Professional Documents
Culture Documents
BY
MUHAMMAD IRFAN SHAUKAT
B.Sc.(Hons.) Agriculture
Introduction
Botanical name:
Saccharum officinarum L.
Family:
Poaceae
Latitude:
30o N 30o S
Climate:
Plant type:
Perennial, C4
1218 months
40 g m-2 day-1
Pakistan is the fifth largest country in the world in terms of area under
sugar cane cultivation, 11th by production and 60th in yield. Sugar cane is a
commercially important crop that accounts for approximately 65% of the global
sugar production. Sugarcane is the primary raw material for the production of
sugar. Besides producing white sugar, a major component of cane is utilized in
the production of Gur, Shakkar, and Khandsari Sugar. Since independence,
the area under cultivation has increased more rapidly than any other major crop.
It is one of the major crops in Pakistan cultivated over an area of around one
million hectares.
The sugar industry in Pakistan is the second largest agro based
industries comprising 81 sugar mills with annual crushing capacity of over 6.1
million
tones.
Sugarcane
farming
and
sugar
manufacturing
contribute
significantly to the national exchequer in the form of various taxes and levies.
Sugar manufacturing and its by-products have contributed significantly towards
the foreign exchange resources through import substitution.
Sugar industry is mostly located in the rural areas of Punjab and Sindh. A
small percentage of total production is produced in the NWFP. Previously,
Punjab was partly dependent on supply of sugar from Sindh, but lately the
establishment of some large-scale units in Punjab has made the Province selfsufficient in the commodity.
81
Crushing Capacity
Contribution to Economy
Share in GDP
Employment
Total Investment
46.8 Tones
Cane Available
Contribution to exchequer
By-Products
There are about 100 by-products. Some of them are alcohol, vinegar,
confectioneries, animal feed, poultry feed, fish feed, paper, chipboard, win-board,
hard board and plywood. Tops are used as fodder for livestock and trash as fuel.
Employment
100000 people (Farmers in Sugarcane Production 1,500,000 people
directly and indirectly involved provide over 10 million)
Country
Area
Cane Yield
(000 ha)
(t/ha)
Brazil
5455
75.34
India
4100
59.70
China
1316
70.82
Thailand
1050
60.67
Pakistan
1050
49.57
Cuba
700
34.28
Mexico
639
70.61
Columbia
440
84.31
Australia
415
88.89
USA
389
70.67
Philippines
380
73.68
Indonesia
340
72.35
Vietnam
310
53.54
Argentina
305
63.93
Guatemala
186
96.59
Egypt
135
121.00
World Average
[20115]
65.53
Year
Area
Produced
Yield
(000 ha)
(000 Tones)
Hectare
per Utilization %
by
Mills
2000-01
960.0
43,620
45.4
67.47
2001-02
999.7
48,041
48.1
76.33
2002-03
1,099.7
52,049
47.3
80.28
2003-04
1,074.8
53,800
50.1
81.15
2004-05
966.4
43,533
45.0
73.74
2005-06
907.0
44,292
48.8
67.94
2007-08
1241.300
63,920
51.50
75.55
Year
Cane Crushed
Sugar Made
(Tones)
(Tones)
2000-01
29,408,879
2,466,788
8.39%
2001-02
36,708,638
3,197,745
8.71%
2002-03
41,786,689
3,652,745
8.74%
2003-04
43,661,378
3,997,010
9.15%
2004-05
32,101,739
2,922,126
9.10%
2005-06
30,090,632
2,588,176
8.59%
2006-07
26,583,603
8.53%
2007-08
52,757,140
8.98%
Recovery
Sugar
Sugarcane
Beet
Raw
Total
2000-01
2,466,788
17,276
531,930
3,015,994
2001-02
3,197,745
29,172
22,111
3,249,028
2002-03
3,652,745
22,066
1,945
3,676,759
2003-04
3,997,016
23,796
4,020,806
2004-05
2,922,125
11,373
182,303
3,115,801
2005-06
2,588,176
8,934
401,396
2,998,506
Province
Maturity
group
Cane yield
Sugar recovery
(t ha-1)
(%)
BL-4
Punjab
Early
100
10.2
CP 77-400
Punjab
Early
100
12.7
CP 72-2086
Punjab
Early
90
12.0
CP 43-33
Punjab
Early
90
10.8
CPF-237
Punjab
Early
110
12.5
SPF-213
Punjab
Mid
100
12.0
BL-4
Sindh
Early
200
11.2
BF-129
Sindh
Mid
200
10.3
BL-19
Sindh
Early
180
11.0
Trition
Sindh
Early
200
10.7
Mardan-92
N.W.F.P.
Mid
100
12.0
Mardan-93
N.W.F.P.
Early
100
12.5
CP 77-400
N.W.F.P.
Mid
80
11.8
CP 65-357
N.W.F.P.
Early
70
12.8
2005-06
2004-05
2003-04
2002-03
2001-02
Punjab
1,832,228
2,182,330
2,599,490
2,351,102
2,152,175
Sindh
1,038,122
801,063
1,221,268
1,158,674
940,959
NWFP
128,157
132,407
176,252
166,983
104,611
TOTAL
2,998,507
3,115,801
3,997,010
3,676,759
3,197,745
Shoot System
Sugarcane is giant member of the family Gramineae. The part, which is
harvested, is the stem, which consists of several nodes and internodes, which
contain sweet sap. The internodes below the soil surface and at the base of
aerial stems are compact, while those higher up increase in length. The
internodes remain small during cold weather and periods of moisture stress,
causing a decrease in yield. The nodes bear buds. The crop is planted losing
stem cuttings bearing buds. One of these develops into the first main shoot.
During the developmental phase of crop, several prominent shoots appear from
the buds at the base of stem, which help the tillering process, important for
building the stem population. As internodes extension becomes marked, apical
dominance exercise by the leading shoots discourages the growth of side shoots.
The Stem
The stem is circular or oval in cross section and varies considerably in
shape, color, and orientation of internodes. These characteristics and those of
the nodes and buds are used in the classification of varieties. Leaves produced
10
at the apex of the stem are displaced laterally as the stem increases in height.
Their lower parts, called the sheaths, encircle the upper internodes. The leaves
of the older nodes usually fall away as the stem mature. Considerable variation
occurs in leaf shape and orientation, which may have a bearing on yield.
