatarethemajorproblemsinusingpumpingforconcretingworks?
Inpumpingoperation,theforceexertedbypumpsmustovercomethefrictionbetween
concreteandthepumpingpipes,theweightofconcreteandthepressureheadwhenplacing
concreteabovethepumps.Infact,asonlywaterispumpable,itisthewaterintheconcrete
thattransfersthepressure.
Themainproblemsassociatedwithpumpingaretheeffectofsegregationandbleeding.To
rectifytheseadverseeffects,theproportionofcementisincreasedtoenhancethecohesion
in order to reduce segregation and bleeding. On the other hand, a proper selection of
aggregategradinghelpstoimprovethepumpabilityofconcrete.
7.Isitdesirabletouseconcreteofveryhighstrengthi.e.exceeding60MPa?Whatare
thepotentialproblemsassociatedwithsuchhighstrengthconcrete?
Toincreasethestrengthofconcrete,sayfrom40MPato80MPa,itdefinitely helpsin
improvingthestructuralperformanceofthestructurebyproducingadenser,moredurable
and higher load capacity concrete. The size of concrete members can be significantly
reducedresultinginsubstantialcostsavings.However,anincreaseofconcretestrengthis
alsoaccompanied bythe occurrence ofthermal cracking.Withanincrease inconcrete
strength, the cement content is increased and this leads to higher thermal strains.
Consequently, additional reinforcement hastobeintroduced tocontroltheseadditional

cracks causedbythe increase inconcrete strength. Moreover,the ductility ofconcrete
decreaseswithanincreaseinconcretestrength.Attentionshouldbepaidduringthedesign
ofhighstrengthconcretetoincreasetheductilityofconcrete.Inaddition,fireresistanceof
highstrengthconcreteisfoundtobelessthannormalstrengthconcreteassuggestedby
OddE.Gjorv(1994).
Thoughthetensilestrengthofhighstrengthconcreteishigherthanthatofnormalconcrete,
therateofincreaseoftensilestrengthisnotproportionaltotheincreaseofcompressive
strength.Fornormalconcrete,tensilestrengthisaboutonetenthofcompressivestrength.
However,forhighstrengthconcrete,itmayonlydropto5%ofcompressivestrength.
Moreover,owingtoalowaggregatecontentofhighstrengthconcrete,creepandshrinkage
increases.
8.Whatarethedisadvantagesofcuringbypondingandpolythenesheets?
Thepurposeofcuringistoreducetherateofheatlossoffreshlyplacedconcretetothe
atmosphere and to minimize the temperature gradient across concrete cross section.
Moreover,curingservestoreduceofthelosswaterfromfreshlyplacedconcretetothe
atmosphere.
Ponding:This methodofthermalcuringisreadilyaffected byweathercondition(cold
wind).Moreover,alargeamountofwaterusedhastobedisposedofftheconstructionsites
aftercuring.
Polythenesheet:Thismethodofcuringisbasedontheprinciplethatthereisnoflowofair
overtheconcretesurfaceandtherebynoevaporationcantakeplaceontopofthefreshly
concretedsurfacebyprovisionofpolythenesheets.However,itsuffersfromthedemerit
thatpolythenesheetscanbeeasilyblownoffinwindyconditionandtheperformanceof
curingwouldbeaffected.Moreover,forwaterlostduetoselfdesiccation,thismethod
cannotreplenishtheselosses.
9.ComparingtherateofFormworkexceeding300mmwide,horizontaloratany
o
inclination up toandincluding5 tothehorizontalwith therateofFormwork
o
o
exceeding300mmwide,atanyinclinationmorethan85 uptoandincluding90 to
thehorizontal,whichoneishigher?
o
TheitemFormworkexceeding300mmwide,atanyinclinationmorethan85 uptoand
o
including90 tothehorizontalreferstoformworkformedverticallyandwhencompared
withformworkerectedinhorizontalplane,theamountoffalseworkrequiredissmaller.
TheitemFormworkexceeding300mmwide,horizontaloratanyinclinationuptoand
o
including5 tothehorizontalreferstoformworktobeerectedinhorizontalpositionand
ingeneralitrequiresmuchfalseworktosupportthistypeofformwork.Therefore,therate
forthisitemishigherthantheonementionedintheaboveparagraph.
10.Ifconcretecompressiontestfails,shouldSchmidthammertestbeadoptedasan
alternativetesttoprovetheconcretestrength?
TheScmidt hammer testisbasedontheelastic reboundofhammerwhichpresses on

concretesurfaceanditmeasuresthesurfacehardnessofconcrete.Sincethetestisvery
sensitivetothepresenceofaggregatesandvoidsattheconcretesurface,itisnecessaryto
take more than 10 readings over the area of test. However, it should be noted that Schmidt
hammer test measures surface hardness only but not the strength of concrete. Therefore, it
may not be considered a good substitute for concrete compression test.
11.Whatistheindicationofshearslumpandcollapseslumpinslumptests?
Therearethreetypesofslumpthatmayoccurinslumpstest,namely,trueslump,shear
slumpandcollapseslump.
True slump refers to general drop of the concrete mass evenly all around without
disintegration.
Shearslumpimpliesthattheconcretemixisdeficientincohesion.Consequently,itmay
undergosegregationandbleedingandthusisundesirablefordurabilityofconcrete.
Collapseslumpindicatesthatconcretemixistoowetadthemixisdeemedtobeharshand
lean.
12.Inerectionoffalsework,forarectangularpanelinsideafalseworkshoulditbe
bracedalongthetwodiagonals?
Whenarectangularpanelissubjecttoaneccentricloadoralateralload,ittendstodeform
intoaparallelogramwithonediagonalshorteningandtheotherelongating.Theoretically,it
issufficienttobracealongoneofthediagonals(theoneintension).Ifonediagonalisonly
allowedtobraceinsidetherectangularpanel,itshouldbenotbracedinthediagonalin
compression because under severe lateral loading the diagonal may buckle leading to
failureofstructure.
However,inactualsituationlateralloadsmaycomefrombothsidesofthepanelandhence
itshouldbebracedinbothdiagonals.
13.Incarryingoutcompressiontestforconcrete,shouldtestcubesortestcylindersbe
adopted?
Basically,theresultsofcompressiontestcarriedoutbyusingcubesarehigherthanthatby
cylinders.Incompressiontest,thefailuremodeisintheformoftensilesplittinginducedby
uniaxialcompression.However,sincetheconcretesamplestendtoexpandlaterallyunder
compression, the friction developed at the concretemachine interface generates forces
whichapparentlyincreasethecompressivestrengthofconcrete.However,whentheratio
ofheighttowidthofsampleincreases,theeffectofshearoncompressivestrengthbecomes
smaller.Thisexplainswhytheresultsofcompressiontestbycylindersarelowerthanthat
ofcubes.ReferenceismadetoLongmanScientificandTechnical(1987).
14.Whatisthefunctionofrebateinatypicalconstructionjoint?
Constructionjointsarecreatedonsitestofacilitatetheconstructionprocess.However,if
improperlyconstructed,thecompletedconstructionjointswillleaveanunevenscaronthe
concretesurfaceandaffectsignificantlyitsappearance.Toavoidthis,arebateisformed
duringthefirstpourofonesideofconstructionjoint.Aftertheotherpourisconcreted,it
willhidetheunevenjointinsidetherebate.
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Fig.2.1Arebate.
15. If a contractor proposes to increase concrete cover beyond contractual
specification(i.e.40mmto70mm),shallengineersaccepttheproposal?
In contractual aspect, based on the requirement of General Specification of Civil
EngineeringWorks(1992Edition),thetoleranceofconcretecoverisbetween+5mmand
5mmandengineersshouldnotacceptsubstandardworkbecausetheydonotpossessthe
authoritytochangetheacceptancecriteria.Incaseengineersconsidercontractorsproposal
acceptableintechnicalpointofview,consenthastobesoughtfromtheemployerregarding
thechangesinacceptancecriteria.
Fromtechnicalpointofview,theeffectoncrackingduetoanincreaseinconcretecover
shouldbeconsidered.Ingeneral,therearethreemainparameterswhichgoverncrackwidth,
namely tensile strain at the point considered, the distance of longitudinal bar to the
concernedpointandthedepthoftensionzone.
Forthesecondfactor,i.e.proximityoflongitudinalbarstopointofsection,thecloserabar
istothispoint,thesmalleristhecrackwidth.Therefore,closelyspacedbarswithsmaller
coverwillgivenarrowercracksthanwidelyspacedbarswithlargercover.Therefore,with
anincreaseofconcretecover,thecrackwidthwillincreasewhichisundesirable.
16.Cangroutreplaceconcreteinnormalstructure?
Themixtureofcementandwateralonecannotreplaceconcrete(LongmanScientificand
Technical(1987))because:
(i) Shrinkageofgroutisseveraltimesthatofconcretewiththesamemass.
(ii) Theeffectofcreepofgroutisfarmorethanthatofconcrete.
(iii) Heatofhydrationofcementwithwaterismorethannormalconcreteandthisleadsto
theproblemofseverecracking.
17.Whichtypeofbarreinforcementismorecorrosionresistant,epoxycoatedbars,
stainlesssteelbarsorgalvanizedbars?
BasedontheexperimentconductedbytheBuildingResearchEstablishment,itwasshown
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thatthecorrosionresistanceofgalvanizedsteelwastheworstamongthethreetypesofbar
reinforcement.Forgalvanizedsteelbars,corrosionstartedtooccurwhenacertainchloride
contentinconcrete(i.e.0.4%bycementweight)wasexceeded.However,forepoxycoated
bars,theyextendedthetimetakenforcrackingtooccurwhencomparedwithgalvanized
steelbars.
The best corrosion resistant reinforcement among all is stainless steel. In particular,
austenitic stainless steel stayed uncorroded even there was chloride contamination in
concreteintheexperiment.ReferenceismadetoK.W.J.Treadaway(1988).
18.Canaconcretestructurebecompletelyfreeofexpansionjointsandcontraction
joints?
Considerthattheconcretestructureisnotsubjecttotheproblemofdifferentialsettlement.
For contraction joints, it may be possible to design a concrete structure without any
contractionjoints.Byusingsufficientsteelreinforcementtospreadevenlythecrackwidth
overthespanlengthofthestructure,itmayachievetherequirementofminimumcrack
widthandcausenoadverseimpacttotheaestheticsofthestructure.However,itfollows
that the amount of reinforcement required is higher than that when with sufficient
contractionjoints.
Forexpansionjoints,theconsequenceofnotprovidingsuchjointsmaybedifficulttocater
for.Forexample,aconcretestructurehasthecoefficientofthermalexpansionof9x10
6 o
/ CandaYoungsmodulusof34.5kN/mm .Withanincreaseoftemperatureof20 Cand

itisrestrictedtofreeexpansion,thenthestructureissubjecttoanaxialstressof6.21MPa.
Ifthestructureisveryslender(e.g.concretecarriageway),bucklingmayoccur.Therefore,
thestructurehastobedesignedtotakeupthesethermalstressesifexpansionjointsarenot
provided.However,forwaterretainingstructures,mostofthemarenotaffectedbyweather
conditions because they are insulated from the water they contain internally and soil
backfill thatsurroundthem.Therefore,itisexpectedthatasmalleramountofthermal
movement will occur when compared with normal exposed concrete structure.
Consequently, expansion joints may be omitted in this case with the view that the
compressive stress induced by thermal expansion toughens the structure to limit the
developmentoftensilestress.
19.Doesthepresenceofrusthaveadverseimpacttothebondperformanceofbar
reinforcement?
Infact,thepresenceofrustinbarsmaynothaveadverseimpacttothebondperformance
anditdependsonthetypesofbarreinforcementunderconsideration.
Forplainroundbars,therustonbarsimprovesthebondperformancebytheformationof
roughsurfaceswhichincreasesthefrictionbetweensteelandconcrete.
However,fordeformedbars,thesametheorycannotapply.Thepresenceofrustimpairs
thebondstrengthbecausecorrosionoccursattheraisedribsandsubsequentlyfillsthegap
betweenribs,thuseveningouttheoriginaldeformedshape.Inessence,thebondbetween
concreteanddeformedbarsoriginatesfromthemechanicallockbetweentheraisedribs
andconcrete.Onthecontrary,thebondbetweenconcreteandplainroundbarsderives
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fromtheadhesionandinterfacefriction.Withsuchdifferencesinmechanisminbonding,
thebehaviourofbondbetweendeformedbarsandplainroundbarsinthepresenceofrust
varies.ReferenceismadetoCIRIAReport147.
20.GeneralSpecificationforCivilEngineeringWorks(1992Edition)Clause15.09
specifiesthattyingwiresforreinforcementadjacenttoandaboveClassF4andF5
finishesshouldbestainlesssteelwires.Why?
IfplainsteeltyingwiresareusedforreinforcementadjacenttoClassF4andF5finishes,it
posestheproblemofruststainingwhichmayimpairtheappearanceofexposedconcrete
surfaces. The rate of corrosion of plain steel tying wires is similar to normal steel
reinforcement.However,fortyingwireswithverysmalldiameter,uponlongexposureit
standsahighchanceofrustingcompletelyandtheserustwillstaintheformworkand
significantlyaffecttheconcretefinish.Therefore,stainlesssteeltyingwiresarespecified
forlocationsinthevicinityofhighqualityoffinishestoavoidruststainingbycorroded
typingwires.
Note:Tyingwiresarewiresusedforfixingandconnectingsteelreinforcementbars.
21. For longslender structures like beams, propping is required after removal of
formwork.Why?
Afterconcreting,thetimeatwhichstrikingofformworksshouldnotbetoolong,otherwise
itwouldaffectthecolourofconcretedstructures.Forlongspanconcretestructures,when
theyhaveattainedsufficientstrengthtosupporttheirselfweight,creepdeflectionmay
occur in these structures if propping is not provided after the removal of formwork.
Therefore,reproppingiscarriedoutafterremovingformworkandthesepropsshouldnot
beallowedtostandtoolongbecausecreeploadsmayoverstressthem.
Note:Proppingreferstoprovisionoffalseworktosupportslabsandbeamsduringtheirgaininconcrete
strengthafterconcreting.
22.Whatisthedifferenceinapplicationbetweenopenstirrupsandclosedstirrupsin
concretebeams?
Openstirrupsareprovidedprincipallytoresistshearforcesinconcretebeamsandtheyare
appliedinlocationsinwhichtheeffectoftorsionisinsignificant.Ushapedstirrupsare
placedinthetensionsideofconcretebeamsinwhichshearcrackswouldoccur.However,
whenconcretebeamsaredesignedtoresistasubstantialamountoftorsion,closedstirrups
shouldbeusedinstead.
23. For column reinforcements, why is helical reinforcement sometimes designed
insteadofnormallinks?
TheuseoflinksforcolumndesigninBritainisverypopular.However,inU.S.A.engineers
tendtousehelicalreinforcementinsteadofnormallinksbecausehelicalreinforcementhasthe
potential advantage of protecting columns/piles against seismic loads. Moreover, when the
columnsreachthefailurestate,theconcreteoutsidehoopscracksandfallsofffirstly,followed
by the eventual failure of the whole columns. The peeling off of concrete outside helical
reinforcementprovidesawarningsignalbeforethesuddenfailureofcolumnsassuggestedby
G.P.Manning(1924).Inaddition,itcantakeupahigherworkingloadthan
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normallinkreinforcement.
Forinstance,helicalreinforcementisadoptedinthedesignofmarinepilesinGovernment
piers.
Note:Helicalreinforcementreferstoshearreinforcementwhichisspiralinshapes.
24.Whatisthedifferencebetweenepoxygrout,cementgroutandcementmortar?
Epoxygroutconsistsofepoxyresin,epoxyhardenerandsand/aggregates.Infact,thereare
varioustypesofresinusedinconstructionindustrylikeepoxy,polyester,polyurethaneetc.
Thoughepoxygroutappearstoimplythepresenceofcementmaterialbyitsname,itdoes
notcontainanycementatall.Ontheotherhand,epoxyhardenerservestoinitiatethe
hardeningprocessofepoxygrout.Itiscommonlyusedforrepairinghairlinecracksand
cavitiesinconcretestructuresandcanbeadoptedasprimerorbondingagent.
Cementgroutisformedbymixingcementpowderwithwaterinwhichtheratioofcement
ofwaterismoreorlesssimilartothatofconcrete.Settingandhardeningaretheimportant
processes which affect the performance of cement grout. Moreover, the presence of
excessivevoidswouldalsoaffectthestrength,stiffnessandpermeabilityofgrout.Itis
versatileinapplicationoffillingvoidsandgapsinstructures.
Cementmortarisnormallyamixtureofcement,waterandsand.Theyareusedasbedding
forconcretekerbsinroadwork.
25.Whatisthepurposeofskinreinforcementfordeepbeams?
InBS8110,itstatesthatsecondaryreinforcementshouldbeprovidedforbeamsexceeding
750mmdeepatadistancemeasured2/3depthfromthetensionface.Experimentalworks
revealedthatatorclosetomiddepthofdeepbeams,themaximumwidthofcracksarising
fromflexuremaybeabouttwotothreetimeslargerthanthewidthofthesamecrackatthe
levelofsurfacewherethecrackoriginallyforms.
The presence of crack is undesirable from aesthetic point of view. Moreover, it poses
potentialcorrosionproblemstoreinforcementofdeepbeams.Tosafeguardagainstthese
crackformation,skinreinforcementisdesignedonthesidesofdeepbeamstolimitthe
formationofflexuralcrackwidths.Thoughtheprincipalfunctionofskinreinforcementis
tocontrolcrackwidth,itmaybeemployedforprovidingbendingresistanceofthesection.
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VincentT.H.CHU
Chapter3DrainageWorks
1.Whatisthefunctionofwaterstopsinjointsofboxculvertsanddrainagechannels?
The principal function of waterstops is to prevent liquids (e.g. water), waterborne
materials and solids to pass through concrete joints. In essence, it aims at providing
watertightnesstothedrainagechannel.
Besides,waterstopsindrainagechannelsorboxculvertscanalsoservetwootherpurposes:
(i)toavoidwatercontactingjointsdowelbarsandcausingcorrosion.(ii)toavoidwater
seepinginfromtheundersideofdrainagechannelsorboxculverts,therebywashinginsoil
particlesandcausingvoidsunderneaththesestructuresandfinallyleadingtotheirfailure.
To serve the second purpose, obviously only one waterstop is required at any depth
location.
Toservethefirstpurpose,awaterstophastobeinstalledontopofdowelbarstoprevent
waterfromdrainagechannelsfromleakingthrough.Ontheotherhand,awaterstophasto
beprovidedbelowdowelbarstoavoidundergroundwaterfromsurgingupwards.
Infact,theotherwayouttoservethefirstpurposeisbyusingcorrosionresistantbars.
2.Whatarethedifferencesinapplicationsbetweenpipeculvertsandboxculverts?
Basically,aculvertmeansacoveredhydraulicstructurewhichconveysfluid.Thereforein
abroadsense,pipeculvertsinasmallscalerepresentnormalpipeslikeprecastconcrete
pipes.
Intermsofhydraulicperformance,circularsectionisthebestgeometricalsectionsamong
all.Therefore,forrelativesmalldischarge,precastconcretepipesandductileironpipesare
normallyusedwhicharecircularinshape.Butforapplicationsofverylargeflow,precast
concrete pipes and ductile iron pipes may not be available in current market. In this
connection, castinsitu construction has to be employed. It is beyond doubt that the
fabricationofformworkforcircularshapeisdifficultwhencomparedwithnormalbox
culvertstructures.However,circularshapeisthemosthydraulicefficientstructurewhich
meansforagivendischarge,theareaofflowisminimum.Therefore,ithelpstosavethe
costofextraliningsrequiredforthechoiceofboxculverts.
However,boxculvertsdopossesssomeadvantages.Forexample,theycancopewithlarge
flowsituationwhereheadroomislimitedbecausetheheightofboxculvertscanbereduced
whilethesizeofpipeculvertsisfixed.Secondly,forsomedifficultsiteconditions,e.g.
excavationofstructureinrock,forthesameequivalentcrosssectionalarea,thewidthof
boxculvertscanbedesignedtobesmallerthanthatofpipeculvertsandthisenhances
smalleramountofexcavationandbackfilling.
