Preface

The issues of water supply and environmental sanitation are tackled by

various levels of government without considerable success. Lack of
potable water and poor environmental sanitation are largely responsible
for the loss of lives associated with spread of cholera in many
communities first in 1971 and later in 1991. History has a way of
repeating itself in Nigeria.
The problem of wastes has grown throughout the years. Until today
the disposal of wastes has become one of the most crucial matters
confronting society in general. It is a problem which presents many facets
and requires many solutions. Inadequate disposal of wastes must lead
inevitably to environmental pollution. Hence there is a need to study
public health engineering in the university.
The author is grateful to World Health Organisation for W.H.O. awards
on two occasions and the civil engineering departments of University of
Ibadan and University of Uyo for providing good environment for the
teaching and research facilities in public health engineering.
In the preparation of this book the author had to consult constantly
numerous textbooks on public health engineering and the author hereby
acknowledges his indebtedness to them.

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Public health engineering is the aspect of civil engineering which deals
with the planning, design, construction, operation, maintenance, research
and development of physical facilities in our surroundings which can affect
health.
What is health?
W.H.O. definition;
Health is a state of complete physical, spiritual, mental and social well
being, and not the absence of diseases and infirmities. For example drug
addicts are not socially healthy.
There are seven branches of public health engineering;
1. Water Supply; This must be adequate, wholesome and safe for
drinking.
2. Sewage Disposal; This must be safe and appropriate for the
community. Sewage is defined as the water-carried wastes of any
community.
3. Solid Waste Management; This involves the elimination of
unwanted solid materials of all types from the human environment
e.g. from rural/urban areas, factory premises e.t.c.
4. Housing; There must be provision of housing which will promote
health i.e. by having all the facilities and equipment needed for
healthy living.
5. Vector Control; This aspect is involved in all facets of engineering
design and it is to make sure that the environment discourages
vectors e.g. mosquitoes, flies e.t.c.
6. Food Sanitation; This aspect deals with activities involved in the
manufacturing and preservation of food in such a way that the food
will remain wholesome and sound e.g. maintenance of abattoirs,
food factories, market design and maintenance.
7. Air Pollution Control; Pollution is caused by substances which
should naturally not be there either for a short time or long
duration in a concentration that is above normal. The substances
are classified
(a) Particulate matter e.g. smoke, dust

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(b)Chemical e.g. So2, Co (exhaust from petrol engines), oxides of

Nitrogen, H2S from refineries e.t.c. HF and carcinogenic
hydrocarbons

CHAPTER 2
WATER SUPPLY
Water is a vital mineral resource for human activities and it should
be treated as such despite its special attribute of being renewable after
depletion. As a matter of fact, next to air water is the most essential to
mans requirement for life. Air, Water, Food, Heat and Light are the 5
basics for life in this order. By W.H.O. standards the basic physiological
need for humans is 2L/capita/day (minimum). For modern living (with
laundry, toilets e.t.c.) the minimum is 50L/c/d. The quantity of water
required will depend on so many factors.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Standard of living
Cost of water
Quality of water
Pressure of supply

Mans prime need in his environment is for water and wherever a

number of people live together in a community a supply of potable water
is required. The liquid and solid wastes from such a community if not
disposed of in a satisfactory manner can tender the surroundings
unpleasant and unhealthy. Excretal contamination of drinking water leads
inevitably to a vicious circle of internal disorders of increasing magnitude.
In primitive civilizations the remedy to pollution problems was to move the
community to a new unspoiled site, but in more advanced communities
this solution becomes impracticable. Water can thus be considered as the
most important raw material of civilisation, since without it man cannot
live and industry cannot operate. The concept of water as a natural
resource is essential demand ever-increasing supplies of water. In 1971,
there was an outbreak of cholera in Ibadan. Water supplies became
increasingly contaminated by sewage. The Ogunpa River became most
objectionable to sight and smell and a series of cholera outbreak
eventually demonstrated the connection between diseases such as
cholera and typhoid and polluted drinking water. At the present time,

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World Health Organization (W.H.O.) surveys show that 86% of the

population in Africa are without reasonable access to safe water.
In conclusion water is without price in its natural state. It is priceless
too in the benefits it can bestow. Best of all things is water.