The Leaf
Leaf size varies from the top to the bottom of the plant. Following
development, about 10 mature expanded leaves remain per stem, with a
combined average leaf area of about 0.5m2, although varieties may exhibit
considerable range in this attribute. As in most grass species, the leaves are
arranged alternatively. Leaves are produced at an average rate of about one
every 5 10 days, depending on variety and especially on climate. Leaves are
reaching its maximum after 5 -10 months depending on climate and after that
remain constant or may even decline. After this period, net growth mainly insists
of stem material and accumulation of sugar. Leaf rolling occurs in many varieties.
This may be droughtresistant characteristic.
Root System
Initially, the roots develop from the cuttings or setts. After the development
of the shoots, they also develop from the lower internodes. They may reach
considerable depth in permeable soils, but generally to concentrate in the upper
layers of the soils. Three types of roots are found in sugarcane: Fibrous, buttress,
and superficial. Buttress roots originate from the basal node of the shoot and
have a supporting function. Superficial roots are thinner and more branched.
They spread about 2m from the plant and then grow downwards as much as 6m
under favorable conditions.
The extent, configuration, and functioning of the root system are
significantly influenced by the physical conditions of the soil. The creation of the
soil environment favorable to good root development is therefore very important
in cultivation of the sugarcane; its growth can be considerable improved even in
poor soil provided they have been tilled and supplied with adequate water and
nutrients.
11
Growth Pattern
After germination, the tillering phase lasts from 4 to 8 months. That is the
time of increased competition among shoots to utilize available light. Generally,
tillers are very adaptable and many more are formed than will reach maturity.
This is why even attack by borers at the active tillering stage is looked on with
unflappability by planters. The destruction of tillers by herbicides for weed control
is also tolerated because of the plants ability to regenerate. In normal planting
about half of the tillers will not developed into mature canes, but will abort for one
reason or another. However, there are distinct varietal differences in tillering
capacity.
The poor tillering variety may require closer spacing to achieve an optimal
stand. A sparse stand encourages later tillering and production of the stem tillers,
which reduces the proportion of millable canes, in some case by more than 60%.
Lodging also induces later tillering, thus reducing the number of mill able canes.
Tillering and other growth characteristics are also affected by the introduction of
varieties from one climatic region to another. High altitudes, cold regions canes
may tiller poorly in equatorial climates. Shorter photoperiods also tend to reduce
tillering.
Exponential growth characterizes the tillering phases: linear phase,
declining phase, and post tillering period. The post tillering period of growth is
also called the grand period of growth. During this period, height increments are
closely correlated with weight increments. This is because growth primarily
consists of extension of the established stems, which are of uniformed thickness.
In sugarcane, accumulation of dry matter continues for a significant period
after a critical leaf area index (LAI) is reached. The LAI at the stage of maximum
development of the leaves ranges from about 8 12 or sometimes more. Peak
LAI values vary among different cultivars, correlating particularly with leaf size
and orientation. Those with narrow leaf and erect foliage are usually capable of
developing
higher
productive
LAI
value
and
require
close
spacing.
12
approaching half that of natural sunlight, unlike many other crops in which leaves
show threshold photosynthesis values at much lower levels.
Ratooning
After sugarcane is harvested, the underground parts of the plants are
allowed to be remaining in the soil and give rise to ratoon crop. Although the
ratoon crop is seldom as uniform and weed free as the initial crop, it is a common
practice to grow several successive ratoon crops. Timely stubble shaving, i.e.,
inter-row cultivation is usually carried to straighten the rows. Often furrow is
made alongside the original row to expose sub-terrain area and promote
germination of deeply located buds. Cultivation of the inter-rows also loosens the
soil and encourages new growth.
In Pakistan, the ratoon crop forms 50 60% of the total cane crop. It is
wrongly considered as free crop and thus not given due attention. This attitude
must change and proper cultural practices and efficient crop management
adopted to improve ratoon crop growth. This includes timely harvesting, balanced
application of fertilizer, adequate irrigation, and proper plant protection measures.
Experiment has shown that ratoon cane crop, if managed and looked after
properly from the very beginning, can yield almost the same as initial crop.
Moreover ratooning also considerably reduces cultivation expenses and financial
burden on the growers.
Experiments on intercropping of Berseem and wheat in ratoon cane show
average cane yield over three different planting patterns reduces by 3.05 and
9.61% respectively. However, sugarcane intercropped with Berseem and Wheat
gave much higher income per hectare over non-intercropped rationed cane.
Additional harvest obtained from sugarcane berseem and sugarcane wheat
intercropping system mounted to 77.66 t/ha of berseem green fodder and 2.83
t/ha of wheat grain respectively.
13
14
Stubble Shaver and Disc Rotavator: Both of these equipments are used
in ratoon crop. Stubble shaver cuts the above ground cane remaining to facilitate
the germination, while disc Rotavator separates the soil from ratoon plants,
rotavate the trash present within trenches as well as cuts old roots. This all
operation of Rotavator improves the germination.
The field should be clay loam, well drained, free from salt, well pulverized,
weed free, and have sufficient organic matter. First of all land leveling should be
done. Then plough and plank it sufficiently to make it pulverized. If there is
hardpan, use sub-soiler to break it and then use chisel twice if required. After
every 2 3 years, use of Mold Bold Plough, Raja Plough, and Disc Plough are
also recommended. However in sandy loam soils deep plough is not usually
required, if there is no hardpan below it. After sugarcane harvesting, use of
Rotavator is recommended to cut and mix the cane remains in the soil. It is
interesting to note that the land preparation can be used to appraise the future
yield of cane crop.
% Increase in Yield
Method
Simple cultivation
155.80
--
13.99
cultivation
15
23
25
26
27
30
31
28
24
16
Planting Time
The selection of an appropriate planting method and schedule greatly
influences crop growth, maturity, and yield. Since low temperature and moisture
stress are detrimental to germination and subsequent establishment, the planting
season in subtropical regions is preferably spring. However, in areas where
17
18
trench-to-trench distance should be 4 feet, because this facilitate air and light
penetration. This method of sowing has following benefits:
More than 50% water saving
Better germination percentage due to better availability of light, water, and
nutrients
Increases applied fertilizer and insecticide efficiency
Better crop stand result in less chances of lodging
Easy mechanical operations like interculturing and mechanical weed
control
Ease in earthing up
Ease in ratooning of sugarcane
After making the trenches, add phosphorus and potash fertilizer in it and
sow the seeds (cane setts) in the trenches. Put one bag of Furadan 3G
(Carbofuran 3%) or Larsban 2 liters for borers, termite, and nematodes attack
prevention. Later cover it slightly with soil, e.g., put the soil with foot. Do not plank
the field. Then irrigate the field lightly. With suitable interval, irrigate the field until
the germination of cane starts. Due to frequent irrigations, sometimes weeds also
grow. Apply the chemical weedicides (i.e., Dual Gold 800cc) within the trenches,
and after germination completion, use cultivator to destroy the weeds. After
germination and tillering, destroy the trenches by using cultivator and rotavator
and at appropriate time (usually after 90 days) earth it up with the same ridger.