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Fig. 3.1 Small spatial

requirement of box culver
thanpipes.
3.WhatarethelimitationsofRationalMethodincalculatingrunoff?
Computationofrunoffisacomplicatedmatterwhichdependsonmanyfactorslikethe
groundpermeability,rainfallduration,rainfallpattern,catchmentareacharacteristicsetc.
Basically,RationalMethodisameanstofindoutthemaximumdischargesuitablefor
designpurpose.Inthismethod,itisassumedthattherainfalldurationisthesameasthe
timeofconcentrationandthereturnperiodofrainfallintensityisthesameasthepeak
runoff.Timeofconcentrationreferstothetimerequiredforthemostremotelocationof
stormwaterinsidethecatchmenttoflowtotheoutlet.Whenthetimeofconcentrationis
equaltotherainfallperiod,themaximumdischargeoccursandrainfallcollectedinsidethe
catchmentcomestothesameoutletpoint.
RationalMethodprovidesthepeakdischargeonlyanditcannotproduceahydrograph.Ifa
moredetailedpatternofrunoffisrequired,unithydrographorothermethodshavetobe
used. The accuracy ofrational method depends very much onour correct selection of
runoffcoefficientanddelineationofcatchmentarea.
Rational Methodis arather conservative method. Oneofthebasicassumptions ofthe
rationalformulaisthattherainfallintensitymustbeconstantforanintervalatleastequal
tothetimeofconcentration.Forlongdurationofrainfall,thisassumptionmaynothold
true. Moreover,the runoffcoefficient inRational Method is difficult to bedetermined
accuratelyanditdependsonmanyfactorslikemoistureconditionofsoils,rainfallintensity
andduration,degreeofsoilcompaction,vegetationetc.Inaddition,InRationalMethodthe
runoffcoefficientisindependentofrainfallintensityandthisdoesnotreflecttheactual
situation.
4.Whyaresomemanholecoversmadeofcastironwhilesomearemadeofductile
iron?
Traditionally,manholescoversaremadeofcastiron.However,intheviewpointofpipe
maintenance,frequentopeningofmanholecovershastobecarriedout.Therefore,itposes
potential safety hazard to the workers during the liftingup process of manhole covers
because cast iron manhole covers are very heavy to normal workers. Consequently,
researchhasbeenconductedandductileironisconsideredasabetterchoicethancastiron
becauseitcanresistthesametrafficloadswithlowerselfweight.Moreover,asductileiron
islessbrittlethancastiron,thetraditionalcastironmanholecoversaremoresusceptibleto
damageandthusrequireshighermaintenancecost.
However, ductile iron manhole covers do suffer from some demerits. For instance, owing
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VincentT.H.CHU
totheirrelativelowselfweight,vehiclespassingoverthesemanholecoverswouldleadto
themovementofcoversandgenerateunpleasantnoises.Tosolvethisproblem,insteadof
increasingtheselfweightofductileironmanholecoverswhichsimilarlycausessafety
problemstoworkersduringregularmaintenance,thecoverscanbedesignedtobeattached
tothemanholeframeswhichholdtheminfirmposition.
5.Whyisitpreferabletodesignstormwaterdrainstomatchsoffit?
Stormwater drains collect stormwater in their corresponding catchment areas during
rainstorm and convey the collected water through outlets to the sea. Therefore, in
consideringthehydraulicdesignofstormwaterdrains,otherthannormaldrainagepipe
capacitytobetakenintoconsideration,oneshouldcheckthebackwatereffectduetotidal
conditionatoutletsifthedrainsarelocatedquiteclosetothedownstreamendofoutlets.
Stormwaterdrainsarenormallydesignedtomatchsoffittoavoidsurchargingbybackwater
effectorwhenthedownstreampipesarerunningfull.Normallypipesizeincreasesfrom
upstreamtodownstream.Forthecaseofmatchingdraininvert,whenoutletpipesarefully
surchargedbytidaleffectoftheseaorwhenthedownstreampipesarefullyfilledwith
stormwater, pipe sections immediately upstream of the outlet are also surcharged too.
However,forthecaseofmatchingpipesoffit,theimmediateupstreamsectionsofoutlet
pipesarenottotallysurchargedeventhoughdownstreampipesarerunningfull.However,
itisnotalwayspracticaltomaintainsoffitforallpipelinesbecauseitrequiressufficient
droptoachievethis.
Moreover,theflowofstormwaterismainlybygravityinthedesignofstormwaterdrains.
Incasethedrainsaredesignedtomatchinvert,thenitstandsahighprobabilitythatthe
flowintheupstreamsmallerpipeshastobedischargedagainstahead.
Note:Matchingsoffitmeansthatallpipelinesarealignedcontinuouslywithrespecttothepipelinescrown
level.
Fig.3.2MatchsoffitVSmatchinvert.
6. What is the application of inverted siphons? What are the disadvantages of using
26
VincentT.H.CHU
invertedsiphons?
Inverted siphons are designed at locations in which a sewer system is blocked by
undergroundutilitiesorstormwaterdrains.Theyaresometimescalleddepressedsewers
becauseitisclaimedthatthereisnoactualsiphonaction.Theyconnecttheupstreamand
downstreamsewerswithUshapedverticalalignmentsuchthattheyarealwaysrunning
full.
Thedrawbacksofinvertedsiphonsare:
(i) They induce additional head loss to the sewer system which is undesirable in
hydraulicperformance;
(ii) Ushaped siphons create sediment accumulation problem and previous experience
showedthatinvertedsiphonswereeasilyblockedduetosiltation;
(iii) Maintenanceofinvertsiphonsisdifficultduetoitsinaccessibility.
7.Whatisthemechanismofcavitationinpipesanddrains?
Cavitationreferstotheformationofairbubblesinfluidinlowpressureconditionwhichis
lowerthanthesaturationpressure.Itisapotentiallydamagingconditioninwhichthefluid
inpipesorsewersisathighvelocities.ByBernoullisEquation,athighflowvelocities,the
pressureheadoffluidisreducedaccordingly.Asthefluidpressureislessthansaturation
pressure,dissolvedgasesarereleasedfromthefluidandtheseairbubbleswillsuddenly
collapse when the flow enters into a region of higher pressure. This produces a high
dynamicpressurewhichcausesdamagetothepipelinesduetoitshighfrequency.
8.Whenadrainagesystem(i.e.uchannelswithcatchpits)isconnectedtoamain
drainage channel, a segment of short pipe is used. What is the reason of such
arrangement?
Therearethreescenariosofsuchconnectionarrangement:(a)anewdrainagesystemis
connectedtoanexistingdrainagechannel(b)anexistingdrainagesystemisconnectedtoa
newdrainagechannel(c)anewdrainagesystemisconnectedtoanewdrainagechannel.
Forallscenarios,whatengineersconsideristhetotalamountofdifferentialsettlementor
lateral movement to be encountered between the drainage system and main drainage
channel.Forscenario(b)and(c),itisverylikelythatsubstantialdifferentialsettlementwill
occurandthiswillcausedamagetotheconnectingconcretepipes.Thereforeasegmentof
shortpipesaredesignedsothattheyservetoprovideflexibilitytothepipesincaseof
unevensettlementoccurringbetweendrainagesystemandmaindrainagechannels.
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Fig.3.3Shortpipe.
9.Whatarethefunctionsofbeddingunderstormwaterdrains?
Bedding,whicharenormallymadeofgranularmaterialsorconcrete,servesfourmain
functionsassuggestedbyO.C.YoungandJ.J.Trott:
(i)
Toenhanceauniformsupportunderpipesinordertoreducethebendingmoment
longitudinally;
(ii) Toincreasetheloadsupportingstrengthofthepipes;
(iii) Forpipeswithspigotandsocketjoints,itenablespipestobesupportedalongpipe
lengthsinsteadofpipesockets.Otherwise,unevenstressmaybeinducedanditmay
damagethepipes;
(iv) Toprovideaplatform forachieving correct alignment andlevelduringandafter
construction.
10.Indesigningsewerpipes,whyarevitrifiedclaypipescommonlyusedforpipesize
lessthan600mmwhileprecastconcretepipeswithPVCliningisusedforpipesize
exceeding600mm?
Themarketpriceofvitrifiedclaypipesisgenerallylessthanthatofprecastconcretepipes
withPVClining.Therefore,forsmallsizeofpipes(pipediameterlessthan600mm)itis
moreeconomicaltousevitrifiedclaypipes.However,vitrifiedclaypipesdosufferfromthe
problemofbrittlenessanditseffectisevensevereforlargersizeofpipes.Moreover,itis
rather time consuming to deliver clay pipes products because the majority of them are
manufacturedinEurope.Hence,forlargersizeofsewerpipes(diametermorethan600mm)
itiscustomarytouseprecastconcretepipeswithPVClining.
11.Nowadays,mostflapvalvesaremadeofHDPE.Whataretheadvantagesofusing
HDPEwhencomparedwithcastiron?
(i)
Ithasnoreactionwithsewageandseawateranddoesnotsufferfromthecorrosion
problemassociatedwithcastiron.
(ii) Noprotectivecoatingisrequiredanditisalmostmaintenancefree.
(iii) HDPEflapvalvesrequireverylowopeningpressureinoperation(like5mmwater
leveldifference).Forcastironflapvalves,duetoitsownheavyselfweight,the
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requiredopeningpressureofcastironflapvalvesishigherthanthatofHDPEflap
valves.Thiscriterionisessentialfordryweatherflowconditions.
However,thepressureresistanceofHDPEflapvalvesisnotasgoodascastironflap
valves.Forinstance,atypical450mmwideHDPEflapvalvecanonlywithstandabout5m
watercolumn.
12.Whatarethefunctionsofthefollowingfeaturesobservedinatypicalmanhole?(i)
groovenearbenching,(ii)R.S.J.(iii)doublesealmanholecoverand(iv)utrapwith
roddingarm.
(i)
Thegrooveisusedtofacilitatethemaintenanceofmanholesandsewer/drainpipes.
Shutoffboardsareerectedonthegroovesduringmaintenanceoperationsothatwater
flow coming from upstream is terminated in the manhole and backwater from
downstream is also blocked. In addition, the groove also facilitates water flow
diversionforroutinemaintenanceoperation.
(ii) R.S.J. is a smallscale size of universal beams and is used for resisting the high
stressesincurredbyheavytrafficloadsactingdirectlyontheuppernarrowprojected
sectionofmanholes.
(iii) Doublesealterminalmanholecoversareusedforsealingoffgasesemittedinside
sewer/drainsandpreventthemfromreleasingoutofthemanhole.
(iv) Utrapwithroddingarmsisalsousedforsealingoffunpleasantgassmellbythe
trappedushapedwatercolumns.Roddingarmisnormallyclosedwithrubberrings
duringnormaloperation.However,duringmaintenanceoperation,therubberringis
removedandroddingcanbecarriedoutthroughtheroddingarm.
13.Thespacingofmanholesinstraightsectionsfordifferentpipesizesisstatedin
StormwaterDrainageManual.Howarethesefiguresarrivedat?
Forpipesize<300mm,roddingisusuallyadoptedinwhichworkersplaceabout1mlong
rodsthroughthepipestothelocationofblockageandmanuallyoperatetherodtoclearthe
blockage.
Forpipesize<700mm,waterjettingisnormallyemployedinwhichwaterissupplied
fromnearbyfirehydrantsandpressurizedwaterjetisusedforclearingblockage.
Winchingmethodisadoptedforallsizesofpipes.
Forinstance,forpipesizeexceeding1050mm,itisstatedinStormwaterDrainageManual
thatmaximumintervalsbetweenmanholesalongstraightlengthsshouldbe120m.Thisis
becauseforsizesover1050m,themainmethodofpipemaintenanceisbywinchingwhose
maximumlengthofoperationis120m.Similarly,themaximumintervalsofmanholesfor
otherstraightpipesarederivedfromtheircorrespondingmaintenancemethods.
14. In selection of dams in drainage channels, what are the advantages of using
rubberdamsinsteadofsteelgatedams?
Theadvantagesofrubberdamsareasfollows:
(i) Sincerubberisflexibleinnatureitiscapableofperformingdeflationeveninthe
presenceofdirtandsedimentationonthedownstreamside.However,forrigid
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steelgatedams,itmaynotbepossibletoopenwhenthereisexcessivesediment.
(ii) Sincethefoundationofrubberdamsiscomparativelylighterthanthatofsteelgate
dams,itsavesbothconstructioncostandtime.
(iii) Rubberdamscanbedesignedwithlongerspanswithoutpierswhilesteelgatedams
requireintermediatepiersforlongspans.
15.Shouldairtestorwatertestsbeselectedtotesttheleakageofconstructedgravity
pipelines?
Forgravitypipes,airtestsorwatertestsarecarriedoutaftercompletionoflayingand
jointingofthepipes.Thesetestsareconductedtocheckthewatertightnessofjointsandto
ensurethepipelinesarefreefromdamagewhereleakagemayoccur.
Airtesthastheadvantagethatthetestitselfissimpleandfastertobecarriedout.Itdoes
not require the disposal of significant quantities of water used in the test which is a
mandatoryrequirementforwatertest.However,incaseleakageexistsintheconstructed
segment ofgravity pipelines, the position ofleakage canhardly belocated inairtest.
Moreover,therateofwaterleakagecannotbedeterminedfromairtests.Inaddition,airtest
isreadilyaffectedbyatmosphericconditionbecauseairhasarelativelyhighcoefficientof
thermal expansion. The test is also influenced by the moisture condition of the test
pipelinesbecauseitaffectsthepassageofairthroughthepipelines.
Forwatertest,thoughitiscomparativelyslow,itcandetectthelocationofwaterleakage.
However,theleakagerateresultsfromwatertestmaynottrulyreflectitsactualleakage
becausepipelinematerialslikeconcreteandclayareporousandwouldabsorbwaterduring
thetest.
16.Indesigningofaccessrampsfordrainagechannels,whyshouldthedirectionof
accessrampsbeslopingdowntowardsdownstream?
In the design of access ramps, the direction is normally specified to be sloping down
towardsdownstreamsoastoavoidtheoccurrenceofovershootingofflowingwaterfor
supercriticalflowincaseofaligningtherampsinthereversedirectionofchannelflow.
Note:Accessrampsrefertorampsusedformaintenancevehiclesduringroutinemaintenanceofchannels.
17.Whenbranchpipelinesareconnectedtomainpipelines,sometimesYjunctionsor
fittingbranchedpipelinestomainpipelinesbyformationofholesinmainpipelines
areused.Whichoneisabetterchoice?
ByusingstandardprecastunitsofYjunctionbranchpipelines,itisbeyonddoubtthat
jointsbetweenbranchedpipelinesandmainpipelinesareproperlyformedandthequality
ofjointsisrelativelylessdependentonworkmanship.However,itsuffersfromtheproblem
thatwithfixedprecastunitsofYjunctions,sometimesitmaybedifficultforcontractorsto
determinethepreciseorientationofspecificanglesofYjunctionswithrespecttogullies.
(e.g.gulliesareconnectedthroughsidebranchestocarrierdrains)
Byformingellipticalholesinmainpipelinesandfittingthesidebranchesintothemwith
cement mortar, the quality of pipe joints is highly dependent on workmanship. It is
commonlyfoundthatinsubsequentCCTVinspectionssidebranchesareprojectedinside
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main pipes. This is undesirable because the projected side branches reduce the cross
sectionalareaofmainpipeslocallyandaffecttheirhydraulicperformance.Moreover,the
projectedsidepipesmaytraprubbishanddirtinthevicinity.Ontheotherhand,cement
mortarmaynotbeproperlyappliedatconnectionjointsbecausetheseareasarehidden
fromviewandaredifficulttobeinspectedbyengineers.Therefore,inselectingbetween
thetwoavailablemethods,engineersshouldmaketheirownjudgmentsbasedontheabove
considerations.
Fig.3.4Yjunctionindrainagepipes.
18. Rational Method should not be used for large catchments in estimating peak
runoff.Isittrue?
RationalMethodissuitableforsmallcatchmentsonlybecausethetimeofconcentrationof
smallcatchmentsissmall.InRationalMethodthepeakrunoffiscalculatedbasedonthe
assumption that the time of concentration is equal to the rainfall duration. For small
catchments,thisassumptionmayholdtrueinmostcircumstances.Oneoftheassumptions
ofRationalMethodisthatrainfallintensityovertheentirecatchmentremainsconstant
during the storm duration. However, in case of a large catchment it stands a high
probabilitythatrainfallintensityvariesinvariouspartofthelargecatchment.Inaddition,
forlongdurationofrainfall,itisrarethattherainfallintensityremainsconstantoverthe
entirerainstormandashorterdurationbutamoreintenserainfallcouldproduceahigher
peakrunoff.Moreover,areductionofpeakrunoffisalsobroughtaboutbythetemporary
storageofstormwaterlikechannelswithinthecatchment.
Inactualcondition,therunoffratewithinthecatchmentvariesfromplacetoplacebecause
ofdifferentsoilpropertiesandpastconditions.AssuggestedbyBureauofPublicRoads
(1965),sometimesthepeakdischargeoccursbeforeallofthedrainageareaiscontributing.
Forinstance,whenasignificantportionofdrainageareawithinthecatchmenthasvery
smalltimeofconcentrationsothatahigherrainfallintensitycanbeusedforthisportion,
therunoffcomingsolelyfromthisportionishigherthanthatofthewholecatchmentin
whichalowerrainfallintensityisadoptedbecausetheremainingpartofthecatchmenthas
comparativelylargetimeofconcentration.Therefore,thisresultsinincorrectestimationof
peakrunoffoflargecatchmentsifRationalMethodisadopted.
19.Whatisthepurposeofcarryingoutwaterabsorptiontestforprecastconcrete
pipes?
Cementwillmix withmorewaterthan isrequiredtoeventuallycombine duringhydration
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ofcementpaste.Assuch,somevoidswillbeleftbehindafterthehydrationprocesswhich
affectsthestrengthanddurabilityofconcrete.Withthepresenceofairvoidsinconcrete,it
isvulnerabletopenetrationandattackbyaggressivechemicals.Goodqualityconcreteis
characterizedbyhavingminimalvoidsleftbyexcesswaterandtherefore,waterabsorption
testforprecastconcretepipesisadoptedforcheckingthequalityofconcreteintermsof
densityandimperviousness.
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Chapter4Earthworks
1.Insoilcompactiontest,ifatestresultexceeds100%,shouldengineersacceptthe
result?
Soilcompactionistheprocessofincreasingthesoildensitybyreducingthevolumeofair
withinthesoilmass.
Soilcompactiondependsmainlyonthedegreeofcompactionandtheamountofwater
present for lubrication. Normally 2.5kg rammers and 4.5kg rammers are available for
compactioninlaboratories andthemaximumdrydensities producedbytheserammers
covertherangeofdrydensityobtainedbyinsitucompactionplant.
Regardingthesecondfactorofwatercontent,itaffectsthecompactioninthefollowing
ways.Inlowwatercontent,thesoilsaredifficulttobecompacted.Whenwatercontentis
increased gradually, water will lubricate the soils and this facilitates the compaction
operation.However,athighwatercontent,asanincreasingproportionofsoilsisoccupied
bywater,thedrydensitydecreaseswithanincreaseinwatercontent.
Forsoilcompactiontests,thedrydensityobtainedfromcompactioncarriedoutinsituby
vibratingroller/vibratingplateiscomparedwiththemaximumdrydensityconductedin
laboratoriesusing2.5kgrammerofcompactionwithsimilarsoils.Inessence,theinsitu
compactioniscomparedwiththecompactingeffortofusing2.5kg(or4.5kg)rammerin
laboratories.Incasethecompactiontestresultsindicatevaluesexceeding100%,itonly
meansthattheinsitucompactionismorethanthatbeingcarriedoutinlaboratorieswhich
istreatedasthebasiccriterionforsatisfactorydegreeofsoilcompaction.Therefore,the
soil results are acceptable in case compaction test results are over 100%. However,
excessivecompactionposesariskoffracturinggranularsoilsresultinginthereductionof
soilstrengthparameters.
