Point of View
Viscosity—It’s Only
Part of the Equation
Interactions with a solid surface are critical
By James Warner
W ithin the concrete industry, there is a common
misconception that viscosity is the primary or sole
property defining the flow or penetrability of a liquid.
Although viscosity is certainly important, equally
important is the liquid’s affinity for surfaces with which
it comes into contact. While this property is well known
in the field of surface science, it’s often overlooked by
engineers and contractors.
Most of us have observed affinity when we’ve sprinkled
water on an automobile finish. If the paint finish has been
recently waxed, the water will form spherical beads
(unless a detergent has been added to the water). If the
finish is highly oxidized, the drops will flatten. In other
words, when water is applied to a hydrophobic surface,
noncontinuous liquid beads will form. Conversely, if
water is applied to a hydrophilic surface, the water will
readily coat the surface.
If a solid surface is made of a porous and hydrophilic
material (for example, concrete), a water drop will be
readily absorbed for some depth. If the material below
the upper surface can be made hydrophobic, however,
there will be little or no penetration—even if the surface
is highly porous. Thus, even “thin” water, which has a
viscosity of only about 1 centipoise (cP), won’t necessarily
readily coat a surface or penetrate into a porous mass.
This point of view article is presented for reader interest by the editors.
However, the opinions expressed are not necessarily those of the
American Concrete Institute. Reader comment is invited.
firsthand experiences
Chemical grout
My introduction to surface science was in the early
1960s, when I was involved in a project with the objective
of increasing the pumping rate of a sodium silicate
chemical grout for injection into sandy soils. Obviously,
the pumping rate for such a system is dependent upon
the properties of both the grout and the soil. Through
experimentation, we found that the injection rate for the
grout could be increased by about 40%, simply by adding
a readily available surfactant to the grout. With or
without surfactant, the viscosity of the grout was about
10 cP, or 10 times that of water. Even so, its surface
tension was lowered enough to allow its penetrability
(and thus, pumping rate) to be only slightly higher than
for water.
Cementitious grout
I also experienced the importance of affinity during an
experimental program to develop an optimal grout for
injection into 3/8 in. (9 mm) tubing that was to be abandoned
within the embankment of an earthen dam. Our goals
included selecting the most penetrable grout mixture and
determining injection parameters for the actual work.
Although the original tubing was made of Saran™ polymer,
similar tubing was no longer available in bulk. To expedite
our laboratory program, we used a polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) tubing of identical dimension for many of our tests.
We measured the times required for various grout
types to flow through an 8 ft (2.4 m) length of PVC tubing
Concrete international / february 2010 41
 Liquid phase interactions
Macroscopic properties of liquids include viscosity,
surface tension, affinity, and capillarity, with the latter
three properties potentially affected by surface active
agents. To better understand these properties, we
need to consider the effects of intermolecular forces.
Viscosity: When a liquid flows, intermolecular
attractions between the molecules within the liquid
resist their movements around and past each other.
We refer to this resistance to flow as “viscosity.”
Surface tension: The molecular forces at interfaces
among liquids, gases, and solids play critical roles in
affecting other properties. At an interface between a
liquid and a gas, the molecular forces between the
gas and liquid molecules are quite small, so the
intermolecular attractions among the liquid molecules
are unbalanced near the interface. The imbalance
causes the liquid molecules near the surface to move
toward the interior of the liquid mass and become
more stable. This contraction minimizes the number of
molecules at the surface, causing it to behave like a
film. We observe these films at the surfaces of water
beads and menisci. Although we commonly refer to
these films as “surface tension,” the term more
accurately describes the force needed to break a
film of a given length.
Affinity and capillarity: When a liquid comes into
contact with the surface of a solid, the relative
attached to a slanted board, and selected grouts with the
minimum flow times. We were concerned that the PVC
tubing material might affect the results, so we salvaged
an 8 ft (2.4 m) long piece of the original Saran tubing from
a gallery within the dam and attached the salvaged tubing
next to the PVC tubing on the slanted board (Fig. 1).
Tests showed that grout flowed more readily in the Saran
tubing, so we were confident any estimates made using
data from PVC tubing would be conservative.
Using the data from the slant-board tests, we developed
a correction factor to compensate for the differential
wettability we observed for the Saran tubing. As a final
step, the most promising grout mixtures were pumped
through several thousand feet of the PVC tubing to
determine the fastest pumping rate that could be used
without exceeding the allowable pressure in the tubing.