THE ENGINEERING ROLE

The responsibilities of the engineer start with the provision of an
ample supply of wholesome water i.e. water free from.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)

Visible suspended matter

Colour
Taste
Odour
Objectionable dissolved matter
Aggressive constituents
Bacteria indicative of pollution

The water must be fit for human consumption i.e. potable, but it
should also be palatable i.e. aesthetically attractive.

USES OF WATER
1.
Domestic
a) For satisfying the basic physiological needs
b) Sanitation (clothes, toilets, e.t.c.)
c) For comfort and recreation (central air conditioning, watering lawns
and swimming pools)
2.
Agricultural
The amount of water required for agriculture depends on several
factors;
a) Whether irrigation is used and if so what type of irrigation technique
is used
b) Whether livestock are kept e.g. cows if kept for milk require about
150L/C/D,
sheep require about 10L/C/D, goats require about
7.5L/C/D, poultry require 5L/C/D

IRRIGATION
Different people will think about this title in different ways. A man
born in Benin, notorious for its rainfall, would laughingly say that they get
too much irrigation. A man born in Kano however would immediately think
of his land turning from a dry sandy colour to a mass of green. Thus the
first mans thought of rain are of it spoiling his day out to watch football,
and the second mans thought would be of food. Irrigation is not just a
question of watering ones garden plants with a hose pipe. A better
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definition of irrigation would be the science of economical

utilization of water to supplement natural rainfall for the
production of food. Economy plays an important part, for you may not
be aware that it takes about 200L of water to produce 1 slice of bread, for
wheat will not grow without water, 215 litres are required to grow the food
necessary to produce one egg. Each 100Kg of steel needs a quarter of
million litres in its manufacture. One bottle of beer needs nine bottles of
water for it to be brewed. Life could not even exist without irrigation.
Irrigation is one of the most effective technical means of raising
agricultural production. Even in the areas where rainfall is sometimes
assumed to be adequate, supplementation with irrigation has shown an
increase in yield.
Water is applied to the soil either by surface irrigation or by
sprinkler irrigation. Surface irrigation depends on gravity. A river
is dammed and the water is either allowed to flow over the land as in
flood irrigation or is diverted to canals and from there to laterals on the
farm. Surface irrigation is gradually being replaced by the labour-saving
but capital intensive methods of sprinkler irrigation. This transition
is encouraged by further advantages which the sprinkler method has to
offer particularly the fact that it is independent of the type of terrain.
Vegetables, citrus fruit and even rice are watered by this method as well
as much irrigated fodder such as grass, Lucerne and oats. These enable
dairy cattle and fat lambs to be reared, a very different type of animal
from the rather thin ones which formerly grazed on the natural grassland.
3.

INDUSTRIAL

The quality and quantity of water required depends on the type of

industry. Water corporations tend to be self-supporting because the
industries are big water consumers and they pay back substantially e.g.
breweries, steel mills, paper mills, laundry and canning factories. 1 tonne
of steel requires about 100 tonnes of water which is used mainly for
cooling. In the brewery 1-5 litres of water is required to produce 1 litre of
beer or soft drinks and the water is required mainly for mixing and
washing. Paper industry uses about 10-100 tonnes of water to produce 1
tonne of paper and the water is used for washing at the different stages.
4.

Water is used for producing hydraulic and steam power.

5.

Water is used for protecting life and property against fire (Fire
hydrants are provided at strategic points).

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6.

Water is also used for removing offensive and possibly dangerous

wastes from household (sewage) and industry (industrial waste
water).

7.

Finally solid waste is water flushed through pipes more than

200mm diameter into underground tanks. This is a convenient
method for refuse collection in districts with multi-storey blocks
of flats.

