Compiled Note

Course Title: ENERGY SOURCES AND UTILIZATION
(2.0)
Course Content:
1. Fossil fuel: their processing and utilization
2. Renewable source of energy
3. Solar energy utilization; flat-plate collector design; economics of solar energy
equipment and their operation
4. Wind energy; wind mill design
5. Geothermal energy: its recovery and utilization; environmental consequences of
geothermal energy exploitation
6. Biomass
7. Tidal waves
8. Principles of operation of nuclear reactors; safety problems in nuclear reactors
1.0 FOSSIL FUEL: PROCESSING AND UTILIZATION

1.1 Introduction
Fossil fuels are fuels obtained from fossil sources. Basically, the substances called fossil fuels
derived their name from the archeological term fossil which means dug up. Fossil fuels are
carbon containing sources of energy which originates from the decomposed remains of
prehistoric plants and animals. They are formed as a result of the geological processes which
have taken place on dead and decomposed organisms, be it of plants or animals. They have
rich energy resource base and naturally exist deep down under the earth and can only be
brought to the surface of the earth by exploration. Chemically, fossil fuels consist largely of
hydrocarbons which are compounds composed of hydrogen and carbon. Moreover, some
fossil fuels also contain additional compounds of substances such as nitrogen and sulphur.
The most commonly used fossil fuels are those of petroleum products, coal and natural gas.
1.2 Formation of fossil fuels

Just as aforementioned, fossil fuels are fuels formed as a result of natural processes of
anaerobic decomposition of dead and buried organic matter. They are the products of the
fossilized remains of dead plants and animals which have been exposed, over several millions
of years, to heat and pressure within the earths crust.
The type of fossil fuel obtained depends typically on the parent materials and the
materials environmental influence. For instance, oil and natural gas are formed from remains
of marine organisms (e.g. planktons, plants) which have been trapped within the sea floor
over millions of years. As the sediments pile up under anaerobic condition, in very deep
situation, the organics become subjected to heat and pressure which leads to the formation of
2
oil and then gas. Coal on the other hand, is formed in a non-marine environment, basically
from the remains of vegetables. It could be formed from vegetables on lowlands, swampy
(i.e. stagnant water swamps) or mire environments. The steps of conversion from plant to
coal are illustrated as:
Coalification
PLANT
PEAT
COAL
Heat + Pressure
Fig. 1.1: schematic steps of conversion from plants sources to coal
In a more generalized form, the complete steps of coal formation from plants are represented
as in Fig. 1.2.
Fig. 1.2: Generalized (or complete) steps of formation of coal from plant (Steve Mohr, 2010. Projection of world
fossil fuel production with supply and demand interaction, Ph. D dissertation, University of Newcastle,
Australia, p. 1)
1.3 Classification of Fossil fuels

Fossil fuels are broadly classified into three groups: hydrocarbon oils, Natural gas and Coals.
1.3.1 Hydrocarbon oils
3
These are mixtures of hydrocarbons in liquid state. The common example of these is the
crude oil. Petroleum products are produced from crude oil via the processes of distillation and
catalytic cracking of complex hydrocarbons to form the simpler hydrocarbon units/distillates.
These distillates include gasoline, diesel, kerosene, fuel oils, petrochemicals, liquefied
petroleum gas, asphalt and tar. Of the different examples and components of fossil fuels,
petroleum products are the most consumed. The majority of transportation systems run on
petroleum products. Also, most of industrial and domestic processes are powered by energy
derived from petroleum products. More so, global economies have been designed and built
around consumption of petroleum products to the extent that changes in its availability or
price determines fluctuation in economic variables.
13.2 Natural gas

Natural gases are gaseous mixtures of saturated hydrocarbons, notably methane. They
contain, at a minimum level, about seventy five percent methane gas, with other
hydrocarbons of the alkane group which include ethane, propane, butane and pentane in very
small (about 20%) proportions. They can be used domestically for heating and cooking and
industrially for different processes ranging from electricity production to powering various
industrial processes. It has also found applications in various other fields which include it
serving as fuels in baking of bricks and ceramic tiles, in the production of cements, in boilers
to generate steam and in glass making and food processing industries. Natural gases also play
a major role in petrochemical industries, where they are used in the making of fertilizers,
detergents and plastics. Importantly, natural gases can be used to power gas turbines for the
generation of electricity. Many countries like Nigeria depend so much on power generated
from gas-fired turbines. The combustion of natural gases produces huge energy and can be
useful to power automobiles, airplanes, trains, ships, industries and homes. It is abundant and
cleaner than the other types/categories of fossil fuels.
Natural gases are classified as either conventional or unconventional natural gas.
Those mentioned above are the conventional sources while shale gas, methane hydrates,
aquifer gas, tight gas, coal bed methane etc. are unconventional natural gases.
-
Shale gas: This is a natural gas trapped within shale (a sedimentary rock of fine grains
composed of layers of compressed clay, mud or silt) formations. Shale is organically
rich with very low permeability.
Methane hydrates: These are methane trapped in ice crystals particularly in sea floors.
More specifically, methane hydrates are solid clathrate compounds (a chemical
surbstance consisting of lattice of one type of molecule trapping and containing
another type of molecule). They are compounds in which large amount of methane are
trapped within a crystal structure of water, forming a ice like solid.
Aquifer gas: This is a natural gas found trapped in water aquifers
Tight gas: This is a gas with permeability of as low as 10-9 D (darchy). It is always
difficult to extract from its source because of the nature of the rock and surrounding
sand.
Coalbed methane gas: This is a methane gas produced by coal and entrapped in the
coal by the process of adsorption. The methane is in a near liquid state and linning the
solid matrix of the coal. It contains very little heavier natural gas (e.g. propane or
butane) and it is free of natural gas condensate. It is usually called sweet gas as a
result of the absence of hydrogen sulphide (H2S) in the gas mixture.
Note: Unconventional sources of natural gas that have very low permeability require
fracturing from the process of drilling to extract the gas from them. Permeability can be
estimated using the relation:
P
t
where:
v = superficial (or bulk) fluid flow rate through a medium
k = permeability of the medium
P = pressure difference
= dynamic viscosity
t = thickness of the medium
1.3.3 Coals
Coal is a black or brownish-black combustible solid formed by the decomposition of
traditional biomass of plants origin in the absence of oxygen. It is a combustible rock of more
than 50 wt% carbonaceous material. It has the same chemical constituent of carbon and
hydrogen as other fossil fuels but also contain oxygen and small amounts of sulphur and
nitrogen. It can be used directly as fuel, giving enormous amount of energy and heat when
burnt. Also, it is a chemical reactant and a source of organic chemicals, and can be converted
to gaseous and liquid fuels. Its use as a means of producing electricity has come a long way.
Today some countries (especially South African countries) depend on coal-fired turbines for
electricity generation. It also has wide applications in the making of fertilizers, pesticides and
solvents, and could be heated in the presence of steam and oxygen to produce synthesis gas.
Synthesis gas is useful either directly as fuel or refined to become burning gas. Coal is the
most abundant of the three types/categories of fossil fuels.
Coal can be classified into four broad categories. These are: Anthracite, Bituminous,
Subbituminous, and Lignite. The differentiation of the categories of clay lies in their moisture
content and the capacity of the available energy. The capacity of available energy in a
particular type of coal can be directly linked to the size or number of its carbon content.
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Anthracite: This is coal with the highest carbon content. The carbon content is
between 86 and 98%. Its heat value is also nearly 15,000 BTU per pound (BTU/lb). It
is the hardest form of coal and scarcely available all over the world.
Bituminous: This has carbon content of between 45 and 86%. Its heat value is
between 10, 500 and 15, 500 BTU/lb. It is sometimes called soft coal.
Subbituminous: This has carbon content of between 35 and 45%. Its heat value is
between 8, 300 and 13, 000 BTU/lb. It is a dullish black in appearance.
Lignite: This has carbon content of between 25 and 35%. Its heat value is between 4,
000 and 8, 300 BTU/lb. It is soft and brownish-black in colour. It is commonest form
of coal.
NB: BTU is the acronym for British Thermal Unit. 1 BTU is the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of a pound of water by 1 degree Fahrenheit.
1.4 Processing of fossil fuels

Fossil fuels in their raw form, such as crude oil, are usually not useful (except the light sweet
oil). It required processing for it to become usable and applicable with modern technologies.
The processing of fossil fuels refers to the activities carried out in order to convert the raw
fossil fuels to the usable and applicable form of oils, natural gases, and coals. Generally,
processing fossil fuels can be divided into two major parts. These are Refining and Mining.
The refining processes are used for producing the various types of oils and natural gases
while mining is used for coals.
1.4.1 Refining of crude oil
Oil refining is an industrial process that involves the breakdown of the complex hydrocarbon
chains of crude oil into more useful, but simpler hydrocarbons, products (i.e. petroleum
products). These products include diesel fuel, gasoline, kerosene, liquefied petroleum gas,
asphalt, tar, fuel oils, Naphtha, Lubricants, bitumen, etc.
The refining process involves the separation of crude oil into its fractions by
fractional distillation in a distillation chamber. The distillation begins when crude oil, which
is a mixture of different hydrocarbons, is heated under very high pressure to a temperature of
600oC. The different mixtures of oil become vapour as the temperature goes beyond their
boiling points and rises in the distillation column. It cools as it rises and condenses in the
trays along the column. The fractions are separated based on their difference of boiling points
(bp.). Those with lower bp. occupy the topmost part of the fractionating column in succession
while those with higher bp. are at the lower parts, also in succession according to the value of
their bp. The heavy bottom distillates are often cracked by catalytic action into lighter
products.
Fig. 1.3: Flow diagram of a typical oil refinery (Source: www.globalpetroleum.com/oil%20Refinery.pdf)
1.4.2 Mining of coal

Mining is simply the process of excavating materials from the ground. Thus, coal mining is
the process of removing coal from its natural habitat the ground. There are basically two
methods of coal mining. These are the surface (or opencut/opencast) method and the
underground method. The difference in the method is based on the location of the coal
beneath the top soil. Coals located less than 38 m below the top soil are mined using surface
mining method while those deeper than 38 m below the top soil are mined using the
underground method. The underground mining method is also of two types: the room-andpillar mining and the longwall mining. Whereas, the room-and-pillar mining leaves pillars (or
blocks) of coal in the mine to support the roof of the mine, the longwall allows the roof to
collapse in controlled sequence after the mining operation is completed. The advantage of the
room-and-pillar mining over the longwall is that it aids quick start-up of coal production and
it is cheaper. However, the longwall mining method leads to the removal of more coal.
1.5 Utilization of fossil fuels

The use of fossil fuels has various advantages and disadvantages. Some of the advantages
include the fact that fossil fuels are a very dependable source of commercially generated
electricity. More than 70% of the worlds energy is generated from fossil fuels annually.
Also, fossil fuels is one of the cheapest sources of energy, easy to harness and can be stored
over a long period of time. The majority of todays industrial, commercial and domestic
systems and processes run on the various grades of fossil fuels. The transportation sector, be
it road, rail or air transport systems depends basically on fossil fuel for operation. Ethylene, a
product of petrochemical constituent of crude oil refining can be used to make anaesthetics,
antifreeze and detergents. Also, paraffin wax can be employed as insulators in drywall for
10
insulating buildings. It can also be used to make candles. Lubricants are mostly employed to
reduce friction and wear between contacting surfaces moving relative to each other.
Liquefied petroleum gas can be used for different heating purposes. Other fossil fuels can be
used domestically for cooking, lighting via the use of generators and for many other
purposes.
Utilization of fossil fuels for gainful purposes has had tremendous effects on the
economics of nations, promoting industrialization, rural-urban integration, supporting
education and also the development of information technology. It use however poses some
major challenges to the environment, humans, and even national economies.
Environmentally, burning fossil fuels for energy releases a lot of carbon monoxide
(CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapour (H2O(g)) and other deleterious compounds of
nitrogen and sulphur. Some of these compounds could be methane, nitrous oxides (NOx) and
sulphurou oxides (SO x). These products of fossil fuels combustion are active gases that
terribly affect the environment. It causes global warming and may leads to climate change.
Combustion of coal have been known to lead to production of fly ash and smog which are
harmful to health. Acid rain is another effect of fossil fuels burning. Sulphur (IV) oxide (SO2)
released to the atmosphere can undergo serial combination with water vapour to form
sulphuric acid. This is acid rain. It has corrosive tendency on the buildings, roofing materials
and paints. It is also reported that, acid rains have damaging effects on crops, forest, streams,
lakes and rivers. When humans are exposed to large volumes of some of these gaseous
products of methane, NOx, and SOx it could lead to respiratory infections. Nationally,
depending on fossil fuels for energy can lead to foreign exchange depletion as part of it will
be used to fund the purchase of petroleum products for national consumption.
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More so, the exploration of crude oil has over the years led to various oil spills. Oil
spills on rivers and oceans have been known to affect aquatic life and also fishing activities.
Additional Reading
Go through all the attached documents for more understanding
12
REFINING CRUDE OIL

New Zealand buys crude oil from overseas, as well as drilling for some oil locally. This
oil is a mixture of many hydrocarbons that has to be refined before it can be used for fuel.
All crude oil in New Zealand is refined by The New Zealand Refining Company at their
Marsden Point refinery where it is converted to petrol, diesel, kerosene, aviation fuel,
bitumen, refinery gas (which fuels the refinery) and sulfur.
The refining process depends on the chemical processes of distillation (separating liquids
by their different boiling points) and catalysis (which speeds up reaction rates), and uses
the principles of chemical equilibria. Chemical equilibrium exists when the reactants in a
reaction are producing products, but those products are being recombined again into
reactants. By altering the reaction conditions the amount of either products or reactants
can be increased.
Refining is carried out in three main steps.
Step 1 - Separation
The oil is separated into its constituents by distillation, and some of these components
(such as the refinery gas) are further separated with chemical reactions and by using
solvents which dissolve one component of a mixture significantly better than another.
Step 2 - Conversion
The various hydrocarbons produced are then chemically altered to make them more
suitable for their intended purpose. For example, naphthas are "reformed" from paraffins
and naphthenes into aromatics. These reactions often use catalysis, and so sulfur is
removed from the hydrocarbons before they are reacted, as it would 'poison' the catalysts
used. The chemical equilibria are also manipulated to ensure a maximum yield of the
desired product.
Step3 - Purification
The hydrogen sulfide gas which was extracted from the refinery gas in Step 1 is converted
to sulfur, which is sold in liquid form to fertiliser manufacturers.
The plant at Marsden Point also manufactures its own hydrogen and purifies its own
effluent water. This water purification, along with gas 'scrubbing' to remove undesirable
compounds from the gases to be discharged into the atmosphere, ensures that the refinery
has minimal environmental impact.
INTRODUCTION
Our modern technological society relies very heavily on fossil fuels as an important source of
energy. Crude oil as it comes from the ground is of little use and must undergo a series of
refining processes which converts it into a variety of products - petrol for cars, fuel oil for
heating, diesel fuels for heavy transport, bitumen for roads.
The NZ Refining Company, situated 40 km from Whangarei at Marsden Point, processes

about 4 500 000 tonnes of oil per year. About 90% of the feedstock comes from overseas,
VII-Energy-A-Refining Crude Oil-1
and about 10% is the local crude obtained as a byproduct from the production of natural gas
at Kapuni. The sources of oil used are given in Table 1.
In this chapter we will describe the physical and chemical processes by which New
Zealand's refinery converts crude oil into the variety of useful products required to meet New
Zealand's needs.
Table 1 - Feedstocks used at the Marsden Point refinery (1992 figures)
Origin
Quantity / kT
% Wt.
Indigenous feedstock
888
19.8
Foreign crudes
2464
55.2
Synthetic gasoline
419
9.4
Other
700
15.6
Total
4471
100
Uses of refined oil