Due to earthing up with ridger, the trench structure builds again, as like at the
time of sowing, resulting in following benefits: Reduces lodging, Weed control,
Insects (stem borer, root borer, gurdaspur borer) control, Water saving (irrigation
in trenches only), Enhanced fertilizer efficiency (application in cane rows only,
side banding)
The number of canes/plants present in the field depends upon the seed
rate, its germination percentage, and tillering capability. Under favorable
conditions for timely sowing, the recommended seed rate is:
79000 98000 Double Budded Setts per hectare
49000 62000 Triple Budded Setts per hectare
19
2 Feet
2 feet
2 Feet
2 Feet
2 feet
2 Feet
2 Feet
40
4 Feet
4 Feet
39
40
20
82.76
Soaked in Water
62.05
61.19
67.16
21
Varieties
For increasing sugarcane and sugar production, use of approved varieties
is also important along with proper management. The variety should have: High
yield, High sugar recovery, less lodging, Resistance against insect pest,
Ratooning. Until now about 18 varieties have been approved for general
cultivation
Early Varieties
CP 77 400, CP 72 2086, CP 43 33, CPF 237, and HSF 240
approved for Punjab province. L 116 have been approved for southern Punjab
only. These varieties give good yield and high sugar recovery.
Medium Varieties
SPFG 26, SPF 213, SFP 245, and COJ 84, BL 4, BF 162, and
SPF 234 have been approved for southern Punjab only.
22
COL 29
Year
of Av.
Yield %
Sugar Av.
Sugar Source
of
Release
t/ha
Recovery*
Yield t/ha
Variety
1954
70
10.10
7.07
Combater,
India
COL 44
1954
75
8.93
6.69
Combater,
India
COL 54
1963
75
9.63
7.22
Combater,
India
BL 19
1966
85
9.49
8.00
Barbados
BL 4
1968
85
10.34
8.79
Barbados
L 116
1973
75
10.81
8.11
Louisiana,
USA
L 118
1975
85
8.93
6.83
Louisiana,
USA
TRITON
1983
85
10.10
8.58
BF 162
1990
90
10.35
9.31
Barbados
CP 43-33
1996
80
11.69
9.35
Canal Point,
USA
CP 72-2086
1996
85
12.35
10.49
Canal Point,
USA
CP 77-400
1996
90
11.90
10.72
Canal Point,
USA
CPF 237
2000
95
12.50
11.87
Canal Point,
USA
SPF 213
2000
90
10.50
9.45
So
Polo,
Brazil
COJ 84
2000
90
9.80
8.82
So
Polo,
Brazil
HSF 240
2002
95
11.70
23
11.11
Habib Sugar
Mill Sindh
SPF 234
2002
100
11.60
11.60
So
Polo,
Brazil
SPF 245
2004
100
11
11.00
So
Polo,
Brazil
HSF 242
2006
102
12.5
12.75
Habib Sugar
Mill Sindh
CO 1148
Commercial
85
8.83
7.50
----
CPF 243
2006
102
12.55
12.80
Canal Point,
USA
24
Name of varieties
no
01
S2002 US-637*
Av.
Potential
S recovery
Remarks
Yield
yield
( Percentage
t/ha
t/ha
105
120
12.00
MEDIUM
(R)
02
S2003-US-623 (R)
105
120
12.40
MEDIUM
03
S2002-US-133 (R)
101
125
13.10
EARLY
04
S2003-US-114* (R)
100
120
12.45
MEDIUM
05
S2002-US-160
105
125
12.25
MEDIUM
(MR)
06
S2003-US-694 (R)
106
130
12.75
EARLY
07
S2003-US-718 (R)
100
120
12.48
MEDIUM
08
S2003-US-394 (R)
102
125
13.00
EARLY
09
S2003-US-633 (R)
105
130
12.55
EARLY
10
S2003-US-778*
105
130
12.25
MEDIUM
(MR)
11
S2002-US-359 (R)
106
120
13.20
EARLY
12
S2002-US-312 (R)
100
125
14.85
EARLY
13
S2003-US-247 (R)
105
130
14.00
EARLY
14
S98-SP-668 (R)
100
120
12.00
MEDIUM
15
S2003-US-127* (R)
106
125
12.60
EARLY
16
S2000-US-50 (R)
107
130
12.48
MEDIUM
25
Fertilizer Application
According to rough estimate, the farmers are using one fourth of chemical
fertilizer against the sugarcane crop requirements due to non-availability as well
as high cost of the same. Apart from this haphazard use of fertilizer brings no
fruit and therefore the farmers do not get the crops to their expectations. The
very important job getting the soil tested before the use of any particular fertilizer
is not practiced in our country.
According to an estimate, 1000 monds per acre cane crop requires about
80 kg Nitrogen, 26 kg Phosphorus, and 168 kg Potash. Proper fertilizer
management is necessary to get maximum yield as well as for maintaining soil
fertility status.
Biological/Natural Fertilizers:
Biological fertilizers maintain the organic matter status in the soil and fulfill
the requirement of macronutrients (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and S) and micronutrients
(Fe, Zn, B, Mo, Mn, Cl, and Co) requirement to a certain extent. Our soils are
deficient in organic matter that is 0.3 0.6% only. To restore the organic status,
apply 8 to 10 cartloads of well-rotten farmyard manure or do green manuring.
Press mud is another good way of increasing organic matter as well as improves
macro and micronutrients status.
Chemical Fertilizers:
The macronutrients requirements of the crop are usually fulfilled by using
chemical fertilizers. The recommended dose of chemical fertilizers is NPK @
168:112:112 kg/ha. In nutrient deficient soil the dose can be increased
accordingly, but it is always a good idea to do the soil analysis from some
nearest soil-testing laboratory. The detailed fertilizer requirement is as mentioned
in the table.