QUANTITY OF WATER
The supply of water must be satisfactory in quality and
adequate in quantity, on tap day and night, readily available to the
user. Relatively cheap, and easily disposed of after it has served its
purpose. Before any design processes are carried out, the following
factors which affect the quantity of water required must be considered.
(i)

Domestic uses

(ii)

Agricultural

(iii)

Industrial

(iv)

Size of population and the rate of growth

We must project the requirements of the future i.e. agricultural, industrial

and domestic uses in the future. Also amount of money available will
determine the quantity which can be provided.
P= population t= time in years or months
If the growth rate is arithmetic;
P2 P1 = (t2 t1) K
If the growth rate is geometric;
Log P2 P1 = K (t2 t1)
The population of Moniya was 10,000 in 1970. In 1980 it was
15,000. Calculate the population in 2000 if;
a) The growth rate is arithmetic
b) The growth rate is geometric

SOLUTION
a) 15,000 - 10,000 = 10K
Thus K = 500
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Let population in 2000 be P2

P2 10,000 = 30K
Thus P2 = (30 500) + 10,000 = 25,000
b) Log 15,000 10,000 = 10K
10K = 1.5
K = 0.1761 10 = 0.01761
Log P2 10,000 = 3.375
P2 = 33,750

QUALITY OF WATER
Potable water; this refers to water that is safe and attractive to use.
Potable water is characterised by the following;
(a) Absence of disease carrying organisms
(i)

Protozoan e.g. amoeba

(ii)

Bacteria e.g. cholera or typhoid causing organisms

(iii)

Worms e.g. guinea worms

(iv)

Virus e.g. infective hepatitis

(v)

Fungus e.g. ringworm of the foot common among

swimmers

(b)Absence of poisonous chemicals

Poisonous chemicals may be introduced artificially or be present
naturally. The natural chemicals, nitrates and fluorides are the most
common. Fluorides in low concentration are beneficial (may even be
introduced). Up to 1.5 mg/l of fluoride is beneficial because it
promotes good teeth formation and prevents dental decay or caries.
Higher amounts cause dental problems and bone malformation,
(physiological problem). Above 45 mg/l of nitrates affect babies
causing blue babies. These chemicals are present in underground
waters (fluorides) if such chemicals are present in the geological
formation of the area. Some areas in Ethiopia have high fluoride
concentration water. For lead, safe concentration is below
0.001mg/L. Higher concentrations than this are a result of human
activity i.e. from industries. Others include mercury and cyanides.
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(c) Absence of excessive organic and inorganic substances

Presence of such substances gives rise to odour, colour and tastes.
Ammonia and hydrogen sulphide are common odour causing gases
in water formed from decaying substances. Any water must satisfy
these three conditions before it can be called potable.
Points (a) and (b) ensure safety and (c) ensures attractiveness

CASE STUDY;
Health hazards arising from water shortage on our campus in
1980s
The health situation in our campus on Tuesday April 27, 1982 was similar
to the situation described by Boyd on Saturday January 24, 1970. History
has a way of repeating itself. According to Boyd (1970) the water shortage
in the university constituted a menace to the health of the community,
there were two different situations existing on the campus.
1. Students living in large numbers in halls of residence and
2. Individual households functioning as multiple small units
In both situations water was required for drinking, cooking, personal
washing, dish washing, general scrubbing and cleaning purposes,
laundry and lavatory flushing. The normal water requirement at the
university was 2.25 million litres per day. It was estimated that the
minimum demand for these purely domestic functions for the halls of
residence and staff housing and off-campus workers canteens and
office lavatories was 1.14 million litres per day. It would be seen
therefore just how serious the position was when the total delivery of
water to the university was less than 0.9 million litres per day for all
purposes including laboratory use.
The main danger to health was in the kitchens and in the
lavatories. The situation was different in the residences as opposed to
the houses; the halls of residence had roof storage tanks but having
once received their daily quota of water which was almost used up
immediately in the desire of the various subsections of the hall to store
some for their own purposes e.g. the kitchens for the cooking of three
main meals, drinking water, dish washing e.t.c. was limited, hygiene
consequently suffered. Also the toilets for the cooks and stewards, who
were food handlers, had only one flush daily and there was a real risk
of infection being transmitted to the students. In the houses of the
staffs the same sort of conditions obtained. Some houses received no
water at all as they were too high in relation to the head of head of
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water in the main receptor tanks. Householders had to store water for
the next 24 hours consumption for all purposes.