The refinery produces a range of petroleum products. These are listed on the simplified flow
scheme of the refinery in Figure 1, and the relative quantities made are given in Table 2.
Table 2 - Products (1994 figures)
Type
Quantity / kT
% Wt
Super or Premium petrol
732
15.0
Regular petrol
640
14.6
Jet/DPK
669
15.2
Diesel oil
1482
31.0
Fuel oils
478
10.0
Bitumen
144
3.0
Sulfur
23
1.0
Exports
143
3.0
Refinery fuel and loss
317
7.0
Total
4716
100
Petrol
Petrol (motor gasoline) is made of cyclic compounds known as naphthas. It is made in two
grades: Regular (91 octane) and Super or Premium (96 octane), both for spark ignition
engines. These are later blended with other additives by the respective petrol companies.
H2S from
Process Units
All Services to
Process Units
Utilities
S.R.U.
SULPHUR
Tops
Sour Naptha
H.D.T.
Sweet Naphtha
Platformer
Platformate
Mogas
blending
SUPER
REGULAR
Cracker
tops
Sour Kero
Crude from
tankage
K.H.T.
DPK &
JET FUEL
Sweet Kero
C. D. 1 & 2
Occasionally
Sour G. Oil
H.D.S.
(as required) Sweet G. Oil
Ago
blending
AGO
Fuel oil
blending
FUEL OILS
Vacuum G. Oil
Naphtha
Kero
Long residue
H.V.U.2 Waxy dust

& B.D.U. and DAO
Hydrocracker
Gas Oil
H2
Bitumen
Asphalt
H.M.U.
H.C.U. gas
REFINERY FUEL
BITUMEN
AGO = Automotive Gas Oil

B.D.U. = Butane deasphalting unit
C.D.1 & 2 = Crude distillation units
D.A.O. = Deasphalted oil
Figure 1 - Schematic representation of the Marsden Point Refinery

H.C.U. = Hydrocracking unit
H.V.U.2 = High vacuumdistillation unit
H.D.S. =
K.H.T. =
H.D.T. =
S.R.U. = Sulfur recovery unit
H.M.U. = Hydrogen manufacturing unit
Jet fuel/Dual purpose kerosene

The bulk of the refinery produced kerosene is high quality aviation turbine fuel (Avtur) used
by the jet engines of the domestic and international airlines. Some kerosene is used for
heating and cooking.
Diesel Oil
This is less volatile than gasoline and is used mainly in compression ignition engines, in road
vehicles, agricultural tractors, locomotives, small boats and stationary engines. Some diesel
oil (also known as gas oil) is used for domestic heating.
Fuel Oils
A number of grades of fuel oil are produced from blending. Lighter grades are used for the
larger, lower speed compression engines (marine types) and heavier grades are for boilers
and as power station fuel.
Bitumen
This is best known as a covering on roads and airfield runways, but is also used in industry as
a waterproofing material.
Sulfur
Sulfur is removed from the crude during processing and used in liquid form in the
manufacture of fertilisers (see article).
THE REFINING PROCESS
The Marsden Point refinery takes crude oil and refines it by first separating it into its various
constituents, then converting the undesirable elements to desirable ones before purifying
them to make the final products. These processes are based on some chemical principles
which are outlined below.
Chemical principles
The processes used to refine oil are based on the chemical principles which govern
distillation, and require an understanding of chemical equilibria and the effect on reaction
rates of catalysts. The theory behind these is outlined below.
Fractional distillation
When a mixture of two liquids of different boiling points is heated to its boiling point, the
vapour contains a higher mole fraction of the liquid with the lower boiling point than the
original liquid; i.e. the vapour is enriched in the more volatile component. If this vapour is
now condensed, the resultant liquid has also been enriched in the more volatile component.
For example, if a 1:1 molar mixture of benzene (b.p. 80.1oC) and toluene (b.p. 110.6oC) is
heated it boils at a temperature of 92.2oC and the composition of the vapour (and hence its
condensate) is 71.3 : 28.7 benzene:toluene. If this vapour is condensed and then brought to
its boiling point its vapour has a mole ration of 86.4 : 13.6. A third cycle produces a
condensate of 94.4 : 5.6 benzene:toluene. This is the principle of batch fractional distillation,
and in a distillation column many, many such cycles are performed continuously, allowing
almost complete separation of liquid components. In this process the more volatile
components are drawn from the top of the column and the the least volatile ones concentrate
in the lower part. In practice, the distillation is carried out continuously. A generalised
distillation column is shown in Figures 2 and 3.
Uncondensed
gases
HEAT EXCHANGER cooling, condensation
SEPARATOR
Reflux
Tray 5
Tray 4
FEED
FURNACE partial
vapourisation
Tray 3
Tray 2
Tray 1
Reboil
HEAT EXCHANGER
- partial vapourisation
BOTTOM PRODUCT
Figure 2 - Fractional distillation

VAPOURS
LIQUIDS
Liquids
Vapours
DOWNCOMER
PRODUCT
SIDE - DRAW
Figure 3 - Schematic representation of the inside of the distillation column
When two species A and B (A more volatile than B) are fed into the distillation column and
heated partial vapourisation occurs. The vapour, richer in A, rises from the feed tray (tray 3)
through the bubble caps, bubbling through the liquid on tray 4, setting up a vapour/liquid
equilibrium. Tray 4 is cooler than tray 3, so some of component B will condense, leaving the
vapour rising from tray 4 richer in A. The same process is repeated on tray 5, and we are left
with a vapour leaving tray 5 very much richer in component A than was the original feed. To
keep a temperature differential between the trays, the top vapour leaving tray 5 is condensed
by cooling it, and some is fed back to the top of the column, the remainder leaving as the top
product.
The liquid portion of the feed entering the column falls from tray 3 to tray 2, which is hotter
than the feed tray 3. On tray 2, because of the increase in temperature, the vapour is richer in
A than the liquid, so the composition of the liquid on tray 2 is richer in component B than the
original feed. This liquid falls to tray 1, where the process is repeated. To ensure that the
temperature falls from tray to tray going up the column, some of the bottom product (rich in
B) is heated and fed back to the bottom tray. The remainder leaves as bottom product rich in
B.
Thus, by the use of cooled top product (reflux) and heated bottom product (reboil) the
temperature difference between trays is maintained, and fractional distillation occurs. It can
also be seen that liquid drawn from any of the trays will contain varying concentrations of A
and B, changing from a mixture rich in B at the bottom tray, to a mixture rich in A at the top
tray.
In distilling petroleum we are considering not just 2 components, but many components.
However, the same principles apply and by feeding heated oil to a fractional distillation
column, we can, by withdrawing liquid from various trays, separate the oil into varying
fractions. However, when withdrawing liquid from intermediate trays, some of the light
product that bubbles through the liquid on each tray is present. This can be removed by
passing steam through the withdrawn fraction in a small distillation column (called a
stripper). The mixture of steam and light material obtained as a top product from the stripper
is returned to the main distillation column.
Figure 2 shows only 5 trays with 1 bubble cap per tray. In practice, several tens of trays are
used, with of the order of 100 caps per tray.
Chemical equilibrium
Many chemical reactions are reversible, i.e. the products react to reform the reactants. When
the reactants are mixed products start to form. As the reactant concentrations decrease and
the product concentrations increase, the rate of the forward reaction decreases and the rate of
the back reaction increases, reforming the reactants. In a closed system where neither
products nor reactants can escape, a state of dynamic chemical equilibrium is eventually
reached where the rates of the forward and back reactions are equal (thus meaning that the
quantities of reactants and products remain the same) and no apparent change is occurring.
For the reaction:
aA + bB ! cC + dD
where A and B are reactants, C and D are products and a, b, c, d are the stoichiometric
coefficients (i.e. the numbers in the chemical equation), the concentrations of reactants and
products existing at equilibrium are related by the equation:
K=
[C ] c [D ] d
[A ] a [B ] b
where K is called the equilibrium constant. The value of K is extremely important to the
chemist since it shows the extent to which the reactants can be converted into products under
a given set of conditions.
Since chemical reactions are employed generally to convert reactants into desirable products,
chemists try to convert as much of the reactants as possible into products. Alteration of the
conditions of a system is one method whereby the yield of desirable products may be
increased. The effect of changes to the system can be predicted by Le Chatelier's principle
which states: "If a change is made to a system in equilibrium, the system will adjust itself so
as to overcome the effects of the change."
In practice this means that if, for example, reaction products are removed from the system,
the reaction can proceed to completion, i.e. all of A and B can be reacted to produce C and D.
Also alterating the pressure of a gaseous reaction mixture, where the total number of moles of
reactants differ from the total number of moles of products, causes the concentrations at
equilibrium to change. If the total number of moles of products is less than the total number
of moles of reactants, an increase in pressure will cause the reaction to move to the right.
Temperature also affects equilibrium concentrations. The value of the equilibrium constant K
changes with temperature. Using Le Chatelier's principle we can see that increase in
temperature will cause the reaction to shift to the right if the forward reaction is endothermic
(i.e. heat is 'used up' in the reaction).
Reaction Rates and Catalysts
Knowledge of the value of the equilibrium constant K at different temperatures is important
to the chemist as it enables prediction of equilibrium concentrations to be made. However,
such knowledge does not enable predictions to be made as to the rate at which equilibrium is
attained. In industrial processes it is not unusual for equilibrium never to be attained, as the
reaction rates are low.
We may consider a reaction taking place via the formation of an activated complex which
decomposes into the reaction products. Formation of the activated complex requires
rearrangement of the molecular structure of the reactants, which requires additional energy,
called the activation energy of the reaction. The further rearrangement of the molecular
structure of the activated complex to form products also has an associated energy change.
Assuming that the decomposition of the activated complex is fast, the rate at which the
activated complex is formed will govern the overall reaction rate. Thus, if a different
activated complex can be formed, a different reaction rate will result. A catalyst is a
substance that enables a different, easier-to-form activated complex to be formed, and thus
increases the overall reaction rate. Put another way a new faster chemical pathway (or
mechanism) from reactants to products is possible. The activated complex can be thought of
as a combination of A, B and catalyst.
Activated complexes
Ea1
Energy A + B
Ea1 activation energy

without catalyst
Ea2 activation energy
with catalyst
Ea2
Energy difference
between reactants
and products
C+D
Reaction coordinate
Figure 4 - Reaction pathways with and without a catalyst
The rate of formation of the activated complex with catalyst is faster than the rate of
formation of the complex without catalyst. Thus by finding a suitable catalyst, the overall
reaction rate can be speeded up. The search for suitable catalysts for various reactions is an
important part of industrial research. (Figure 4 just shows the reaction as one step for
simplicity. In fact both catalysed and uncatalysed reactions probably occur in a series of
steps, with the activation energy being the difference between the energy of the reactants and
the highest barrier.)
In general all reactions go faster at higher temperature, and the rate of increase with
temperature is greater the higher the activation energy. Thus many reactions which are too
slow at room temperature go at an appreciable rate at elevated temperatures.
Step 1 - Separation
The oil is separated by boiling points into six main grades of hydrocarbons: refinery gas
(used for refinery fuel), gasoline (naphthas), kerosene, light and heavy gas oils and long
residue. This initial separation is done by distillation. The long residue is further separated
in the butane desaphalting unit, and the refinery gas is separated into hydrogen sulfide in the
Shell ADIP process.
Distillation
The first step in the refining of crude oil, whether in a simple or a complex refinery, is the
separation of the crude oil into fractions (fractionation or distillation). These fractions are
mixtures containing hydrocarbon compounds whose boiling points lie within a specified
range. A continuous flow of crude oil passes from the storage tanks through a heating coil
inside a furnace, where it is heated to a predetermined temperature. The heated oil then
enters the fractionating column (Figures 2 and 3), which is a tall cylindrical tower
containing trays suitably spaced and fitted with vapour inlets and liquid outlets.
Upon entering the column, the liquid/vapour mixture separates - the vapour passing upwards
through the column, the liquid portion flowing to the bottom from where it is drawn off as "long
residue". The vapours rise through the tray inlets, become cooler as they rise, and partially
condense to a liquid which collect on each tray. Excess liquid overflows and passes through the
liquid outlets onto the next lower tray. The bottom of the column is kept very hot but
temperatures gradually reduce towards the top so that each tray is a little cooler than the one
below it.
Ascending hot vapours and descending cooler liquids mix on each tray and establish a
temperature gradient throughout the length of the column. When a fraction reaches a tray where
the temperature corresponds to its own particular boiling range, it condesnses and changes into
liquid. In this way the different fractions are separated from each other on the trays of the
fractionating column and are drawn off for further treatment and blending.
The fractions that rise highest in the column before condensing are called light fractions, and
those that condense on the lowest trays are called heavy fractions. The very lightest fraction is
refinery gas, which is used as a fuel in the refinery furnaces. Next in order of volatility comes
gasoline (used for making petrol), kerosene, light and heavy gasoils and finally long residue.
High vacuum distillation unit
This works on the principle that lowring the pressure lowers the boiling point of the compounds
concerned. This is used to separate gasoline into gasoline (which boils under these conditions)
and short residue (a mixture of asphaltic compounds and oil which does not).
The butane deasphalting unit (BDU)
The BDU uses a solvent extraction process to separate the gasoline and asphaltic compounds in
the short residue. The short residue from the high vacuum distillation unit is mixed with liquid
butane (a 2:1 mixture of n-butane and iso-butane) at a specified temperature and pressure close to
the critical point of butane. Two liquid phases are formed, one rich in butane containing the
extracted oil (Deasphalted Oil - DAO), the other of asphaltic compounds with low butane and oil
content (ASPHALT).
The extraction column operates isothermally (without change in temperature) and has a
continuous butane rich phase with droplets of the asphaltic phase mixed into it. The density
difference between phases drives the dispersed phase downwards in countercurrent flow to the
continuous phase which is being forced upwards. This makes an interface level form in the
bottom where the two phases are forced past each other. The extractor has perforated trays to
enhance the contacting of the two liquid phases, and the butane solvent is recovered from the two
phases (DAO and ASPHALT) by flashing and stripping to be recycled for reuse. A diagram of
the BDU is given in Figure 5.
Butane has been selected as the optimum solvent because it provides the highest deasphalted oil
yield with good selectabilily at low solvent-to-feed ratios. The butane easily dissolves the lower
boiling hydrocarbons, but its solvent power is limited with respect to the higher boiling
hydrocarbons, especially aromatic and asphaltic compounds.
FLASHING
Key
FLASHING
STRIPPING
Heating
Pump
Steam
EXTRACTION
DAO
Exchanger
Butane
x x x x
Recycling
Compressor
FLASHING
STRIPPING
Cooling
Mixer
Butane
Steam
Asphalt
Short residue
feed
Butane
Figure 5 - The Butane Deasphalting unit
Shell ADIP process