26
Soil Type
Fertilizer Dose
Fertilizer Recommended
(kg / acre)
(Bags /acre)
Urea
DAP
Or Urea Or SSP
Potassium
Sulphate
Light
92
46
50
3.25
Mediu
69
46
50
2.25
46
43
25
1.50
m
Heavy
27
Weed Control
According to an estimate, weeds can reduce the cane yield up to 25%.
The weeds are called hidden enemy because their effect is hidden as
compared to insects. Weeds start infestation just after cane sowing and compete
for water, nutrients, and light. That is why, it is recommended to control weeds up
to 80 90 days after sowing by employing proper sowing method, mechanical
and chemical control. However, integrated approach of mechanical and chemical
weed control has been proved more efficient than traditional approaches. The
common weeds present in sugarcane crop are:
Euphorbia granulata (Hazardani)
Rumex obtusifolius (Jangli palik)
Tribulus terrestris (Bakhra)
Scirpus maritimus (Deela)
Cynodon dactylon (Khabal grass)
Dactyloctenium aegyptium (Madhana)
Cyperus torundus (Morak)
Trianthema portulacastrum (Itsit)
Digitaria sanguinalis (Moti khabal)
28
29
Without Control
Chemical
Cane Yield
Increase in Yield
(monds/acre)
(percentage)
Chemical Control
Mechanical Control
820.00
28.13
--
--
840.00
31.25
2.44
--
& 920.00
43.75
12.20
9.52
--
--
--
control
Mechanical
control
Chemical
Mechanical
control
Without
any 640.00
control
Irrigation
It is very important to take care of the irrigation requirements of
sugarcane, particularly in summer months. Farmers must plan their acreage to
be planted under cane crop according to the available water at their farm. The
spring sown crop needs about 1600 ml (64 acre inch). Therefore, after
30
Other factors
According to the season and prevailing conditions, the schedule can be:
March-April
12-14 days
May-June
9-10 days
July-August
12-15 days
September-October
15-20 days
November-December
25-30 days
Earthing Up
Earthing up is a practice followed to prevent lodging. Sugarcane usually
lodges in August September. It may even lodge in July, if the cane crop is
much healthier. Lodged cane caused losses, e.g., reduction in yield, damage
from mice, buds start germination, reduction in sugar recovery, and hurdle in
loading etc. lodged crop also become victim of frost and cannot be used as seed
for next crop.
Crop lodging might be due to many reason, i.e., cane variety, sowing time,
sowing method, fertilizer application time, irrigation, rain, and storm are common.
Some varieties are much soft and tend to lodge more, while other varieties have
more fiber and have resistance against lodging, e.g., CP 722086 and CP 77
400 tend to lodge more than BF162, CP 4333, HSF240, CPF237, SPF213,
and SPF145.
If September sown crop have massive growth, it tend to lodge more
If fertilizer application is delayed, the plants become soft and tender. If
crop is massive, it will lodge quickly
If there is hardpan and land is not prepared deeply and well, the root
establishment is obstructed and it will lodge in storm
If trenches have less R x R distance, the cane will be long and slim and
will lodge. Cane sown in tranches 4 ft. apart will have less chances of
lodging due to healthy and strong cane plants.
Earthing up, if practiced properly, will prevent lodging and reduces water
wastage
32
33
mass multiplied in the laboratory and then released in the cane fields. Sex traps
are also used against borers.
Furadan 3G (Carbofuran 3%) has been found effective against borers,
termites, and nematodes. Its application is as follow:
Add 1 bag (8 kg) of Furadan 3G after sowing, before irrigation
After 1 months of sowing, add Furadan 3 G @ 10 kg/acre along with
fertilizer, then irrigate the field and at wattar plough twice or rotavate it.
After 90 days (3 months) of sowing, cultivate the field twice and add 2
bags of Furadan 3G (14 16 kg is recommended dose) along with
fertilizer dose and earth it up with ridger. Then irrigate the field.
Some of the common insects/pests are Top borer, Stem borer, Root borer,
Gurdaspur borer, Pyrilla / Leaf hopper, Black bug, Termite, Mites (Red
mites, White mites), and White fly
Control of Disease
For controlling sugarcane diseases, use healthy seed, which is diseasefree, and preferably plant disease-resistant varieties. Treat the seed with
fungicide/s before planting. The diseased plants from the field should be
removed and either buried or burnt. Seed may be treated with hot water at 520 C
for 30 minutes.
The practice of heat therapy is becoming more common at seedproduction centers to rid seed of ratoon stunting disease, grassy shoot, and leaf
scale. This treatment consists of submerging the cane setts in water heated to
520 C for two hours. In the hot air treatment or the moist hot air treatment, whole
cane stalks are treated at 540 C for eight and four hours, respectively. Mostly hot
air treatment is preferred, however, because the hot air treatment injures the
buds, which ultimately reduces germination. When planting a new crop, it is
essential to use seed from samples of the best patches of cane crop, free of
disease and insect pests. Disease-free, good-quality seed increases yield by 1015%.
Some common disease and their control measures are as follow:
34
Symptoms:
The affected canes produce long, black whip-like and coiled or curved
shoots, which are covered with a thin silvery membrane, containing masses of
chlamydospores of the fungus. The smutted shoots may arise from the top of the
cane or from lateral buds. Later on that membrane rupture and release a
multitude of spores, which contaminate soil and the standing crop. In certain
cases, the infected plants remain stunted in growth with increased tittering of little
value. The diseased plants are unfit for use.
Perpetuation:
The disease is carried over from year to year by ratooning or planting sets
taken from smutted shoots of cane. Soil borne infection may also take place,
while wind disseminates disease.
Control:
Following measures are suggested for prevention as well as control of the
disease:
Sets from smutted canes should not be used for planting
Seed-sets should be disinfected either in 0.1 % mercuric chloride or in
formaline solution for 5 minutes followed by 2 hours covering under a
moist cloth. The other effective chemicals available in market may also be
used
Hot water treatment of sets at 52oC for 18 minutes can help eliminate the
internal infection
Smutted plants should be rouged out and burnt before the bursting of the
spores
Ratooning of the diseases crop should be discoursed
Suitable rotations with non-host crops should be practiced
Planting should be done in healthy soil
Dry sowing of the crop should be carried out, where disease is prevalent
Autumn planting of sugar cane should be avoided
Use of resistant varieties should be encouraged
35
Perpetuation:
The fungus remains in diseased canes or plant debris, which remains
lying in the fields after the harvest of crop. Ratoon crop also helps the disease
causing fungus to survive.