SOURCES OF WATER
(a) Rain water
(b)Underground
(c) Surface water

(a) Rain water is used in rural areas but we make sure that the
collecting surface does not make the water non-potable
(b)Underground sources include
(i)

Water holes

(ii)

Springs

(iii)

Wells

(iv)

Boreholes

(c) Surface sources include

(i)

Rivers

(ii)

Lakes

(iii)

Seas and oceans. The Sea of Galilee contains fresh water.

Desalination processes are used in Iraq and Libya.

We can use (a) only for small communities and where there are no other
sources. The nature of the water source commonly determines the
planning, design and operation of the collection, purification, transmission
and distribution works.

ENGINEERING WORKS INVOLVED WITH WATER SUPPLY

SCHEME
These include the following;
(i)

Water collection

(ii)

Water treatment and purification

(iii)

Water transmission

(iv)

Water distribution
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(i)

Collection works tap a source e.g. dam

(ii)

Purification or treatment works render the incoming water

suitable for the purposes they are expected to serve

(iii)

Transmission works conveyed the collected and treated water

from the source to the community

(iv)

Distribution works dispense the collected, treated and

transmitted water to consumers in wanted volume at adequate
pressure through systems of pipes and reservoirs.

WATER TREATMENT UNIT OPERATIONS UNIVERSITY OF

IBADAN AS A CASE STUDY
The raw water is pumped from the waterworks by suction pump
through 250mm diameter pipe into 5,000 m3 raw water tank where it is
aerated. In this process oxygen of the air is added to the water to increase
the proportion of oxygen carbon dioxide ratio thus reducing the
corrosion effect of the water on the water main. The aerated water is then
pumped by the low lift pump into sedimentation tank. However alum is
added to the aerated water prior to the expulsion into the sedimentation
tank. In the sedimentation tank water undergoes sedimentation which is
the unit operation by which particles heavier than the liquid in which they
exist are removed by gravitational settling. The process is very
important in clarifying water. Sedimentation can be affected in any of
the following ways; the discrete sedimentation, the hindered
sedimentation and the blanket sedimentation. In whatever ways the
sedimentation process is brought about, four different zones have been
identified in any liquid undergoing sedimentation. In each zone a
combination of different modes of sedimentation exist. The liquid
molecules should have piston or plug flow pattern through the
sedimentation tank. The flow pattern is complex for this reason the
detention time of different elements of the liquid and particle varies. The
numbers of particles which are eliminated from the liquid in continuous
sedimentation process are dependent on time, and the different types of
particles which are allowed to remain in the tank. There are two types of
sedimentation tanks when considered from the flow pattern of view. These
are the vertical flow sedimentation tanks and the horizontal flow
sedimentation tanks, which are modified by structural devices to suit
various conditions, thus giving rise to different types of vertical and
horizontal flow sedimentation tanks. The commonest types of
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sedimentation employed in water treatment include candy vertical flow