2.Whatarethedifferentapplicationsofdraglines,backhoesandshovels?
Anexcavatorisdefinedasapoweroperateddiggingmachineanditincludes different
typeslikeshovels,draglines,clamshells,backhoes,etc.
Adraglinepossessesalongjibfordigginganddumpinganditisusedfordiggingfrom
gradelinetogreatdepthsbelowground.Itscharacteristicisthatitdoesnotpossesspositive
diggingactionandlateralcontrolofnormalexcavators.Adraglineisnormallydeployed
forbulkexcavation.
Abackhoeisdesignedprimarilyforexcavationbelowgroundanditisespeciallyemployed
fortrenchexcavationworks.Itdigsbyforcingthebucketintosoilsandpullingittowards
themachineanditpossessesthepositivediggingactionandaccuratelateralcontrol.
Ashovelisamachinethatactslikeamansdiggingactionwithahandshovelandhenceit
iscalledashovel.Itdigsbyputtingthebucketatthetoeofexcavationandpullingitup.
Thoughashovelhaslimitedabilitytodigbelowgroundlevel,itisveryefficientindigging
abovegroundlikedigginganembankment.
3. For compaction of freedraining sands or gravels, what is the optimum moisture
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contenttoachievemaximumdensity?
Thecompactioncurveofsandymaterialsistotallydifferentfromthatofclayeymaterials.
Forsandsorgravels,therearetwosituationsofmaximumdensity,namelythecompletely
dryconditionandthecompletewatersaturation.Formoisturecontentofsandsandgravels
betweenthesetwostates,thedrydensityobtainedislowerthanthatobtainedintheabove
mentionedstates.Thepresenceofcapillaryforcesaccountforthedifficultyofcompaction
sand at water contents between virtually dry and saturated state. They are formed in
partiallyfilledwatervoidbetweensoilparticlesandperformaselastictiescementingsoil
particlestogether.ReferenceismadetoLarsForssblad(1981).
Thecompactioncurveforclayissuitableforthemajorityofsoiltypesexceptsandsand
gravelsbecauseasmallamountofclayinsoilsissufficienttomakethesoilsimpermeable.
4. Is it worthwhile to carry out tests on particle density of soil particles for
geotechnicaldesign?
Particledensityofsoilsisdefinedbytheratioofsoilparticlemassandsoilparticlevolume.
Depending on soil types, the range of variation of soil particle density varies not
significantly,i.e.by4%.Therefore,itmaynotbeworthwhiletoorderlaboratorytestsand
incuradditionalexpenditurejusttodeterminetheparticlesdensitybyrecognizingthatthe
variationofparticlesdensityisnotsignificant.
5. In determining the effective stress parameters of a soil sample, which test is
preferable,consolidatedundrainedtestorconsolidateddrainedtest?
Theeffectivestressparametersofasoilsamplecanbeobtainedfrombothconsolidated
undrained test and consolidated drained test. However, consolidated undrained test is
normallyselectedbecauseofthefollowingreasons:
(i) Timetakenforconsolidatedundrainedtestisshorterthanthatofconsolidateddrained
test.Itisbecauseconsolidateddrainedtestrequiresthefulldissipationofexcesspore
water pressure of the soil during testing and it takes long time when soils of low
permeabilityaretested.
(ii) Usefulinformationcanbeobtainedfromthestresspathofconsolidatedundrainedtest.
(iii)Failureoccursinlowerstresslevelwhencomparedwithconsolidateddrainedtest.
6. In conducting triaxial test to determine shear strengths for soil samples, what
consolidationpressuresshouldbespecified?
Itappearsthattheselectionofconsolidationpressureisindependentofinsitusoilstress
theoretically.However,thismaynotbecorrectbecausetheactualshearstrengthenvelopes
forsoilsarenonlinearoverawiderangeofstresses.Therefore,consolidationpressure
correspondingtotherangeofstressesrelevanttositeconditionshouldbeadopted.
7.WhatistherelationofbearingpressureonsoilnailheadtotheratioL a/Lb,where
LaisthelengthofsoilnailbeforethepotentialslipcirclewhileL bisthelengthofsoil
nailbeyondthepotentialslipcircle?
Theunstablesoilmassbeforethepotentialcircularslipisresistedbytwocomponents:soil
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nailheadbearingpressureandfrictionofsoilnailintheunstablesoilmass.Therefore,the
longeristhelengthofsoilnailbeforepotentialslipcircleL a,thehigheristheproportionof
forcesbeingresistedbyfrictionalforcesandhencethesmalleramountistoberesistedby
soilnailhead.Hence,thesmallertheratioLa/Lb,thegreateristheresistanceprovidedby
soilnailhead.
Fig.4.1La&Lbinslopes.
8.Soilnailsaremainlydesignedforstabilizationofmajorslips.Howshoulddesigner
caterforthestabilityofminorslips?
Therearesomemethodstotreatminorslips:
(i) Adoptionofsmallerdiametersizebarsatcloserspacing;
(ii) Installationoftiebeamsatthesamehorizontallevels;
(iii) Provisionofsteelwiremeshesinbetweensoilnails;and
(iv) Provisionofshortsoilnailsincombinationoflongsoilnails.
9.Whatarethemainreasonsforconductingpullouttestsforsoilnails?
Therearemainlyfourreasonsforthistest:
(i)
Tocheckandverifythebondstrengthbetweensoilandgroutadoptedduringthe
designofsoilnails.Thisisthemainobjectiveofconductingsoilnailpullouttest.
(ii) Todeterminethebondstrengthbetweensoilandgroutforfuturedesignpurpose.
However,ifthistargetistobeachieved,thetestnailsshouldbeloadedtodetermine
theultimatesoil/groutbondwithaupperlimitof80%ofultimatetensilestrengthof
steelbars.
(iii) Tocheckifthereisanyslippageorcreepoccurrence.
(iv) Tochecktheelasticandplasticdeformationsoftestnails.Thisisobservedduringthe
repeatedloadingandunloadingcyclesofsoilnails.
Note:Pullouttestsarecarriedoutbyapplyingspecifiedforcesinanattempttopullouttheconstructedsoil
nails.
10. Are there any differences in the methods of compaction between clayey soil
materialandsandymaterial?
AssuggestedbyLarsForssblad(1981),thethreemainactionsofcompactionarestatic
pressure,impactforceandvibration.Differentcompactorscontainoneormoremodesof
theseactions.Forexample,vibratorytampersperformmainlybytheprincipleofimpact
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whilevibratoryrollersworkwithprincipleofstaticpressureandvibration.
For sandy soils, vibration is adequate for normal compaction because the action of
vibration sets the soilparticles inmotion andfriction forcesbetweensoilparticles are
virtuallydemolished.Duringthisvibrationmotion,thesoilparticlesrearrangethemselves
todevelopadensestate.
Fornormalsoils,itisnecessarytocombinetheactionofvibrationtogetherwithstatic
pressuretobreakdownthecohesionforcesbetweensoilparticlesinordertoallowforbetter
compaction.Thestaticpressureofvibratorymachinesisadoptedtoexertashearingforce
toeliminatethecohesioninclayeysoils.
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Chapter5PiersandMarineStructures
1. Whyissulphateresistingcementnotusedinmarineconcrete?
The main components of Portland cement are tricalcium silicate, dicalcium silicate,
tricalcium aluminate and tetracalcium aluminoferrite. In sulphateresisting cement, it
containsalowamountoftricalciumaluminateinordertoavoidsulphateattack.Otherwise,
tricalcium aluminate would react with sulphates to form calcium sulphoaluminate and
gypsumthatcauseexpansionandcracktheconcretestructure.
However, for marine concrete sulphateresisting cement should not be used because
tricalcium aluminate has high affinity for chloride ions. This is based on the possible
reactionofchlorideionsandtricalciumaluminatetoformcalciumchloroaluminatehydrate
assuggestedbyP.KumarMehta(1991)andthereductionofwhichmayincreasetherate
ofchlorideattacktotheconcretemarinestructureandresultinfastercorrosionofsteel
reinforcementinmarinestructures.
2.Shallalayerofwearingcourseoradditionalthicknessbedesignedonthesurfaceof
piers?
Inthedesignofpiers,considerationshouldbegiventotheeffectofwearingactioncaused
bypassengers,othertrafficsandevensometimesvehicles.Inmaritimeenvironment,the
durabilityandintegrityofconcreteisdetrimentaltotheservicinglifeofpiersbecauseit
actsanessentialbarriertochlorideattack.However,inviewofthesegradualwearandtear
generatedbytheloadingtraffic,someformsofsurfaceprotectionshouldbeprovidedon
topofpiersurfacelikewearingcourseoradditionalincreaseinconcretecover.
3.What is the difference in application of surfaceprotecting fenders and energy
absorbingfenders?
Surfaceprotecting fenders are fenders that induce high reaction forces to berthing
structures for the energy absorbed while energyabsorbing fenders are fenders which
transmit low impact to berthing structures for the energy absorbed (Carl A. Thoresen
(1988)).Infact, theprincipal function offenders is toabsorbtheberthing energyand
transmit a force to the structures without damaging them. Therefore, in open berth
structures,itisdesirabletouseenergyabsorbingfenderstoreducetheloadsactingonthe
relativelyflexiblestructures.Ontheotherhand,forsolidberthstructures theusageof
surfaceprotectingfendersisadequatebecausetheyarecapableoftakinguplargeberthing
loads.
4.Shoulddolphinsbedesignedinarigidmanner,i.e.restingonseveralrakingpiles?
Indesigningdolphins,theyarenormallysupportedonasystemofthreetofourrakingpiles.
This in essence is a rigid structure and exhibits little flexibility e.g. movement against
impactandberthingloadsbyvessels.Infact,thiskindofdesignmaynotbedesirablein
terms of maintenance because the dolphins are readily susceptible to damage by high
berthing vessels. To rectify this situation, some energy absorption devices like
rubber/plasticfendershavetobeinstalledtoreducetheimpactloadderivingfromitsown
deflection. On the other hand, by designing dolphins as flexible structures capable for
allowingslightdeflection,ithelpstoreducethelargeforcesgeneratedduringberthingof
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vessels. In this connection, one way of designing dolphins as flexible structures is by

provisionofasinglepileonly.
Note:Forarigidstructure,ittakesupexternalloadswithoutundergoingexcessivedeformations.
5.Inconnectingfenderstopierstructures,shouldsinglelocknutsordoublelocknuts
beused?
Inmanypierstructurestheconnectionoffenderstopiersisachievedbyusingsinglelock
nuts.However,theydonotperformwellbecausesometimberfendersloosenmoreeasily
when subject to vibrating loads due to berthing, wave and tidal actions. To solve this
problem,doublelocknutsshouldbeadoptedastheyprovetofunctionsatisfactoryinother
structuralelementswhicharesubjecttofrequentvibrationloads.
Note:Doublelocknutsmeantwonutsareadoptedinasingleboltconnectionbetweenfendersandmarine
structures.
6.Whatisthedesignleveloflandingsinpiers?
Landingsaredesignedasrestingplaceforpassengersduringberthinganddeberthingof
vessels.Ingeneral,landingsareprovidednearmeanhighandmeanlowwaterlevelsto
facilitateembarkinganddisembarkingofpassengers(BS6349:Part2:1988).Therefore,
theleveloflandingstepsshouldbedifferentfromplacetoplacebecauseofdifferentmean
highandmeanlowwaterlevelsindifferentlocations.
7.Whataretheprosandconsofusingtimberfenders,plasticfendersandrubber
fenders?
Timberfenders:
Theyarelowinstrengthandaresubjecttorottingandmarineborerattack.Moreover,they
havelowenergyabsorptioncapacityandtheberthingreactiondependsonthepointof
contact.Thecontactpressurebetweenfenderandvesselsarehigh.Theyareconsideredto
be environmentally unfriendly because they consume tropical hardwoods in their
production.
Plasticfenders:
Theirstrengthissimilartothatoftimberfendersbuttheyhaverelativelyhighabrasive
resistance.Theyareresistanttochemicalandbiologicalattack.Theirenergyabsorption
capacities are moderate and the berthing reactions are also dependent on the point of
contact. The reaction is lowerwhen compared with timber fenders fora given energy
absorption. They are considered to be environmental friendly because they are
manufacturedfromrecycledmaterial.
Rubberfenders:
Theypossesshighabrasiveresistanceandarealsoresistanttomostbiologicalandchemical
attacks.Theyhavemoderatetohighenergyabsorptioncapacityandtheenergyabsorption
performanceisindependentofthepointofcontact.Similartoplasticfenders,theyarealso
environmentalfriendlyproducts.
8.Whyaremostmarinepilescircularincrosssection?
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VincentT.H.CHU
Formarinepiles,thereareseveraloptionsavailableforselection,namelyHpiles,circular
pipesandboxpiles.
However,onlycircularpilesandboxpilesaresuitableformarineapplicationbecauseof
thefollowingtworeasonssuggestedbyG.M.Cornfield(1968):
(i) Circular piles and box piles possess high column buckling strength. For marine
structures like jetties, piles arewellaboveseabedlevelandtherefore thecolumn
bucklingeffectissignificantwhencomparedwithotherstructures.Therefore,itis
essentialtousepilesectionswhichhaverelativelyhighbucklingstrengthinpiers.
(ii) Circularpiles andboxpiles displayhighenergyabsorbingcapability.Formarine
structures likedolphinsandfenders,whichrequiresubstantial amountofberthing
energytobeabsorbed,thesepilessectionsareinevitablygoodchoices.
Inmarinestructures,itappearsthatcircularsectionsprevailovertheboxsections.The
mainreasonisthattherangeofsectionavailableforselectionofcircularpilesismorethan
thatofboxpiles.
9.Formarinepiletypeofsteeltubularpileswithreinforcedconcreteinfill,minimum
toelevelisoftenspecifiedincontractdrawings.Whatisitspurpose?
Thepurposeofminimumtoelevelistwofold:
(i)
(ii)
In detailed design stage, ground investigation should be conducted and the

approximatelevelofrockheadisknown.Therefore,toavoidthemarinepilestobe
founded prematurely on boulders, minimum toe levels of marine driven piles are
specifiedincontract.
Itprovidessufficientlengthofsoilsforlateralandupliftresistance.
Note:Minimumtoelevelreferstotheminimumlevelthatamarinedrivenpileshouldbedrivenintoseabed.
10.Whatistheproblemintraditionalmarinepilingsystemofsteeltubularpilewith
concreteinfillandwhatarethepossibleremedialmeasures?
Inthedesignofmarinepilesofsteeltubularpileswithconcreteinfill,loadsfrompierdeck
aretakenupbysteeltubularpilesbeforetheoccurrenceofcorrosionofsteelpilesabove
seabed.Infact,itisassumedthatsteelpilesaboveseabedlevelwillallbecorrodedaftera
certain year.Theloadtransfermechanism after complete corrosionofsteelpile above
seabedisasfollows:loadsfrompierdeckaretakenupbyconcreteinfillabovetheseabed
level.Belowtheseabedlevel,loadswouldbetransferredtosteelpilesthroughfrictional
forcesbetweenconcreteinfillandsteelcasings.
However,substantialradialshrinkageandcontractionoccursafterconcretingofconcrete
infillandthiswillhindertheloadtransferfromtheconcreteinfilltosteelpilesbecausethe
bondmayberupturedbyradialshrinkage.Itisindoubtiffrictionalforcescanbeproperly
developedinthissituation.Tosolvethisproblem,shearkeyscouldbeinstalledatregular
spacinginsidesteelpilestoensuretheirrigidconnectionwithconcreteinfill.Alternatively,
expandingagentsmaybeadoptedinconcretemixestoensurethatthereisnoshrinkage
aftertheconcretingprocess.
11.Whyaresteeltubularmarinepilesoftendrivenopenended?
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VincentT.H.CHU
In marine structures where piles are constantly subject to significant lateral and uplift
forcesinducedbyberthingoperationandwaveaction,itisnecessarytodrivethepilesto
muchgreaterdepth.Toavoidprematurerefusalsothatinsufficientsoilcovermaydevelop
whichisincapableofprovidingtherequiredlateralandupliftresistance,tubularpilesare
normallydrivenopenendedsothattheyaredrivingtogreaterdepthsthanpileswithclosed
ends.
Fig.5.1Typicaldetailsofmarinepiles.
12.Fortypicalpilebentsinmarinepiers,howisverticalloadsrelatedtohorizontal
capacityofthepilebents?
Letsconsiderapilebentwithatopslabsupportedbytworankingpiles,eachincliningat
anequalangletothepierslab.Indesigningsuchasystem,trussactionisnormallyadopted
toanalyzethepilebent.Whenthereactionforcesofthesepiles,horizontalforces(e.g.due
toberthinganddeberthingofvessels)andverticalforces(e.g.superimposeddeckloads)
areanalyzedbydrawingaforcepolygon,itisnotedthatlateralresistanceofthepilebentis
dependentontheverticalload,i.e.lateralresistanceissmallwhenverticalloadsarehigh.
Fig.5.2Forcepolygonofpilebent.
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VincentT.H.CHU
13. For underwater concreting, tremie pipes are normally used with the aid of
hoppers.Sometimestubesareinsertedinsidethehoppers.Why?
Inplacingconcretebytremiepipes,hoppersareconnectedtotheirtopforreceivingfreshly
placed concrete. However,airmaybetrappedinsidethetremie pipes ifthereis rapid
feedingoffreshconcrete.Toreleasethetrappedairinsidethetremiepipes,hoses(called
ventilationtubes)areinsertedandlowereddownthroughthehoppers.Referenceismadeto
CarlA.Thoresen(1988).
14.Whyisshallowbedrockconditionunfavorableforopenberthpiers?
Themostsevereloadonpiersgenerallyisthehorizontalloadduetoberthingoflarge
vessels.Sincethewidthsofopenberthpiersarerelativelysmallsothattheyprovidesa
shortleverarmtocounteractthemomentinducedbyberthingloads.Moreover,thedead
load of open berth piers are normally quite light and therefore the resisting moment
providedbythedeadloadofpierstructuresmaynotbesufficienttocounteractthemoment
generatedbyberthingloads.
Toaidinprovidingadequateresistancetotheoverturningmomentbytheberthingload,the
soilresistanceabovebedrockcontributestostabilizingmoment.Forcommonlyadopted
marinepilingtype,i.e.drivensteeltubularpileswithreinforcedconcreteinfill,drivenpiles
canatmostbefoundedontopofrockheadsurface.Incasetherockheadlevelisshallow,
thenthelittlesoilcovermayresultininsufficientlateralresistancetotheberthingload.
15.Whyarehighandnarrowbeamsnotdesirableinconcretepiers?
Basedonpastexperienceinothercountries(CarlA.Thoresen(1988)),highandnarrow
beams after several years of construction showed signs of serious deterioration at the
bottomofthebeams.However,thedeteriorationofpierslabswasnotsignificantwhen
comparedwiththatofthedeepbeams.Themainreasontoaccountforthisisduetothe
close proximity of the deep beams to the sea level. To avoid these problems, either
beamlessslaborwidewithshallowbeamsarenormallydesigned.
16.Whatisthemechanismofformationofsoilplugsinmarinedrivensteelpileswith
reinforcedconcreteinfill?
Duringinitialdrivingprocess,openendedsteelpilesaredriventhroughthesoilsattheir
bases. However, shaft friction will gradually develop between the steel piles and soils
insidepilesatsometimeafterpiledriving.Thehittingactionofdrivinghammersinduces
forcestothesoilandlateritcomestoastagewhentheinertialforcesofinsidesoils,
togetherwiththeinternalfrictionalforcesexceedingthebearingcapacityofsoilsatpile
toes.Consequently,thesoilplugformedisbroughtdownbythepiles.Referenceismadeto
M.J.Tomlinson(1977).
Note:Asoilplugisacolumnofsoilformedatthebottomportionofmarinepiletypeofsteeltubularpiles
withreinforcedconcreteinfill.
