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654
Bentham (I748-I832),
let (I796-I874). It was this oldertraditionwhichgave the conof Lombrosothe evidenceand standardsin termsof
temporaries
whichhis theorieswerecriticizedand rejectedand whichenabled
System," MassachusettsLaw Quarterly(9I7),
pp. 59I-639,
and the report to the
EnglishParliamentby the SelectCommittee
on Criminaland DestituteJuveniles(I852),
p. 33, the testimonyof Matthew Davenport Hill. CourtneyKenny, in "The Death
ofLombroso,"makesthe claimthat "but forhis [Lombroso's]efforts
we shouldnotnow
be beginningto grapplewiththe problemsof vagrancy.
" (JournaloftheSocietyof
Comparative
Legislation,Vol. X [i909]). Studentsof social historyare familiarwithat
least fourcenturiesofinterestin the problemofvagrancy.See S. and B. Webb, English
Local Government:
EnglishPoor Law History,Part I: "The Old Poor Law" (I927),
chap. vi ("The Repressionof Vagrancy"),pp. 330-95.
3 Barnes (op. cit.) states: "In the active scientific
criminologyof today, the doctrinesof the classical school and of criminologists
priorto I9I0 have littlemorethan
historicalimport." Practicallyall recenttextbookshave moreor less uncriticallyaccepted this viewpoint.
655
the
of Queteletin attracting
firstpublishedin I825. The influence
of thesciattentionof scholarsall overEuropeto thepossibilities
entificstudyof social phenomenaand to the studyof crimewas
on socialscienceis genofhis influence
enormous.The importance
hiswork
buthisstudiesinotherfieldsovershadow
erallyrecognized,
todayforhis
and as a resulthe is rarelymentioned
in criminology
whodevotedhisattention
inthisfield.A. M. Guerry,
pioneerefforts
exclusivelyto the study of crimeand of "moral statistics,"is
scarcelyless important.In I829 he and Balbi firstmade use of
crimerates,and in a famousvolumein
shadedmaps to represent
immethod,"as it was called,was further
I833 this"cartographic
provedand used as a basic techniquein isolatingcausal relationships as "ecological"maps are used today. This i833 work of
Guerry'sattractedimmediateattentionin France and in other
all over
and was taken as a model by criminologists
countries5
41n the absence of any adequate generaltreatiseon the historyof criminological
to theliteraturepriorto i882 willbe foundin A. von
references
theory,comprehensive
(3d ed., i882 [ist ed., i868; 2d ed., i874]). For the statistical
Oettingen,Moralstatistik
Vol. III
studies from i882 to i9i6 G. von Mayr's Statistikund Gesellschaftslehre,
(2d ed., I917), is excellent.In the later editionsof his L'Uomo delinquenteLombroso
quotes ratherextensivelyfromthis earlierliterature.A usefulsummarywill also be
foundin A. Bonger,Criminalityand EconomicConditions(Amer.ed., IgIo).
5 An evaluation of the workof Guerrywill be foundin von Oettingen,op. cit.,esp.
pages, on Guerry'si833
I (Ist ed., i868), I32 ff.An extensivereview,coveringfifteen
Review,XVIII, 353 ff.W. R. Gregin i835, in the
workwill be foundin the Westminster
stated: "The curious and novel inPreface to his Social StatisticsoftheNetherlands,
formationcontainedin the elaborate and profoundworkof M. Guerry,'Sur la Statistique Morale de la France,' and the startlingspeculationswhichare thereso carefully
developed suggestedto me the idea of undertakinga somewhatsimilarinvestigation
forsome othercountry,to ascertainhow farthe resultsto whichhe arrivedforFrance
I have givencoloured
wouldbear the test ofa morevariedand extendedinquiry.