sedimentation tanks, horizontal flow sedimentation tanks,
centrifloc sedimentation tank and accentrifloc sedimentation
tanks. Centrifloc sedimentation tank is provided with automatic sludge
extractor to enable dislodging to be kept in step with the volume of
sludge. It is also equipped with mechanical flocculators.
After sedimentation, water leaves sedimentation tank for the filters
where it undergoes filtration which is the process which renders water
attractive and reduces pathogenic bacteria. Different types of filter
media are in use; slow sand filter, rapid sand filter and reverse
osmosis.
Rapid sand filter is commonly used. Water to be filtered through
rapid sand filter is normally precoagulated and often settled in
sedimentation tank. After a rapid filter is operated for a period normally
between 24 72 hours depending on the characteristics of water,
filter and the rate of filtration, the pores of filter become blocked with
the dirty particles which the filter removes from water.
A different and more traditional method of filtration is the slow
sand filter; it has the advantage of being of a simpler technology in both
construction and operation. Its ability to bring about substantial
improvements in the physical, chemical and bacteriological quality of
water makes it an appropriate treatment method, especially for small
communities in rural areas of Africa.
Slow sand filtration is a process by which contaminated water is
passed through a sand bed, of relatively small sand size (0.15 0.3 mm);
at very low velocities (80 150 l/m2/h).
Another and fairly recent type of filter uses a method known as
reverse osmosis to clean water. These filters are however rather
expensive and can cope only with small outputs. Their big advantage is
that they are capable of extracting up to 95% of dissolved, salts
from brackish waters. Owing to the rather delicate nature of these
filters, the raw water is usually passed through a simple sand filter first.
The water is then pressurized to 40 50 atm and passed over a special
membrane of extremely fine texture. The process of osmosis, or the
tendency for chemical intermixing, is now reversed, so that pure water
passes through the membrane, leaving the dissolved salts to be
separated. The membrane is also capable of retaining micro organisms
and organic matter.

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It can be seen; therefore that sand filtration is not just a simple

method of removing foreign particles, but quite a complex biochemical
process, enabling bacteria to be removed as well.
The filtered water then passes through 200mm pipe into 500m3
clean water tank. This is disinfected before the passage into the elevated
tank. Disinfection is very important in water supply for some
reasons. It safeguards against the pathogenic organisms which
may escape other processes. Chlorine is often used as a disinfectant
and the process of disinfection is followed by the addition of lime for
the correction of pH which should be between the ranges of 6.5 and
9.2
The water is then expelled into clean water testing unit from 500m 3
clean water tank. At this unit, water is then examined and tested to
determine the physical, chemical, bacteriological and other
microscopic characteristics of water. This is followed by the use of
high lift pump to pump water to the service reservoir.
The service reservoir is the storage tank into which treated water
is pumped and from it water flows under gravity to customers. It is
normally sited so that a minimum pressure of 30m is provided for water
going into the distribution mains. The main functions of the service
reservoir are;
1. For storing water so that water may be available at relatively
uniform pressure at all time
2. It can be used to provide reserve water for fire fighting
3. It enables water supply systems to have economic sizes for
distribution mains and for pumps
4. It is used to control pressure in the distribution mains
5. It can be used to improve water qualities
A service reservoir must be designed and constructed so that it can
perform the functions for which it is intended adequately and safely. To
enable it to do this, the following features must be considered in design
and construction.

1. SITE
To reduce the cost of construction, it must be judiciously sited. It must be
located on one of the highest points in the locality.

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2. SIZE
This will depend on many factors like the hours of pumping into the
reservoir and the urgency with which interruption to supply can be
removed. If pumping into it takes place continuously over 24 hours daily,
the storage to be provided should be between 12 to 20 percent of the
total daily consumption.

3. OTHER FEATURES
Since the service reservoir contains treated water it must be covered.
Provision must be made to ensure that dust free air can have access.

CHLORINE DIOXIDE FOR WATER TREATMENT

The interest in using chlorine dioxide for water treatment has been
increasing over the past twenty years.
It is successfully applied around the world for many water treatment
problems. The fields of application are;
(i)

Drinking water

(ii)

Waste water

(iii)

Industrial water

As regards drinking water, chlorine dioxide is widely applied for the

following uses, where it is more efficient than chlorine.
(i)

Organic oxidation

(ii)

Disinfection

(iii)

Taste and odour control

(iv)

Colour removal

(v)

Oxidation of iron and manganese

In waste water treatment, chlorine dioxide is used for disinfection. In

industrial water treatment, it is a very efficient biocide.
Always used in aqueous solutions, chlorine dioxide is made on site by
means of a generator. There are two ways to provide it from sodium
chlorite.
(1)Aqueous sodium chlorite solution + chlorine (either as a gas or in
solution)
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(2)Aqueous sodium chlorite solution and hydrochloric acid

The generators available on the market produce chloride dioxide
safely. They are also very flexible and can be monitored to take care of a
wide range of treatment requirements.