17.Shouldstifforsoftfendersbedesignedforberthinginpiers?
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Theelasticityoffendersisrelatedtotheabilitytoreleasethestoredenergyduringberthing
ofvessels.However,ithasnoeffectonthereactionforceandthedeflectionoffender
system. The amount of energy that a fender can absorb is dependent on the reaction
deflectioncurveandisrepresentedbytheareaunderthecurve.Thehigheristhereaction
force,thehigheramountofenergywouldbeabsorbedbythefenderprovidedthatthe
resistance of ships hull is sufficient to withstand the force without permanent
deformations.Althoughstiffandsoftfendermayhavethesamedeflectionunderthesame
maximumreactionforceactingontheberthingvessel,theamountofenergyabsorbedby
stifffendersismuchhigherthanthatofsoftfenders.Consequently,stifffendersshouldbe
employedforberthingpurpose.
Ontheotherhand,inmooringoperations wherevesselsareconstantlysubjecttowave
action,itisdesirabletokeepthetensionforceontheropetoalowvalue.Inthisconnection,
itisrecommendedtousesoftfenders.
18. Whatis the significance of direction of approaching velocities of ships during
berthingoperation?
Oneofthemajoreffectsofangleofapproachingvelocitiesofshipsisitsinfluenceofthe
energytobeabsorbedbythefendersystem.Considerseveralshipsberthonthesamepier
atthesamespeedbutwithdifferentangleofapproach,thoughtheirkineticenergiesarethe
same,theamountofenergyabsorbedbyfenderdiffers.Theamountofenergyabsorbedby
fenderis:
2
W=0.5mv (k +r cos )/(k +r )

where
W=energyabsorbedbythefender
m=massoftheship
v=velocityoftheship
k=radiusofgyrationoftheship
r=distanceofcentreofgravityoftheshiptothepointofcontactofthefender
=direction of velocity
Hence,whenthedirectionofapproachingvelocityofashipisnormaltothefendersystem
(i.e.=90 ),theamountofenergyabsorbedissmallerwhencomparedwiththatofaship
whosevelocityistangentialtotheshoreline.ReferenceismadetoF.VascoCosta(1964).
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Chapter6Roadworks
1.Howcanunreinforcedconcretepavementfunctionwithoutmeshreinforcement?
For concrete carriageway, it is normally classified into two types: reinforced and
unreinforcedconcretepavement.Thereinforcementinreinforcedcarriageway(intheform
ofmesh)isusedforcontrollingcracking.Thenonemayqueryhowunreinforcedpavement
cancontrolcrackingwithouttheuseofmeshreinforcement.Toanswerthisquestion,one
shouldpayattentiontothefeaturesofunreinforcedconcretepavement.Inaccordancewith
HighwaysStandardDrawingNo.H1109,anapproximately3mmwidegroovewithadepth
of about onethird to onefourth of slab thickness is designed with a regular spacing
(normally5m).Thegroovesaredesignedtobetoonarrowforstonestofallintowhenthe
cracksareopenduetoconcretecontraction.Thesectionalareainwhichthegrooveis
locatedisaplaneofweaknessandthusthisgrooveactsapotentialcrackinducingdevice
in which any potential cracks due to shrinkage and thermal contraction may form.
Consequently,thecracksareformedatthebaseofthegrooveandthusitwouldnotcause
any unpleasant visual appearance on the exposed surface of unreinforced concrete
pavement.
Fig. 6.1 Crack formed in unreinforced

concretepavement.
2.Whyareconcreteprofilebarriersdesignedwithcurvedsurfaceprofiles?
Safety fencings are designed to contain vehicles in the carriageway in which they are
travelingandpreventthemfromreboundingintotheroadandcausinghazards.Fornormal
fencingdesign,whenvehiclescrashintosafetyfencings,itwillgivewaysoastoabsorbas
muchenergyaspossible,thusreducingtheimpactforcesonthevehicles.Moreover,it
servestorealignthevehiclesalongthecarriagewaywhenvehicleshitonthem.However,
forconcreteprofilebarrierstheyarenotdesignedtoabsorbenergyduringvehiclecrashing,
buttoholdthevehicleshittingonthem.Inthisconnection,concreteprofilebarriersare
designedwithcurvedprofilessothatvehiclescanmountandgouppartlyonthem,andyet
theywillnotcauseoverturningofvehicles.ReferenceismadetoArthurWignall,PeterS.
KendrickandRoyAncil.
Forshallowanglecrashingofcars,theywouldclimbonthelowerslopefaceofconcrete
profilebarriers.Ontheotherhand,whenacarhitsatalargeangletothebarrier,the
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bumpercollideswiththeupperslopingfaceofconcreteprofilebarrierandthecarrides
upwards.Thisprovidestheupliftofthecarwhosewheelsmoveupthelowerslopingface
ofthebarrier.Itisnotintendedtoliftthecartoohigh,otherwiseitmayresultinrolling.
Since the friction between the wheels and barriers provide extra lifting forces, it is
undesirabletodesignroughfinishonthesefaces.Inessence,thekineticenergyofthecar
duringcollisionistransformedtopotentialenergyduringitsliftinguponprofilebarrier
andfinallyconvertedbacktokineticenergywhenthecarreturnstotheroad.
Note:Fordetailsofconcreteprofilebarriers,referenceismadetoHyDStandardDrawingNo.H2101A.
3.Shouldjointsofconcretekerbsbeinlinewiththejointsinconcretecarriageway?
Innormalpractice,jointsareprovidedinroadkerbstocaterforconcreteexpansionand
contraction.However,thelocationofjointsinkerbsisnotarbitraryandtheyshouldmatch
withjointsinconcretecarriageway.Otherwise,itisverylikelythatcracksmayformin
concretekerbsatlocationofpavementjoints(MinistryofTransport(1955)).
4.Whyis theslump specified in concrete carriageway comparatively low (30mm)
whencomparedwithnormalconcrete(75mm)?
Theslumpofconcretecarriagewayispurposelyspecifiedtobearelativelylowvalue,i.e.
30mm.Forconcretecarriageway,trafficloadsdirectlyactonconcretepavementsurface
andthereforethesurfacestrengthisdetrimentaltoitsfutureperformance.Infreshlyplaced
concrete,segregation(maybeintheformofbleeding)occurswithinthemixtureofcement
pasteandaggregates.Thedegreeofresistancetosegregationisrelatedtoworkabilityof
concrete.Ifsubstantialsegregationisallowedtotakeplace,thentherelativelyporousand
weaklaitancelayerwillbeformedonthecarriageway surfaceandtheaggregates will
concentrate in the bottom. Hence, concrete which has insignificant bleed possesses a
strongersurfacelayerandismoreabrasionresistant.Consequently,asmallslumpvalueis
specifiedtoincreasethewearingresistanceofconcreteandtoachieveasuitablesurface
textureofconcretepavements.
Moreover, a lowslump concrete facilitates the use of slipforms when constructing the
concrete pavement. Withconcrete ofalowslumpvalue,itstillremains its compacted
shapeandisnotliabletodeformwhenthepavingmachinesgoaway.However,ifahigh
slump concrete is used instead, the pavement surface would drop and the edges may
deformreadily.
5.Canallutilitydetectorsdetectthedepthofutilities?
In Hong Kong, underground utility detectors are normally divided into two types:
electromagneticdetectorandgroundpenetratingradar(GPR).
For electromagnetic detector, it can detect the signals emitted by metallic utilities
themselvesbypassivemode.Whileinactivemode,thedetectorhastopickupthesignals
throughatransmitterandsondaconnecteddirectlytothenonmetallicutility.Boththe
alignmentanddepthcanbefoundinactivemodewhileonlyalignmentcanbefoundin
passivemode.Theelectromagneticdetectoravailableinmarketcandetectutilitiesupto
depthof3m.
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Forgroundpenetratingradar,itsendsradiowavesintothegroundandreceivessignals
from reflections from utilities. It has the advantage of locating both the depth and
alignment of utilities. More importantly, it can detect both metallic and nonmetallic
utilities. However, it suffers from the disadvantage that it is quite expensive and
interpretationofdataisnotsimple.ReferenceismadetoLD,DSD(2000).
6.Whatistheimportanceofairvoidcontentinbituminouspavements?
Theairvoidcontentofbituminous materials isanimportantcontrolparameter forthe
qualityofbitumenbeinglaidandcompacted.Iftheairvoidcontentistoohigh,itallows
forintrusionofairandwater.Moreover,italsoincreasestherateofhardeningofbinders
whichproduceprematureembrittlementofpavements.Inaddition,toohighavoidcontent
willalsoleadtodifferentialcompactionsubjecttotrafficloadsandresultinformationof
rutsandgroovesalongthewheeltrack.
However,aminimumamountofairvoidshouldbemaintainedtoavoidinstabilityduring
compaction process and to provide space for bitumen flow in longterm consolidation
undertrafficloads.Asufficientamountofairvoidsshouldbedesignedtomakeroomfor
expansionofbinderinsummerandcompactionbyroadtrafficassuggestedbyNational
AssociationofAustralianStateRoadAuthorities(1968),otherwisebleedingandlossof
stabilitymayoccurandthepavementwilldeformreadilyundersevereloads.
7.Inconcretepavement,whyistherequirementof95%bymassofquartzgrainsare
specifiedincontract?
InGeneralSpecificationofCivilEngineeringWorks(1992Edition),inClause10.09it
statesFineaggregateforconcreteshallbenaturalriverdepositedsandconsistingofat
least95%bymassofquartzgrains.Theaimofsuchspecificationistocontrolthequality
ofriversand.Asquartzisadurableandhardmaterial,usingahighpercentageofquartzin
aggregatesofconcretecanenhancethestrengthanddurabilityofthesurfacetextureof
concretecarriageway.
In addition, such specification requires a high percentage of quartz content, thereby
reducingtheprobabilityofpresenceofimpuritieslikeshell.
8.Whatistheloadtransfermechanismforpavingblocksinpedestrianfootway?
InHongKong,footwayisnormallydesignedwithpavingslabs/interlockingblocksinstead
ofconcretebecausetheextensiveuseofconcreteinpavementisboring.Moreover,poor
appearancewillresultinconcretepavementduetofrequentlytrenchopeningsforutility
work.Inaddition,owingtotheprolongedsettingandcuringtimeofconcrete,theuseof
concretepavementinevitablygeneratesdisturbancetothegeneralpublic.
Thepedestrianloadsaretakenupthroughthefollowingways:
(i)
(ii)
Load carrying capacity ofpaving slabs/interlocking blocks are derived from their
individualstrength;
Pedestrian loads are also supported by interlocking forces provided by friction
transferthroughthesandinverticaljoints(K.K.Tang&RobertP.Cooper(1986)).
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9.Whatisthefunctionofasandlayerunderlyingpavingslab/interlockingblocks?
Normallyafterthelayingofsubbaselayerofthepavingslab/interlockingblocks,a30mm
thicksandbeddingisscreededandtampedoverthepavementarea.Thenpavingslabsare
laid horizontally with joints of 23mm wide and are laid in uphill direction. After
completingthelayingofpavingslabs,sandusedforfillingjointsisspreadoverthesurface
oftheunitsandbrushedintothejointssuchthatalljointsarecompletelyfilled.Thepaving
slabsarethenbeddedintofinalpositionbyusingplatevibrators.
Thesandlayerservesthesamepurposeofnormalblindinglayerunderconcretestructure:
(i)
(ii)
Providealevelandflatsurfaceforthepavingslab/interlockingblockstolayon;
Protectthefoundation(i.e.undergroundsubgradeandsubbaselayer)againstadverse
outsideconditions(e.g.badweather)duringconstructionofthelayingworkofpaving
slab/interlockingblocks.
10.Whatisthefunctionoflongitudinaljointsinconcreteroadpavements?
Alongitudinaljointconsistsofatiebarplacedatthemiddepthofaconcretepavementand
itisnotintendedforjointlateralmovement.Thenonemaydoubtthereasonsofplacing
longitudinaljointsinconcretepavements.Infact,longitudinaljointsarenormallydesigned
at a regular spacing e.g. 4.5m to accommodate the effect of differential settlement of
pavementfoundation.Whenunevensettlementoccurs,thetiebarsinlongitudinaljoints
perform as hinges (Ministry of Transport (1955)) which allow for the settlement of
concretecarriageway.Moreover,italsoservestocaterfortheeffectofwarpingofconcrete
duetomoistureandtemperaturegradientsbypermissionofasmallamountofangular
movementtooccursothatstressesinducedbyrestrainedwarpingcanbeavoided.
Dowelbarsareprovidedinlongitudinaljointsforthefollowingreasons:
(i) Incaseoftheoccurrenceofunevensettlementbetweenadjacentpanels,ithelpsto
maintainalevelsurfacebytransferofloadsthroughdowelbars.
(ii) Keepthelongitudinaljointsclose.
11.Forrigidpavement,whataretheadvantagesofusingleanconcretesubbase
insteadoftraditionalgranularsubbase?
Thereareseveralshortcomingsofusinggranularsubbaseinconcretecarriageway:
(i)
(ii)
Sincesubbaseispermeable,watercanseepthroughsubbaseandsoilparticleswill
be pumped out through contraction/expansion joints when subject to traffic load.
Consequently,voidsareformedunderneaththepavementstructureandtheconcrete
pavementmaycrackunderseveretrafficloading.
Leanconcreteincreasesthestrengthandrenderstheroadscapableofcarryingheavy
trafficloads(DavidCroneyandPaulCroney(1992)).
(iii) Duetoworkmanshipproblem,itmayhaveunevendistributionofsubbaseandthis
resultsincrackingofconcretecarriagewaywhensubjecttoseveretrafficloading.
12.InGeneralSpecificationforCivilEngineeringWorks(1992Edition),thedesignof
roadbasematerialisbasedonrecipeapproach.Why?
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VincentT.H.CHU
The design of roadbase material is based on recipe approach (David Croney and Paul
Croney(1992))becauseHongKonggovernmentfollowsthetraditionalBritishpracticeby
adoptingrecipedesigninwhichtheaggregategradingenvelope,thequantityandgradeof
bitumenarespecifiedinthebituminousmix.Thisrecipeofbituminous mixisderived
based on past experience and good workmanship during construction. In fact, many
countries nowadays adopt special design mix of roadbase which proves to produce
satisfactorybituminousmixestosuitdifferentsiteanddesignconditions.
Infact,recipespecificationofbituminousmaterialsdoessufferfromseveraldrawbacks.
Firstly,theconditionsoftrafficandclimateofnewlyconstructedbituminousroadmay
differfromtheconditionsonwhichtherecipedesignisbased.Incaseadjustmenthastobe
madetotherecipedesign,itisverydifficulttodetermineandassessthemodifications
required.Secondly,itposesproblemtositeengineerstoassesstheeffectsofminornon
complianceifrecipespecificationisadopted.Finally,therecipemixmaynotbethemost
economicaldesignwhichisdependentonsiteconditions.
13. If the construction of concrete carriageway is carried out in summer, can
expansionjointsbeomitted?
Iftheconstructionofconcretecarriagewayiscarriedoutinsummer,expansionjointsmay
not be necessary as suggested by Arthur Wignall, Peter S. Kendrick and Roy Ancil.
Expansionofconcretecarriagewayismainlyduetoseasonalchangeswithanincreasein
temperaturefromthatduringconstructiontotheambienttemperature(i.e.thetemperature
insummer).However,iftheconstructionofconcretecarriagewaytakesplaceinsummer,
theconcretecarriagewaywillundergocontractioninthefollowingwinter,thusthespace
availableincontractionjointscanaccommodatethefutureexpansioninthenextsummer.
14.Ifthereisadelayofbituminouslayingontopofsubbase,shouldtackcoatbe
appliedonthetopsurfaceofsubbase?
When there is a delay between bituminous laying of different bituminous layers (i.e.
roadbase,basecourseetc.),atackcoatisappliedontopofthebituminouslayersbecauseit
helps to enhance better bonding between bituminous materials. If there is insufficient
bondingbetweenadjacentbituminouslayers,theybehaveasseparateindependentlayers
whichcanhardlyresistthetrafficloads.Whenapplyingthetackcoat,itshouldbesprayed
uniformlyonthebituminoussurfaceandallowedforsufficientcuring.Thehotbituminous
materiallaidontopofthecoatwouldsoftenit,enablingthetackcoattopartlyfillvoidsin
thebituminousmaterials.Foremulsifiedasphalttypetackcoats,theyarenormallydiluted
with water in order to achieve a more uniform application without excessive usage of
asphalt.Afterthesubsequentcompactioniscarriedout,thecoatwouldbeinterlockedwith
thebituminousmaterials.Ontheotherhand,careshouldbetakentoensurethatexcessive
coatwouldnotbelaid,otherwiseslippageorshearcracksinthebituminousmaterialwould
occurduetotherelativethicklayerofthetackcoatapplied.
However,forsubbasesurface,primingcoatinsteadoftackcoatmaybeappliedinthe
eventofadelayinlayingofbituminouslayerontopofthesubbaselayer.Thefunctionof
theprimerservestomaintaintheexistingsurfaceconditionforalongerperiodanditalso
providesanimpermeablesurfacetopreventingressofwaterorwaterlossbyevaporation.
Moreover, it fills the surface voids and protects the subbase from adverse weather
conditions.Inaddition,italsohelpstopromoteadhesionbetweenadjacentroadlayersand
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tohardenthesurface.
15.Whatis difference in purpose forconducting surface regularity testand sand
patchtest(testontexturedepth)?
Thepurposeofsurfaceregularitytestistomeasuretheridingqualityofpavementsandthe
samerequirementandstandardisappliedtobothconcreteandbituminouscarriageway.On
theotherhand,sandpatchtestisusedforcheckingtheskidresistanceofroadpavements.
Moreover,itisrelatedtotrafficnoisebecausetheintensityofnoisegeneratedfromroad
trafficisrelatedtotexturedepthofcarriageway.
16.InGeneralSpecificationforCivilEngineeringWorks(1992Edition),itspecifies
thetemperaturerequirementsforbituminousmaterialduringandaftermixing.What
isthereasonbehindthis?
Temperatureisoneofthefactorsthatgovernthecompactionofbituminousmaterialand
theairvoidcontentisfoundtodecreasewithanincreaseincompactiontemperature.This
phenomenonisexplainedbytheviscositytemperaturerelations:thehigheristheviscosity
ofbinders,thegreateristheresistancetocompaction.Therefore,innormalcontractfor
bituminouslaying,thetemperaturerequirementsforbituminousmaterialduringandafter
mixingarespecified.
17.Canasubbaselayerserveasadrainagelayertoremovewaterfrompavement?
Besides providing load distribution in postconstruction stage and working platform in
constructionstage,subbasecanalsoserveasadrainagelayertoremovewatercoming
fromthepavement.Forthicklayersofroadpavement,itislikelythatthewaterleakage
frompavementisinsignificantandthereforethesubbaselayermainlyservestosupport
the traffic stresses. However, for thin pavement layers, water penetration is quite
substantialandthereforesubbasemayalsoactasadrainagelayertoremovethesewater.
18. For unreinforced concrete carriageway, what is the sequence of closing and
openingofexpansionjointsandcontractionjoints?
Letstakeanexampletoillustratethesequenceofclosingandopeningofjoints(Ministry
ofTransport(1955)).Forinstance,anunreinforcedconcretecarriagewayisconstructedin
winter.Whentemperaturerisesinthefollowingsummer,thesectionbetweenexpansion
jointswillexpandasawholesingleelementresultingintheclosureofexpansionjoints.
Thissectionofconcretepavementwillmoveoutwardsfromthemidpointbetweenthe
expansionjoints.Inthenextwinter,eachbay(i.e.concretepavementbetweenadjacent
contractionjoints)ofconcretecontractsaboutthemidpointofitslengthwithopeningof
contractionjoints.
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Fig.6.2Movementofjointsinsummerandwinter.
19.Arekerbsnecessaryinroadpavements?
Ingeneral,kerbsareessentialinroadpavementsduetothefollowingreasons(basedon
ArthurWignall,PeterS.KendrickandRoyAncil):
(i) Theyprovidestrengthtothesidesofroadpavementsandavoidlateraldisplacementof
carriagewayduetotrafficloads.