Epoxy primer
In another instance, I was involved in a project that
required an epoxy primer for coating a concrete floor.
Our supplier recommended a high-viscosity primer that
had the consistency of thick paint. Although I had no
42 february 2010 / Concrete international
magnitude of the molecular forces within the liquid
and between the liquid and the solid govern the
behavior of the liquid at the interface. If the molecules
of a liquid are more strongly attracted to each other
than to the molecules on the surface of the solid, a
drop of the liquid will tend to form a bead when placed
on the solid. If, however, the molecules of a given
liquid are more strongly attracted to the molecules on
the surface of the solid than to each other, a drop of
the liquid will tend to flatten out when placed on the
solid, thereby “wetting” the surface of the solid. In this
case, we say the liquid has a “high affinity” for the
solid. If that solid has pores, the strong attraction
between the liquid and solid will result in movement of
the liquid into the pores. This phenomenon, known as
“capillarity,” even allows liquids to overcome the force
of gravity and climb within the body of a structure.
Surfactants: Surface active agents, or “surfactants,”
comprise molecules with tails that are not attracted
to a given liquid and heads that are attracted to
the given liquid. When added to that liquid, the
surfactant molecules migrate to the air-liquid
interface. Because the heads are attracted to the
liquid, the surfactant molecules orient themselves
normal to the film, and the tails effectively push
between the molecules in the film. This induces a
compressive force in the film, reducing the surface
tension and allowing beads and menisci to flatten.
Fig. 1: Graduated cylinders were used to measure flow rate
through PVC and Saran tubes. Although the tubes were charged
from a common funnel and therefore carried the same liquid
under the same total head, the grout ran faster through the
Saran tube, which has already emptied its contents into the
graduated cylinder on the right
data, the viscosity was apparently about 20 to 30 cP. I
was skeptical and asked the supplier how such a thick
fluid could penetrate the concrete surface. The supplier’s
response was direct: “The concrete will like it and suck it
right in.”
And indeed it did. Although the cured coating was
clearly very thin, I was still curious about the supplier’s
assurance that the concrete would absorb the epoxy. So,
we drilled through the coating into the concrete. Amazingly,
the thick primer was observed to have actually penetrated
about an eighth of an inch into the concrete.
AFFINITY is...
Fundamental
When a liquid with high surface tension comes into
contact with a solid with a high surface energy, it will
form the most compact possible shape, a nearly spherical
drop (Fig. 2). Why? A sphere has the minimum surface
area for a given volume, but gravitational forces cause
distortion. A liquid with a lesser surface tension will still
form a drop, but the drop will be somewhat flatter. A
liquid with a very low surface tension will spread out and
form a thin film.
In more technical terms, the affinity of a particular
liquid to a particular solid is characterized by the contact
angle formed between drops of the liquid on the surface
of the solid, as illustrated in Fig. 3. A high contact angle is
indicative of weak affinity (Fig. 3(a)). A low contact angle
(less than 45 degrees) is indicative of strong affinity, and
contact angles of 10 to 20 degrees are indicative of
excellent wetting (Fig. 3(b)). The degree of wetting
(wettability) depends on the chemical composition of the
liquid and the chemical and physical conditions of the
material with which it comes in contact.
Potentially amended
As mentioned in the sidebar, the surface tension of a
fluid can be amended through use of surfactants. Whereas
inclusion of a surfactant will not change a liquid’s viscosity,
it will increase the liquid’s ability to flow or penetrate
more readily and so behave as if it is thinner. Perhaps the
best example of a surfactant is common soap. Although it
doesn’t reduce the viscosity of water, it does enhance the
ability of water to penetrate dirt and grime and clean
more efficiently.
Alternatively, we can also change the nature of a surface
by coating it with a compound that either attracts or
repels a given fluid. So-called breathable coatings and
sealers, designed to ensure that a treated concrete
surface has a poor affinity to water, are good examples.
In effect, liquid water is repelled and won’t penetrate a
treated surface. Water vapor, however, is free to escape.
As Fig. 4 illustrates, a drop of water on such a surface can
actually span a crack.