656
theshadedmaps
unitsin preparing
la Corse(i84I), usedmuchsmallergeographical
ofthe
analysisofcrimein Corsicaandin hiscomparison
whichhe usedin hiscareful
had a
islandwithFrancein respectto crimeratesforvarioustypesofcrimes.Guerry
in i85i and in the
ofhismapsofcrimeon displayat theLondonExposition
number
forsixstatistics
Englishcriminal
ofthem,representing
sameyearexhibited
eighteen
ofScience.
fortheAdvancement
teenyears,endingin i850,to theBritishAssociation
statisticalcongresses
of the international
specialsectionswere
In variousmeetings
etpratique
theorique
ofthismethod(seeM. Block,TraitM
devotedto theconsideration
wereinflude statistique
[i878], p. 67ff.).In BelgiumbothQueteletand Dtucp6tiaux
hismethod.
andemployed
encedbyGuerry
6 An outstanding
methodwas Georgevon Mayr
advocateof the geographical
in whoseencyclopedic
and sociologist,
statistician
Statistikund
(i84I-1925), German
thereis a detailedpracticaldiscussionof thismethodas wellas
Gesellschaftslehre
to the studiesin whichit was applied.See also
references
classified
bibliographical
zurStatistik
PolizeiimK. Bayern"in Beitrdge
des
Mayr's"Statistikdergerichtlichen
im Gesellschaftsleben
(i877). An excelK. Bayern(i867); and hisDie Gesetzmissigkeit
op.cit. Other
lentanalysisofearlystudiesofthiskindwillbe foundinvonOettingen,
methodin criminology
are
orapplications
ofthe"cartographic"
discussions
significant
outh6orie
del'6tude
desloisd'apreslesquelles
sedevelopP. A. Dufau,Traitsdestatistique
des
op. cit.;M. A. Malarce,"Moralit6comparee
pentlesfaitssociaux(I840); Fletcher,
Journal
dela societe
destatistique
diverses
partiesde la France,d'apresla criminalite,"
PrisonsofLondonandScenesfrom
de Paris (i86o), p. 6i; H. Mathew,TheCriminal
PrisonLife(i862), and Vol. IV, ThoseThatWillNotWork,of"LondonLabourand
in denscheinbar
willkiirtheLondonPoor" (i864); A. Wagner,Die Gesetzmdssigkeit
der Statistik(i864); A. Quetelet,
vomStandpunkte
lichenmenschlichen
Handlungen
im preussischen
Das Verbrechertum
sociale(2d ed., i869); H. von Valentini,
Physique
ofEnglandandWales,"Journalofthe
Staate(i869); L. Levi,"The JudicialStatistics
zurKriminalstatistik
Bemerkungen
Statistical
Society
ofLondon(i88o); H. Bennecke,
zur deutschen
Hessen (i869); G. Lindenberg,
des Grossherzogtum
"Bemerkungen
undStatistik,
N.S., XIX, 5I3 if.;
Jahrbiucher
far Nationalokonomie
Kriminalstatistik,"
in die Kriminalstatistik,"
statistisches
Allgemeines
H. von Scheel,"Zur Einfuhrung
Archiv,Part I (I890), p. 204; E. Levasseur,La Populationfranfaise,II (I89I),
44I-72;
657
Jahrbiickerfiir
Statistikund Landeskunde(I894),
als Theoretiker"
Hildebrands
Jahrbuch
(I872), p. IOI. See also vonOettingen,
op.cit.;
in I, I34, of the firsteditionhe speaksof Guerry's
methodas "Ein Corrective
fur
Queteletsoben gertigte
Verwendung
des hommemoyenals Normund Typusdes
GutenundSchonen."