(ii) In terms of road safety, they serve as a separation line between footway and
carriagewayandaidcardriversindrivingsafely.
(iii)Theyactasaverticalbarriertoguidethesurfacerunoffcollectedinroadpavementsto
thegullies.
Fig.6.3
20.What are the design considerations for dowel bars in joints of concrete
carriageway?
Thebehaviourofdowelbarsresemblesthatofpilesinsoilssubjecttolateralloads.Failure
ofthejointoccursbyyieldingofsteelunderbendingactionorbycrushingofconcretedue
tobearingstresses.
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VincentT.H.CHU
Ingeneral,thespacingofdowelbarsshouldnotbetooclosewhichmayposeproblems
duringconstruction.However,itshouldbenottoowidetoallowtheoccurrenceofbending
betweenthedowelbars.Ontheotherhand,regardingthelengthofdowelbars,itshould
notbetoolongbecausetheinducedstressattheendoflongdowelbarsisinsignificantand
isnoteffectiveintransferringloadsbetweenadjacentconcretepanels.However,ifthe
dowelbarsaretooshort,thestressatthefaceofjointisincreasedresultinginconcrete
crushing.ReferenceismadetoMinistryofTransport(1955).
21.Whatisthefunctionofaseparationmembranebetweenconcretepavementslab
andsubbase?
Theseparationmembranebetweenconcretepavementslabandsubbasehasthefollowing
functions:
(i) Itaidsinreducingthefrictionalforcesbetweenconcreteslabandsubbaseandhelpsto
movementofconcreteslabwithrespecttosubbaseowingtochangesintemperature
andmoisture.
(ii) It prevents the loss of cement and water in immature concrete which significantly
affectsthestrengthanddurabilityofhardenedconcrete.
(iii)Itavoidsthemixingupofsubbasematerialsandfreshlyplacedconcrete.
Polythene sheeting, which is a waterproof material, is commonly used as separation
membrane.
22. Should emulsified asphalts or cutback asphalts be selected as tack coat in
bituminousroadworks?
Emulsifiedasphaltisasuspensionofasphaltinwaterbyusinganemulsifyingagentwhich
imposes anelectric charge onasphaltparticles sothat theywouldbejoinandcement
together.Ontheotherhand,cutbackasphaltissimplyasphaltdissolvedinpetroleum.The
purposeofaddingemulsifyingagentinwaterorpetroleumistoreduceviscosityofasphalt
inlowtemperatures.
Thecolourofemulsionfortackcoatisbrowninitiallyduringthetimeofapplication.Later,
thecolourischangedtoblackwhentheasphaltstartstosticktothesurroundinganditis
describedasbreak.Finally,whenwaterhasallevaporated,theemulsionissaidtohave
set. Similarly, for cutback emulsion, it is described to cure when the solvent has
evaporated.However,thereareseveralproblemsassociatedwithcutbackasphalts:
(i) Emulsifiedasphaltcanbedilutedwithwatersothatalowapplicationratecouldbe
achieved.
(ii) Theevaporationofpetroleumintoatmosphereforcutbackasphaltposesenvironmental
problem.
Thecostofproductionofpetroleumishigherthanthatofemulsifyingagentandwater.
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Chapter7PumpingStation
1.Whatisthedifferenceamongcementplaster,cementrenderandcementscreed?
Underwhatsituationsshouldeachoftheabovebeused?
Thepurposeofplastering,renderingandscreedingistocreateasmooth,flatsurfaceto
receivefinisheslikepaint,wallpaperetc.
Plasteringistheintermediatelycoatingofbuildingmaterialstobeappliedontheinternal
facadeofconcretewallsorblockwalls.
Renderingistheintermediatecoatingforexternalwallsonly.
Screedingisthecoatinglaidonfloorstoreceivefinishesliketiles,carpet,andmarble...
Hence,thesetermsdifferbasicallyfromthelocationsatwhichtheyareapplied.Dueto
differentlocationsofapplicationofplasterwork,theproportionofmaterialcomponentfor
plasterandrenderisdifferent.Forexample:
(i)Cementplaster
Undercoatcement:lime:sand(byvolume)=1:4:16
Finishingcoatcement:lime:sand=1:12:30
(ii)Cementrender
Undercoatcement:lime:sand(byvolume)=1:2:6
Finishingcoatcement:lime:sand=1:3:6
2.Inthedesignofcorbelbeamsinapumpingstation,whyareshearlinksdesignedin
thetop2/3ofthesection?
Whatisthegeneraladviceonthedesign?
Corbelbeamsaredefinedasz/d<0.6wherezisthedistanceofbearingloadtothebeams
fixedend(orcalledshearspan)anddisdepthofbeams.Thedesignphilosophyisbasedon
strutandtiesystem.Toestablishthedesignmodel,itisfirstlyassumedthefailuresurface,
i.e.shearcracksextendingto2/3ofdepthofbeam.Experimentresultsverifiedthatthe
failurecracksextendedonlyto2/3ofbeamwhiletheremaining1/3depthofconcrete
contributedasconcretestruttoprovidecompressivestrutforcetothebearingloading.
Horizontal links are normally provided to corbel beams because experimental results
indicated that horizontal links were more effective than vertical links when shear
span/depthislessthan0.6.Forshearspan/depth>0.6,itshouldbenotconsideredascorbel
beamsbutascantilevers.
Indesigningcorbelbeams,careshouldbetakentoavoidbearingloadtoextendbeyondthe
straightportionoftiebars,otherwisethecornersofcorbelbeamsarelikelytoshearoff.
ReferenceismadetoL.A.Clark(1983).
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3.Givena1mhighstaircaserestingonsolidconcrete,woulditbeadequatetodesign
nominalreinforcementforthestaircase?
Forthedesignofstaircase,therearethreemainscenarios:
(i)Stairsspanslongitudinally
This kind of stairs refers to stairs spanning between landings only without any side
supports.Inthiscase,thestaircaseshouldbedesignedasabeambetweentwoendsupports
(i.e.landing)andthemainreinforcementisprovidedatthebottomofstaircaseslabs.
(ii)Stairsspanningtransversely
This kindofstaircaseissupportedbysidewallsonlyanditmayalsobesupportedby
stringer beams. For the case of sidewalls, it acts as a cantilever beam and the main
reinforcement areprovidedthetopsurfaceofslab.Forthecaseofstaircasesupported
sidewaysbybothsidewallandstringerbeam,itshouldbedesignedtransverselywithend
supportsassidewallandstringerbeamandreinforcementisprovidedatthebottomofthe
staircase.
(iii)Stairsrestingonsolidsupport
Forstairsrestingonsolidsupports,onlynominalsteelreinforcementisprovidedtocontrol
thermalandshrinkagecracking.
4.Inselectingscrewpumpsinpolderschemeprojects,whatarethefactorsthataffect
thedesigncapacityofscrewpumps?
o
Thecommonlyusedanglesofinclinationforscrewpumpsare30 ,35 and38 .Forscrew

o
pumpsofrelativelyhighliftinghead,likeover6.5m,angleofinclinationof38 isnormally
used. However, for relatively lower head and high discharge requirement, angle of
o
inclinationof30 shallbeselected.Ingeneral,foragivencapacityandliftinghead,the
o
screwpumpdiameterissmalleranditslengthislongerforascrewpumpof30 inclination
o
whencomparedwithascrewpumpof38 inclination.
Toincreasethedischargecapacityofscrewpumps,alargernumberofflightsshouldbe
selected.Infact,screwpumpswith2flightsaremoreeconomicalthatthatwith3flightsin
termsofefficiencyandmanufacturingcost.Moreover,thedischargecapacityisalso
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determinedbythescrewpumpdiameterandsizesof300mmto5000mmareavailablein
currentmarket.
5.Whatarethecomponentsofawaterproofingsystemintheroofofatypical
pumpingstation?
Inthedesignofawaterproofingsystemattheroofofapumpingstation,normallythe
followingcomponentsare:
(i)
Abovethestructuralfinishleveloftheconcreteroof,ascreedofuniformthicknessis
appliedtoprovideasmoothsurfacefortheapplicationofwaterproofingmembrane.
(Screedofvaryingthicknesscanalsobedesignedontherooftocreateaslopefor
drainage.)Thescreedusedforprovidingasurfaceformembraneshouldbethinand
possess good adhesion to the substrate. Moreover, the screed aids in the thermal
insulationoftheroof.
(ii) Abovethescreed,waterproofingmembraneisprovidedtoensurewatertightnessof
theroof.
(iii) An insulation board may be placed on top of waterproof membrane for thermal
insulation.Incoldweatherconditionwherethelossofheatattheroofissignificant,
theinsulationboardhelpstoreducetheselosses.Onthecontrary,insummertheroof
isheatedupbydirectsunlightandtheinsulationlayerreducesthetemperaturerise
insidethepumpingstation.
6.Inpumpingstationsoneofthechoicesforthematerialofwatertanksisfibre
reinforced plastic (FRP). What are the advantages associated with this kind of
material?
TherearetwomainadvantagesforFRPwatertanks:
(i)
(ii)
Itpossesseshighstrengthtoweightratioandthisleadstotheeaseofsitehandling.
Itishighlyresistanttocorrosionandthusitismoredurablethansteelwatertank.
7.Intheconstructionofpumptroughsforaccommodationofscrewpumps,whatis
theconstructionmethodtoensureclosecontactbetweenthescrewpumpsandthe
pumptrough?
Intheconstructionofscrewpumptroughs,trapezoidalshapedtroughsareusuallyformed
byusingnormalformwork.Inordertoenhanceclosecontactbetweenscrewpumpsand
troughs, uponlifting the screw pumps into the troughs screeding works is carried out.
Screwpumpsaresettorotateandscreedsareplacedbetweenthegapofscrewpumps
bladeandtrapezoidalshapedtroughsduringtherotatingactionofscrewpumps.Afterthe
screedsets,itservestopreventleakageofwaterduringthepumpingoperationofscrew
pumps.
8. Why are voids filled with lightweight infilling material in raft foundation of
pumpingstations?
Toreducethedeadloadandhencetoreducethesettlementofpumpingstations,thevoids
insidetheraftfoundationsarefilledwithlightmaterial.Ifinsteadconcreteisplacedinside
thesevoids,itposesseverethermalcrackingproblemanddrasticallyincreasesloadsto
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pumpingstations.Theuseofgeneralfillisalsonotdesirablebecauseitsselfweightis
comparabletothatofconcrete.Onthecontrary,ifthesevoidsareleftvacant,watermay
penetrateintothesevoidsduringfutureoperationandincreasesthedeadloadofpumping
stationsduringitsnormaloperation.Therefore,lightweightinfillmaterial,whichisnon
waterabsorbingandnonbiodegradable,isdesignedinsidethesevoidstoavoidingressof
waterandtoreducethedeadloadofthestructure.
9.Whatisthedifferenceinarrangingpumpsinseriesandinparallel?
Foridenticalpumpswithsimilarfunctions,ifthepumpsarrangedinseries,thetotalheadis
increasedwithoutachangetomaximumdischarge.Ontheotherhand,forpumpsarranged
inparalleltooneanother,thedischargeisincreasedwithoutanychangestomaximum
head.
10.Intermsofpumpingperformance,howshouldengineersdeterminetheuseof
radialflowpumpsandaxialflowpumps?
Specificspeedisusuallydefinedforapumpoperatingatitsmaximumefficiency.Inorder
tominimizethecostoffutureoperation,itisdesirabletooperatethepumpsasclosetothe
maximum efficiency point as possible. The specific speed for radial flow pumps is
relativelysmallwhencomparedwiththatofaxialflowpumps.Thisimpliesthatradialflow
pumpstendtogivehigherheadwithlowerdischargewhileaxialflowpumpstendtogive
higherdischargewithlowerhead.
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VincentT.H.CHU
Chapter8Reclamation
1.Whataredifferentapproachesforreclamationindeepwaterregionandshallow
waterregion?
Toillustratethedifferentapproachesadoptedforreclamationindeepwaterandshallow
waterregion,thefollowingexampleisused:
Indeepwaterregion,considertheseabedlevelis8.5mPD.Afterlayingofgeotextilesand
1.5mthicksandblanket,thetoplevelofsandblanketisabout7mPD.Splitbargesare
deployedfordumpingpublicfillto2.5mPD.Afterwards,enddippingofpublicfillby
truckswillbecarriedoutupto+2.5mPDwhichisthedesignedreclamationlevel.Between
level2.5mPDand+2.5mPD,itistooshallowforsplitbargestoenterthewater,thusthe
methodofenddippingisusedinstead.
Forshallowwaterregion,theseabedlevelistakenas5.5mPDinthisexample.Withthe
layingofgeotextilesand1.5msandblanketintoposition,thetoplevelofsandblanketis
about4mPD.Inthiscase,splitbargesarealsousedforreclamationworkbetweenthelevel
4mPDand2.5mPD.Afterthat,ifenddippingisusedforreclamationworkabove
2.5mPD,theninconsideringtherelativethinlayeroffillaboveseabed(1.5msandblanket
+ 1.5m sand blanket), it stands a high chance that mud wave would occur in seabed.
Therefore,halfloadedderrickbargesareemployedforreclamationuptolevel0mPD.With
athickerlayerofpublicfillnow,enddippingcanthenbeusedforreclamationbetween
0mPDand+2.5mPD.
This above reclamation sequence is just an example to demonstrate the different
considerationsforreclamationindeepwaterandshallowwaterregion.
2.Incasemudwavesoccurduringreclamation,whatarethepossiblesolutionsto
rectifythesituation?
(i)Option1CompleteRemovalofAllDisturbedMud
Toremovealldisturbedmudoncemudwavesoccuristhefastestwaytotreattheproblem.
Afterthat,fillingmaterialisusedforreplacingthedisturbedmud.However,thisoptionisa
ratherexpensiveoptionbecauseitinvolvesdredgingofalldisturbedmudandreplacement
oflargeamountoffill.
(ii)Option2AcceleratedconsolidationofDisturbedMud
Thisoptioninvolvesplacementofsurchargingloadsontopofmudwaves,togetherwith
installationofbanddrainstoacceleratetheconsolidationofdisturbedmud.Thismethod
suffersfromthedrawbackthatsufficientlongtimeisrequiredfortheconsolidationprocess
ofmud.
(iii)Option3PartialRemovalofDisturbedMud
Thisoptionisacombinationofthefirsttwooptionsinwhichthetopweaklayerofmudis
removedwhilethelowermudistreatedwithsurchargingwithbanddraininstallation.
Note:Mudwavesrefertoexcessivedisplacementofmudduetosuccessiveslipfailureduringreclamation.
3.Whatistheimportanceofgeotextilesandsandinreclamationworks?
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Forgeotextilesusedinreclamation,theyservemainlythefollowingtwopurposes:
(i) theyseparatereclamationfillfrommarinemud;
(ii) theymayactasreinforcementtoenhancethestabilityofreclamation.However,the
reinforcement function is still under heated debate because its performance as
reinforcement depends on several factors like the directional strength of woven
geotextilesanddamageeffectbyinstallationofverticalbanddrains.
Forsand:
(i) itspreadstheloadoffuturepublicdumpontopofit;
(ii) itactsasdrainagepathfordissipationofexcessporewaterpressureforbanddrain
installation.
4.GeotechnicalInstrumentationisfrequentlyemployedformonitoringthecondition
ofreclamation.Sometimes twopiezometers areinstalledinsidethesameborehole.
Whatisthereasonbehindthis?
Forstandpipes,theynormallycontainoneplastictubebetweenitsintentionistomeasure
water level only. However, for piezometers, they are used for measuring pore water
pressureinacertaindepthbelowground.Forinstance,iftherearetwoclayeylayersbelow
groundatdifferentdepths,amultiplepiezometerincludingtwoseparatepiezometersmay
be sunk at the same borehole to determine the pore water pressure at these layers
respectively.Thisarrangementhastheadvantagethatitsavesthecostofinstallationof
separate boreholes for several piezometers. However, the installation of multiple
piezometerswithinthesameboreholeisaffectedbyoccurrenceofleakagealongthepipes
assuggestedbyMariusTremblay(1989).
5.Whatisthedifferencebetweenstandpipe,standpipepiezometerandpiezometer?
Astandpipenormallycontainsplasticpipeswithperforatedholesatthebase.Theannular
spacebetweentheperforatedtubeandcasingisfilledwithgravelorsandbackfill.Under
suchanarrangement,standpipeisusedtomeasurewaterlevelofacertainregion.
Astandpipepiezometerisatypeofpiezometerwhichmeasuresporewaterpressureata
certainlevel.Itconsistsofplasticpipeswithoutholes.Thetipofthestandpipepiezometer
isperforatedandtheannularspacebetweenthetipofthepiezometerandsoilisfilledwith
sandwhiletheannularspacebetweenotherpartsofplastictubeandsoilisfilledwith
cement/bentonitegrouttosealoffwaterfromenteringtheregionofpiezometertip.This
enablestheporewaterpressureintheregionofpiezometertiptobemeasured.Inessence,
standpipepiezometersareinstalledtostudytheporewaterpressureofaspecifieddepth
below ground. However, it suffers from the disadvantage that the response time is
relativelyslowinclayeysoils.ReferenceismadetoMariusTremblay(1989).
6. For drained reclamation, what is the significance of smear zone induced by
installationofbanddrains?
During installation of band drains, smear zones are created in which a zone of soil
surrounding the band drains are disturbed. The compressibility of surrounding soils is
increasedanditresultsinthereductionoftheirpermeability.Infact,thesurroundingsoils
areremouldedduringtheinstallationprocessandtheeffectivenessofbanddrainsis
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VincentT.H.CHU
reduced. Inessence, forthe reduced permeability ofsoils aroundband drains, it takes

longertimetocompletetheconsolidationprocess.
7.Incasearoadpassesthroughareclaimedlandandanexistingland,whatisthe
mainconcernregardingthedesignofpavements?
Foranexistingland,itisanticipatedthattherewillbenomajorsettlementwithinthe
design life of pavement structures. However, for a recently reclaimed land, even with
surchargingandinstallationofverticaldrains,somesettlementwillstilloccurafterthe
construction.Ifaroadpavementhastobeconstructedconnectingthesetwoareas,special
design has to be made in this transition region. In order to avoid the occurrence of
differentialsettlementwhichmaydamagethepavementstructure,atransitionslabmaybe
designedtoaccommodatesuchmovement(J.S.M.Kwong(1996)).
8.Indredgedreclamation,whataretheconsiderationsinselectingbetweentrailer
suctionhopperdredgersandgrabdredgers?
Trailersuctionhopperdredgersarevesselswhichremovematerialofftheseabedthrough
hydraulicsuctionbyusingpumps.Duringthedredgingoperation,amixtureofsoiland
wateristransportedthroughsuctionpipetostoragehoppers.Significantturbulenceinside
thehoppers keepsthe dredgedmixtureinsuspensionandthis shouldbeminimized to
enhancethematerialtosettleswiftlypriortotheprocessofoverflowing.Trailersuction
hopper dredgers are mounted with draghead or dragarm pumps which increases the
dredging depth and trims down the occurrence of cavitation as suggested by John B.
Herbioh (1992). This machine is limited to dredging relatively lowstrength material.
Moreover, they cannot be deployed in very shallow waters and instead grab dredgers
shouldbeused.However,itsdredgingcapacityishigherthanthatofgrabdredgerandit
canbemobilizedinrelativelydeepwaterregion.
Trailersuctionhopperdredgersarerenownedfortheirmobility,versatilityandcapability
tooperateinunfavorableseaconditions.
9. What are the considerations in selecting marine plants and land plants for
installationofbanddrains?
Forinstallationofbanddrainsbymarineplants,itmusthavesufficientwaterdepthto
accommodatethemarineplantsinthefirstplace.However,duetotheeffectoftidesand
waves,theestablishmentofthepositionforinstallationofbanddrainsandthesubsequent
installationworksmaybeaffected.Inaddition,theestablishmentcostofmarineplantsis
higherthanthatoflandplants.