The refinery fuel gas contains H2S, and this must be removed from the gas stream before the gas
is burnt as fuel to prevent excessive SO2 emissions. This is done by reacting the H2S with a
solution of diisopropanol amine (DIPA, a base) known as ADIP. This is called the Shell ADIP
process, and it is a regenerable absorption process, meaning that the ADIP is regenerated for
further use. The overall reaction can be represented as follows:
H2S + CH3CHCH2
OH
CH2CHCH3
N
HS + CH3CHCH2
OH
OH
CH2CHCH3
OH
The solution is used to absorb H2S at higher pressures and lower temperatures, during which
time the equilibrium lies to the right (Le Chatelier's principle). The solution is then regenerated,
releasing H2S, by using higher temperatures and lower pressures. Figure 6 outlines the ADIP
process of absorption and regeneration. The DIPA is dissolved in water at a concentration of 4
mol L-1, and the H2S concentration of the lean ADIP (the ADIP which is fed into the absorber) is
typically 80 ppm wt.
H2S to sulphur
recovery
Treated gas
Cooling
Heat
exchanger
Water to sour
water stripper
Sour
gas
Steam
Lean
ADIP
Reboil
heater
Figure 6 - ADIP process

Step 2 - Conversion
Of the oils separated out from the original crude (refinery gas, gasoline, kerosene, light and
heavy gasoils and asphalt), only refinery gas can be used as is, and even this is usually ADIP
treated. All the others require some further treatment before they can be made into the final
product. This firstly involves the removal of sulfur (as it interferes with the success of some later
later processes) and then the chemical conversion of the oils into more desirable compounds.
Desulfurisation
The oil products all naturally contain some sulfur compounds. These must be removed from
gasoline, kerosene and diesel oils before catalytic reforming (the next conversion process) as
otherwise the sulfur poisons the catalyst used. The sulfur is removed by reacting the sulfur
compounds with hydrogen, forming hydrogen sulfide, which can be removed as a gas from the
cooled liquid oil. The process is carried out over a catalyst at a pressure of about 20 atmospheres
and a temperature of about 350 C. Under these conditions the oils are gaseous.
The reactions occurring can be simplified to:
2 H2 + R C
R CH3 + H2S
(where R is an alkene), and thiol degradation:

H3C
CH2 CH2 CH2 SH + H2
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3 + H2S
Unfortunately, at the temperatures required to cause the reaction to go to the right at a fast rate
(see previous section on equilibrium) the hydrocarbons decompose to lighter hydrocarbons and
finally to carbon. However, from Le Chatelier's principle we can see that there is another way to
force the reaction to the right. The left side of the reaction contains three gaseous moles (the
hydrocarbons are gaseous) whereas the right hand side only contains two. By increasing the
pressure, the reaction is forced to the right. In addition, if the hydrogen is kept in excess, the
reaction is also forced to the right. Thus having an excess of hydrogen and keeping the mixture
at high pressure prevents the need to use a high temperature. The rate of conversion of sulfur
compounds to H2S is improved, and the formation of carbon is inhibited. After a period of some
months the catalyst does become deactivated by laydown of carbon, and regeneration is carried
out by passing a mixture of air and steam at high temperature through the catalyst, thereby
burning off the carbon. A mixture of air and steam is necessary, as use of pure air would result
in uncontrolled combustion, and the resulting high temperature would adversely affect the
catalyst.
Catalytic reforming
This is used to increase the octane ratings of the oil concerned. Octane number is a measure of
the 'knock' or 'pinking' that occurs in an internal combustion engine when an unsuitable (too low
octane) fuel is used. The octane number is defined by an arbitrary scale which allocates zero
octane number to n-heptane and 100 to2,2,4-trimethyl pentane (iso-octane). The octane number
of a fuel is defined as the percentage by volume of iso-octane in a mixture with n-heptane that
gives the same degree of knocking as the fuel in a special test engine.
In proper operation of an internal combustion engine, combustion is initiated by the spark
produced by the spark plug at the correct time in the cycle. A flame front then passes through
the cylinder at the relatively slow rate of about 100 km/hr, the increase in pressure providing the
motive power. Considering, for example, combustion of pentane, we have:
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3
+
8O2
9 volumes
5CO2
6H2O
11 volumes
As the reaction produces 11 volumes of product from 9 volumes of reactants but the volume is
kept constant, the pressure increases, and the rising temperature also caused by the combustion
causes an even greater temperature increase. This increase in pressure provides the motive
power. As the pressure increases on ignition, the pressure in the fuel/air mixture in the cylinder
not as yet traversed by the flame front rises, with a consequent increase in temperature (PV = n
RT). If the fuel has too low an octane number, this increase in temperature causes the remaining
fuel/air mixture to ignite before the flame front passes through. This ignition is explosive, and
causes great impact force to be transmitted by the piston to the bearings. Continual operation of
an engine in which such knocking is occurring causes rapid destruction of bearings. Octane
numbers of hydrocarbons vary with their oxidation stability. Straight chain paraffins have the
lowest octane numbers (e.g. n-butane has an octane number of 25) with branched chain paraffins
being higher (2 methyl pentane has an octane number of 70) followed by naphthenes (C6H12 =
83) and then aromatics (benzene = 100).
The desired reactions (ring forming and aromatising) are endothermic so, to ensure that the
reactions take place at an acceptable rate, a temperature of about 500oC is used. At this
temperature all the hydrocarbons considered are gaseous. A pressure of about 25 atmospheres is
also used and the process is carried out using a platinum catalyst (platinum dispersed through
1mm spheres of alumina). The process is also sometimes called platforming, because of the use
of a platinum catalyst.
Because the reactions are endothermic, 3 furnaces and reactors in series are used. Figure 7
outlines the process.
As the desirable reactions are endothermic, high temperature favours the forward reaction (Le
Chatalier's principle), which leads to the formation of the desired aromatics. The high
temperature also ensures that the reactions occur at a reasonably fast rate, but in addition favours
the undesirable cracking reaction (see desulfurisation above), which gives lay-down of carbon on
the catalyst. To suppress coking a high hydrogen pressure is used by recycling some of the light
gases (about 70% vol. of hydrogen) from the separator even though this inhibits the formation of
the desirable aromatic products to some extent.
As in many industrial processes, this is a compromise. At the previously stated conditions of
500 C and 25 atmospheres, conversion of alkylhexanes into alkylbenzenes is fast. Paraffins
(long-chain alkanes of more than twenty carbon atoms) are thus driven to be converted to
alkylhexanes as the reaction product is removed almost as soon as it is formed. Also,
isomerisation reactions that give molecules capable of forming alkyl hexanes are helped, as again
the reaction product is removed.
After a period of several months, deactivation of the catalyst by coke lay-down becomes so
pronounced that removal of the coke is necessary. This is achieved by passing a mixture of air
and nitrogen through the catalyst, thus burning off the coke. The nitrogen is necessary to control
the rate of burn off, as if pure air was used the efficiency of the catalyst would be destroyed by
the resulting high temperature. (Steam is not used as in the regeneration of the desulfurising
catalyst, as water adversely affects the platinum catalyst.) It is interesting to note that during the
lifetime of the catalyst each platinum atom leads to the reaction of about 20 000 000 molecules
of gasoline, a truly catalytic act.
Heat
exchanger
Reactor
FEED
Furnace
Compressor
Recycle hydrogen
Separator
PRODUCT
Air cooler
Figure 7 - Catalytic Reforming Unit

A typical reformer feed (bottom product in Figure 2) derived from Middle East crude contains
about 65% wt. paraffins, 20% wt. naphthenes and 15% wt. aromatics. After processing, the
analysis is about 45% wt. paraffins1, virtually no naphthenes and 55% wt. aromatics. The octane
number of the reformer feed is about 50, while the octane number of the product is about 100.
The product from the separator contains light gases from partial cracking, and these are removed
by fractional distillation.
R
R CH3
Paraffins
Naphthenes
Aromatics
(R consists of branched or unbranched alkane chains)
Bitumen manufacture
Bitumen used to be made by a process that combined distillation and oxidation. Currently it is
made simply by mixing some of the short residue from the high vacuum unit with asphalt from
the BDU.
Hydrocracking
The hydrocracking process is used to convert waxy distillate and deasphalted oil (DAO) into
kerosine and gasoil by breaking down some of their constiuents. The process is carried out in
two stages, the first to reduce the amount of nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen impurities that may
reach the second stage catalyst, and the second to continue the process of cracking,
hydrogenating and isomerising the compounds in the oil. The reactions occuring are
denitrogenation, desulfurisation, deoxygenation, hydrogenation, hydrocracking and
1
Long-chain alkanes of more than twenty carbon atoms.
isomerisation, all of which are exothermic and all of which, except for isomerisation, consume
hydrogen. The heat released is absorbed by injecting cold hydrogen quench gas between the
catalyst beds. Without the quench the heat released would generate high temperatures and rapid
reactions leading to greater heat release and an eventual runaway. All of the reactions, except for
denitrogenation, desulfurisation and deoxygenation which only occur in the first stage, happen in
both stages.
Denitrogenation
Carbon-nitrogen bonds are ruptured with the formation of ammonia.
H3C
+ 5 H2
CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3
+ NH3
Pyridine
n-pentane
ammonia
Desulfurisation
Carbon-sulfur bonds are ruptured with the formation of hydrogen sulfide.
H3C
CH2 CH2 CH2 SH + H2
Butyl mercaptan
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3 + H2S
n-butane
hydrogen sulfide
Deoxygenation
Carbon-oxygen bonds are ruptured with the formation of water.
+ H2
+ H2O
OH
phenol
benzene
Hydrogenation
The saturation of carbon-carbon double bonds of the olefins or aromatics.
H
H3C CH2 C C
+ H2
H3C CH2 CH2 CH3
butylene
n-butane
+ 2H2
naphthalene
tetralin
decalin
3 H2
CH2CH2CH2CH3
H2
tetralin
butyl benzene
Hydrocracking
The splitting or breaking of straight or cyclic hydrocarbons and hydrogenation of the
ruptured bonds.
CH2CH2CH2CH3
+ H2
butyl benzene
+ CH3CH2CH2CH3
benzene
n-butane
Isomerisation
The change of one compound into another by rearrangement of its atoms.
CH3
CH3CH2CH2CH2
n-butane
CH3CHCH3
iso-butane
Condensation
All the previous reactions yield more or less useful products. A less desirable but important
reaction is the condensation of aromatics to produce large unsaturated polyaromatics which
deposit on the catalyst to form coke. Polyaromatics are much more susceptible to this
reaction than monoaromatics. Hence rapid catalyst deactivation due to coke laydown will
occur if the feedstock contains a high amount of polyaromatic asphaltenes.
2
+ 2 H2
anthracene
hexacene
An outline of the hydrocracking unit is given in Figure 8.