Control:
The destruction of cane plant debris alone would control the disease in
alkali soils. However, planting disease bee sets as well as the development and
use of resistant varieties will be more practicable and economical control
measure.
Perpetuation:
The disease is perpetuated from year to year by planting sets from
infected canes and through the fungus that remains viable on diseased canes
lying in the field or ratooning of the crop.
36
Control:
No ratooning and use of resistant varieties are recommended. Disinfecting
of sets with effective and easily available chemicals is also recommended.
Perpetuation:
The disease perpetuates through the fungus present in the affected
leaves lying in the field and spreads fresh crop of conidia falling on leaves of
adjacent plants.
Control:
Collection and burning of leaves or phyto-sanitary precautions in
suppressing the sources of inoculums reduces the incidence of disease.
Perpetuation:
Its causal agent was not established until 1927. It is now present in many
countries, including Pakistan. However, it cannot be determined that how the
disease can survive?
Control:
Do not use seed sets from diseased plants.
37
Transmission:
Transmitted through mosaic infected sets and an aphid.
Alternate hosts:
Maize and sorghum
Control:
Planting virus free sets and avoid ratooning of diseased crop.
Minor Diseases
The other minor diseases of sugarcane reported from Pakistan are
chlorotic streak virus, ratoon stunting, yellow spot, red stripe, rust and genetic
variegation of leaf and sheath.
Harvesting
Stop irrigation 25 to 30 days before the harvest of crop and do not leave
the harvested crop for long in the field. In case it has to be kept for a prolonged
period, it should be covered with trash. Different varieties planted may be
harvested according to their maturity. Harvesting of early maturing varieties may
be started during November, mid season varieties during December and the late
maturing varieties during January. The crop harvested during February-March
gives good ratoon crop.
Harvesting is done when the crop has fully matured and ripened. Early
varieties and ratoon crops are the first to be harvested. When the stem is close to
the surface, great vigilance is required in order to cut the maximum portion of the
stem, which is valuable both for its weight and for sugar content. The harvested
cane should be immediately hauled to the mill otherwise, weight and sucrose
losses may occur. For this purpose, transport should be arranged in advance.
To get maximum sugar recovery, cane should be harvested according to
the variety, i.e., CO 1148 gives 6% recovery in November, 10 11% in January
38
to March, while as early sown crop, its recovery will be 8.5% throughout the
season, while 11 12% at the end of season. So harvesting this variety in
advance will be like national loss. So the cane should be harvested according to
the harvesting schedule, which should be followed in order to get optimum yield.
CPF-237
CP
October
Novemb
Decemb
er
er
January
Februar
March
April
**
****
****
****
****
****
72- **
****
****
****
****
****
77- **
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
2086
CP
400
CP 43-33
**
L-116
****
****
****
****
****
HSF-240
****
****
****
****
****
SPF-234
BL-4
****
****
****
BF-162
SPSG-26
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
**
****
***
****
**
****
SPF-213
****
****
****
****
****
**
SPF-245
****
****
****
****
****
**
COJ-84
**
****
****
****
**
39
If one has to harvest ratoon and September sown crop, first cut the early
variety ratoon and then cut early September sown crop and vice versa
Late variety ratoon or December sown crop do not become ready for
harvesting until January. Harvesting these before January will reduce their
sugar recovery %
Application time of fertilizer, water, and amount of irrigation can affect the
harvesting time of the cane
Precautions during harvesting are:
Always cut the cane from near the soil surface
Remove all trash and roots of the cane
During trash removing, also cut 2 3 dry internodes, if any
Diseased and insect attack affected canes should be separated from
healthy canes
Lodged and dried canes should not be mixed with healthy canes
40
better way. The depth of rotavator should not be more than 1 1 inches
below the soil, else it might damage ratoon plants
The sugar recovery in ratoon crop is also better and it matures earlier than
the plant crop. However, remember that it has to be managed with extra efforts
and care. Apply all the phosphorus and potash fertilizer plus one third of N during
March. Plough the land in between the furrows to mix the fertilizer well in the soil
and then irrigate the crop. Fill the gaps; control the weeds, insect pests, and
diseases properly. Rest of the nitrogenous fertilizer should be applied in two
equal splits during April and May.
Ratoon sugarcane is not given due attention as a result its productivity is
less than the plant crop. However, it has been established through research that
if the crop is grown adopting proper ratoon management technology, the yield
could be much higher than obtained from the plant crop.
Growing ratoon crop costs less than plant cane and therefore, achieving high
yielding ratoon cane is a valuable objective. This crop is most economical by 2530 percent saving in operational cost along with seed material. There is no need
for preparatory tillage to grow this crop. Ratoon cane matures earlier than plant
cane and thus early supply of cane is assured. As the crop matures earlier,
harvesting is easier and field is available for the timely sowing of the next crop.
The ratoon crop often gives better quality than plant cane and better sugar
recovery. Low yield of this crop is mainly due the low and differential ratooning
potential of cultivars and suboptimal crop management. Other reasons for low
yield of this crop include formation of toxic substances in the rhizosphere, low
nutrient uptake ability of ratoon, depletion of soil nutrients, shallow ratooning, soil
compaction, and increased incidence of pests and diseases.
For growing ratoon cane crop, late maturing varieties with good yield are
suitable. Early maturing varieties should be avoided because these are poor
ratooners. Proper time for this crop is very important for good yield. Spring
harvested crop give better ratoon than autumn harvested due to moderate
temperature, which is most conducive for stubble sprouting. Plant crop should be
harvested close to the ground level for optimum tillering.
41
Yield of ratoon cane mainly depends on the number tillers from the
stubbles of the previous crop. Timely stubble shaving or inter row cultivation is
usually carried out to straighten the rows. This is done to expose the
subterranean area and to facilitate the germination of deeply located healthy
buds. This will loose the soil and help to develop a deep root system, which is
important for nutrient uptake and water absorption from deeper soil profile.