Forinstallationofbanddrainsbylandplants,difficultymaybeencounteredduringthe
installationofbanddrainsthroughthereclaimedlayere.g.C&Dmaterial.Landplantsmay
takelongerconstructiontimeduetotheabovementioneddifficulty.Sometimeswhenthe
supply of public fill is increased suddenly, it may be preferable to place these fill
immediatelyintopositionandinthissituationtheinstallationofbanddrains(originally
installedbymarineplants)isdelayedsothattheconstructionofbanddrainsischangedto
usinglandplants.
10. For installation of silt curtains, why is it not desirable to design the curtain to
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touchtheseabed?
Siltcurtainsareimpermeableverticalbarriersextendingfromtheseawatersurfacetoits
designeddepth.Thecurtainsareheldinaverticalpositionbythecarrierfloatontheirtop
andacurtainweightattheirbottom.Atensioncableisdesignedatthecarrierfloattoresist
stressesincurredbycurrents.Moreover,thesiltcurtainsareanchoredtotheseabedtohold
theminthedesignedconfiguration.
Inessence,thedepthofsiltcurtainsshouldnotbesolongandtouchtheseabedbecausethe
bottom segment of the silt curtains would be trapped inside the newly accumulated
sediment,thusresultinginsinkingofthecurtain.Consequently,itisdifficulttoremove
these sunken curtains. Moreover, reversal tidal and current actions may cause the
movementofbottomregionofcurtainswhichstirupthesettledsuspensionsandinduce
additionalturbidity.
11.Whatarethefunctionsofslipjointsinblockworkseawalls?
Slipjointsarejointswhichareformedthroughacompleteverticalplanefromthecope
leveltothetoelevelofseawalls.Thesejointsaredesignedinblockworkseawallstocater
forpossibledifferentialsettlementsbetweenadjacentpanelsofseawalls.Theaggregates
insidethehalfroundchannelsinslipjointsallowfortheverticalmovementsinducedby
differentialsettlementandatthesametimeprovidingaggregateinterlockingforcesamong
adjacentpanelsofseawallstolinkthepanelsinoneunitagainstthelateralearthpressure
exertedonseawall.
Besides,slipjointsprovideapathforthereliefofwaterpressuredevelopedandallowthe
lateralmovement(e.g.contraction)duetoseasonalvariations.
Note:Fordetailsofslipjoints,referenceismadetoCEDDStandardDrawingNo.C3008C.
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Chapter9WaterRetainingStructureandWaterworks
1.Whendesigningawaterstoragetank,shouldmovementjointsbeinstalled?
Indesigningwaterstoragetanks,movementjointscanbeinstalledinparallelwithsteel
reinforcement. To control the movement of concrete due to seasonal variation of
temperature, hydration temperature drop and shrinkage etc. two principal methods in
designareused:todesigncloselyspacedsteelreinforcementtoshortenthespacingof
cracks,therebyreducingthecrackwidthofcracks;ortointroducemovementjointsto
allowaportionofmovementtooccurinthejoints.
Letstakeanexampletoillustratethis.For30mlongtankswall,foraseasonalvariationof
o
35degreeplusthehydrationtemperatureof30 C,theamountofcrackingisabout8.8mm.
Itcaneitherbereducedto0.3mmwithclosespacingorcanbeabsorbedbymovement
o
joints.Anyway,thethermalmovementassociatedwiththeseasonalvariationof35 Cis
commonlyaccountedforbymovementjoints.
Forwaterretainingstructurelikepumpingstations,thecrackwidthrequirementiseven
morestringentinwhich0.2mmforsevereandverysevereexposureisspecifiedinBS8007.
Itturnsouttoadifficultproblemtodesignerswhomaychoosetodesignaheavyreinforced
structure.Obviously,abetterchoiceotherthanprovisionofbulkyreinforcementistoallow
contractionmovementbyusingthemethodofmovementjointstogetherwithsufficient
amountofreinforcement.Forinstance,servicereservoirsinWaterSuppliesDepartment
comprisegridsofmovementjointslikeexpansionjointsandcontractionjoints.
2.Whatisthecrackpatterninducedbyhydrationduetointernalrestraint?
Letstakeacircularcolumnasanexampletoillustratethis.
When the temperature is rising, the inner concretes temperature is higher than outer
concretestemperatureandtheinnerconcreteisexpanding.Thisinducespressuretothe
outsideandtheinducedcompressivestresswillresultinformationofradialcracksnearthe
surfaceofconcrete.
Whenthetemperaturedrops,theconcreteattheoutsidedropstosurroundingtemperature
whiletheconcreteatthecentralregioncontinuestocooldown.Thecontractionassociated
withinnerconcreteinducestensilestrainsandformscrackstangentialtothecircularradius.
3.Whatisthepurposeofaddingcoolingpipesorevenusingcoldwaterforconcretein
concretingoperation?
Allthesemeasuresaimatreducingtheplacingtemperatureandreducingthermalcracks
inducedduringconcretingofmassivepours.Sincethefinalconcretingtemperatureshould
betheambienttemperature,reducingtheinitialplacingtemperaturewillalsolowerthe
peakhydrationtemperature.Therefore,thetemperaturedifferencebetweenthehydration
peakandtheambienttemperatureisreducedaccordinglyandsubsequentlythethermal
effecttoconcretestructurecanbereducedbycontrollingtheplacingtemperature.
4. Is the material of formwork (timber or steel) helps to reduce thermal cracks in
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concretingoperation?
To answer this question, one must fully understand the effect of formwork on the
temperatureofconcretingstructure.Withoutdoubt,withbetterinsulationofstructureby
timberformwork,theoverallriseoftemperatureandhencethepeakhydrationtemperature
isalsoincreased.However,forawellinsulatedstructure,thetemperaturegradientacross
concreteelementisreduced.Therefore,theuseofwellinsulatedformwork(liketimber)
increases the maximum temperature and reduces the temperature gradient across the
structureatthesametime.Hence,whethersteelortimberformworkshouldbeusedto
controlthermalcrackingisdependentontherestraintsandthesizeofsection.
If the section under consideration is thick and internal restraint is the likely cause to
thermalcracking,thentimberformworkshouldbeused.Ontheotherhand,ifexternal
restraintisthemainconcernforthermalcracking,thensteelformworkshouldbeused
instead.
5.Whatistheimportanceofcriticalsteelratioincalculatingthermalreinforcement?
Thefulfillmentofcriticalsteelratiomeansthatinconstructionjointsorplanesofweakness
ofconcretestructure,steelreinforcementwillnotyieldandconcretefailsintensionfirst.
Thisisimportantinensuringformationofmorecracksbyfailureofconcreteintension,
otherwise failure in steel reinforcement would produce a few wide cracks which is
undesirable.
6.Inselectionofwaterstop,shallengineersuseplaindumbbelltypeorcenterbulb
type?
Theplaindumbbelltypeisusedforjointlocationwheresmallmovementsareanticipated.
Therefore,constructionjointsaredesirablelocationsofthistypeofwaterstop.Ontheother
hand,centerbulbtypewaterstopissuitableforexpansionjointsorlocationswherelateral
andshearmovementsoccurduetosettlementordeflection.ReferenceismadetoW.L.
Monks(1972).
7.WhydoBS8007specifytheallowablecrackwidthofwaterretainingstructureas
0.2mmforsevereorverysevereexposure?
Forcrackwidthlessthan0.2mm,itisassumedthatthemechanismofautogenoushealing
willtakeplaceinwhichthecrackwillautomaticallysealupandthiswouldnotcausethe
problemofleakageandreinforcementcorrosioninwaterretainingstructure.
Whenthecracksareininactivestatewherenomovementtakesplaces,autogenoushealing
occursinthepresenceofwater.However,whenthereisacontinuousflowofwaterthrough
thesecracks,autogenoushealingwouldnottakeplacebecausetheflowremovesthelime.
Oneofthemechanismsofautogenoushealingisthatcalciumhydroxide(generatedfrom
thehydrationoftricalciumsilicateanddicalciumsilicate)inconcretecementreactswith
carbondioxideintheatmosphere,resultingintheformationofcalciumcarbonatecrystals.
Graduallythesecrystalsaccumulateandgrowinthesetinycracksandformbondingsothat
thecracksaresealed.Sincethefirstdocumenteddiscoveryofautogenoushealingbythe
FrenchAcademyofSciencein1836,therehavebeennumerouspreviousproofsthatcracks
aresealedupnaturallybyautogenoushealing.Becauseofitsselfsealingproperty,
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designersnormallylimitcrackwidthto0.2mmforwaterretainingstructures.
8.Indesigningreservoirs,theindirecttensilestrengthoftheconcretemixisspecified
2
to be less than a specific value (e.g. 2.8N/mm ) for potable water. Why should
engineersputanupperlimitofindirecttensilestrength?
The crack width formation is dependent on the early tensile strength of concrete. The
principleofcriticalsteelratioalsoappliesinthissituation.Theamountofreinforcement
requiredtocontrolearlythermalandshrinkagemovementisdeterminedbythecapability
ofreinforcementtoinducecracksonconcretestructures.Ifanupperlimitissetontheearly
tensilestrengthofimmatureconcrete,thenarangeoftinycrackswouldbeformedby
failing in concrete tension. However, if the strength of reinforcement is lower than
immatureconcrete,thenthesubsequentyieldingofreinforcementwillproduceisolatedand
wide cracks which is undesirable for waterretaining structures. Therefore, in order to
controltheformationofsuchwidecrackwidths,theconcretemixisspecifiedtohavean
2
indirecttensilestrengthat7daysnotexceedingacertainvalue(e.g.2.8N/mm forpotable
water).ReferenceismadetoR.D.Anchor,A.W.HillandB.P.Hughes(1979).
9.Shallreversiblemoisturemovementbetakenintoaccountinestimatingmovement
formovementjoints?
The size of concrete is affected by changes in atmospheric humidity: moisture causes
expansionwhiledryingcausesshrinkage.Suchmoisturemovementisreversible.Thisis
totally different fromdrying shrinkage in which concrete slowlyloses moisture during
hardening,thuscausingirreversibleshrinkage.
Infact,thevariationofhumidityandtheestimatedreversiblemoisturemovementisnot
significant(about30%)andtherefore,itscontributiontomovementdoesnotjustifyfor
movementjointsassuggestedbyMNBussell&RCather(1995).
10.Inthedesignofwatermains,howtodecidetheusageofdoubleairvalvesand
singleairvalves?
Singleairvalvesallowsqueezingairoutofthepipelineinautomaticmodeinhighpressure
conditionandarenormallydesignedinhighpointsofwatermaininwhichairvoidsare
present. Double air valves basically serve the same purpose except that it has another
importantfunction:itcangetairinto/outofthepipelineduringlowpressurecondition.
InWSDpractice,watermainarenormallydividedintosectionsbyinstallationofsectional
valves to facilitate maintenance. In a single isolated pipeline section bounded by two
sectionalvalves,atleastadoubleairvalveshouldbeinstalled.Duringnormalmaintenance
operationlikecleansingofwatermain,waterinsidepipelinesisdrawnfromwashoutvalves.
However,asnormalwatermainissubjecttoveryhighpressurelike1.5MPaandthesudden
withdrawnofwaterwillcauseatransientvacuumconditionandwilldamagethewatermain.
Therefore atleastonedoubleairvalve shouldbepresenttoallow airtosqueeze into

balancethepressureandthisprotectsthepipelinefromdamaging.
Inessence,forlocalhighpointssingleairvalvesshouldbeinstalled.Withinasectionof
pipeline,atleastonedoubleairvalveshouldbeinstalled.
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11.Whyaretwogatevalvesrequiredinnormalpracticetoformawashoutvalve?
Infact,thesituationisanalogoustothatoffirehydrantsinwhichtwogatesvalvesare
installedwithasinglefirehydrant.Washoutvalvesareusedfornormalmaintenancework
ofwatermain likeallowingflowingoutofwaterduringcleaning ofwatermain. Atthe
junctionwhereateebranchouttoawashoutpoint,agatevalveisinstalledtoseparatethe
twopipelines.However,thisgatevalveisopenduringnormaloperationwhileanothergate
valvefurtherdownstreamisinstalled(closedduringnormaloperation).Ifthedownstream
gatevalveisnotinstalledinposition,thenthepipesectionofbranchedoutwatermainwill
be left dry during normal operation and there is a high probability that damage to
watermainandfrequentleakagewouldoccur.Withthedownstreamgatevalveinstalled,
thesegmentofbranchedoutwatermaincontainswaterinnormaloperation.Incasethereis
anyleakage,itcanbereadilydetectedbyusingthetwogatevalves.
12.Aftertheconstructionofwatermain,priortohydrostaticpressuretest,swabbing
iscarriedout.Whatisthepurposeofswabbing?
Pipelinesshouldbetestedbeforecommissioningtocheckthestrengthofwatermainand
theabsenceofleak.Beforecarryingouthydrostaticpressuretest,swabbingisconductedto
clearoutrubbishanddirtleftinsidethepipelineduringconstruction.Swabbingisrequired
forpipeslessthan600mmdiameterbecauseforlargersizeofpipes,theycanbeinspected
internallytoensurecleanliness.
Aftercarryingoutofhydrostaticpressuretest,testforwatersterilizationisthenconducted
whichinvolvescollectingwatersamplefromthepipeline.Thepurposeistocheckthe
waterqualitylikecolour,turbidity,odor,pHvalue,conductivityetc.andiscomparedwith
thequalityofwaterdrawnfromwatersupplypoint.
13.Inthedesignofwatermain,thenormalpracticeistouseductileironforpipesize
lessthan600mmandtousesteelforpipesizemorethan600mm.Why?
Forwatermainpipesizelessthan600mm,ductileironisnormallyusedbecauseinternal
weldingforsteelpipesbelow600mmisdifficulttobecarriedout.Moreover,itrequires
onlysimplejointingdetailswhichallowforfasterrateofconstruction.Forwatermainpipe
sizeabove600mm,steelpipesarerecommendedbecausesteelpipesarelighterthanductile
ironpipesforthesamematerialstrengthandthereforethecostofsteelpipesislessthan
thatofductileironpipes.Inaddition,inareasofdifficultaccessthelightermildsteelpipes
poseanadvantageoverductileironpipesforeasyhandling.
14.Inthedesignofservicereservoirs,horizontalreinforcementinwallsofreservoirs
isplacedattheouterlayer.Why?
Since service reservoirs are designed as waterretaining structures with stringent
requirementofcrackwidthcontrol,thedesignofreinforcementofservicereservoirsis
under the control of serviceability limit state. For the walls of service reservoirs,
contractionandexpansionofconcretearemoresignificantinthehorizontaldirectionof
walls because of their relatively long lengths when compared with heights. In this
connection,inordertominimizetheusageofreinforcement,horizontalbarsareplacedat
theoutmostlayersothatthedistanceofreinforcementbarstoconcretesurfaceisreduced.
Sincetheshorteristhedistancetothepointofconcern,thesmalleristhecrackwidthand
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hencewithsuchreinforcementarrangementadvantagesaretakenifthereinforcementbars
inthecriticaldirectionareplacedclosesttoconcretesurface.
15.Inthedesignofservicereservoirs,howarereservoirfloorsdesignedtoprevent
leakageofwaterduetoseasonalandshrinkagemovements?
Thereareingeneraltwomainapproachesindesigningfloorsofservicereservoirs:
(i)
(ii)
Inthefirstmethod,movementjointsaredesignedineachpanelofreservoirfloorsso
thattheycanexpandandcontractfreely.Eachpaneliscompletelyisolatedfromone
anotherandaslidinglayerisplacedbeneaththemtoaidinsliding.
Thesecondmethod,onthecontrary,doesnotmakeprovisiontofreemovement.Due
toseasonalandshrinkagemovements,cracksaredesignedtooccurinthereservoir
floorssuchthatverytinycracksarespreadoverthefloorandthesecracksaretoo
small to initiate corrosion or leakage. However, in this case, the amount of
reinforcementusedismuchlargerthanthefirstapproach.
16.Whatisthedifferencebetweenairchamberandsurgetank?
Airchambersandsurgetanksarenormallyinstalledinwatermaintoeasethestressonthe
systemwhenvalvesorpumpssuddenlystartupandshutdown.Asurgetankisachamber
containingfluidwhichisindirectcontactwiththeatmosphere.Forpositivesurge,thetank
canstoreexcesswater,thuspreventingthewaterpipesfromexpansionandwaterfrom
compression. In case of downsurge, the surge tank could supply fluid to prevent the
formationofvapourcolumnseparation.However,ifthesurgepressuretoberelievedis
very large, the height of surge tank has to be designed to be excessively large and
sometimesitisnotcosteffectivetobuildsuchachamber.Onthecontrary,aairchamber
canbeadoptedinthiscasebecauseairchamberisaenclosedchamberwithpressurized
gasesinside.Thepressureheadofgasinsidetheairchamberisthecomponenttocombat
thehydraulictransient.However,airchamberhasthedemeritsthatregularmaintenance
hastobecarriedoutandproperdesignofpressurelevelofgashastobeconducted.
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Chapter10PipeJackingandMicrotunneling
1.Inthedesignofpipejacking,whatparticularareasonpipejointsshouldengineers
takecareof?
Sinceinpipejacking,thejackedpipescouldhardlybejackedinthedesignedleveland
alignmentandsomedeviationfromtheoriginaloneiscommonlyacceptableprovidedthat
thedeviationarewithinthetoleranceoftheContract.However,inordertoavoiddamage
made to the pipe joints due to overstressing, it is necessary to estimate the stress
concentrationsresultingfromtheseangulardeflections.
Note: Pipejackingisatrenchlessmethodinwhichpipesarejackedundergroundfrom jackingpitsand
receivingpits.
2.Whatarethedifferencesindesignbetweennormalprecastconcretepipesandpipes
usedforpipejacking?
Forpipesusedforpipejacking,theyshouldpossessthefollowingcharacteristics:
(i)
Pipesshouldhavehighconcretestrengthtowithstandthestressinducedduringthe
jackingprocess.
(ii) Thereistighttoleranceinpipedimensionandthepipejointsarespeciallydesignedto
providetroublefreejointdetails.Twocommonlyavailablejointsarerebatedjoint
andbuttendjoint.
(iii) Pipespreferablyshouldhavesmoothexternalconcretefinishestoreducethefriction
betweenthepipesandsurroundingsoil.
3.Whyareintermediatejacksdesignedinsomepipejackingprojects?
Whentheprocessofpipejackingstops,buildingupofresistanceisveryfastinsomesoil.
Forinstance,increase injacking forceof20%40%is requiredforastoppageofpipe
jackingforjustseveralhours.Hence,itisrecommendedthatpipejackingshouldbecarried
outinacontinuousoperation.
Foralongpipeline,thefrictionalforcesestablishedbetweenthejackingpipesandsoilis
high.Sometimes,suchresistingforcesmaybesohighthattheycanhardlybeovercomeby
thejacks injackingpits.Moreover,evenifthejacks canovercomethehighfrictional
forcesinducedduringjacking,highloadsareexperiencedinjackingpipesduringdriving.
Jackingpipesmateriale.g.concretemaynothavesufficientstrengthtoresistthesestresses
andhencepipestrengthisanotherfactorthatgoverntheneedforconsiderationofusing
intermediatejacks.
4.Whatisthefunctionofpackingmaterialsinthejointofconcretepipesinpipe
jacking?
Packingmaterials areabout10mmto20mmthickandarenormallymadeofplywood,
fibreboardorothermaterials.Incasepackingmaterialsareabsentinpipejointsforpipe
jacking,thenanydeflectioninthejointsreducesthecontactareaoftheconcreteandit
leads to spalling of joints due to high stresses induced. With the insertion of packing
materialinsidethepipejoints,theallowabledeflectionwithoutdamagingthejointduring
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thepipejackingprocesscanbeincreased.
5. In pipe jacking/microtunneling, it is commonly accepted that cover depths of
jackingpipescannotbetooshallow (i.e.lessthan2DwhereDis thediameterof
jackingpipes).Why?