Step 3 - Purification
The crude oil has now been separated into refinery gas, hydrogen sulfide, naphtha, kerosene,
gas oil, asphalt and bitumen. Two more processes have to be carried out, on the naphtha and
the hydrogen sulfide respectively, before the hydrocarbons are ready for blending into
saleable products.
Sulfur recovery
Crude oil as received for refining contains sulfur in levels up to a few tenths of a percent
weight. It is removed from oil products mainly by the desulfurisation process described
above which results in the formation of hydrogen sulfide, and further H2S is separated out of
the refinery gas. This H2S is converted to sulfur in a two step process. Firstly, the "Claus"
process of partial combustion of H2S is used to form SO2 and this SO2 is then reacted with
the remaining H2S to produce sulfur. This sulfur recovery process takes place in one thermal
and two catalytic stages and recovers 95% of the sulfur. The final 1 or 2 % volume of H2S in
the "tail gas" from the last catalylic reactor is burnt in a separate incinerator so that the
effluent gas finally discharged to the atmosphere has an environmentally acceptable H2S
content of less than 5 ppm by volume.
The overall reaction occuring is as follows:
H2S + O2 ! S + H2O
(l)
This overall reaction (1) is the sum of two exothermic reactions, the oxidation of H2S to SO2
(2) and the subsequent reaction between H2S and SO2 to form sulfur and water (3):
(2)
H2S + 1O2 ! SO2 + H2O
2H2S + SO2 ! 3S + 2H2O
(3)
In the first stage of the process (the 'thermal stage'), enough air is supplied to convert one
third of the H2S in the acid feed gases to SO2 and H2O according to equation (2). In addition
to this, any hydrocarbons and NH3 in the feed gases are completely combusted:
C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O
(4)
NH3 + O2 N2 + 1H2O
(5)
In the second and the third stage of the "Claus" process more H2S is converted to sulfur
according to equation (3). To shift the equilibrium of this reaction as far as possible to the
right side lower reaction temperatures are applied to these stages. To assure sufficient high
reaction rates, the reactions take place in the presence of a catalyst.
Finally, the SRU tail gas (which contains less than 5% sulfur) is oxidised in a catalytic
incinerator at a temperature of approximately 400oC. At this temperature, achieved by
burning fuel gas in addition to the process gases, the H2S and sulfur vapour/mist are
practically completely oxidised in the presence of a catalyst according to the reactions:
H2S + 1O2 H2O + SO2
S + O2 SO2
The sulfur is produced in liquid form and heated handling/loading facilities provide sulfur
storage before loading into road tankers for delivery to fertiliser works. Figure 9 gives an
outline of the SRU process of the refinery.
FIRST STAGE REACTORS
Key
Hydrogen
recycle gas
H2
H2 quench
Compressor
Compressor
Pump
Heating unit
Waxy
distillate
from
HVU-2
2 stage
flashing
SECOND STAGE
REACTORS
DAO
from
BDU
Fres h H2 gas from HMU

Cooling
Naptha / tops
H2
H2 quench
Light kero
Distillation
Medium kero
Cooling
Reboil
heater
Vacuum
distillation
Heavy kero
Gasoil
Residue recycle
(to extinction)
Figure 8 - The two-stage hydrocracking process

2nd stage
(CATALYTIC)
1st stage
(THERMAL)
Air
3rd stage
Tail gas incinerator
(CATALYTIC)
Air
(CATALYTIC)
Air
Air
H2S
fuel gas
fuel gas
fuel gas
fuel gas
Condensor
SO2 tailgas
to stack
Condensor
Sulphur pit
Pump
Sulphur
loading
tank
Liquid sulphur
to road tanker
Loading pump
Figure 9 - The sulfur recovery unit
ANCILLARY PROCESSES
Hydrogen manufacture
The large consumption of hydrogen, particularly in the hydrocracker, has meant that the Marsden
Point refinery has its own hydrogen manufacturing unit (Figure 10). The hydrogen is produced
by converting hydrocarbons and steam into hydrogen, and produces CO and CO2 as byproducts.
The hydrocarbons (preferably light hydrocarbons and butane) are desulfurised and then undergo
the steam reforming reaction over a nickel catalyst. The reactions which occur during reforming
are complex but can be simplified to the following equations:
CnHm + nH2O nCO + (( 2n + m )/2)H2
CO + H2O CO2 + H2
The second reaction is commonly known as the water gas shift reaction.
The process of reforming can be split into three phases of preheating, reaction and superheating.
The overall reaction is strongly endothermic and the design of the HMU reformer is a careful
optimisation between catalyst volume, furnace heat transfer surface and pressure drop.
In the preheating zone the steam/gas mixture is heated to the reaction temperature. It is at the
end of this zone that the highest temperatures are encountered. The reforming reaction then
starts at a temperature of about 700C and, being endothermic, cools the process. The final
phase of the process, superheating and equilibrium adjustment, takes place in the region where
the tube wall temperature rises again.
The CO2 in the hydrogen produced by reforming is removed by absorption (see purification
below), but trace quantities of both CO and CO2 do remain. These are converted to methane
(CH4) by passing the hydrogen stream through a methanator. The reactions are highly
exothermic and take place as follows:
CO + 3H2 CH4 + H2O
CO2 + 4H2 CH4 + 2H2O
Finally, all produced hydrogen is cooled and sent to the Hydrocracker.
In contrast to the desulfurisation process described earlier, the HMU is an example of a
non-reversible absorption process applied to protect a valuable catalyst. In this case,
desulfurisation is by absorption of H2S in zinc oxide, according to the equation:
ZnO + H2S ZnS + H2O
The reaction is non-reversible and consequently the saturated absorbent must be discharged and
replaced.
Vapourised feed
Desulphurisation
Reformer furnace
Mixer
B
Steam
Cooling
High temperature
shift converter
Methanator
Low temp.
shift
converter
Cooling
CO2
removal
sulfinol
absorption
process
Cooling
Heating
Cooling
Figure 10 - The hydrogen manufacturing unit

Purification
The hydrogen produced must be purified (to remove the carbon oxides) before it can be usd in
the hydrocracker. A regenerable absorption process is applied by circulating a "Sulfinol"
solution. This is a mixed solvent, consisting of 50% DIPA, 25% water and 25%
tetraydrothiophenedi-oxide (sulfolane).
S
O
sulfolane
CO2 is removed by absorption in the sulfinol at low temperatures and high pressure.
Subsequently, the "fat" sulfinol solution is regenerated by removal of CO2 at high temperature
and low pressure. The CO2 is further purified by chilling to give food grade product. The
chemistry of the process is as follows:
CO 2 + 2 CH3CHCH2
OH
CH2CHCH3
N
H
DIPA
OH
CH3CHCH2
OH
CH2CHCH3 + CH3CHCH2 + H
OH
N
OH
CH
CHCH
H
3
2
C O
OH
O
N
CO 2 + H2O + CH3CHCH2
N
OH
HCO3 + CH3CHCH2
CH2CHCH3
OH
OH
N
H
CH2CHCH3
OH
CH3CHCH2
OH
CH2CHCH3 + CH3CHCH2
N
C O
OH
OH
CH2CHCH3
OH
O
CH2
CH3
C
H
N CH2 CH CH3 + H2O + CH3CHCH2

C
OH
OH
CH2CHCH3
N
OH
oxazolidone
The water treatment plant
A major ancillary facility of the expanded refinery is the effluent water treatment plant.
Extensive facilities, costing $50 million (1985), ensure the continued protection of the marine
environment of Whangarei Harbour. The effluent water discharge is continuously monitored
for oil content and other contaminants, according to the comprehensive requirements of the
discharge permit issued by the Northland Regional Council. Figure 11 is a simplified block
flowscheme of the effluent water treating facilities.
There are two types of water to be dealt with:
Water which has been, or is likely to have been, in contact with oil. This water must
pass through gravity separators to remove the oil and may require other treatment.
Such water comes from the refining processes or ballast discharged by coastal
tankers.
Water which has only accidentally been in contact with oil. This water passes
through oil traps before being routed to the holding basin and final buffer basin. Such
water comes from the boiler plant and collected rainwater.
The treatment of effluent water is as follows. Process water is deodorised in sour-water
strippers where the gas (H2S and NH3) is stripped off. The stripped water has oil removed in
the gravity separators and then, together with some rainwater, is homogenised in a buffer
tank. From this tank, the effluent water is piped to a flocculation/flotation unit where air and
polyelectrolytes are injected in small concentrations to make the suspended oil and solids
separate from the water. The latter are skimmed off and piped to a separate sludge
handling/disposal unit. The remaining watery effluent from the flotation unit is passed to
adjoining biotreater where the last of the dissolved organic impurities are removed by the
action of micro-organisms in the presence of oxygen (biodegradation). On a continual basis,
sludge containg micro-organisms is removed to the sludge handling/disposal unit, while the
treated effluent water is held first in the retention basin and finally discharged into Whangarei
Harbour.
WATER
ACCIDENTALLY
CONTAMINATED
BY OIL
WATER EXPECTED
TO BE
CONTAMINATED
BY OIL
Process units
Drainage
Processing areas
OIL FREE
WATER
SEWAGE
BALLAST
WATER
Continuous
ex utility plant
Continuous
Intermittent
Receiving tanks
Sour water
stripper
Gravity oil
separator
Gravity oil
separator
Gravity oil
separator
Oil trap
Homogenisation
tank
Comminutors
Flocculation
flotation unit
Bio treater
Aeration basin
Holding basin
Buffer basin
Metering/
sampling point
DISCHARGE
OF TREATED
EFFLUENT
TO MARINE
OUTFALL
Figure 11 - The water treatment plant

The discharge is through a continuous flow meter and sampling system and terminates at
twin diffusers located in deep water where tidal currents ensure the rapid and extensive
dilution of the treated effluent water.
A comprehensive system of waste management has also been established at the refinery.
This is based on internationally accepted concepts of waste minimisaiton, such as reduction,
reuse and recycling. The disposal of any remaining residual waste follows strictly controlled
procedures.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS
The refinery operates under an air discharge permit, monitored by the Northland Regional
Council (NRC), since the enactment of the Resource Management Act (RMA). The current
permit requires monthly reports to be prepared for the NRC, relating to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
emissions, ground level measurement of SO2, smoke from chimneys, from flaring and from
fire fighting training.
The permit also required that the quantity of SO2 emitted should be significantly reduced in
three steps between 1992 and 1996. Capital costs to achieve these reductions were in the
region of $30 million. In addition, operating costs of several million per annum were
incurred. The SO2 limit is now amongst the lowest of any similar refinery in the world.
In addition, the water treatment plant described above ensures that minimal quantites of oil
and other effluent are discharged with the water into the Whangarei Harbour.
Article written by Heather Wansbrough, combining the articles from volumes one and two of
edition one and information brochures supplied by Tony Mullinger (The New Zealand
Refining Company Ltd). Edited by John Packer and John Robertson.
How is coal mined?

Mining is the process of removing coal from the ground.
There are two types of mining: underground mining
and surface mining. When the coal seam is fewer than
125 feet under the surface, it is mined by surface mining.
Coal that is deeper than 125 feet is removed from the
ground by underground mining.
Surface Mining
Surface mining is used when a
coal seam is located close to the
surface. Heavy equipment is
used to clear the land of trees,
shrubs and topsoil.
The truck will take the topsoil to a
special place where it will be saved
until mining is finished in this area.
Then the topsoil will be replaced so
plants can grow again.
Holes are drilled into the rock

and explosives are placed in
these holes. The explosion
breaks up the dirt and rock
called overburden.
Safety inspectors carefully
monitor the drilling and blasting
process.
Large earth-moving machines

move the overburden to expose
the coal seam.
When the coal is uncovered,

bulldozers and shovels scoop
up the coal and load it into
large trucks. All of the coal is
mined.
When the trucks are loaded, they will haul the coal
to the preparation plant.
In 2000, there were six surface mines in Illinois. The surface mines
produced 3,800,000 tons of coal and employed 330 miners.
After mining the topsoil is replaced for plants and wildlife to grow
again.
Land that has been mined can be used in

many ways.
Underground Mining
Underground mining is used when the coal seam lies deep in the
earth. In an underground mine only
some of the coal is removed. The
coal that remains helps support the
mine roof.
Underground mines look like a
system of tunnels. The tunnels are
used for traveling throughout the
mine, moving coal from place to
place and allowing air to circulate in
the mine.
This is a diagram of an underground
room and pillar mine.
The coal that is mined is

put on conveyor belts. The
conveyor belts take the coal
to the surface.
It is very dark underground.
A conveyor belt takes coal out of the

mine. The pillars are covered with a
white powdered limestone to prevent
spontaneous combustion.
There are three types of underground mines: slope, drift, and shaft.
When the coal seam is close to the surface but too deep to use
surface mining, a slope mine can be built. In a slope mine a tunnel
slants down from the surface to the coal seam.
In a slope mine, the miners

and materials ride in special
cars to get to the coal seam.
A drift mine is built when the coal seam lies in the side of a hill or
mountain. Drift mines may also be built in a surface mine that has
become too deep. There are many drift mines in the eastern United
States.
The most common type of
mine in Illinois is the shaft
mine. These mines may be
125 to 1,000 feet deep. A
large hole, or shaft, is drilled
down into the ground until it
reaches the coal seam.
The shaft can be 30 feet in

diameter.
Men and materials ride an

elevator down to the coal
seam at a shaft mine.
Two Types of Underground Mining

In Illinois, two types of underground mining are used: room and pillar
mining and longwall mining. Room and pillar mining leaves pillars, or
blocks, of coal in the mine to support the roof. In longwall mining the
roof is allowed to collapse in a planned sequence. More coal is mined
during longwall mining.
Continuous miner
machines are used to
cut the coal in room and
pillar mining.
This continuous miner is

operated by remote control.
Continuous miners
have a large rotating
drum that moves up
and down. Strong bits on the drum cut the coal. As the coal falls,
large arms under the drum gather the coal onto a conveyor chain. The
conveyor chain carries the coal to the back of the machine.
The coal is unloaded at the back of the machine onto ram cars. The
ram cars haul the coal to a conveyor belt.
Left to right: ram car and continuous miner Below: rotating drum with bits that cut
the coal.
Longwall mining removes more coal than room and pillar mining.
Large panels of coal are extracted. The panels are 750 to 1,000 feet
wide. The continuous miner cuts tunnels 18 to 20 feet wide.
The longwall panel shows how
much coal the longwall mining
machine cuts.
The longwall machine

has large shields that
support the roof and
protect the miners during
mining.
The shields are shown in yellow in
A rotating
the pictures.
drum, called a
shearer, cuts the coal. The coal drops
onto a conveyor belt. As more of the
coal is cut, the machine moves forward.
The roof behind the machine falls in a
planned order.
The shearer is shown in orange. It shears the

coal away. The conveyor belt is shown in gray.
In 2000, there were 12

underground mines in Illinois.
The 3,131 employed miners
produced 29,700,000 tons of
coal.
Corn and soybeans grow above

this underground coal mine.
A Math Code Word Puzzle
2
+9
4
-3
10 1
-5 +3
4 5 8
+5 +1 +4
4
L
2 4 5
+6 +6 -4
5 2
-3 +4
7 2 5 6
+7 +5 +3 +1
Letter Code
1
2
3
0
I
R
3
-1
5
A
6
N
---- -- -----
5
-1
12 5
-7 -2
7 5 1
-2 +8 +7
7
E
8
S
9
U
10
F
11
C
12
D
13
M
14
G
-- ----- -----
DIRECTIONS: Add or subtract the problems and then find the answers
in the letter code. Put the letters on the dotted lines. Write the decoded
sentence on the line below.
________________________________________________________.
The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal
SECTION TWO
COAL MINING
>> Coal is mined by two methods surface or opencast
mining and underground or deep mining. >>
The choice of mining method is largely

determined by the geology of the coal deposit.
Underground mining currently accounts for
about 60% of world coal production, although
in several important coal producing countries
surface mining is more common. Surface
mining accounts for around 80% of production
in Australia, while in the USA it is used for
about 67% of production.
Underground Mining
There are two main methods of underground
mining: room-and-pillar and longwall mining.
In room-and-pillar mining, coal deposits are
mined by cutting a network of rooms into the
coal seam and leaving behind pillars of coal to
support the roof of the mine. These pillars can
be up to 40% of the total coal in the seam
although this coal can sometimes be recovered
at a later stage. This can be achieved in what is
known as retreat mining, where coal is mined
from the pillars as workers retreat. The roof is
then allowed to collapse and the mine is
abandoned.
Longwall mining involves the full extraction of
coal from a section of the seam or face using
mechanical shearers. A longwall face requires
careful planning to ensure favourable geology