By harvesting of plant crop, there may be some gaps due to the death of
stubbles. A good ratoon crop should have not more than 15 per cent gaps of the
total population. Gap filling should be done with healthy and disease free plants.
Sugarcane ratoon crop has high demand for fertilizer because of shallow
root system, decaying of old roots, sprouting of stubble buds and immobilization
of nitrogen. It is, therefore, recommended 25-30 percent more fertilizer for ratoon
crop than the plant crop. Experiments show that a nitrogen rate of about 210 kg
ha-1 along some nitrogen fixers such as Azotobacter and Azospirillum has a
significant effect on ratoon cane yield. Phosphorous and potassium both at the
rate of 85 kg ha-1 are recommended for ratoon crop. In case of micronutrient
deficient soils, foliar application of micronutrients play a vital role to optimize the
yield.
Ratoon crop has shallow root system and hence require more number of
irrigations. Moisture conservation practices such as mulching should be used to
decrease number of irrigation. Mulching of previous crop residue helped not only
to conserve soil moisture but also to increase the organic matter in to the soil.
This also suppresses the weed growth and improves fertilizer use efficiency of
the crop. In spite of crop residue, addition of cow dung, slurry or press mud may
be used for this purpose. A number of irrigations of 15-20 with an interval of 2025 days interval are sufficient for ratoon crop.
Excessive tillering of ratoon crop is a desired character for optimum yield.
For this purpose earthing up and moulding up is done to facilitate the germinated
buds to develop into a useful tiller. This also helps prevent the crop against
lodging and weeding out the pest plants.
42
Lodging of the crop has an adverse effect on the yield by increasing the disease
and other pest infestation. Proper practices to avoid lodging are necessary for
good yield. To prevent the crop against lodging, propping is done by tying the
canes together with dry leaves and bottom green leaves.
Protection of crop against diseases and insect pests is necessary for good yield.
Insect pests specific to ratoon crop are termites, mealy bugs, top borer, stem
borer, root borer, white fly, armyworm, sugarcane leafhopper and field cricket.
Diseases associated ratoons are smut, grassy shoot disease and ratoon-stunting
disease. These can be controlled by the removal of poor stubbles, growing
disease resistant varieties, and proper management practices.
Intercropping in ratoon cane crop is an important practice, which can
increases the income for the farmer from the same field. Intercropping of
berseem and wheat shows a significant increase in the income per hectare.
Besides the berseem and wheat, intercropping of pumpkin and watermelon is
also useful. Sugarcane crop planted in strips is most suitable for the
intercropping of other crops.
Some general recommendations for harvesting of September, spring, and ratoon
crops are:
Ratoon crop matures early than normal/fresh crop
September sown crop becomes harvestable earlier than spring crop
43
Sugarcane technology
Introduction:
Sugarcane is thick tall tropical south East Asian grass having fibrous
nodded stubby stem with sweat sap. It is an important sugar crop playing an
important role in country` s economy. Sugarcane is not only the source of the
sugar but also important for a number of other industries, as its bagasse is used
in chip board and paper making as well as electricity generation .while press mud
as an organic fertilizer.
Similarly vinegar, alcohol and wide range of pharmaceutical products are
prepared for molasses Thus the role of the sugarcane is non negotiable in our
industrial and economic set up.
Analysis of sugar cane encompasses its qualitative and quantitative
parameters. The qualitative parameters (Brix %, Pol %, Purity % CCS %, Sugar
Rec. %. and Fiber %) depends upon chemical composition of cane juice while
quantitative parameters depend upon vegetative composition of cane.
Percent
Water
73-76
Solids
24-27
Fiber (dry)
11-16
Soluble solids
10-16
Juice constituents.
Percentage Of Soluble
Solid.
Sugars
75-92
Sucrose
70-88
Glucose
2-4
Fructose
2-4
44
3.0-7.5
Salts
Of inorganic acids
1.5-4.5
Of organic acids
1.0-3.0
0.5-2.5
0.1-0.5
Amino acids
0.5-2.0
0.5-0.6
Starch
0.001-0.05
Gums
0.30-0.6
0.05-0.15
Unidentified non-sugars
3.0-5.0
45
Juice Extractor
Brix:The extracted juice is transferred to a 500ml glass cylinder for brix
determination. Brix is recorded through brix hydrometer calibrated at 200C.
If temperature of juice is above 200C, then a correction factor is added into
46
under certain
light at a definite
47
angle. The
Polari meter
Pol%:It is the sucrose concentration and is determined by using brix &
pol reading from table.
Purity:
It is percentage of pol to brix.
CCS (Commercial Cane Sugar):It refers to commercial cane sugar. It is a fiber based Australian
formula. CCS is calculated by using brix % and pol% readings.
Sugar Recovery:It refers to calculated by multiplying CCS with a constant factor
0.94. Actually to convert brown sugar into white sugar; 6% white
sugar is also lost so a constant factor is used.
However, in Pakistan, sugar mills used Rec. (S.J.M.) formula to
determine sugar recovery.
Rec. (S.J.M.)=B.H.E. X B.H.R. X Pol% juice X Juice extraction .
48
Where
B.H .E = Boiling House Efficiency
B.H.R. = Boiling House Recovery
Here
S
= Sucrose purity
= Sucrose purity
= Molasses purity
Fiber :To determine fiber, a sample of nine canes is obtained from field.
Out of these nine canes, top internodes of three canes, middle portion
internodes of next three canes while lower internodes of remaining three
canes are cut, separated, mixed and fed to the jaffco cutter grinder. This
instrument not only cuts and grinds but also minces the internodes. Now
500g sample of this grinded bagass was weighed and pressed under 2000
pound per square inches on a hydraulic press for a period of two minutes.
Thus a fresh fiber cake is prepared which is weighed and dried in an oven
for hours at 1050C. After hours, the dry fiber cake is weighed to calculate
fiber by the following method.
Sample wt.
500g
Juice brix
Fresh cake wt
Difference (b-c) =
Brix in cake
= _a
100
Dry cake wt. - brix in cake (c-e)
Fibre % cane
___f
500
49
x 100
EXAMPLE:Sample wt.
Juice brix
=
=
500g
20%
110g
70g
Difference
40g
Brix in cake
= __20 x 40 = 8
100
Hydraulic press
50
2. Sucrose
Pol.
3. Impurities
brix - Pol.