Drop
Contact angle
Fig. 2: Wettability is characterized by the contact angle of a drop
to a surface
Fig. 3: Photomicrographs of water drops on solid surfaces: (a)
poor wetting indicates low affinity; and (b) excellent wetting
indicates high affinity (Photos by Lars Wolff, from Reference 1)
Fig. 4: A water drop
bridges a crack in a
concrete surface that
has been sprayed
with a hydrophobic
treatment to provide
the surface with a
low affinity for water
(Photo by Lars Wolff,
from Reference 1)
Yet, overlooked
Clearly, affinity affects penetrability and is a critical
parameter for any material (such as epoxy or polyurethane
resins) that is to be applied to a concrete surface or
injected into concrete cracks. Unfortunately, this reality
is rarely reflected in industry publications and standards.
For example, Paragraph 4.3 of ASTM C881/C881M-02,
“Standard Specification for Epoxy-Resin-Base Bonding
Systems for Concrete,”2 states, “Three grades of systems
are defined according to their flow characteristics and
are distinguished by the viscosity and consistency
requirements of Table 1.” There is no mention of
affinity or wettability in the text or table, however, and
there is also no discussion of the characteristics of the
receiving surface. The grade specification is therefore
technically incomplete.
Unfortunately, ACI documents are also not immune
from such technical laxities. ACI 503R,3 for example,
cautions that “…a highly viscous bond coat may not
Concrete international / february 2010 43
adequately penetrate the base concrete and eventual
bond strength will be reduced.” Unfortunately, the report
provides no discussion of the coating, surface, or mass
properties that will influence that penetration. In reality,
a high-viscosity-bond coat may well penetrate concrete
better than a low viscosity material with a lower affinity
for the particular concrete.
Although producers of liquids that are to be used with
concrete should be well aware of surface science and
formulate their materials appropriately, I have witnessed
many cases where materials marketed as “…low viscosity
for maximum penetration…” provided poor affinity and
thus failed to perform.
CORRECTIVE APPROACH
As confirmed by the provided examples, the wettability
and penetrability of a liquid aren't dependent solely on
its viscosity. Low-viscosity liquids can have poor
penetrability, whereas highly viscous liquids can be
incredibly penetrable. The affinity of fluids to surfaces
they will contact is thus an important characteristic and
CIRCLE READER CARD #15
44 february 2010 / Concrete international
providing viscosity values without also mentioning this
property is inappropriate.
There are accepted procedures for determining the
affinity of a liquid to a solid. For example, ASTM D7334-08,
“Standard Practice for Surface Wettability of Coatings,
Substrates, and Pigments by Advancing Contact Angle
Measurement”4 covers the measurement of the angle of
contact when a drop of liquid is applied to a coated
surface. For a porous surface such as concrete, however,
the contact angle will vary as a function of time, as some
of the liquid will probably be absorbed. So, a modified
form of ASTM D5725-99, “Standard Test Method for
Surface Wettability and Absorbency of Sheeted Materials
Using an Automated Contact Angle Tester”5 may be
applicable. There would be a need to calibrate concrete
specimens, probably using water drops, but it should be
possible to develop specifications or standards that
could be applied to products used in the concrete
industry. There clearly is a need.
References
1. Raupach, M., and Wolff, L., “Long-Term Durability of Hydropho-
bic Treatment on Concrete,” Surface Coatings International Part B:
Coatings Transactions, V. 88, No. 2, May 2005, pp. 127-133.
2. ASTM C881/881M-02, “Standard Specification for Epoxy-
Resin-Base Bonding Systems for Concrete,” ASTM International,
West Conshohocken, PA, 2008, 6 pp.
3. ACI Committee 503, “Use of Epoxy Compounds with Concrete
(ACI 503R-93) (Reapproved 2008),” American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI, 2008, 28 pp.
4. ASTM D7334-08, “Standard Practice for Surface Wettability of
Coatings, Substrates, and Pigments by Advancing Contact Angle
Measurement,” ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2008, 3 pp.
5. ASTM D5725-99 (Reapproved 2008), “Standard Test Method for
Surface Wettability and Absorbency of Sheeted Materials Using an
Automated Contact Angle Tester,” ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA, 2008, 7 pp.
Selected for reader interest by the editors.
James Warner, FACI, is an independent
Consulting Engineer based in Mariposa, CA.
His international practice involves analysis
and correction of foundation, structural,
and material problems, with a strong
emphasis on grouting methods. He is a
long-time member of ACI Committees 364,
Rehabilitation, and 552, Cementitious
Grouting.