exists throughout the section before
development work begins. The coal face can
vary in length from 100-350m. Selfadvancing, hydraulically-powered supports
temporarily hold up the roof while coal is
extracted. When coal has been extracted from
the area, the roof is allowed to collapse. Over
75% of the coal in the deposit can be
extracted from panels of coal that can extend
3km through the coal seam.
The main advantage of roomand-pillar
mining over longwall mining is that it allows
coal production to start much more quickly,
using mobile machinery that costs under $5
million (longwall mining machinery can cost
$50 million).
The choice of mining technique is site specific
but always based on economic considerations;
differences even within a single mine can lead
to both methods being used.
Surface Mining
Surface mining also known as opencast or
opencut mining is only economic when the
coal seam is near the surface. This method
recovers a higher proportion of the coal
World Coal Institute
deposit than underground mining as all coal

seams are exploited 90% or more of the coal
can be recovered. Large opencast mines can
cover an area of many square kilometres and
use very large pieces of equipment, including:
draglines, which remove the overburden; power
shovels; large trucks, which transport
overburden and coal; bucket wheel excavators;
and conveyors.
Definition
Overburden is the layer of
soil and rocks (strata)
between the coal seams and
the surface.
The overburden of soil and rock is first

broken up by explosives; it is then removed
by draglines or by shovel and truck. Once the
coal seam is exposed, it is drilled, fractured
and systematically mined in strips. The
coal is then loaded on to large trucks or
conveyors for transport to either the
coal preparation plant or direct to where
it will be used.
Coal Preparation
Coal straight from the ground, known as runof-mine (ROM) coal, often contains unwanted
impurities such as rock and dirt and comes in a
mixture of different-sized fragments.
However, coal users need coal of a consistent
quality. Coal preparation also known as coal
beneficiation or coal washing refers to the
treatment of ROM coal to ensure a consistent
quality and to enhance its suitability for
particular end-uses.
Definition
DWT Deadweight Tonnes
which refers to the
deadweight capacity of a
process, the coal is separated from other

impurities by being floated in a tank containing
a liquid of specific gravity, usually a
suspension of finely ground magnetite. As the
coal is lighter, it floats and can be separated
off, while heavier rock and other impurities
sink and are removed as waste.
The smaller size fractions are treated in a
number of ways, usually based on differences
in mass, such as in centrifuges. A centrifuge is
a machine which turns a container around very
quickly, causing solids and liquids inside it to
separate. Alternative methods use the
different surface properties of coal and waste.
In froth flotation, coal particles are removed in
a froth produced by blowing air into a water
bath containing chemical reagents. The
bubbles attract the coal but not the waste
and are skimmed off to recover the coal
fines. Recent technological developments
have helped increase the recovery of ultra
fine coal material.
The treatment depends on the properties of

the coal and its intended use. It may require
only simple crushing or it may need to go
through a complex treatment process to
reduce impurities.
ship, including its cargo,

bunker fuel, fresh water,
stores etc.
To remove impurities, the raw run-of-mine coal

is crushed and then separated into various size
fractions. Larger material is usually treated
using dense medium separation. In this
Longwall mining involves the

full extraction of coal from a
section of the seam using
mechanical shearers.
Photograph courtesy of
Joy Mining Machinery.
Underground Mining Operations

Mine Surface
Facilities
Coal Shearer
and Roof Supports
Mined Area
Previously Mined
Longwall Panel
Coal Conveyor
to Surface
Coal Pillars Retained
for Roof Support
Direction of Mining
Next Longwall Panel

to be Mined
Mined Area
Coal Shearer
and Roof Supports
Continuous Miners
Developing Roadways
Coal Seam
Coal Conveyor
Diagram courtesy of BHP Billiton Illawara Coal
Coal Transportation
The way that coal is transported to where it
will be used depends on the distance to be
covered. Coal is generally transported by
conveyor or truck over short distances. Trains
and barges are used for longer distances
within domestic markets, or alternatively coal
can be mixed with water to form a coal slurry
and transported through a pipeline.
Coal Pillar
Ships are commonly used for international

transportation, in sizes ranging from
Handymax (40-60,000 DWT), Panamax (about
60-80,000 DWT) to large Capesize vessels
(about 80,000+ DWT). Around 700 million
tonnes (Mt) of coal was traded internationally
in 2003 and around 90% of this was seaborne
trade. Coal transportation can be very
expensive in some instances it accounts for
up to 70% of the delivered cost of coal.
10
World Coal Institute
Graded embankment
to act as baffle against
noise and dust
Topsoil and subsoil

stripped by motor scrapers
and carefully stored
Coal seams
Overburden from benches

dug by shovels and hauled
by dump trucks
Overburden being excavated

by dragline
Overburden
Dragline
excavation
Surface Coal Mining Operations and Mine Rehabilitation
Measures are taken at every stage of coal

transportation and storage to minimise
environmental impacts (see Section 5 for more
information on coal and the environment).
Safety at Coal Mines
Froth flotation cells at

Goedehoop Colliery are used
for fine coal beneficiation.
Photograph courtesy of
Anglo Coal.
The coal industry takes the issue of safety very

seriously. Coal mining deep underground
involves a higher safety risk than coal mined in
opencast pits. However, modern coal mines
have rigorous safety procedures, health and
safety standards and worker education and
training, which have led to significant
improvements in safety levels in both
underground and opencast mining (see graph on
page 11 for a comparison of safety levels in US
coal mining compared to other industry sectors).
There are still problems within the industry.
The majority of coal mine accidents and
fatalities occur in China. Most accidents are in
small scale town and village mines, often
illegally operated, where mining techniques are
labour intensive and use very basic equipment.
The Chinese government is taking steps to
improve safety levels, including the forced
Spoil pile
Dragline bucket
unloads burden
Dragline
backfill
levelled by
bulldozers
Grass and
trees
Subsoil and
topsoil being
replaced
and shaped
Tipping
overburden
from benches
to backfill
After the soils are replaced in their proper sequence,

they are ripped to relieve compaction and
then cultivated, limed and fertilised
closure of small-scale mines and those that fail

to meet safety standards.
Injury Rates in Selected US Industries, 2003

(per 100 full-time employees)
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, US Department of Labor
Coal Mining & the Wider Community

Coal mining generally takes place in rural areas
where mining and the associated industries are
usually one of, if not, the largest employers in
the area. It is estimated that coal employs over
7 million people worldwide, 90% of whom are in
developing countries.
Service Providing
Leisure & Hospitality
Trade, Transportation
& Utilities
Education &
Health Services
Coal Mining
Agriculture, Forestry,
Fishing & Hunting
Manufacturing
Construction
Not only does coal mining directly employ

millions worldwide, it generates income and
employment in other regional industries that
are dependent on coal mining. These industries
provide goods and services into coal mining,
such as fuel, electricity, and equipment, or are
dependent on expenditure from employees of
coal mines.
Large-scale coal mines provide a significant
source of local income in the form of wages,
community programmes and inputs into
production in the local economy.
However, mining and energy extraction can

sometimes lead to land use conflicts and
difficulties in relationships with neighbours and
local communities. Many conflicts over land use
can be resolved by highlighting that mining is
only a temporary land use. Mine rehabilitation
means that the land can be used once again for
other purposes after mine closure.
SECTION TWO END
11
2.0 RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY

2.1 Introduction
Energy has been defined as the ability to do work. It is a force multiplier that enhances mans
ability to convert raw materials into useful products, providing varieties of useful services. Its
broad division includes the various forms which includes but not limited to mechanical,
chemical, electrical, sound, light, nuclear etc. However, its consumption and utilization has to
a great extent determine the factor of increase or decrease in the population of a community
or nation, with the high rate of energy use proportionate to population stagnation and high
national product; the converse is linked to population explosion. Countries with low energy
availability and high energy demand have been found to have correspondingly high
proportion of poverty, illiteracy and migration. This human factor in energy analysis cannot
be overemphasized; the socio-economic importance of energy must take the center stage in
addressing the world population growth. Women right programmes, literacy programmes and
birth control policies will not do well if the current trend of energy shortages experienced by
developing nations is not addressed globally.
The worlds system of energy is of different kinds and forms with broad division under the
renewable and non-renewable energy sources. The most widely used has been the nonrenewable, which also have been described as not too friendly to the environment due to its
harmful emissions and byproducts. Such examples include the use of coal, fossil fuels,
nuclear reactors, etc. to mention a few. These sources are depleting, and do not produce
adequate and consistent power for national consumption, even the cost of maintenance has
never been of help.
More so, the energy needs of developing countries like those of Africa are
increasingly growing, more than one out of three people is reported to still depend on
13
traditional biomass for cooking and heating. An international projections reported that the
energy dependence of the world is expected to rise by over 34% between 2002 and 2025
when that by developing nations only, is expected to double the present demand. Thus,
bringing about growing concerns in creating alternative energy sources which will be capable
of meeting the energy needs of the worlds population, as those of the present sources and
usage is unsustainable and unsuitable. The way out of this, lie in the use of renewable sources
of energy for power generation, as they contain enormous, largely untapped and sustained
opportunity for meeting the worlds energy needs; for example, the sun radiates enormous
amount of energy in one year than people have used since the world began, they are
environmentally friendly as they do not contribute harmful and toxic emission to it. In
addition, they do not create the concern of eventual depletion as those of non-renewable
sources. Another example of renewable sources of energy is the wind energy; it is one of the
cleanest and most environmentally friendly sources of energy, capable of generating a high
amount of electricity.
2.2 Sources and Types of Renewable energy

Renewable energy has been defined as the energy obtained from natural sources. The sources
are those available either directly around us or indirectly in the earths crust. Depending on
the renewable energy sources, there are several types of renewable energy. These sources
include: solar, wind, biomass, geothermal, water (or hydropower), ocean thermal, tidal, wave
and hydrogen fuel/energy.
Solar energy: This is energy from the sun. The sun is a potent source of usable energy. Its
potential is estimated to be greater than the worlds total energy demand. Every year the earth
receives an estimated 8.33 x 1016 MW of solar energy. This amount of energy is many
14
thousand times sufficiently larger than the total global energy demand. It can be utilized
either as solar thermal or as photovoltaics. The areas of application of solar energy at present
include: for heating and cooling of residential buildings, water heating, drying of agricultural
and animal products, electricity generation, lighting and other industrial and agricultural
processes. Apart from the sun being a source of solar energy, it also the active agent in wind
flow. As a result of the heating from the sun, hot air tends to rise and cooler air fill the space
created by the rising hot air. This air heating and movement of air gives momentum to air and
the speed of its motion (wind speed) can be employed as wind energy. Also, the presence of
the sun and its activities aid in photosynthesis and plant growth and development, it is also
the agent behind transpiration and evaporation. Secondarily, precipitation is a result of the
activities of the suns heat on the earth.
Wind energy: Wind is created when hot air rises and cooler air moves in to replace the rising
hot air. The momentum in the wind as a result of its movement can be employed for gainful
purposes. Therefore, the means of capturing the mechanical energy in a moving wind and
converting it to produce electricity or do meaningful work is termed wind energy or power.
Historically, wind energy has been employed for water pumping, grinding and to power
ships. However, as a result of technological improvements, wind energy is being employed to
generate MW to GW of electricity around the world. Wind speeds from 3.0 m/s and above
can be employed with wind turbine for electricity purposes. However, speed greater than 4.0
m/s are economically viable for community electricity generation.
Biomass energy: Biomass is simply described as organic materials made from living and
recently living plants and animals. It is the organic matter in trees, living plant materials and
agricultural crops. In the context of nature, biomass means natural materials of plants and
15
animals. It contains stored energy from the sun. Biomasses are carbon based compounds
made up of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen (chemical constituents of carbohydrates) and probably
also containing Nitrogen and other substances in small quantities. These substances may
include those of heavy metals, alkali earth metals and alkali metals found in functional
molecules like porphyrins, a group of chemical compounds most of which occur in nature
such as in chlorophyll found in green leaves of plants and also in red blood cells.
Biomass energy refers to energy derived from natural material of mostly plants and
animals. The energy can be employed for electricity generation and also for heating purposes.
When biomass materials are burnt, they produce heat which can be used for different
purposes. First, the heat can be used directly for heating. It can also be used to raise steam
that can be employed with steam turbines to generate electricity. Another way of generating
electricity from biomass is via the process of biological degradation. Animal wastes or food
wastes can be treated or controlled in such a way that it is anaerobically decomposed to
produce methane (biogas). This biogas can be employed with turbines to generate electricity.
Potential of biomass energy from agricultural residue alone is estimated to be about
480 mt (about 480,000 kg). Small scale power generation from biomass as reached about 1
MW. Large scale generation is still being developed.
Geothermal energy: This is the natural heat from the centre of the earth. The earths core has
a temperature of over 70,000oC. Some rocks closer to the ground surface (about 1 km below
the surface) also have temperature in the neighborhood of 500 oC. Moreover, areas where
there are volcanic eruptions, hot springs and geysers (streams gushing hot water and steam)
typically have very hot rocks underlying the surface. Areas with geothermal energy potential
usually have a reservoir of hot water below the surface. The heat from this source can be
16
employed for heating buildings. It can also be sued for cooling using vapour absorption
system and also for electricity. It is reported that potential of up to 3400 MW exist in New
Zealand, United States of America, japan and Iceland. China and Philippines have been able
to generate hundreds of MW of electricity from geothermal sources. Geothermal reservoirs
far from the earths surface can be accessed by drilling.
Food for thought: Can Nigeria employ geothermal energy sources for electricity
generation?
Water (or hydropower) energy: Water is a renewable energy resource because of the
continuous activities of evaporation and precipitation. When water flow under gravity, it
poses immense kinetic energy. This kinetic energy can be employed to drive turbines for
production of electricity. Also flowing water can be channeled in a way that it can be
employed by turbines to generate electricity. Hydropower can be either small scale or large
scale. It is the most widely used source of electricity generation, capable of generating huge
amount of electrical energy. Globally, hydropower contributes about 19% of the world
electrical energy either from small or large scale generation. Historically, the development of
hydro-electricity has come a long way. It dates back to 1882, when moving water was used to
produce electricity via a water wheel on the Fox River in Wisconsin. Table 1.1 shows the
classification of hydropower generation.
Table 1.1: Classification of hydropower generation capacities
S/N
1
2
3
4
5
Scale
Pico
Micro
Mini
Small
Large
Capacity
Up to 5 kW
Between 6 and 100 kW
Above 100 kW but below 1 MW
Above 1 MW and up to 25 MW
Greater than 100 MW
17
Usability
Domestic and small commercial systems
Small community based power system
Micro power grid
Grid connection
Grid connection
Ocean Thermal: Along the regions and layers of sea water from the surface to the deep sea,
there exist gradients of temperatures due to the heating effect of the sun. The ocean is
regarded as the worlds largest solar energy collector and storage systems because of its
vastness in coverage. As long as there is a gradient in temperature between the warm surface
water and the cold deep water by at least 20oC, an ocean thermal energy conversion system
(heat engines) can be used. It is estimated that the ocean has the potential to produce 10 TW
of electrical energy.
NB: Read the attached document for more on Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
system
Tidal power/energy: Tides are the cyclic rising and falling of ocean surface caused by the
tidal forces of the moon and sun acting on the ocean. They are caused by the gravitational
attraction of the moon and the sun acting upon the ocean waters of the rotating earth. Tides
cause changes in the depth of the marine and estuarine water bodies and produce oscillating
currents known as tidal streams. Moreover, tidal power can be explained to mean the
generation of electricity using the mechanical force created by the rise and fall of ocean
surge. It is a renewable, largely abundant non-depleting and clean source of energy. Tides are
very powerful with the sea moving very quickly producing immense force of moving water
which can be adequately harnessed for gainful work. Tidal energy is produced by using
special energy generators purposely designed to convert the mechanical power of ocean
currents to electricity. These generators are generally called tidal stream generators. They
contain turbines mounted on gear box shafts and operate in similar manner to wind turbines,
only that they produce more electrical energies at low tidal velocities compared with same
18
amount of wind speeds for wind turbines. The generators are placed under water in places or
areas where high tides are common and recurrent. They are designed to capture the kinetic
energy of moving water and subsequently convert it to electrical energy. A key feature of
most tidal stream turbines is that the turbines use technology already developed from the
wind industry. The only difference is the support structure.
Wave energy: Waves are produced as a result of the action of winds on the sea. It contains a
great deal of energy which can be harnessed to drive turbines for electricity generation.
Energy produced from sea or ocean waves are termed wave energy.
Hydrogen fuel: Hydrogen is a natural gas that exists in combination with other elements or
material. Hydrogen fuel or energy is an alternative energy resource. It has no environmental
implications and possesses huge energy content, the highest per unit of mass of any chemical
fuel. Hydrogen can be employed in fuel cells to produce electricity and also provide heat.
Although it is not primary an energy source like oils and coals or natural gas, it is however a
huge energy carrier. When electricity is generated from the different sources, it can be
converted and stored in hydrogen. To put energy into hydrogen requires that it must be
compressed or liquefied. A major challenge facing hydrogen energy utilization on a large
scale today is that the technology of its storage and commercial production is still under
development.
2.3 Prospects of Renewable energy Sources