658
of experiments
withmethodsof
by societies,of manyconferences,
of parliamentary
inquiries,and a great
treatingyoungoffenders,
takea practical
Not onlydid thisinterest
deal ofpublicdiscussion.9
in
attempts
turn,butitwas also clearlymanifested manytheoretical
to isolatethecausesofcrime,as, forexample,in theworkofHenry
Mayhew.
of the matterof
Considerableagreementas to the importance
basisforthesuccess
was,ofcourse,a necessary
juveniledelinquency
movement.The realizationof the importance
of the reformatory
9Confining
toEnglish
theprincipal
ourselves
entirely
publications,
parliamentary
and
areBorough
otherofficial
intotheproblems
ofjuveniledelinquency
inquiries
ofBirming-
ham,ReportoftheCommittee
ofJusticesAppointedTo ConsidertheTreatment
ofJuvenile
Offenders
(i8oo); London Committee
for theInvestigation
of theCauses of theAlarming
IncreaseofJuvenileDelinquencyin theMetropolis(i8i6); ReportfromtheSelectCommitteeon theCauses oftheIncrease of CriminalCommittments
and Convictions,
and intothe
on Criminal
StateofthePolice oftheMetropolis(I828); ThirdReportoftheCommissioners
Law (I834); Reportto theSecretaryof Statefor theHome Department
Relatingto Plans
fora PrisonforJuvenileOffenders
(I837); Middlesex,JulyQuarterSession,Reportofthe
Committee
AppointedTo ReportTheirSuggestions
for CheckingtheGrowthof Juvenile
Crimeand Promoting
theReformation
onJuvenile
ofJuvenileOffenders
(I846); Committee
Delinquency:ReporttothePrison BoardfortheCountyofAberdeen(I848); Reportofthe
SelectCommittee
oftheHouse ofLordsAppointedTo InquireintotheConditionofJuvenile
AppointedTo Examine intotheStateofJuveOfenders(I847); ReportoftheCommittee
nile Crimein Newcastleand Gateshead(I852); ReportsoftheSelectCommittee
on Criminal
of theFarmSchoolSystemofthe Continent
and Its Applicability,
etc.,"Journalof
theStatisticalSociety,XV (I852), I-49; S. P. Day,JuvenileCrime,Its Causes, Character
ofJuvenile
andCure(i858); T. C. Kynnersky,
in Police
"On theTreatment
Offenders
forthePromotion
ofSocialScience
Courtsand PettySessions,"NationalAssociation
(i86o); Mayhew, op. cit.
659
Delinquency
(I852),
TwoPrizeEssaysonJuvenile
M. Hill and C. Cornwallis,
p.
324.
in Colonies
ofthe Continental
development
summary
"I See, e.g.,E. Ducpetiaux's
zum
etc.(I857), and Fuchs,Die Vereins-Fursorge
6colesruralesetder4forme,
agricoles,
in ikrergeschichtlicken
desletzen
Entwicklung
wdhrend
Gefangene
furentlassene
Schutz
hundertJahre(i888).
I2 M. van Waters,
Courts"in
andJuvenile
Delinquency
in herarticleon "Juvenile
inlegal
formulation
comprehensive
claimsthatthefirst
Sciences,
theSocial
Encyclopediaof
oftheChicago
wasmadebya committee
termsoftheconceptofjuveniledelinquency
theconcept
in I899 and adds: "To attribute
to theearlylawmakers
Bar Association
based on the desireto producean ancient
is pureguesswork,
of childdelinquency
an almostinfora modern
Sucha pointofviewrepresents
development."
genealogy
Chapterin
W. Healy,in "The CloseofAnother
lackofhistorical
perspective.
credible
XIX [I935]), writes:"It is onlytwenty-five
yearsago
(MentalHygiene,
Criminology"
66o
op. cit.Otherworksdealingwiththissubject
(4 vols.,I858-62), and vonOettingen,
in Newgate,"Fraser'sMagazine,
are"The Schoolmaster's
Experiences
Vols.V andVI
(I832); F. E. Vidocq,Les Voleurs(I837); H. A. Fregier,
Des Classes dangereusede la
ofGarotting
andHousebreaking,"
Le Monde
Cornhill
Magazine,
VII; J.B. E. Laurent,
des voleurs,leur espritet leur langue (I862); Mary Carpenter,
Our Convicts(I864);
Le Mondedes coquins(I865); W. E. Wahlberg,
Dass Mass und der
Moreau-Christophe,
mittlere
Mensch im Strafrecht
in der
(I869) and Das Princip der Individualisierung
Strafrechtspfiege
(I878); Maxime DuCamp, Paris, ses organes,ses fonctionset sa vie,
in Berlin,"BlatterfiirGe"Das Verbrecherthum
etc.,III (6 vols.,I872); A. Ragotzky,
fangnisskunde(I872); H. Joly,Le Crime (i888); G. Moreau,Le Monde des prisons
Das Verbrecherthum
in Hamburg(I879); andmanyothers.