DRINKING WATER
PRETREATMENT; Organic Oxidation
Even at high pH, removal of organic pollution and algae is achieved with
chlorine dioxide. But unlike chlorine, it does not form trihalomethane
compounds (THMs) believed to be carcinogenic.
The preoxidation of raw water with chlorine dioxide gives a good
control of the THMs. In addition, even in combination with free chlorine,
THMs are reduced. The prior action of chlorine dioxide removes the THMs
precursors (humic substances). So, chlorine applied at the following stage
does not form THMs.
Besides, chlorine dioxide does not react with ammonia and its
derivatives as chlorine does. It does not form chloramines.
There is no over consumption of oxidising agents. The use of
chlorine dioxide for preoxidation enhances coagulation
flocculation efficiency.
DISINFECTION; Chlorine dioxide is well known as a very strong
bactericide and viricide agent. As a bactericide it is effective against E
Coli and B anthracoides within a pH range from 6 to 10 whereas chlorine
is inactive in alkaline solutions.
As a viricide, it is more effective than chlorine against enterovirus,
adenovirus, and reovirus e.t.c. The sterilization with chlorine dioxide gives
a longer persistent protection than chlorine.
TASTE AND ODOUR CONTROL; Chlorine dioxide does not react with
phenolic compounds. Chlorine in presence of phenolics gives
chlorophenols which are responsible for odours and unpleasant taste. For
control of musty, fishy or earthy taste and odours, chlorine dioxide
demonstrates the greatest removal
IRON AND MANGANESE REMOVAL; Oxidation of manganese; Chlorine
dioxide oxidises soluble manganese to insoluble manganese dioxide. It
acts more quickly than chlorine or permanganate. Oxidation of iron;
Chlorine dioxide rapidly oxidises iron (II) to iron (III) which precipitates as
iron hydroxides.
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COLOUR REMOVAL; besides all the applications described above,

chlorine dioxide can solve the problems of coloured water.

WASTE WATER
DISINFECTION
As a bactericide, the contact time for a complete treatment is five
times lower with chlorine dioxide than with chlorine. It is mainly applied in
protected areas like lagoons, bays and lakes.

INDUSTRIAL WATER
For this application, chlorine dioxide is used a biocide. It has two
main advantages.
(1)It allows for a very large and non specific action against micro
organisms. It is non selective.
(2)Its efficiency remains the same at alkaline pHs
Its applications for industrial water are;
(1)In cooling water systems (anti fouling treatment)
(2)In the paper industry (anti slime treatment)
(3)In oil field water floods (injection water treatment)

WATER ECONOMY OR FINANCIAL ARRANGEMENTS

What is the various money matters concerning water supply?
(a)

Capital cost needed to start a water project

These could be;

(i)

Government grant

(ii)

Bank loan

(iii)

Community contributions

In Nigeria and China (i) is the most common while in France and Germany
(ii) and (iii) are the most common.
15 | P a g e

(b)

Operation or running cost

What are the sources of generating these funds?

(c)

Revenue from water

(i)

Adopt the flat rate method. This is adopted where people collect
water from public taps.

(ii)

Fixed monthly charges are used for areas with pipe borne water
per flat or house

(iii)

Using meters the most efficient method

Advantages

(1)It is more economical in water consumption

(2)It facilitates water boards to get revenues commensurate with
amount consumed
Disadvantages
(1)Economy in domestic uses may lead to health disadvantages. It is
better to meter industrial/institutional consumers not private
homes
(2)Meters in Africa are imported and require skilful maintenance
(iv)

Fixed property rating method is a very efficient method because

it ensures that people will pay according to the value of their
properties

In Ibadan we use the flat rate method N20 per head whereas property
rating is used mainly in Lagos.