3P
2
(1 -
51
100
Where,
P
Fiber:
Technically, fiber is the dry, water insoluble matter in the cane. For
commercial purpose a standard method of determination of fiber percent
cane is specified.
Pol:The pol of a solution is the concentration (in g solute per 100g
solution) of a solution of pure sucrose in water having the same optical
rotation at the same temperature. For solutions containing only pure
sucrose in water, pol is a measure of the concentration of sucrose
present; for solution containing sucrose and other optically active
substances, Pol is the algebraic sum of the rotations of the constituents
present.
Purity:Purity is the percentage of sucrose in the total solids in a sample
are,
Apparent purity
= _pol x 100
Brix
52
R1
Brix
Temp
Pol
Pol
Variety
( r)
Brix %
HSF-240
16.8
24
58
HSF-242
17
24
17.5
Purity
Fiber
CCS
recovery
Juice
17.04
14.14
82.98
12.5
10.3
9.68
57
17.24
13.88
80.51
12.5
9.89
9.3
24
61
17.78
14.82
83.35
12.5
10.83
10.18
17.3
24
59
17.54
14.35
81.81
12.5
10.35
9.73
20.7
24
77.87
20.98
18.67
88.99
12.5
14.24
13.39
18.7
24
64
18.98
15.47
81.51
12.5
11.13
10.46
19
24
66.5
19.28
16.08
83.3
12.5
11.73
11.03
17.7
24
61
17.98
14.81
82.37
12.5
10.73
10.09
19
24
66.6
19.28
16.08
83.4
12.5
11.75
11.05
21.7
24
80.45
21.98
19.21
87.4
12.5
14.49
13.62
18
24
62
18.28
15.03
82.22
12.5
10.88
10.23
US-694
18.7
24
67.5
18.98
16.32
85.99
12.5
12.18
11.45
HSF-240
17.5
24
61.5
17.78
14.94
84.03
12.5
10.98
10.32
HSF-242
17.6
24
61
17.88
14.81
82.83
12.5
10.77
10.12
18.8
24
68.8
19.08
16.63
87.16
12.5
12.52
11.77
17.5
24
61.5
17.78
19.94
84.03
12.5
10.98
10.32
21
24
79
21.28
18.92
88.91
12.5
15.02
14.12
S-2002US-133
S-2002US-162
S-2002US-312
S-2003US-127
S-2003US-165
S-2003US-312
S-2003US-394
S-2003US-633
S-2003US-64
S-2003-
R2
S-2002US-133
S-2002US-162
S-2002US-312
53
S-2003US-127
19
24
66
19.28
15.94
82.68
12.5
11.58
10.89
19.1
24
68.5
19.38
16.53
84.29
12.5
12.27
11.53
18.4
24
63.5
18.68
15.37
82.28
12.5
11.13
10.46
18.5
24
66
18.78
15.97
85.04
12.5
11.83
11.12
20.6
24
75
20.88
17.99
86.16
12.5
13.44
12.63
19.2
24
69.5
19.48
16.77
86.09
12.5
12.52
11.77
18.5
24
67
18.78
16.21
86.32
12.5
12.13
11.4
S-2003US-165
S-2003US-312
S-2003US-394
S-2003US-633
S-2003US-64
S-2003US-694
Purity
Fibre
Sugar
Variety
Brix %
Pol %
CCS %
recovery
HSF-240
17.41
14.54
83.51
12.5
10.64
10
HSF-242
17.56
14.35
81.67
12.5
10.33
9.71
S-2002- US-133
18.43
15.73
85.26
12.5
11.68
10.98
S-2002- US-162
17.66
14.65
82.92
12.5
10.67
10.03
S-2002- US-312
21.13
18.8
88.95
12.5
14.63
13.76
S-2003- US-127
19.13
15.71
82.1
12.5
11.36
10.68
S-2003- US-165
19.33
16.3
84.3
12.5
12
11.28
S-2003- US-312
18.33
15.09
82.33
12.5
10.93
10.28
S-2003- US-394
19.03
16.03
84.22
12.5
11.79
10.09
S-2003- US-633
21.43
18.6
86.71
12.5
13.97
13.13
S-2003- US-64
18.88
15.9
84.16
12.5
11.7
11
S-2003- US-694
18.88
16.27
86.16
12.5
12.16
11.43
54
H
S
F
-2
S
40
-2 H
00 SF
2- -2
S
U 4
-2
00 S- 2
13
2S
3
U
-2
S
00
-1
2
- U 62
S
-2
00 S31
3S
2
U
-2
00 S1
327
S
U
-2
00 S16
3S
5
U
-2
S
00
-3
312
S
U
-2
00 S39
34
U
S
S
-2
-6
00
33
S
3-2
00 US
-6
34
U
S
-6
94
Brix %
Brix%:The
highest
brix
%juice
was
recorded
in
variety
S-2003-US-
HSF-242(17.56%),and
HSF-
(18.80%).
Pol %
20
15
10
5
0
Pol %
SHSF- HSFSSSSSSSSS240 242 2002- 2002- 2002- 2003- 2003- 2003- 2003- 2003- 2003- 2003US- US- US- US- US- US- US- US- US-64 US694
133 162 312 127 165 312 394 633
55
Purity %
HSF- HSF- SSSSSSSSSS240 242 2002- 2002- 2002- 2003- 2003- 2003- 2003- 2003- 2003- 2003US- US- US- US- US- US- US- US- US- US-
CCS %
20
15
10
5
0
CCS %
SSSSSSSHSF- HSF- SSS240 242 2002- 2002- 2002- 2003- 2003- 2003- 2003- 2003- 2003- 2003US- US- US- US- US- US- US- US- US- US133 162 312 127 165 312 394 633 64 694
Sugar recovery
SSSSSSSSHSF- HSF- SS240 242 2002- 2002- 2002- 2003- 2003- 2003- 2003- 2003- 2003- 2003US- US- US- US- US- US- US- US- US- US133 162 312 127 165 312 394 633 64 694
56
Sugar Recovery:
sugar recover followed the same trend as that of CCS% because sugar
recovery is calculated by multiplying CCS% with a constant factor 0.94.