Globally energy systems are of different kinds and forms with broad division under the
conventional (non-renewable) and unconventional (renewable) energy sources. The most
widely used however are the conventional energy sources of fossil fuels (oils, natural gas and
19
coal) and nuclear reactors. The environmental and health challenges posed by these sources
have been the major concern across the world. This is because of the emission and
byproducts from systems utilizing these conventional sources of energy. Another issue of
note about the conventional sources of energy is their finite nature. It is thought that because
it takes several millions of years for the organic matter to become fossil fuels, the rate of its
use today is so fast that more would have been extracted before its replacement. Also, the
cost of maintaining the energy conversion and generation systems for conventional sources is
very high. Although the technology of energy conversion is readily available, even with
major improvements, the environmental and health challenges associated with employing the
conversion systems are still present.
Further to this, global annual demand for energy is always on the rise. An
international projections reported that the energy dependence of the world is expected to rise
by over 34% between 2002 and 2025 when that by developing nations only, is expected to
double the present demand. Based on the need for energy, people in rural areas of developing
countries constantly depend on traditional biomass for cooking and heating. This invariable
leads to deforestation in affected regions. Another factor is rural electrification. In most
developing countries (e.g. Nigeria and other West African nations), communities in the rural
areas are hardly connected to the national electricity grid. The costs of connecting these rural
suburbs to the grid and maintaining the facilities are also not very feasible for poor nations.
One major way that have been recognized to posses the potential for resolving all the
highlighted challenges of rural electrification and associated environmental and health
challenges is the adoption of the unconventional (renewable) energy resources. These sources
contain enormous, largely untapped and sustained opportunity for meeting the worlds energy
needs. For instance, the sun radiates enormous amount of energy in one year than people
have used since the world began, they are environmentally friendly as they do not contribute
20
harmful and toxic emissions. In addition, they do not create the concern of eventual depletion
as those of non-renewable sources. They have no associated health challenges and can be
deployed as standalone facilities for rural electrification in places that are not connected to
the national electricity grid. The major challenges of utilizing renewable energy resources for
power generation however lie in the intermittence of the sources and the initial cost of
installation. For instance, employing wind for wind-to-electricity generation will require that
there is sufficient amount of wind speed to drive the turbines. Adequate and required wind
speeds are not however always available. There are times when the wind speeds come below
the required magnitudes. At this period, the turbine installation will be unavailable for
generation. Also, employing the sun for power generation would also require the availability
of good solar radiation over a place. This may not be the case for most places across the
world. Geothermal resources are also localized. They are only available in places with good
underground heat. Ocean thermal energy can only be employed in the tropical regions.
Based on all of these and other shortcomings, there are ongoing researches across the
globe to develop improvements in order to bring down the cost of generation modules. For
instance, there are ongoing researches to employ wood for wind turbine blades and also
works are under way to find a means by which better solar collector designs (and material
improvements) can be done to capture more radiant energy. Another area of research is the
development of appropriate storage technology for renewable energies for periods when the
installations are unavailable for generation.
21
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Woods JD and Barkmann W (1986) A Lagrangian mixed
layer model of Atlantic 183C water formation. Nature
319: 574}576.
OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION

(OTEC)
S. M. Masutani and P. K. Takahashi,
University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA
Copyright
2001 Academic Press
doi:10.1006/rwos.2001.0031
Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) generates

electricity indirectly from solar energy by harnessing
the temperature difference between the sun-warmed
surface of tropical oceans and the colder deep
waters. A signiRcant fraction of solar radiation incident on the ocean is retained by seawater in tropical
regions, resulting in average year-round surface temperatures of about 283C. Deep, cold water, meanwhile, forms at higher latitudes and descends to
Sow along the seaSoor toward the equator. The
warm surface layer, which extends to depths of
about 100}200 m, is separated from the deep cold
water by a thermocline. The temperature difference,
T, between the surface and thousand-meter depth

ranges from 10 to 253C, with larger differences
occurring in equatorial and tropical waters, as depicted in Figure 1.
T establishes the limits of the
performance of OTEC power cycles; the rule-ofthumb is that a differential of about 203C is necessary to sustain viable operation of an OTEC facility.
Since OTEC exploits renewable solar energy,
recurring costs to generate electrical power are
minimal. However, the Rxed or capital costs of
OTEC systems per kilowatt of generating capacity
are very high because large pipelines and heat exchangers are needed to produce relatively modest
amounts of electricity. These high Rxed costs dominate the economics of OTEC to the extent that it
currently cannot compete with conventional power
systems, except in limited niche markets. Considerable effort has been expended over the past two
decades to develop OTEC by-products, such as fresh
water, air conditioning, and mariculture, that could
offset the cost penalty of electricity generation.
State of the Technology

OTEC power systems operate as cyclic heat engines.
They receive thermal energy through heat transfer
from surface sea water warmed by the sun, and
transform a portion of this energy to electrical
power. The Second Law of Thermodynamics precludes the complete conversion of thermal energy in
to electricity. A portion of the heat extracted from
the warm sea water must be rejected to a colder
thermal sink. The thermal sink employed by OTEC
systems is sea water drawn from the ocean depths
by means of a submerged pipeline. A steady-state
control volume energy analysis yields the result that
net electrical power produced by the engine must
equal the difference between the rates of heat transfer from the warm surface water and to the cold
deep water. The limiting (i.e., maximum) theoretical
Carnot energy conversion efRciency of a cyclic heat
1994
Longitude
40E
80E
120E
160E
160W
120W
80W
40W
0W
Latitude
40N
30N
20N
10N
Equator
10S
20S
30S
40S
Less than 18C
18_ 20C
20_ 22C
22_ 24C
More than 24C
Depth less than 1000 m
Figure 1 Temperature difference between surface and deep sea water in regions of the world. The darkest areas have the
greatest temperature difference and are the best locations for OTEC systems.
engine scales with the difference between the temperatures at which these heat transfers occur. For
OTEC, this difference is determined by
T and is
very small; hence, OTEC efRciency is low. Although
viable OTEC systems are characterized by Carnot
efRciencies in the range of 6}8%, state-of-the-art
combustion steam power cycles, which tap much
higher temperature energy sources, are theoretically
capable of converting more than 60% of the
extracted thermal energy into electricity.
The low energy conversion efRciency of OTEC
means that more than 90% of the thermal energy
extracted from the oceans surface is wasted and
must be rejected to the cold, deep sea water. This
necessitates large heat exchangers and seawater
Sow rates to produce relatively small amounts of
electricity.
In spite of its inherent inefRciency, OTEC, unlike
conventional fossil energy systems, utilizes a renewable resource and poses minimal threat to the
environment. In fact, it has been suggested that
widespread adoption of OTEC could yield tangible
environmental beneRts through avenues such as reduction of greenhouse gas CO2 emissions; enhanced
uptake of atmospheric CO2 by marine organism
populations sustained by the nutrient-rich, deep
OTEC sea water; and preservation of corals and
hurricane amelioration by limiting temperature rise
in the surface ocean through energy extraction and
artiRcial upwelling of deep water.
Carnot efRciency applies only to an ideal heat
engine. In real power generation systems, irreversibilities will further degrade performance. Given its
low theoretical efRciency, successful implementation
of OTEC power generation demands careful engineering to minimize irreversibilities. Although OTEC
consumes what is essentially a free resource, poor
thermodynamic performance will reduce the

quantity of electricity available for sale and, hence,
negatively affect the economic feasibility of an
OTEC facility.
An OTEC heat engine may be conRgured following designs by J.A. DArsonval, the French engineer
who Rrst proposed the OTEC concept in 1881, or
G. Claude, DArsonvals former student. Their designs are known, respectively, as closed cycle and
open cycle OTEC.
Closed Cycle OTEC

DArsonvals original concept employed a pure
working Suid that would evaporate at the temperature of warm sea water. The vapor would subsequently expand and do work before being
condensed by the cold sea water. This series of steps
would be repeated continuously with the same
working Suid, whose Sow path and thermodynamic
process representation constituted closed loops
} hence, the name closed cycle. The speciRc process adopted for closed cycle OTEC is the Rankine,
or vapor power, cycle. Figure 2 is a simpliRed schematic diagram of a closed cycle OTEC system. The
principal components are the heat exchangers,
turbogenerator, and seawater supply system, which,
although not shown, accounts for most of the parasitic power consumption and a signiRcant fraction
of the capital expense. Also not included are ancillary devices such as separators to remove residual
liquid downstream of the evaporator and subsystems to hold and supply working Suid lost through
leaks or contamination.
In this system, heat transfer from warm surface
sea water occurs in the evaporator, producing
a saturated vapor from the working Suid. Electricity
Cold
seawater
discharge
Warm sea
water in
Evaporator
Warm
seawater
discharge
1995
Working
fluid
vapor
Condenser
Turbogenerator
Working fluid
pressurizer
(boiler feed pump)
Cold sea
water in
Working fluid
condensate
Figure 2 Schematic diagram of a closed-cycle OTEC system. The working fluid is vaporized by heat transfer from the warm sea
water in the evaporator. The vapor expands through the turbogenerator and is condensed by heat transfer to cold sea water in the
condenser. Closed-cycle OTEC power systems, which operate at elevated pressures, require smaller turbines than open-cycle
systems.
is generated when this gas expands to lower pressure through the turbine. Latent heat is transferred
from the vapor to the cold sea water in the condenser and the resulting liquid is pressurized with
a pump to repeat the cycle.
The success of the Rankine cycle is a consequence
of more energy being recovered when the vapor
expands through the turbine than is consumed in
re-pressurizing the liquid. In conventional (e.g.,
combustion) Rankine systems, this yields net electrical power. For OTEC, however, the remaining balance may be reduced substantially by an amount
needed to pump large volumes of sea water through
the heat exchangers. (One misconception about
OTEC is that tremendous energy must be expended
to bring cold sea water up from depths approaching
1000 meters. In reality, the natural hydrostatic pressure gradient provides for most of the increase in
the gravitational potential energy of a Suid particle
moving with the gradient from the ocean depths to
the surface.)
Irreversibilities in the turbomachinery and heat
exchangers reduce cycle efRciency below the Carnot
value. Irreversibilities in the heat exchangers occur
when energy is transferred over a large temperature
difference. It is important, therefore, to select
a working Suid that will undergo the desired phase
changes at temperatures established by the surface
and deep sea water. Insofar as a large number of
substances can meet this requirement (because pressures and the pressure ratio across the turbine and
pump are design parameters), other factors must be
considered in the selection of a working Suid includ-
ing: cost and availability, compatibility with system materials, toxicity, and environmental hazard.
Leading candidate working Suids for closed cycle
OTEC applications are ammonia and various
Suorocarbon refrigerants. Their primary disadvantage is the environmental hazard posed by leakage;
ammonia is toxic in moderate concentrations
and certain Suorocarbons have been banned by
the Montreal Protocol because they deplete
stratospheric ozone.
The Kalina, or adjustable proportion Suid mixture (APFM), cycle is a variant of the OTEC closed
cycle. Whereas simple closed cycle OTEC systems
use a pure working Suid, the Kalina cycle proposes
to employ a mixture of ammonia and water with
varying proportions at different points in the system. The advantage of a binary mixture is that, at
a given pressure, evaporation or condensation occurs over a range of temperatures; a pure Suid, on
the other hand, changes phase at constant temperature. This additional degree of freedom allows heat
transfer-related irreversibilities in the evaporator
and condenser to be reduced.
Although it improves efRciency, the Kalina cycle
needs additional capital equipment and may impose
severe demands on the evaporator and condenser.
The efRciency improvement will require some combination of higher heat transfer coefRcients, more
heat transfer surface area, and increased seawater
Sow rates. Each has an associated cost or power
penalty. Additional analysis and testing are required
to conRrm whether the Kalina cycle and assorted
variations are viable alternatives.
1996
Open Cycle OTEC