Forpipejacking/microtunneling,thecausesoflargesettlementarelossoffacestability,
failuretostabilizegroundaroundshafts,presenceofannularspacearoundpipesandshield,
drag along pipe joints, etc. The settlement mechanism of shallow depths of pipe
jacking/microtunnelingistheformationofasettlementtroughontopofthejackingpipes.
Thewidthofthetroughdependsonsoilproperties;thelargeristhecoverdepthofjacking
pipes,thelargeristhewidthofsettlementtrough.Forthesamesoilvolumelossduetopipe
jacking/microtunneling,thewidthofsettlementtroughforshallowcoverdepthissmaller
andthereforeitresultsinalargerverticalmaximumsettlement.
6.Inprecastconcretejackingpipes,sometimesgroutholesaredesignedinsidethese
precastpipes.Why?
Groutholesarepresentinprecastjackingpipesforthefollowingreasons:
(i) Theyserveasthelocationsforinjectionofbentoniteorotherlubricant.Lubricantis
usedforbothgranularsoilsandcohesivesoilstotrimdownthefrictionalresistance.
Forcohesivesoils,thesoilscannotgetontothepipesbythepresenceoflubricantand
theshearingplanelieswithinthelubricantassuggestedbyR.N.Craig(1983).Onthe
otherhand,forgranularsoils,thelubricantmixeswithsoilswithasignificantlyreduced
friction.Withtheuseoflubricant,longerpipelengthscanbejackedwithouttheuseof
intermediatejackingstation.
(ii) Theyprovidetheinletlocationsforsubsequentgroutingworksaftercompletionofpipe
jackingtofillcompletelythevoidspacebetweenthepipesandsurroundingsoils.
(iii)Theyareusedasliftingholeswhenplacingtheprecastjackingpipesintorailsinside
thejackingpits.
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VincentT.H.CHU
Chapter11PilesandFoundation
1.Itisnotnecessarytodesignnominalreinforcementtopiles.Isittrue?
In BS8110 and BS5400 Pt.4, they require the provision of nominal reinforcement for
columns.However,forpiledesigntherequirementofnominalreinforcementmaynotbe
necessary.Firstly,aspilesarelocatedunderground,theoccurrenceofunexpectedloadsto
pilesisseldom.Secondly,shearfailureofpilesisconsiderednotcriticaltothestructure
duetoseverecollision.Moreover,thefailureofpilesbybucklingduetofireisunlikely
becausefireisrarelyignitedunderground.
However,thesuggestionofprovisionofnominalreinforcementtocaterforseismiceffect
maybejustified.ReferenceismadetoJPTyson(1995).
2.Howdorocksocketstakeuploads?
Theloadtransfermechanismissummarizedasfollows:
Whenasocketedfoundationisloaded,theresistanceisprovidedbybothrocksocketwall
andthesocketbaseandtheloaddistributionisafunctionofrelativestiffnessoffoundation
concrete and rock mass, socket geometry, socket roughness and strength. At small
displacements the rocksocket system behaves in an elastic manner and the load
distributionbetweensocketwallandsocketendcanbeobtainedfromelasticanalysis.At
displacementsbeyond1015mm,relativedisplacementoccursbetweenrockandfoundation
andthesocketbondbeginstofail.Thisresultsinreductionofloadsinrocksocketinterface
andmoreloadsaretransferredtothesocketend.Atfurtherdisplacements,theinterface
strength drops to a residual value with total rupture of bond and more loads are then
distributedtothesocketend.
3.Indesigningminipiles,shouldthestrengthofgroutbeneglectedduringassessment
ofloadingcarryingcapacity?
Indesigningminpiles,therearetwoapproachesavailable:
(i)
(ii)
Inthefirstapproach,theaxialresistanceprovidedbythegroutisneglectedandsteel
barstakeupthedesignloadsonly.Thisapproachisaconservativeonewhichleadsto
theuseofhighstrengthbarse.g.Dywidagbar.Oneshouldnotethatbendingmoment
isnotdesignedtobetakenupbyminpilesbecauseofitsslendergeometry.
Inthesecondapproach,itinvolvesloadstobetakenupbybothgroutandsteelbars
together.Inthisway,straincompatibilityrequirementofgroutandsteelhastobe
satisfied.
4.Whataretheconsiderationsindeterminingwhethercasingsshouldbeleftinfor
minipiles?
Contrarytomostofpiledesign,thedesignofminpilesarecontrolledbyinternalcapacity
insteadofexternalcarryingcapacityduetotheirsmallcrosssectionalarea.
Therearemainlytworeasonstoaccountfordesigningminipilesasfrictionpiles:
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Duetoitshighslendernessratio,apileof200mmdiameterwith5mlonghasashaft
area of 100 times greater than crosssectional area. Therefore, the shaft friction
mobilizedshouldbegreaterthanendresistance.
Settlementsof10%20%ofpilediameterarenecessarytomobilizefullendbearing
capacity, compared with 0.5%1% of pile diameter to develop maximum shaft
resistance.
Leftincasingsforminipileshavethefollowingadvantages:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Improveresistancetocorrosionofmainbars;
Provideadditionalrestraintagainstlateralbuckling;
Improvethegroutqualitybypreventingintrusionofgroundwaterduringconcreting;
Preventoccurrenceofneckingduringliftingupofcasingsduringconcreting.
5.Whatisthepurposeofpostgroutingforminipiles?
Postgroutingisnormallycarriedoutsometimewhengroutoftheinitialgroutingworkhas
set(e.g.within24hoursofinitialgrouting).Ithelpstoincreasethebearingcapacityof
minipilesbyenhancinglargereffectivepilediameter.Moreover,itimprovesthebehaviour
ofsoilsadjacenttogroutedpilesandminimizestheeffectofdisturbancecausedduring
construction.Inessence,postgroutinghelpstoimprovethebondbetweensoilsandgrout,
therebyenhancingbetterskinfrictionbetweenthem.
Duringtheprocessofpostgrouting,atubewithaholeatitsbottomisloweredintothepile
andgroutisinjected.Themechanismofpostgroutingisasfollows:thepressurizedgrout
isinitiallyconfinedbythehardenedgroutandcanhardlygetaway.Then,itrupturesthe
groutcoverandmakesitswaytothesurroundingsoilsandintosoftregionstodevelopan
interlockwithhardersoilzones.Inordertoenhancethepressurizedgrouttorupturethe
initialgroutdepth,amaximumtimelimitisnormallyimposedbetweenthetimeofinitial
groutingandtimeofpostgroutingtoavoidthedevelopmentofhighstrengthofinitial
grout.Consequently,theeffectofsoildisturbancebyinstallationofcasingsandsubsequent
liftingupofcasingswouldbelessenedsignificantly.
6. In designing the lateral resistance of piles,should engineers only use theearth
pressureagainstpilecapsonly?
Insomedesignlateralloadsareassumedtoberesistedbyearthpressureexertedagainstthe
sideofpilecapsonly.However,itisdemonstratedthatthesoilresistanceofpilelengthsdo
contributeasubstantialpartoflateralresistance.Therefore,indesigninglateralresistance
ofpiles,earthpressureexertedonpilesshouldalsobetakenintoconsideration.
Inanalysisoflateralresistanceprovidedbysoils,aseriesofsoilspringsareadoptedwith
modulusofreactionkeptconstantorvaryingwithdepth.Thenormalpracticeofusinga
constantmodulusofreactionforsoilsisincorrectbecauseitoverestimatesthemaximum
reactionforceandunderestimatesthemaximumbendingmoment.Toobtaintheprofileof
modulusofsubgradereaction,pressuremetertestsshallbeconductedinboreholesinsite
investigation.ReferenceismadetoBryanLeach(1980).
7.Insomecodes,theylimittheratioofweightofhammertoweightofpileforpile
driving.Whatisthereasonbehindthis?
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Whenahammerwithinitialmotioncollideswithastationarypile,thetransferofenergyis
mostefficientwhenthetwomassesarecomparable.Thatisthereasonwhysomecodes
limittheratioofweightofhammertotheweightofpiletobemorethan0.5.Iftheweight
ofhammeristoolow,mostofenergyduringhammerdrivingisdistributedtothehammer
andthiscausestensioninducedinhammerandresultsininefficienttransferofenergy.
8.ShouldengineersrelysolelyonHileysformulainthedesignofHpiles?
About90%ofHpilesadoptHileysformulafordesign.However,thisformulaisonly
applicabletopilelengthslessthan30mandissuitableforcoursegrainedmaterials(not
suitable to finegrained soils) as suggested by GEO (1996). In Hileys formula, by
observing thepenetration ofpiles after the hammer impact, thepile capacity couldbe
readilyobtainedfromtheresponseoftheimpactingforce.Therefore,theindividualpile
capacitycouldbeobtainedbythisdynamicmethod.
However,innormalfoundation,groupsofHpilesarepresentandthesoilfoundationmay
notbeabletosupporttheseHpilessimultaneouslyeventhoughindividualpilesareproven
tohavesufficientcapacitybyusingdynamicmethod.Inthiscase,staticmethodshouldbe
employedtoascertainifthesoilfoundationcouldsupporttheseHpiles.
9. Whatisthefunctionofdrillingfluidinrotarydrillinginsiteinvestigation?
Drillingfluidinrotaryservestwomainpurposes:
(i) Facilitatetherotationofdrillingtubeduringrotarydrilling;
(ii) Actasacoolingagenttocooldownheatgeneratedduringdrillingoperation.
Traditionally,waterisnormallyemployedasdrillingfluid.However,itsuffersfromthe
followingdrawbacks:
(i) It affects the stability of nearby ground with the introduction of water into the
borehole(boreholeforsoil;drillholeforrock);
(ii) It affects the quality of sample by changing the water content of soil samples
collectedfromtheborehole/drillhole.
Substitutesareavailableinmarkettoreplacewaterasdrillingfluid(e.g.whitefoam).
10.Whatarethedifferencesinfunctionbetweenrockanchorsandrocksockets?
Rockanchorsareusedprimarilyforresistingupliftforces.Onthecontrary,rocksockets
servethreemainpurposes:
(i) Rocksocketfrictionandendbearingtoresistverticalload;
(ii) Passiveresistanceofrocksocketscontributetoresistanceoflateralload;and
(iii) Socketshaftfrictionisalsousedforresistingupliftingforces.Butonly70%ofthis
capacityshouldbeusedbecauseoftheeffectofnegativePoissonratio.
Note:Rockanchors,whichmayconsistofahightensilebarorastrandedcable,areprovidedfortensionpiles
whenthereareinsufficientsoilcoverstodeveloptherequiredupliftingresistance.
11.Whatarethefunctionsofcapblock,drivecapandpilecushionindrivenpiles?
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Capblockisinstalledbetweenthehammerendandthedrivecaptocontrolthehammer
blowinordertoprotectboththehammerandthepilefromdamage.Whenthehammerhits
thecapblock,itcompresseselasticallyandreducesthepeakforces,therebylengthening
thetime ofhammerblow.Moreover,it shouldbecapable oftransmitting thehammer
energyeffectivelytothepiles.
Drivecapisinsertedathammertiptoenhanceuniformdistributionofhammerenergyto
thepile.Pilecushionispositionedbetweenthedrivecapandthepiletop.Itintendsto
protectthepilefromdrivingstressinducedduringhammerblows.Moreover,italsoserves
toprovideauniformdrivingloadontopofthepile.
12.Whatisthesignificanceofdrivingsequenceofdrivenpiles?
Forbasementconstruction,ifpilesaredrivenfromthecentretotheperimeter,thereisa
tendencyofsoilstomoveoutwards.Suchlateralmovementofsoilmaycausedamageto
nearbystructuresandutilities.
However,ifpilesaredrivenfromtheoutsideperimeterinwards,therearelittlesoillateral
movements.Thisresultsinawellcompactedcentrewithanexcessporewaterpressure
builtuptoresisttheloadingofpiles.Consequently,shorterpilelengthsthantheoriginal
designedonesmayresult.However,sometimeafterthepiledrivingoperation,theexcess
porewaterpressureisdissipatedandtheshorterdrivenpilesmaynotbeabletotakeupthe
originaldesignloads.Inthissituationredrivingisrequiredtodrivethepilestodeeper
depthsafterdissipationofexcessporewaterpressure.
13.WhatisthefunctionoffollowersindrivenHpiles?
Afollowerisanextensionbetweenthepileheadandthehammerthattransferstheblowto
thepileinwhichthepileheadcannotbereachedbythehammerorisunderwater.For
constructionofdrivenpiles,thepilingframeandhammerarenormallyerectedonexisting
ground level but not at the base of pile caps. However, Hpiles are designed to be
terminatednearthebaseofpilecaps.Ifpilesaredrivenatgroundlevel,acertainlengthof
Hpilesiswastedandcutwhenconstructingpilecaps.Inthisconnection,pilefollowersare
usedsoastosavethewastedsectionofHpilesbecausefollowerscanberemovedduring
subsequentconstructionofpilecaps.
14.Whataretheadvantagesofusingtopdownapproachinbasementconstruction?
Theadvantagesoftopdownapproacharelistedbelow:
(i)
(ii)
Thestructuresabovegroundcanbecarriedoutsimultaneouslywiththestructures
belowground.Thisgreatlyreducesthetimeforconstruction.
Byusingthisapproach,settlementcanbereduced.
(iii) Sincethepermanentcolumnsandslabscanbeutilizedtosupportloadingsduring
construction,itsavesthecostofformwork.
Note:Topdownapproachmeansconstructionofbasementiscarriedoutfromgroundleveldownwards.
15.Whatarethemethodstotacklenegativeskinfriction?
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(i)
Useslenderpilesections(e.g.Hpileorprecastpile)becausesmallerpileareawhen
subjecttothesameworkingloadwouldproducehigherdeformation,thusincreasing
therelativedownwardmovementofpiles.
(ii) InacertainregionofHpilesforgroundwatertablefluctuation,paintingisappliedon
the surface of Hpiles because the rise and fall of water table contribute to the
corrosionofHpiles.Ontheotherhand,toreducetheeffectofadditionalloads
brought about by negative skin friction, bitumen is applied on the pile surface
correspondingtotheregionofsoilsthathasnegativeskinfriction.However,bitumen
shouldnotbeappliedtothewholesectionofHpilesbecauseitwouldbeunableto
derivethedesignedfrictionalreactionfromsoils.
(iv) Designthepilesasendbearingsothattheycantakeupmoreload.
16.Inpilingworks,normallyfoundinglevelsofboredpilesaredefinedbyusingtotal
corerecoveryorrockqualitydesignation(RQD).Arethereanyproblemswithsuch
specification?
Theuseoftotalcorerecoverytodeterminethefoundinglevelmaynotbeabletoindicate
thequalityofrockfoundationforpilesbecauseitdependsonthedrillingtechniqueand
drillingequipment(GEO(1996)).Forinstance,ifstandardcorebarrelsareusedtocollect
samples, it may indicate sufficient core recovery for samples full of rock joints and
weatheredrock.Ontheotherhand,iftripletubebarrelsareusedforobtainingsoilsamples,
sampleswithjointsandweatheredrockcanalsoachievetherequirementsoftotalcore
recovery.
IncaseRQDisadoptedfordeterminingfoundinglevels,itmayalsoresultinincorrect
results.ForinstanceRQDdoesnotindicatethejointsandinfillingmaterials.Moreover,as
itonlymeasuresrocksegmentsexceeding100mm,rocksegmentsexceeding100mmis
consideredtobeofgoodqualityrockwithoutdueconsiderationofitsstrengthandjoint
spacing.
17.WhataretheheaddetailsofHpilesundercompressionandsubjecttobending
moment?
ForsteelsectionsreferredtoinBS5950,universalbearingpileischaracterizedbyhaving
equal flange and web thickness while universal column has different flange and web
thickness.Universalcolumnscanalsobeusedasbearingpiles.
InthedesignoftheheaddetailsofHpiles,therearethreetypicalcasestobeconsidered,
namelycompressionpiles,tensionpiles andpiles withbendingmoment attheheadin
addition to tension or compression. The design of these piles recommended by G. M.
Cornfield(1968)islistedbelow:
(i) Compressionpiles
Forthistypeofpiles,Hpilesshouldbeembedded150mminconcretepilecapsanditis
notnecessarytouseanydowelsandcappingplatesintheirconnection.
(ii)Tensionpiles
AnumberofhookendedbarsareweldedtothetopofHpiles.
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(iii)Pileswithbendingmomentattheirhead(tensionorcompression)
Thedepthofembedmentofpilesintopilecapsissubstantiallyincreasedandloadsare
transferredbyhorizontalbarsweldedtopilesflanges.
18.Indeepexcavation,adjacentgroundwatertableisdrawndownwhichmayaffect
the settlement of nearby buildings. What is the remedial proposal to rectify the
situation?
Oneofthemethodstocontrolsettlementofnearbybuildingsduetoexcavationworkisby
recharging.Watercollectedinwellsindeepexcavationisputbacktothetopofexcavation
inordertoraisethedrawndownwatertable.Thelocationofrechargeshouldbeproperly
selectedtoensurethesoilissufficientlypermeabletotransferthepumpedwaterbacknear
theaffectedbuildings.
19. What is the significance of quality of bentonite slurry in the construction of
diaphragmwalls?
Thequalityofslurryplaysanimportantroleinthequalityofdiaphragmwalls.Firstly,ifa
thickslurrycakeisformedintheinterfacebetweenslurryandinsitusoil,ithasatendency
tofalloffduringconcretingworksanditmixeswithfreshlyplacedconcrete.Moreover,
large thickness of slurry cake would reduce the concrete cover and affect the future
durabilityperformanceofdiaphragmwalls.
20.Duringconcretingofdiaphragmwalls,threetremiepipesareusedinonetime.
However,onlyoneconcretetruckisavailable.Howshouldtheconcretingworksbe
carriedout?
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VincentT.H.CHU
The most ideal situation is to supply each tremie pipe with a single concrete truck.
However,ifonlyoneconcretetruckisavailable,allthefreshconcreteinthetruckshould
notbeplacedinonesingletremiepipe.Withallfreshconcreteplacedinonesingletremie
pipewhiletheothersleftvoid,thenduetothehugesupplyofconcretetothetremiepipe,a
smallconcretehumpmayformatthebaseofthetremiepipeanditislikelythatitmay
collapse and trap the slurry inside the diaphragm walls. Therefore, the fresh concrete
shouldbeevenlysharedamongthetremiepipestoavoidsuchoccurrence.
21.Whatisthepurposeofconductingloadtestforpilingworks?
Pileloadtestprovidesinformationonultimatebearingcapacitybutnotsettlementbehavior.
Inessence,itcandetermineiftheloadistakenupbythestratumdesignedorifthecentreof
resistanceisatthedesignlocationinpilesassuggestedbyRobertD.Chellis(1961).
Afterconductingloadtests,thecurveofmovementofpilehead(Settlementagainstload)
andthecurveofplasticdeformationcanbeplotted.Bysubtractingthecurveofplastic
deformation from the curve of pile head movement at each load, the curve of elastic
deformationcanbeobtained.Forpilesofendbearingtypeunrestrainedbyfriction,the
theoretical elastic deformation can be calculated from e=RL/AE where e is elastic
deformation,Lispilelength,Aisareaofpile,EisYoungsModulusofpilematerialand
Risthereactionloadonpile.Bysubstitutingeintheformula,theelasticdeformationread
fromthecurveofelasticdeformation,Lcanbeobtainedwhichshowsthelocationofthe
centreofresistancecorrespondingtothatload.
22.Whyarevibratorsnotusedinconcretecompactioninpilingworks?
Concreteforpilesshouldbeahighslumpselfcompactingmixwhichiscapableofflowing
betweenreinforcementcagewithease.Sinceconcreteisdesignedtobeselfcompacting,
vibratorsarenotusedforprovidingfurthercompaction.Moreover,theconcreteinpilesis
compactedbyenergyderivedfromfreefalling.However,ifvibratorsareused,thevibrated
concretemaybecompactedtothesidesoftheconcretecasingsandhinderstheliftingupof
casings.ReferenceismadetoGEO(1996).