57
58
Recommendations
Schematic recommendations are as follow:
Quality Seed
Disease free seed
Number and size of sets
Fertilizers
Balanced fertilization
Time of application
Marketing System
Quality payment
Support price
Timely payment to farmers
Harvesting
Scheduling according to varieties maturity
Stoppage of irrigation (25-30 days before harvesting)
Staling - Quick disposal to mills
59
Clean canes
Properly managed ratoon crop is not only profitable but also it is energy
saver. It has been found that one ton of ratoon crop requires 89.0 million calories
compared to 204 million calories required by plant crop. They reported that a 12
month irrigated plant crop requires 482 person-days compared with 295 in
ratoon. In addition, it reduces environmental pollution and saves soil along with
its fauna.
Repeated soil ploughing not only creates a hard pan, but also it changes
soil structure deteriorating soil productivity. Thus ratooning is a sort of help to
maintain soil in good condition. Taking two or three ratoon crops with proper
management is normal practice.
Recently there has been emphasis on integrated nutrient management
including micronutrients. Experiments conducted have shown that besides Press
mud (sulphitation), Biofertilizers, Vermicompost, and Bio-compost can play an
important role in the integrated nutrient management rather than the use of
inorganic fertilizers alone. A combination of organic and inorganic sources of
nutrients can help in building up of soil fertility and improving cane yield and
quality. Proper nutrient management results in increased yield.
The two components of sucrose yield are biomass and the sucrose
fraction. Increasing one or both of these will increase yield. Biomass could be
increased by maximizing radiation interception and/or the efficiency of its use in
photosynthesis, or both. Sucrose yields could theoretically be increased by
raising the efficiency of biomass production per unit of intercepted radiation
and/or by increasing the fraction of total biomass partitioned to stalk sucrose.
It has been found that proper spaced planting in sugarcane can increase
yield up to 15% on average. According to SRI, 120cm apart double row planting
gives higher potential yield than conventional methods.
Optimization of different physiological phenomena can increase yield as well as
sugar recovery. For example, source sink optimization enhancing RUE by
different methods, partial defoliation, and by process based modeling can
enhance potential yield.
60
61
species. This process in sugarcane circles has acquired the term Nobilization.
Usually two or three backcrosses or nobilization may be made to the officinarum
parent in order to recover satisfactory sucrose content and other desirable
qualities of the noble plant.
Botany of Sugarcane
Sugarcane flowers sparsely except in the tropical areas. Flowering in
sugarcane is affected by the ecological situation. Warm nights, humid conditions,
and high rainfall favors flowering, while cool weather and high altitude inhibit
flowering.
The sugarcane inflorescence consists of an open, branched panicle,
known as an arrow and may contain as 100000 flowers. The flowers are borned
in paired spikelets, one sessile, and one pedicellate. The flowers open early in
the morning usually between 5 6 A.M. About 7 to 14 days are required for an
arrow to complete flowering. The flowering starts at the top of the arrow and
proceeds downwards. Cross-pollination normally occurs.
Problems
Methods of breeding are based on the following considerations: The
sugarcane plant is a complex polyploidy and is highly heterozygous
The sugarcane plant is a complex polyploidy and is highly heterozygous
The sugarcane plant does not flower freely except in favorable climatic
locations, or if it flowers it may not seed
Male sterility and incompatibility may be present
Sugarcane clones may be propagated vegetatively by means of stem
cuttings or sets.
62
Operation/Input
No.
of
operations/Inpu
(Rs.)
(Rs.)
t acre-1
1
Preparatory Tillage
1.1
Deep ploughing
530/-
1.2
Ploughing (Cultivator)
230/-
1.3
Leveling
250/-
2.1
Ploughing
230/-
2.2
Planking
115/-
Seed (Kg)
2400
2/- per Kg
2.4
Seed treatment
2.5
Ridging
230/-
2.6
160/-
2.7
0.5
160/-
Sowing
Fertilizers ( Bags)
3.1
Urea
530/-
3.2
DAP
1.5
920/-
3.3
Potash
0.5
960/-
3.4
Transportation
10/-
63
3.5
Application (M.D.)
0.5
160/-
3.6
F.Y.M (Trolly)
400/-
3.7
Transportation
240/-
&
spreading (F.Y.M)
4
Interculture
4.1
160/-
4.2
Earthing up (M.D.)
160/-
Plant Protection
5.1
Fungicide
5.2
Insecticide
500/-
5.3
Application
Terminology
Absolute juice:
All the solids in the solution in the cane, together with all the water in the
cane; i.e. Absolute juice = cane fiber
Bagasse:
The residues after extraction of juice from cane in one or more mills.
Hence the term, First Mill bagasse, are used.
Brix:
The brix of a solution is the concentration (in g solute per 100 g solution)
of a solution of a pure sucrose in water, having the same density as the solution
at the same temperature. If refrective index were adopted as an alternative basis
of comparison, the value derived should be termed as refractometer brix.
Cane:
The raw material delivered to the mill, including clean cane , trash and
many other extraneous material.
recovered as a pure sucrose (100 n.t.) if milling and refining operations were
conducted t prescribed standard of efficiency. The prescribed standard of
efficiency is such that for every pound of soluble impurities in the cane one-half
pound of sucrose is lost in process, there being no losses of sucrose.
Hence C.C.S. = POLE IN CANE (BIX IN CANE POL IN CANE)
= 3p/2 (1 F +5/109) B/2 (1 F+3/100)
Where P = pole percent first expressed juice
B = brix percent first expressed juice
F = fiber percent cane
Dextran:
A polysaccharide formed by the action of certain species of bacteria on
sucrose during cane and juice storage.
Extraction (Pol):
The percentage of pol extracted from the incoming material by a train of a
mill either individually or cumulatively. Analogous definition applied to sucrose
extraction, brix extraction and juice extraction.
Fiber:
Technically, fiber is the dry, water insoluble matter in the cane.
Filter cake:
The washed residue discharged from mud filter.
Molasses:
The mother liquid separated from a massecuite. It is distinguished by the
same term as the massecuite from which it was extracted.
NonSucrose:
The difference between dry substance and sucrose
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NonSugars:
The difference between brix and pol.
Pol:
The pol of a solution is the concentration (in g solute per 100g solution) of
a solution of pure sucrose in water having the same optical rotation at the same
temperature. For solution containing only pure sucrose in water, pol is a measure
of sucrose present; for solution containing and other optically active substances,
pol is the algebraic sum of the rotations of the constituents present.
Rec. tons of pol recovered in sugar expressed as percentage of tons of
pol in cane. Rec. = sugar in cane * 100
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