Claudes concern about the cost and potential biofouling of closed cycle heat exchangers led him to
propose using steam generated directly from the
warm sea water as the OTEC working Suid. The
steps of the Claude, or open, cycle are: (1) Sash
evaporation of warm sea water in a partial vacuum;
(2) expansion of the steam through a turbine to
generate power; (3) condensation of the vapor by
direct contact heat transfer to cold sea water; and
(4) compression and discharge of the condensate
and any residual noncondensable gases. Unless fresh
water is a desired by-product, open cycle OTEC
eliminates the need for surface heat exchangers. The
name open cycle comes from the fact that the
working Suid (steam) is discharged after a single
pass and has different initial and Rnal thermodynamic states; hence, the Sow path and process
are open.
The essential features of an open cycle OTEC
system are presented in Figure 3. The entire system,
from evaporator to condenser, operates at partial
vacuum, typically at pressures of 1}3% of atmospheric. Initial evacuation of the system and removal of noncondensable gases during operation are
performed by the vacuum compressor, which, along
with the sea water and discharge pumps, accounts
for the bulk of the open cycle OTEC parasitic
power consumption.
The low system pressures of open cycle OTEC are
necessary to induce boiling of the warm sea water.
Flash evaporation is accomplished by exposing the
sea water to pressures below the saturation pressure
corresponding to its temperature. This is usually
accomplished by pumping it into an evacuated
chamber through spouts designed to maximize heat
and mass transfer surface area. Removal of gases
dissolved in the sea water, which will come out of
solution in the low-pressure evaporator and compromise operation, may be performed at an intermediate pressure prior to evaporation.
Vapor produced in the Sash evaporator is relatively pure steam. The heat of vaporization is
extracted from the liquid phase, lowering its
temperature and preventing any further boiling.
Flash evaporation may be perceived, then, as
a transfer of thermal energy from the bulk of the
warm sea water of the small fraction of mass that is
vaporized. Less than 0.5% of the mass of warm sea
water entering the evaporator is converted into
steam.
The pressure drop across the turbine is established
by the cold seawater temperature. At 43C, steam
condenses at 813 Pa. The turbine (or turbine diffuser) exit pressure cannot fall below this value.
Hence, the maximum turbine pressure drop is only
about 3000 Pa, corresponding to about a 3:1 pressure ratio. This will be further reduced to account
for other pressure drops along the steam path and
differences in the temperatures of the steam and
seawater streams needed to facilitate heat transfer in
the evaporator and condenser.
Condensation of the low-pressure steam leaving
the turbine may employ a direct contact condenser
(DCC), in which cold sea water is sprayed over the
vapor, or a conventional surface condenser that
physically separates the coolant and the condensate.
DCCs are inexpensive and have good heat transfer
characteristics because they lack a solid thermal
boundary between the warm and cool Suids. Surface
condensers are expensive and more difRcult to maintain than DCCs; however, they produce a marketable freshwater by-product.
EfSuent from the condenser must be discharged to
the environment. Liquids are pressurized to ambient
levels at the point of release by means of a pump,
or, if the elevation of the condenser is suitably high,
Cold seawater
discharge
Warm sea
water in
De-aeration
(Optional)
Vacuum
chamber flash
evaporator
Noncondensable Warm seawater

discharge
gases
Noncondensable
gases
Desalinated
water vapor
Turbogenerator
Condenser
Vent compressor
Desalinated
water
(Optional)
Cold
sea water in
Figure 3 Schematic diagram of an open-cycle OTEC system. In open-cycle OTEC, warm sea water is used directly as the
working fluid. Warm sea water is flash evaporated in a partial vacuum in the evaporator. The vapor expands through the turbine and
is condensed with cold sea water. The principal disadvantage of open-cycle OTEC is the low system operating pressures, which
necessitate large components to accommodate the high volumetric flow rates of steam.
can be compressed hydrostatically. As noted previously, noncondensable gases, which include any
residual water vapor, dissolved gases that have
come out of solution, and air that may have leaked
into the system, are removed by the vacuum compressor.
Open cycle OTEC eliminates expensive heat exchangers at the cost of low system pressures. Partial
vacuum operation has the disadvantage of making
the system vulnerable to air in-leakage and promotes the evolution of noncondensable gases dissolved in sea water. Power must ultimately be
expended to pressurize and remove these gases. Furthermore, as a consequence of the low steam density, volumetric Sow rates are very high per unit of
electricity generated. Large components are needed
to accommodate these Sow rates. In particular, only
the largest conventional steam turbine stages have
the potential for integration into open cycle OTEC
systems of a few megawatts gross generating capacity. It is generally acknowledged that higher capacity plants will require a major turbine development
effort.
The mist lift and foam lift OTEC systems are
variants of the OTEC open cycle. Both employ the
sea water directly to produce power. Unlike
Claudes open cycle, lift cycles generate electricity
with a hydraulic turbine. The energy expended by
the liquid to drive the turbine is recovered from the
warm sea water. In the lift process, warm seawater
is Sash evaporated to produce a two-phase,
liquid}vapor mixture } either a mist consisting of
liquid droplets suspended in a vapor, or a foam,
where vapor bubbles are contained in a continuous
liquid phase. The mixture rises, doing work against
gravity. Here, the thermal energy of the vapor is
expended to increase the potential energy of the
Suid. The vapor is then condensed with cold sea
water and discharged back into the ocean. Flow of
the liquid through the hydraulic turbine may occur
before or after the lift process. Advocates of the mist
and foam lift cycles contend that they are cheaper to
implement than closed cycle OTEC because they
require no expensive heat exchangers, and are
superior to the Claude cycle because they utilize a
hydraulic turbine rather than a low pressure steam
turbine. These claims await veriRcation.
Hybrid Cycle OTEC

Some marketing studies have suggested that OTEC
systems that can provide both electricity and water
may be able to penetrate the marketplace more
readily than plants dedicated solely to power generation. Hybrid cycle OTEC was conceived as a
1997
response to these studies. Hybrid cycles combine the

potable water production capabilities of open cycle
OTEC with the potential for large electricity generation capacities offered by the closed cycle.
Several hybrid cycle variants have been proposed.
Typically, as in the Claude cycle, warm surface
seawater is Sash evaporated in a partial vacuum.
This low pressure steam Sows into a heat exchanger
where it is employed to vaporize a pressurized,
low-boiling-point Suid such as ammonia. During
this process, most of the steam condenses, yielding
desalinated potable water. The ammonia vapor
Sows through a simple closed-cycle power loop and
is condensed using cold sea water. The uncondensed
steam and other gases exiting the ammonia evaporator may be further cooled by heat transfer to either
the liquid ammonia leaving the ammonia condenser
or cold sea water. The noncondensables are then
compressed and discharged to the atmosphere.
Steam is used as an intermediary heat transfer
medium between the warm sea water and the ammonia; consequently, the potential for biofouling in
the ammonia evaporator is reduced signiRcantly.
Another advantage of the hybrid cycle related to
freshwater production is that condensation occurs at
signiRcantly higher pressures than in an open cycle
OTEC condenser, due to the elimination of the
turbine from the steam Sow path. This may, in turn,
yield some savings in the amount of power consumed to compress and discharge the noncondensable gases from the system. These savings (relative
to a simple Claude cycle producing electricity and
water), however, are offset by the additional backwork of the closed-cycle ammonia pump.
One drawback of the hybrid cycle is that water
production and power generation are closely
coupled. Changes or problems in either the water or
power subsystem will compromise performance of
the other. Furthermore, there is a risk that the potable water may be contaminated by an ammonia
leak. In response to these concerns, an alternative
hybrid cycle has been proposed, comprising decoupled power and water production components.
The basis for this concept lies in the fact that warm
sea water leaving a closed cycle evaporator is still
sufRciently warm, and cold seawater exiting the
condenser is sufRciently cold, to sustain an independent freshwater production process.
The alternative hybrid cycle consists of a conventional closed-cycle OTEC system that produces electricity and a downstream Sash-evaporation-based
desalination system. Water production and electricity generation can be adjusted independently, and
either can operate should a subsystem fail or require
servicing. The primary drawbacks are that the
1998
ammonia evaporator uses warm seawater directly

and is subject to biofouling; and additional equipment, such as the potable water surface condenser,
is required, thus increasing capital expenses.
Environmental Considerations
OTEC systems are, for the most part, environmentally benign. Although accidental leakage of
closed cycle working Suids can pose a hazard, under
normal conditions, the only efSuents are the mixed
seawater discharges and dissolved gases that come
out of solution when sea water is depressurized.
Although the quantities of outgassed species may be
signiRcant for large OTEC systems, with the exception of carbon dioxide, these species are benign.
Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and can impact
global climate; however, OTEC systems release one
or two orders of magnitude less carbon dioxide than
comparable fossil fuel power plants and those emissions may be sequestered easily in the ocean or used
to stimulate marine biomass production.
OTEC mixed seawater discharges will be at lower
temperatures than sea water at the ocean surface.
The discharges will also contain high concentrations
of nutrients brought up with the deep sea water and
may have a different salinity. It is important, therefore, that release back into the ocean is conducted in
a manner that minimizes unintended changes to the
ocean mixed layer biota and avoids inducing longterm surface temperature anomalies. Analyses of
OTEC efSuent plumes suggest that discharge at
depths of 50}100 m should be sufRcient to ensure
minimal impact on the ocean environment. Conversely, the nutrient-rich OTEC discharges could be
exploited to sustain open-ocean mariculture.
Economics of OTEC
Studies conducted to date on the economic feasibility of OTEC systems suffer from the lack of reliable
cost data. Commercialization of the technology is
unlikely until a full-scale plant is constructed and
operated continuously over an extended period to
provide these data on capital and personnel and
maintenance expenses.
Uncertainties in Rnancial analyses notwithstanding, projections suggest very high Rrst costs for
OTEC power system components. Small land-based
or near-shore Soating plants in the 1}10 MW range,
which would probably be constructed in rural
island communities, may require expenditures
of $10 000}$20 000 (in 1995 US dollars) per kW
of installed generating capacity. Although there
appears to be favorable economies of scale, larger
Soating (closed cycle) plants in the 50}100 MW

range are still anticipated to cost about
$5000 kW\1. This is well in excess of the
$1000}$2000 kW\1 of fossil fuel power stations.
To enhance the economics of OTEC power stations, various initiatives have been proposed based
on marketable OTEC by- or co-products. OTEC
proponents believe that the Rrst commercial OTEC
plants will be shore-based systems designed for use
in developing PaciRc island nations, where potable
water is in short supply. Many of these sites would
be receptive to opportunities for economic growth
provided by OTEC-related industries.
Fresh Water
The condensate of the open and hybrid cycle OTEC

systems is desalinated water, suitable for human
consumption and agricultural uses. Analyses have
suggested that Rrst-generation OTEC plants, in the
1}10 MW range, would serve the utility power
needs of rural PaciRc island communities, with the
desalinated water by-product helping to offset the
high cost of electricity produced by the system.
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
The cold, deep sea water can be used to maintain

cold storage spaces, and to provide air conditioning.
The Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority (NELHA), which manages the site of Hawaiis
OTEC experiments, has air-conditioned its buildings
by passing the cold sea water through heat exchangers. A new deep seawater utilization test facility in Okinawa also employs cold seawater air
conditioning. Similar small-scale operations would
be viable in other locales. Economic studies have
been performed for larger metropolitan and resort
applications. These studies indicate that air conditioning new developments, such as resort complexes, with cold seawater may be economically
attractive even if utility-grid electricity is available.
Mariculture
The cold deep ocean waters are rich in nutrients and

low in pathogens, and therefore provide an excellent
medium for the cultivation of marine organisms.
The 322-acre NELHA facility has been the base for
successful mariculture research and development
enterprises. The site has an array of cold water
pipes, originally installed for the early OTEC research, but since used for mariculture. The cold
water is applied to cultivate Sounder, opihi (limpet;
a shellRsh delicacy), oysters, lobsters, sea urchins,
abalone, kelp, nori (a popular edible seaweed used
in sushi), and macro- and microalgae. Although
OIL POLLUTION
1999
many of these ongoing endeavors are proRtable,

high-value products such as biopharmaceuticals, biopigments, and pearls will need to be advanced to
realize the full potential of the deep water.
The cold sea water may have applications for
open-ocean mariculture. ArtiRcial upwelling of deep
water has been suggested as a method of creating
new Rsheries and marine biomass plantations.
Should development proceed, open-ocean cages can
be eliminated and natural feeding would replace
expensive feed, with temperature and nutrient
differentials being used to keep the Rsh stock in
the kept environment.
systems or Soating OTEC plant-ships as oceangoing farms. Such farms would cultivate marine
biomass, for example, in the form of fast-growing
kelp which could be converted thermochemically
into fuel and chemical co-products.
Agriculture
Avery WH and Wu C (1994) Renewable Energy from the