(I887); T. Schriider,
66i
The preoccupation
of the Lombrosianswithanatomyand with
Darwinianconceptsand theirassumptionthatthecausesof crime
wereto be foundin thenatureofthecriminaltaken"individually"
ratherthanin hisrelationsto othersled themto failentirely
to appreciatetheimportance
of the typeof historicalresearchdoneby
Ave-Lallemant
and others.WhatLombrosodid was to reversethe
methodof explanationthat had been currentsince the timeof
thatinstitutions
Guerryand Queteletand, insteadof maintaining
he heldthat
and traditions
thenatureof the criminal,
determined
thecharacterofinstitutions
thenatureof thecriminaldetermined
and traditions.Guerryin I833 wrote:
In each epoch thereare certaingeneralcauses by means of whichone atand the effectsof whichare noted everywhere.
temptsto explaineverything,
observedin the moralcharacter
Thus, in France,forexample,the differences
of peoples and in theirmodes of thought,have been successivelyattributed,
always accordingto the dominantideas of the time.... to the influenceof
to
and finallyrecently,to elementaryinstruction,
temperature,
nourishment,
14 Otherearlystudiesof thesetwogroupswhichrevealtheiruniquerelationship
Gaunerin Deutschland
(I840);
are A. F. Thiele,Die jiidischen
withthe underworld
in Europaund
Gauner(I850); A. F. Pott,Die Zigeuner
Die jiudischen
E. Tarnowsky,
desBoetde la dispersion
Asien(2 vols.,I844-45); and P. Bataillard,De 'apparition
TheElizabethan
enEurope(I844). See also therecentbookby A. V. Judges,
hkniens
(I930).
Underworld
662
ofwhatwereperto a refutation
H. Mayhewdevotedhisefforts
haps threeof the majorcurrenttheoriesof crimecausationin his
day (ca. I850), namely,that crimewas due to poverty,to ignocrimeratesinthe
ofpopulation.By correlating
rance,andtodensity
in
variouscountiesofEnglandand Wales witheach ofthesefactors
turnhe cameto theconclusionthatnoneof themwas thecause of
crime.The theorywhichhe proposedin place of thesewas,briefly
crimewas the heartof theproblem,and
stated,thatprofessional
intowhichchildren
werebornand bred,so
thatit was a profession
trainingin the low neighborto speak,receivingtheirqualifying
hoodsof England'sgreatcitiesand in herprisonsand jails. His
and analysisof Londoncrimeand criminalshas probdescription
as
ably neverbeen surpassed.He conceivedthe juvenileoffender
evolvingin a naturalprocessof socialevolutionintotheadultprothief.In I863 JohnT. Burtcameto somewhatsimilarconfessional
clusionswhenhe said: "The greatproducingcause of habitual
criminals
is, I am persuaded,the criminalclassesalreadyexisting.