23. In Hileys formula for driven piles i.e. R=E/(s+0.5c), why is a coefficient of 0.5
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appliedforthetermelasticdeformationofpilesandsoil?
Hileys formula is based on the principle of energy conservation in which the energy
broughtaboutbyhammersduringtheactionofhittingaretransferredtopilesinground.
Whenthehammerforceanddisplacementisplotted,theenergyabsorbedbypilesisthe
areaunderthecurve.Sincethecurveofelasticcomponentislinearwithapositiveslope,
theareai.e.energyshouldbetheareaoftriangle(0.5xRxc)whereRisreactionforceandc
is elastic compression due to helmet, piles and soil system. For settlement, it is of
horizontallineinforcedisplacementdiagramandhencetheenergytransferredtopilesoil
systemis(Rxs).
24.Forarigidpilecapwithverticalpilesatthemiddleandrakingpilesatthesides,
whatisthepatternofloaddistributionofpilesinsucharrangement?
Duetotheeffectofinteractionofindividualpiles,thecentralpilestendtosettlemorethan
theedgepileswhenthepilecapisunderauniformload.Therefore,rakingpilesattheedge
takeupahigherfractionoftotalloadsandaresubjecttohigheraxialandbendingloadsin
casethepilecapisstiff.Intheextremecase,failureoftheserakingedgepilesmayoccur.
25.Whataretheproblemsassociatedwithprestressedconcretepiles(Daido)?
TheoriginofDaidopilescomesfromJapanwheretheseprestressedconcretepilesareused
asreplacementplies.HolesarepreformedinthegroundandDaidopilesareplacedinside
these preformed holes with subsequent grouting of void space between the piles and
adjacent ground. However, in Hong Kong Daido piles are constructed by driving into
ground by hammers instead of the originally designed replacement method. Since the
installationmethodofDaidopilesischanged,constructionproblemslikedeformationof
piletipshoes,crushingofconcreteatpiletipetc.occur.ReferenceismadetoB.W.Choy
(1993).
26.Which oneisabetterchoice,alargediameterpilesorasystemof several smaller

pileswiththesameloadcapacity?
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Thechoiceofalargediameterpilesuffersfromthedisadvantagethatseriousconsequences
would occur in case there is setting out error of the pile. Moreover, in terms of cost
consideration,forthesameloadcapacitythecostofagroupofsmalldiameterpilesis
generallylowerthanthatofalargediameterpile.Ontheotherhand,forsmalldiameter
pilesi.e.minipiles,theyareadvantageousinsitelocations withlimitedheadroomand
space.Inaddition,insomestructureswithonlyafewpiles,itisuneconomicbecauseofits
highmobilizationcost.ReferenceismadetoDr.EdmundCHambly(1979).
27.Whatisthedifferencebetweencappingbeamsandgroundbeamsforpiles?
Cappingbeamsforpilesaimattransferringloadsfromcloselyspacedcolumnsorwalls
intoarowofpiles.Ontheotherhand,groundbeamsarebeamsprovidedbetweenadjacent
pilecapsandtheyperformascompressionstrutsortiesinanattempttopreventlateral
displacementorbucklingofpilesunderunevendistributionofloadsonpilecaps.Bothof
themhavetobespeciallydesignedtocaterfordifferentialsettlementofpiles.
Capping beam performs the same functions as pile caps. However, ground beams are
structuralelementstoconnectadjacentpilecapstoimprovethestabilityoffoundation.
28.In modelinganonrigid matfoundation byusingelasticsprings,should auniform
modulusofsubgradereactionbeusedalongthewholebaseofmat?
Byusingabedofspringstosimulatetheflexiblebehaviourofmatsubjecttoloads,care
shouldbetakeninselectionofthemodulusofsubgradereaction.Infact,themodulusof
subgradereactiondependsonmanyfactorslikethewidthofthemat,theshapeofthemat,
thedepthoffoundinglevelofthematetc.Inparticular,themodulusofsubgradereactionis
smaller at the center while it is larger nearthe mats edges. Ifaconstant modulus of
subgradereactionisadoptedthroughoutthewidthofthemat,thenamoreorlessuniform
settlementwillresultwhensubjecttoauniformload.However,theactualbehaviouristhat
settlement in the center is higher than that at sideedges. Consequently, it leads to an
underestimationofbendingmomentby18%to25%assuggestedbyDonaldP.Coduto
(1994).
In general, a constant value of modulus of subgrade reaction is normally applied for
structurewitharigidsuperstructureandtherigidfoundation.However,avariablemodulus
ofsubgradereactionisadoptedinsteadfornonrigidsuperstructureandnondominanceof
foundationrigiditytoaccountfortheeffectofpressurebulbs.
29.What is the difference between direct circulation drilling and reverse circulation
drilling?
For direct circulation drilling and reverse circulation drilling, the major difference in
drilling method is related to the direction of movement of drilling fluid. For direct
circulationdrilling,thedrillingfluidiscirculatedfromthedrillstemandthenflowsupthe
annulusbetweentheoutsideofthedrillstemandboreholewall.Thedrillingfluidthat
carriesthedrillcuttingsflowstothesurfaceandthesubsequentsettlementpits.Pumpsare
employedtoliftthecuttingsfreefluidbacktothedrillstem.
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Forreversecirculationdrilling,thedirectionofflowofdrillingflowisoppositetothatof
directcirculationdrilling.Drillingfluidflowsfromtheannulusbetweenthedrillstemand
holewalltothedrillstem.Thedrillingfluidispumpedtoannearbysumppitswhere
cuttingsaredroppedandsettled.
30. What is the difference between hammer efficiency and coefficient of
restitutionwhenusingHileysformulainpiledriving?
Hammerefficiencyreferstotheratioofkineticenergyofthehammertotherateenergy(or
potentialenergy).Inessence,thereisundoubtedlycertainenergylossesinducedbythe
hammeritselfpriortotheactualimpactonthedrivenpile.Forinstance,theselossesmay
include misalignment of the hammer, energy losses due to guiding friction, inaccurate
droppingheightetc
Coefficient of restitution refers to a value indicating the strain energy during collision
regained after the bodies reverted back to their original shapes. If the coefficient of
restitutionisequaltounity,itmeansthatthecollisioniselasticandallenergyhasbeen
returned aftertheimpact action. Hence,thisisaindexshowingthe degreetheimpact
actionintermsofelasticity.
Inmathematicalforms,
Coefficientofrestitution=(v1v2)/(u1u2)
Whereu=initialvelocityandv=finalvelocityafterimpact
75
1.Whatisthedifferencebetweenworkingstressapproachandlimitstateapproach?
Forworkingstressapproach,serviceloadsareusedinthewholedesignandthestrengthof
material is not utilized in the full extent. In this method of design, stresses acting on
structuralmembersarecalculatedbasedonelasticmethodandtheyaredesignednotto
exceedcertainallowablevalues.Infact,thewholestructureduringthelifespanmayonly
experienceloadingstressesfarbelowtheultimatestateandthatisthereasonwhythis
method is called working stress approach. Under such scenario, the most economical
designcanhardlybeobtainedbyusingworkingstressapproachwhichisnowcommonly
used in the design of temporary works. Members capacity is underestimated.
Serviceabilityisthemainfeaturebutfailureisnotstudied.Followslinearstressmethod.
Structureswhereserviceabilityisrequiredtherethismethodisused.Factorofsafetyis
considered(3forconcreteand1.8forsteelwhichmeansthatthatmanytimesthanrequired
quantityofsteelandconcreteareneededwhichisveryuneconomical).Waterretaining
structuresaredesignedusingWSMcozhereserviceabilityundergivenloadingiscriteria
thanthefailureofstructure.Workingunderelasticzone.
Forlimitstateapproach,foreachmaterialandload,apartialsafetyfactor[1.5forconcrete
and1.15forsteel]isassignedindividuallydependingonthematerialpropertiesandload
properties.Therefore,eachelementofloadandmaterialpropertiesisaccuratelyassessed
resultinginamorerefinedandaccurateanalysisofthestructure.Inthisconnection,the
materialstrengthcanbeutilizedtoitsmaximumvalueduringitslifespanandloadscanbe
assessedwithreasonableprobabilityofoccurrence.Limitstateapproachiscommonlyused
forthemajorityofreinforcedconcretedesignbecauseitensurestheutilizationofmaterial
strengthwiththelowestconstructioncostinput.Followslinearstrainmethod.Working
underplasticzone.Ultimateloadastructurecancarrywillbedetermined.Failurecapacity
calculationiscriteria.
2.Whatarethefunctionsofdifferentcomponentsofpaint?
Fornormalpaintapplication,therearemainlythreemaincomponentsofpaint,namely
primer,undercoatandfinishingcoat.
Primer:Thisisthefirstlayerofatypicalpaintingsystemanditisusedtoinhabitcorrosion
andprovideagoodbondforsubsequentcoats.
Undercoat:Thiscomponentactsasabarriertocorrosionagentsandevenoutirregularities
ofbondingsurface.Italsoservestohidetheunderlyingbackgroundandpreventthedetails
andcolouroftheareaofapplicationtoaffectthedesignedcolourandfinishingdetailsof
paint.
Finishing coat: This is the final layer of a typical painting system and it protects the
underlying layers from the effect of adverse weather conditions (e.g. sunlight) and to
providethedesignedpropertiesofpaintlikecolour,impermeability,wearingresistance,
etc.
3.Ifthecontractorisliablefordefectiveworksfor12yearswithcontractunderseal
(6yearswithcontractnotunderseal),thenwhatisthesignificanceofMaintenance
Period?
DefectiveworksconstituteabreachofcontractinaccordancewithLimitationOrdinance
(Cap.347).
Anactionfoundedonsimplecontract(notunderseal)shallnotbebroughtafterexpiration
of6yearswhileanactionfoundedwithcontractundersealshallnotbebroughtafter
expirationof12years.Forconstructionworks,thedateofcountingtheseactionsshouldbe
76
VincentT.H.CHU
thedateofsubstantialcompletion.
Toanswertheabovequestion,oneshouldnotethatunderthecontractualrequirement,the
contractorduringMaintenancePeriodhastherighttorectifythedefectsandtheemployer
hasalsotherighttorequestthecontractortomakegooddefectivework.However,afterthe
expiryofMaintenancePeriod,incaseofanyarisingofdefects,theemployerhastoemploy
otherstorectifytheseworksandbringtheactiontocourttoclaimthecontractorforthe
costsassociated.
4. In checking the quality of weld, what are the pros and cons of various non
destructiveweldinspectionmethodsi.e.ultrasonictest,radiographicinspectionand
magneticparticleflawdetectiontest?
Currently,therearethreecommonnondestructivetestingofweld,namelyradiographic
inspection,ultrasonictestingandmagneticflawdetectiontest.
Themethodofradiographicapproachwasusedcommonlyinthepastuntilthearrivalof
ultrasonicinspectiontechnique.Themajordifferencebetweenthetwoisthatultrasonic
testingdetectsverynarrowflawswhichcanhardlybedetectedbyradiographicmethod.
Moreover,it is verysensitive togrossdiscontinuities.Tinydefects, whichcharacterize
weldingproblems,arenormallynotrevealedbyradiographicinspection.
Moreover, ultrasonic inspection possesses the advantages that it can accurately and
preciselylocateadefectaswellasfigureoutitsdepth,locationandangleofinclination.
Inthepast,itwasexpensivetoadoptultrasonicmeansforinspection.Nowadays,therates
forbothinspectionmethodsarecomparable.Mostimportantly,thexrayandgammaray
usedinradiographsareradioactiveandposepotentialsafetyhazardtotestingtechnicians
onsite.ReferenceismadetoPaulG.JonasandDennisL.Scharosch.
Magneticflawdetectiontestcanonlybeusedforcheckingflawsinanymetallicobjects.
This method is commonly used for inspecting surface cracks and slightly subsurface
cracks.However,surfaceandsubsurfacecrackscanbereadilydetectedbyradiographs
andultrasonicinspection.
5.Whyshould acetylenegas cylinders used forgasweldingbeerected in upright
position?
Acetylenegasiscommonlyusedforgasweldingbecauseofitssimplicityofproduction
andtransportationanditsabilitytoachievehightemperatureincombustion(e.g.around
o
5,000 F). Acetylene is highly unstable and flammable and would explode in elevated
pressure when reacting with oxygen in air. Storing acetylene gas in cylinders under
pressureisverydangerous.Hence,forweldingpurpose,gasacetyleneisstoredincylinders
ofliquidacetonecontainedinporousmaterial(likefirebrick)toenhancethereisnofree
spaceleftforacetylenegasandforcoolingpurposeintheeventofthermaldecomposition.
Italsopreventstheformationofhighpressureairpocketsinsidethecylinder.Dissolved
acetylene in acetone will no longer in contact with oxygen and is not subject to
decomposition.Ontheotherhand,acetoneisusedbecauseitiscapableofdissolvinglarge
amountofacetylenegasunderpressurewithoutchangingthenatureofthegas.
77
VincentT.H.CHU
Thecylindersforgasweldingi.e.oxygencylindersandacetylenecylinders,whennotin
use should be stored separately because any mixture of these gases resulting from
accidentalleakagecanbehighlyexplosive.Wheninuse,acetylenecylindersshouldalways
bekeptinuprightpositionbecauseacetoneliquidwillbedrawnfromthecylinderswiththe
gasiftheyarekepthorizontally.Consequently,significantleakageofacetoneliquidwill
result.
Note:Oxygenandacetylenegascylindersarecommonlyusedinconstructionsitesforgaswelding.
6.Isstainlesssteelreallystainlessinconstructionapplication?
Stainlesssteelreferstoalloysteelswithmorethan10.5%ofchromiumandconsistsof
severalgroupslikeaustenitic,ferritic,martensiticetc.Austeniticstainlesssteelisnormally
used in structural applications because of its high corrosion resistance. Austenitic and
ferritictypesofstainlesssteelcoverabout95%ofstainlesssteelapplications.Stainless
steelisnotstainlessalthoughitiscorrosionresistantunderawiderangeofconditions.
Apassivelayerofchromiumoxideisformedonstainlesssteelssurfacewhichrendersit
corrosionresistant.This chromium oxidelayeracts as astiffphysical barriertoguard
againstcorrosionandmakesitchemicallystable.Moreover,whenthislayerisdamaged,it
canperformselfrepairingwherethereisasufficientsupplyofoxygen.However,stainless
steel will still corrode by pitting in marine environment where chloride attack occurs.
Therefore,appropriategradesandtypesofstainlesssteelhavetobeselectedinpolluted
andmarineenvironmenttominimizetheproblemofcorrosion.ReferenceismadetoEuro
InoxandtheSteelConstructionInstitute(2002).
7. Is the procurement of third party insurance necessary to be incorporated in
contractforconstructionworks?
Thepurposeofthirdpartyinsuranceistoprotectcontractorsfrombankruptcyincasethere
aresevereaccidentshappenedtothethirdpartyduetotheconstructionwork.Therefore,in
government contracts, contractors are requested contractually to procure third party
insurance fromthecommencement ofcontract untilthe endofMaintenance Period.If
contractorshavethefinancialcapabilitytohandletheclaimsduetoaccidentstothirdparty,
theclientisnotboundtoincludethisrequirementinthecontract.
8.Whatisthemechanismofprotectionbyhotdipgalvanizing?
Hotdipgalvanizingprotectssteel/ironfromcorrosionby:
(i)
Itformsametalliczincandzincironalloycoatingontopofsteelsurface.Thiszinc
coating reacts with moisture in atmosphere to from zinc salts which act as an
insulatinglayerforsteel/iron.
(ii)
Zincishigherthansteel/ironinthegalvanicseriesandwhenthesedissimilarmetals
withdifferentelectricalpotentialareincontact,thezincanodecorrodesandoffers
sacrificialprotectiontosteel/ironandhencesteel/ironisprotectedfromcorrosion.
9.Theinsurancepolicyofinsurancecompanieshaschangedrecently.Whatisthe
majorchange?
78
VincentT.H.CHU
OriginalClause4.6.1
Liability in respect of death, bodily injury, illness or disease suffered by any person
employedbyaninsuredContractororemployedbyanypartytowhompartorpartsofthe
insuredContracthavebeensubcontracted.However,thisexclusionshallnotapplytoany
liabilitywhichmayattachtoanysubcontractorinsuredunderthisPolicyinrespectof
death,bodilyinjuryorillnessordiseasesufferedbyapersonemployedbyanyothersub
contractor.
RevisedClause4.6.1
Liabilityinrespectofdeath,bodilyinjury,illnessordiseasesufferedby:
1) Anypersonemployedbyanyinsuredpartyi.e.principalcontractors,subcontractors,
subsubcontractors for the purpose of execution of insured contract or any parts
thereofand
2) Anypersontowhompartorpartsoftheinsuredcontracthavebeensubcontacted
includingbutnotlimitedtoselfemployedsubcontractors.
In essence, the original clause 4.6.1 has no cover for death/injury to employees of
contractors orsubcontractors becausetheyshouldhaveseparateinsurancecoverunder
employeescompensationordinance.However,itdoesnotexcludetheliabilityforworker
toworkeri.e.subsubcontractors.FortherevisedClause4.6.1,itrulesouttheliabilityfor
death/injurytoemployeesofanyinsuredparty.
10.Shoulddesignlifebethesameasreturnperiodfordesignconditions?
Designlifemeanstheminimumdurationastructureisexpectedtolast.Thelongeristhe
designlife;thehigheristhecostofaproject.Therefore,inchoosingthedesignlifefora
structure,engineersshouldconsiderthedesignlifewhichgeneratesaeconomicalproject
withoutsacrificingtherequiredfunction.
Inselectionofreturnperiodofcertaindesignconditions,winds,waves,etc.,oneshould
considertheconsequencesofexceedance.Infact,therearenormallynoextrememaximum
valuesofthesedesignconditionsanditsselectionisbasedontheprobabilityofexceedance
whichisrelatedtoreturnperiod.
Therefore,designlifemaynotbeequaltoreturnperiodofdesignconditionsbecausetheir
selectionsarebasedondifferentconsiderations.
11.Whatisthedifferencebetweensuretiesandsecurity?
Inconstructioncontracts,ifacontractorfailstoperformtheworks,theemployerwould
suffer from severe financial loss and therefore some forms of protection has to be
establishedinthecontract.
Forsuretybond,thecontractorobtainsaguaranteefromathirdpartyi.e.abankoran
insurance company, which in return for a fee, agrees to undertake the financial
responsibilityfortheperformanceofcontractorsobligations.Thisthirdpartywillpayto
theemployerincasethereisacontractorsdefault.
Forsecurity,asumofmoneyisdepositedintheemployersaccountanduponsatisfactory
fulfillmentofcontractorsobligations,thesumwillberepaidtothecontractor.
VincentT.H.CHU
12.Whatisthedifferencebetweenfasteners,boltsandscrews?
Fastenerisageneraltermtodescribesomethingwhichisusedasarestraintforholding
thingstogetherorattachingtootherthings.
Themainphysicaldistinctionbetweenscrewsandboltsisthatscrewsareentirelyfullof
threadswhileboltscontainshankswithoutthreads.However,abetterinterpretationofthe
differences between the twois that bolts arealways fitted withnuts.Onthecontrary,
screwsarenormallyusedwithtappedholes.
13.Whatisthefunctionofwasherswhenusingbolts?
Thepurposeofinstallingwashersinatypicalboltingsystemistodistributetheloadsunder
boltheadsandnutsbyprovidingalargerareaunderstress.Otherwise,thebearingstressof
boltsmayexceedthebearingstrengthoftheconnectingmaterialsandthisleadstolossof
preloadofboltsandcreepingofmaterials.Alternatively,flangedfastenersinsteadofusing
washerscouldbeadoptedtoachievethesamepurpose.
14.Whatisthedifferencebetweennormalboltsandhighfrictiongripbolts?
Highfrictiongripboltsarecommonlyusedinstructuralsteelwork.Theynormallyconsist
ofhightensilestrengthboltsandnutswithwashers.Theboltsaretightenedtoashank
tensionsothatthetransverseloadacrossthejointisresistedbythefrictionbetweenthe
platedratherthantheboltshanksshearstrength.

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