Financing a Water Project

CASE STUDY
The provision of potable water to a community or a city is a money
consuming proposition. It requires the identification and development of
the source of supply, the provision and location of adequate storage, and
the reticulation. It does not end with these capital investments. The
various units have to be maintained, indicating an ever changing
recurrent expenditure. The case study is an urban water project for a city
with a population of 100,000 people at the time of construction of the
project. The

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Item

Description

Dosage

Alum

60mg/l

Hydrated Lime I

30mg/l

Activated Silicate

8mg/l

Hydrated Lime II

5mg/l

Chlorine

0.2mg/l

Table 3
Chemical Dosages

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Table 4
Cost of Water Chemicals Daily
Item

Chemical

Dosage

Rate

(tonnes)

(N1
tonne)

Daily
Cost
(N)

Alum

3.46

1250

4,325

Ca(OH)2

2.02

1000

2,020

Activated
Silicate

0.46

2500

1,150

Chlorine of
Lime

0.05

3300

165

Total Cost per day

7,660

Table 5
Recurrent Monthly Expenditure
Item

Description

Cost (N)

Water treatment chemicals

230,000

Diesel and engine oil

80,000

Personnel

75,000

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Incidental expenses

5,000

Total

390,000

CHAPTER 3
SEWAGE AND SEWRAGE SYSTEMS
Sewage is defined as the water carried wastes of any
community. Sewage can also be defined as the water supply of a
city after it has been used. Most municipal sewage is about 99.9%
water and 0.1% impurities. The sewage flows in sewers to the
treatment plant or outfall. There are three types;
(i)

Domestic sewage

(ii)

Industrial sewage

(iii)

Storm sewage

Domestic sewage is that part of community waste water which

arises from human houses and it is derived from the following sources.
(i)

Faeces

(ii)

Bathroom waste water

(iii)

Washand basin and lavatory waste water

(iv)

Kitchen waste water

(v)

Laundry waste water

Industrial or trade sewage consists of all waste water from

industries. It may contain very toxic substances depending on the type of
industries.
Storm water sewage; this is the portion of waste water arising as
a result of surface run off from rain. In Africa the quantity of surface run
off is a considerable part of sewage to dispose of during the wet season.
Quality, Characteristics and Composition of Sewage
The main characteristics of sewage are;
(i)

Quantity

(ii)

B.O.D.
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(iii)

C.O.D. and dissolved oxygen

(iv)

Suspended solids

(v)

Dissolved solids

(vi)

Synthetic detergents

(vii)

pH

(viii) Ammonia
(ix)

Copper

(x)

Phenol

(xi)

Zinc

The characteristics of sewage vary so frequently that representative

sample can only be obtained through composite sample. These
characteristics vary so frequently with time that an attempt to present a
single sample obtained once at a point in time from a source, as a
representative sample often leads to misleading results.
The actual representative sample can only be obtained through
composite sampling. This composition is obtained by taking the samples
at various intervals of time during the day and pooling the quantities
together in volume proportions to the flow.
A civil engineering consultant is trying to obtain a composite
sample of waste water from a factory. Grab samples are obtained as
shown in Table 6

TABLE 6
Time (hours)

9.00

Waste water flow ml/s

2 x 106 1 x 106 0.5 x 106 1.5 x 106

Quantity of grab samples 2

12.00

15.00

18.00

1.5

(litres)

(i)

Prepare a composite sample of one litre for laboratory

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(ii)

If 1 in 50 dilution of the sample is to be prepared, what is the

quantity of distilled water to be added to 10ml of the composite
sample?

Solution;
Sum of waste water flow = (2 + 1.5 + 1 + 0.5) x 106 = 5 x 106 ml/s
For a composite sample of 1 litre we have the following proportions of
waste water for each time;
At 9.00 = 2 x 106 5 x 106

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