Beforethe NationalAssociationforthe
Crimeis reproductive."'6
ofSocial Sciencein thesameyearBurtmadethefollowPromotion
ingstatement:
partlyby thenumber
The amountofcrimein anylocalitywillbe determined,
ofpersonsin a populationpossessingless thanaveragementalcapacity,partly,
and especiallyin timesof distress,upon the amountof ignoranceamongthe
population,partlyby the extentto whichthe populationwas subjectedto the
pressureof poverty,and obviouslyby the accumulationof valuable property
in places whichmake it easily available forplunder.It has been pointedout
that all theseconditionsare foundcombinedin the highestdegreein townsof
thefirstmagnitude.'7
of
to describethe changesin the conceptions
It is unnecessary
ofLombrosiancrimecausationwhichoccurredundertheinfluence
ofmechanistic
and biologicaltheories
ism. The growing
prominence
in thespace
in thelaterdecadesofthecenturyare clearlyreflected
in the successive
whichvon Oettingendevotesto theirrefutation
I5
'7
I6 IrishFactsand Wakefield
Guerry,
op.cit.,p. 40.
Figures(I863).
"The Local CausesandAmount
ofCrimeinBirmingham,"
Proceedings,
p. 536.
663
664
665
minousliterature
of that periodcontainsmanystudieswhichare
innosenseoutmoded.How didtheLombrosian
mythbecomeestablishedin criminology
andobliteratethisperiodofdevelopment
from
theattention
ofpresent-day
criminologists?
In attempting
to findan answerto this questionit shouldbe
notedthat the originl
of the mythcannotbe associatedwithany
generalacceptanceof Lombrosiantheoriesin any country.On the
contrary,
thetheoryoftheborncriminal
was receivedwitha storm
ofvigorousprotestand was so sharplycriticized
thatitsauthorhimselfsoonmodified
it and allowedsomeplace forsocialfactors.The
veryfact that oppositionto Lombrosianism
was so extensivein
Europeand thatLombroso'scontemporaries
wereable to evaluate
to demonhis theoriesas accuratelyas theydid is alone sufficient
stratethattheremusthavebeenin existence
in thisfieldoldertraditionsand standardsofresearch.Von Oettingen
expressedastonishmentthat theoriesas obviouslyunsoundand uncriticalas Lombroso'sshouldhave attractedany attentionat all afterfifty
years
ofdevelopment
in thescienceofcriminology.
He adds thatifsomethinglike Lombrosianism
had appearedfiftyyearsearlierin the
ofthescienceit wouldhave beeneasierto understand
infancy
how
it mighthave been taken seriously.20
2I
entdiscuter
pluslongtemps
des doctrines
donttoutle mondeaujourd'hui(saufcertainesexalt6squi sontpeut-etre
euxaussides malades)reconnait
et les
et la faussete,
dangers." In
I903
Aschaffenberg
(Crimeand Its Repression[I9I3;
that"all ofLombroso's
to separatetheborncriminal
attempts
fromthenormalman
bybringing
himintoconnection,
partlywithatavistic,
partlywithpathological
states,
havecometo grief;
so hastheendeavor
tocharacterize
andanathecriminal
'clinically
tomically'"(p. ig9). Tardein I903 remarked:
of
"At thisverytimetheenthusiasm
theLombrosians
has cooledoffa greatdeal..... No onebelievesinthecriminal
type
anymore,excepting
Lombroso"(Penal Philosophy[trans.IgI2], p. 49 n.). G. Papillant
("Sur quelqueserreursde methodeen criminologie,"
XX
Revueanthropologique,
to the Lombrosian
school:"Elle
[191o], 323ff.)stated,speakingof the opposition
restevictorieuse
danslespayslespluscultiv6s,
commela France,I'Angleterre
etl'Alle-
666
667
668
669
670
opposition
into"schools"as well. This cleavagetookplace roughly
of themembers.The
alongthelinesof theprofessional
affiliations
of ensuingcontroversies
bitterness
was enhancedby the factthat
of a deeperantagonism
theoretical
disagreement
was symptomatic
betweencompetingprofessionalgroups representing
conflicting
practicalinterests
and fundamentally
different
orientations
toward
theworld.28
For morethana century
beforecriminalanthropology
cameinto
existencesociety'sresponsibility
forits criminalclasseshad been
and embodiedin thelegislation
ofall civilizedcountries.
recognized
offered
a convenient
It maybe thatthetheoryoftheborncriminal
rationalization
ofthefailureofpreventive
effort
and an escapefrom
theimplications
ofthedangerousdoctrinethatcrimeis an essential
productof our social organization.
It may well be that a public,
welcomedtheopwhichhad beennaggedforcenturies
by reformers,
to sloughoffits responsibilities
forthisvexingproblem.
portunity
In I854 an Englishwriter
statedsomeoftheproblems
confronting
criminologists
ofthatday as follows:
The treatment
and disposalofourcriminal
population
is a topicinvolving
someofthesubtlest
speculative,
andsomeoftheknottiest
practical
questions
in dealingwithit weareto
whichwecanbe calleduponto consider.Whether
oftheCommunity,
ortheinterests
oftheguilty
consider
onlythesafety
memina spiritofretribution,
weareto treatoffenders
bersofitlikewise,-whether
orofsimpleself-defence,-whether
orofbenevolence,
wearetoregardthemas
oras enemies
patients
tobe cured,oras victims
toberescued,
tobesuppressed,
is to be proportional
to theoffence,
or to thecircum-whetherpunishment
ortheobjectofdeterring
ofprisstancesoftheoffender,
others,-What
system
on discipline
is best,out ofso manyrecommended-whether
gaolsshouldbe
in spiteofeconomic
madeself-supporting
science,whether
theycan be made
sciencereallyforbidsthemto be madesuchsuch,and whether
economic
in whatmanner
to dealwithjuvenilecriminals,
in whatmanner
withthepeniwiththehardened-how
areweto secureto theprisoner
tent,inwhatmanner
onhisreleaseatleasta chanceofabandoning
onan
hisguilty
careerandentering
honestcourseoflife-Whether
to protecthimagainstthenecessity
ofrelapse
28
This same situationhas frequentlybeen noted today also. See, e.g., E. D. Monachesi,"Trends in Criminological
Researchin Italy," AmericanSociologicalReview,Vol.
I (June,I1936). "The ferventpre-occupationof the modernItalian criminologist
with
thebiologyofcrimemaybe explainedin partby thefactthatthemajorityof them are
doctorsof medicine." N. Cantor,in "Recent Tendenciesin CriminologicalResearch
in Germany,"ibid.,notes the same thingin Germany.
67I
by throwing
as thicka veil as we can overhis unhappyantecedents,or to protect societyagainst the probabilityof his relapse by keepinghim constantly
undersurveillance-in what mannerwe are to preventour respectforindividual libertyfrominterfering
withthe measureswhichthe safetyof the communityrequires-in what mode we are to provideforthe health,cleanliness,
the safe custody,and the reformation
of the criminal,withoutrenderinghis
conditionmorecomfortable
thanthatof thehonesthardworking,
independent
labourer,-how to dispose of the thousandswhomwe used to transport,and
the thousandswhomwe are still annuallyliberatingand remandingback to
the alternativesof destitutionor of crime-how, in fine,we are to dispose of
existingcriminals,and how to cut offor diminishthe supplyof themin the
future?-These are some of the urgentquestionsto whichwe have to devise
a prompt,a satisfactory,
and a practicalreply.29
wayfora newapproach.
The progressof scienceis oftenportrayedas a majesticand inofideasin a logicalsequenceofsuccessively
closer
evitableevolution
to the truth.We have shownthatthisconception
approximations
wherein
doesnotapplyto criminology
mythand fashionand social
conditions
have oftenexercisedan influence
quiteunrelatedto the
of
evidence.
orto theimplications
ofaccumulated
soundness theories
Oneofthesourcesofprotection
againstinvasionbyfads,andagainst
oftodayhas
ofwhichcriminology
theseextratheoretical
influences,
notavaileditself,is a soundappreciation
ofits ownpast.
INDIANA UNIVERSITY
AND
CHICAGO, ILL.
29 "The Management and Disposal of Our Criminal
Population," EdinburghReview,C (I854), 569.