Ocean: A Guide to OTEC. New York: Oxford University Press.
Nihous GC, Syed MA and Vega LA (1989) Conceptual
design of an open-cycle OTEC plant for the production
of electricity and fresh water in a PaciRc island. Proceedings International Conference on Ocean Energy
Recovery.
Penney TR and Bharathan D (1987) Power from the sea.
ScientiTc American 256(1): 86}92.
Sverdrup HV, Johnson MW and Fleming PH (1942)
The Oceans: Their Physics, Chemistry, and General
Biology. New York: Prentice-Hall.
Takahashi PK and Trenka A (1996) Ocean Thermal
Energy Conversion; UNESCO Energy Engineering
Series. Chichester: John Wiley.
Takahashi PK, McKinley K, Phillips VD, Magaard L and
Koske P (1993) Marine macrobiotechnology systems.
Journal of Marine Biotechnology 1(1): 9}15.
Takahashi PK (1996) Project blue revolution. Journal of
Energy Engineering 122(3): 114}124.
Vega LA and Nihous GC (1994) Design of a 5 MW
OTEC pre-commercial plant. Proceedings Oceanology
94: 5.
Vega LA (1992) Economics of ocean thermal energy conversion. In: Seymour RJ (ed.) Ocean Energy Recovery:
The State of the Art. New York: American Society of
Civil Engineers.
An idea initially proposed by University of Hawaii

researchers involves the use of cold sea water for
agriculture. This involves burying an array of cold
water pipes in the ground near to the surface to
create cool weather growing conditions not found in
tropical environments. In addition to cooling the
soil, the system also drip irrigates the crop via condensation of moisture in the air on the cold water
pipes. Demonstrations have determined that strawberries and other spring crops and Sowers can be
grown throughout the year in the tropics using this
method.
Energy Carriers
Although the most common scenario is for OTEC

energy to be converted into electricity and delivered
directly to consumers, energy storage has been considered as an alternative, particularly in applications
involving Soating plants moored far offshore. Storage would also allow the export of OTEC energy to
industrialized regions outside of the tropics. Longterm proposals have included the production of
hydrogen gas via electrolysis, ammonia synthesis,
and the development of shore-based mariculture
See also
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Cycle. Geophysical Heat
Flow. Heat and Momentum Fluxes at the Sea
Surface. Heat Transport and Climate.
Further Reading
OIL POLLUTION
J. M. Baker, Clock Cottage, Shrewsbury, UK
Copyright
2001 Academic Press
doi:10.1006/rwos.2001.0055
Introduction
This article describes the sources of oil pollution,
composition of oil, fate when spilt, and environmental effects. The initial impact of a spill can vary
from minimal to the death of nearly everything in

a particular biological community, and recovery
times can vary from less than one year to more than
30 years. Information is provided on the range of
effects together with the factors which help to determine the course of events. These include oil type
and volume, local geography, climate and season,
species and biological communities, local economic
and amenity considerations, and clean-up methods.
With respect to clean-up, decisions sometimes have
3.0 SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATION

3.1 Introduction
Solar energy is simply described as the energy from the sun. The sun is known to be the
major source of renewable energies. Its radiations have been either used directly or indirectly
in various ways for gainful purposes since the world began. The direct effects of the sun on
the earth and also its application have led to other renewable forms of energy which include
solar, hydropower, wind and biomass (through the processes of photosynthesis).
Gravitational forces of the sun and moon creates the tides from which tidal energy is
obtained. Solar electricity can be obtained by direct conversion of solar energy in
photovoltaic cells and modules, by producing steam in parabolic thermal collectors in a
normal steam turbine power plant, or by producing steam in reflector solar power tower again
for a steam turbine power plant. It is reported that the sun radiates enormous amount of
energy in one year than people have used since the world began (Williams and Carl, 1990).
Basically, energy from the sun is environmentally friendly. They do not contribute harmful
and toxic emissions to the environment and cannot be depleted by reason of use. The
instruments that are commonly used to measure solar radiation of a place are the pyranometer
and the pyrheliometer.
3.1.1 The sun and its energy

The sun is almost a perfectly spherical mass of about 1.4 x 106 km in diameter with a weight
of about 2.0 x 1030 kg (almost 330,000 times that of the earth). 75% of the suns mass is
hydrogen while about 23.32% is helium. The remaining mass is made up of minor quantities
(about 1.68%) of elements which include oxygen, carbon, iron, neon and other heavier
elements.
23
The suns surface temperature is estimated to be about 5778 degree Kelvin while its internal
temperature is about 5 million degree Kelvin. It emits radiant energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves. The radiated waves have wavelengths (each corresponding to a
frequency and energy) that range from 0.2 to 4.0 m. The size of the wavelength is indirectly
related to the frequency and the energy. A shorter wavelength corresponds to a higher
frequency and also, higher energy content (expressed in electron volts (eV)). The suns
energy is created by repeated fusion reaction at its core. This reaction involves the
exothermic combination of two hydrogen atoms to form a helium atom. It fuses about 6.2 x
1011 kg of hydrogen atoms in one second. The reaction is made possible because of the
interaction between the suns high temperature and pressure (which is about 70 billion times
higher than the earths atmospheric pressure)
The mean distance between the sun and earth is approximately 1.50 x 10 11 m. The
sun-earth distance varies based on the movement of the sun from in January to in July. Light
from the sun travels this distance on daily basis in about 8.32 minutes with a speed of light
(3.0 x 108 m/s). The amount of solar energy incident on a horizontal surface on the earth at a
specific time is referred to as insolation. Moreover, insolation received at a specific location
is dependent on certain factors which include: the skys clearness or cloudiness, the suns
angle (altitude) in the sky relative to the surface at the location, the atmospheric medium,
water vapour, location latitude etc. For instance, insolation from directly overhead sun in a
clear sky on a horizontal surface is about 1kW/m2 (this is the highest possible on the earths
surface, when no reflector is present (e.g. Mirrors and lenses)). This value decreases when the
sun is not directly overhead or the receiving surface is not oriented perpendicularly to the
suns rays. Also, the value of the insolation is affected when there are more atmospheric
medium between the sun and the receiving surface, the medium can absorb or reflect part of
the energy. The magnitude of insolation is also affected by humidity, equinox and solstice.
24
Fig. 3.1 shows the variation of the insolation with the months and also the equinoxes (when
the earths tilt is neither away from nor towards the sun) and solstices (when the sun reaches
its highest position in the sky as seen from the north or south poles). In the design of solar
energy based systems, the changes in the magnitude of insolations per season and also due to
the earths rotation are taken into cognizance.
Fig. 3.1: Variation of the magnitudes of insolution per month (Ghosh, T.K and Pretas, M.K, 2011. Energy
resources and systems, vol. 2: renewable resources, Springer, New York, 82)
Light from the sun pass through the atmosphere to the earth. As it does, part of the
light is absorbed or reflected back by the various atmospheric contents which include clouds,
water vapour, oxygen, ozone, dust and carbon dioxide. The molecules of oxygen and ozone
absorb almost all the ultraviolet radiation while the carbon dioxide and water vapour absorbs
some of the infra red energy. In addition, the clouds and dust particles in the atmosphere
scatters part of the solar radiation. This phenomenon affects the amount of solar spectrum
that leaves the sun and reaches the earth. The portion of radiation that successfully reaches
25
the earths surface (without scattering or absorption) is called direct radiation. The other part
that is scattered and reflected (leading to reversal or shift in original direction) but reaches the
earths surface is referred to as diffuse radiation. Therefore, the total solar radiation
received from the sun on a surface is the summation of the direct and diffuse radiations.
Another name for this total solar radiation is called the solar insolation mentioned earlier.
The intensity of diffuse radiation varies among other factors with location latitude, time of
the day and time or month of the year. Therefore, because of the phenomenon of scattering
and absorption of radiant energies, only wavelengths between 0.29 and 2.5 m are considered
for terrestrial application of solar energy. Fig. 3.2 shows the solar spectrum outside in space
and on the ground.
Fig. 3.2: Solar spectrum outside in space and on the ground (Ghosh, T.K and Pretas, M.K, 2011. Energy
resources and systems, vol. 2: renewable resources, Springer, New York, 82)
Under favourable atmospheric conditions, maximum observed intensity at noon onan

oriented surface at sea level is 1 kW/m2. At higher altitude of 1 km, the value is about 1.5
kW/m2. From Fig. 3.2, it is noted that each portion of the solar spectrum is associated with
26
different energy level. For instance, in the region of visible spectrum, the red light is at the
low energy end and the violet light is at the high energy end. Photons in the ultraviolet region
therefore have more energy than those in the visible region while those in the infrared region
gave lesser energy than those in visible region.
3.2 Kinematics of solar radiation

3.2.1 Solar constant (Isc)
Definition: This is the magnitude of energy received in unit time per unit area perpendicular
to the suns direction at the mean sun-earths distance. It is the rate at which solar energy
arrives at the top of the atmosphere. The standard value of the solar constant is given as:
Isc = 1353 W/m2.
3.2.2 Solar intensity
The solar radiation intensity experienced outside the earths atmosphere (extraterrestrial
radiation intensity) varies due to the little variation in the sun-earths distance through the
year. Based on this, the intensity of the solar radiation (I) that reaches the earth is derived
mathematically from:
I
I sc
1 0.33cos
360 n 2
365
I sc
1 0.33cos
360n
365
3.1
where:
n = day number of the year
Isc = solar constant
27
3.2.3 Air mass

This is the ratio of the path of the suns ray through the atmosphere to the length of the path
when the sun is at zenith (directly overhead). Apart of very low solar altitude angles, the air
mass is given as:
m cos ec
3.2
where:
= altitude angle
However, different values are associated with the air mass for different location of the sun at
sea level:
m = 1, when the sun is directly overhead (i.e. at zenith)
m =2, when zenith angle ( z) is 60o. Zenith angle is the angle subtended by the zenith and the
line of sight of the sun.
m = sec z, when m > 3
m = 0 just above the earths atmosphere.
3.2.4 Declination ()
This is the angular distance of the suns ray north or south of the equator. It is zero on the two
equinox days (22 March and 20 September) and varies between 23.5o on 22 June and - 23.5o
on 20 December. Mathematically, the suns declination is estimated from:
23.45sin
360 284 n
365
3.3
3.2.5 The hour angle ()

This is the angle which the earth must turn to bring the meridian of a point in line with the
suns ray. The hour angle is equivalent to 15o per hour. It is measured from noon based on the
local solar time. It converts the local solar time into number of degrees whuch the sun moves
across the sky. It is 15o at solar noon. In the morning the hour angle may be taken as positive
and negative in the afternoon. The hour angle () can be estimated from:
28
15o 12 LST
3.4
where:
LST = local solar time
However, LST is given as:
LST
LT
TC
60
3.5
where:
LT = local time and TC = time correction factor
TC
4 LSTM longitude
EoT
3.6
where:
LSTM = local standard time meridian (It is a reference meridian used for a particular time
zone and is similar to the prime meridian used for Greenwich Mean Time (GMT))
EoT = equation of time
15o
LSTM
TGMT
3.7
where:
TGMT
EoT
LT GMT
9.87sin 2
in hours
7.53cos
3.8
1.5sin
3.9
where:
360 n 81
365
3.10
where:
n = day number in a year
The equation of time correction (EoT) is given in Fig. 3.3. Fig. 3.3 can be used directly in leu
of the equation above.
29
Fig. 3.3: Equation of time correction (source: [http://pvcdrom.pveducation.org/SUNLIGHT/SOLART.HTM,
May 15, 2012])
Class Exercise
Evaluate the local solar time at Lagos, Nigeria (Latitude 6.45 o N, Longitude 3.38o E) at 9.00
am (GMT +1) on June 20, 1996.
Solution
Using the equations above solve for LST.
= 88.77o
EoT = - 1.2416
TGMT = 1 hr.
LSTM = 15o
TC = 45.2384
LST = 9.754 am
3.2.6 Zenith angle (z)
This is the complementary angle of the suns altitude angle ().
The altitude angle is the vertical angle between the projection of the suns ray on the
horizontal plane and the direction of the suns ray that passes through the point.
30
3.11
3.2.7 Solar azimuth angle (s )

This is the solar angle (in degree) along the horizontal east or west of north or it is a
horizontal angle measured from the north to the horizontal projection of the suns rays. It is
taken as positive when measure westward.
Moreover, , z, and s can be expressed in terms of the latitude angle () as:
cos
cos cos cos
sin sin
3.12
cos
sec
cos sin cos
3.13
sin
sec cos sin
cos sin
3.14
3.2.8 The slope (s), surface azimuth ( ), and incident angle ()

Slope: This is the angle made by the plane surface with the horizontal. It is positive when
surface is sloping towards the south.
Surface azimuth: This is the angle of deviation of the normal to the surface from the local
meridian. The zero point is south, east is positive and west is negative.
Incident angle: This is the angle being measured between the beam of rays and the normal to
the plane.
The relation between incident angle () and other angles is given for spherical geometry as:
cos
sin
sin cos s cos cos cos sin s
cos
cos cos cos s sin cos sin s
...3.15
cos sin sin sin s

Equation 3.15 can be simplified by the following modifications:
a) When the surfaces are vertical, s = 90o. Thus, equation 3.15 becomes:
cos
sin cos cos cos
cos sin cos
cos sin sin
3.16
b) When the surfaces are horizontal, s = 0o, = z, i.e. cos = cos z = sin . Thus,
cos
sin sin
cos cos cos
3.17
31
c) When the surface is facing the south, = 0, = T (denoting that the surface is titled).
Thus:
cos
sin
sin cos s cos cos sin s
= cos
cos cos cos s -sin sin s
sin sin
-s
cos cos cos
-s
3.18
d) When the vertical surface is facing southward, s = 90 o, = 0. Then:
cos
sin cos cos -cos sin
3.19
3.2.9 Day length (td)

Thus is the time between sunrise and sunset.
Since each hour correspond to 15o, the day length (in hours) is given by:
2 s
15
td
3.20
However, at the time of sunrise or sunset, z = 90o and from equation 3.17, the sunrise hour
angle s can be estimated after substituting z = 90o as:
s
cos
3.21
tan tan
Therefore,
td
2 cos
tan tan
3.22
15
Class Examples
1. A flat collector was used to capture solar radiation on November 5, 2008 at 10 am solar
time for a location 29.5o N, 30o E. If the collector is facing southward and tilted at an angle of
33o with the horizontal, estimate the angle the solar radiation made with the normal to the flat
collector.
2. If the orientation of the collector (in 1 above) is changed in such a way that it is held at 90o
to the horizontal and facing due east with surface azimuth angle being 15 o, what will be the
angle the solar radiation makes with the flat collector?
32
3. What will the angle be if the vertical collector (in 2 above) is facing due south? Also
determine the altitude angle .
4. Determine the sunrise day length for a location with latitude 23.4 o and declination 20o
Solutions
1. Use equations 3.3 and 3.18 to estimate T
2. Use equations 3.3 and 3.16 to estimate
3. Use equations 3.3, 3.11 and 3.19 to estimate z and
4. Use equation 3.20 and 3.21 to estimate t d
3.2.10 Irradiance
This is defined as the measure of the incoming solar radiation incident on a surface per unit
area of that surface. The unit is given as W/m2.
3.2.11 Radiant exposure
This is defined as the amount of solar energy incident on a surface per unit area of the
surface. It can be estimated by integrating the irradiance over a specified time, mostly 24
hours (a day). The unit is given as W/m2.
3.2.12 Radiosity
This is the rate at which radiant energy is simultaneously reflected, emitted and transmitted
away from a unit area of a surface. The unit is given as W/m2.
3.2.13 Emissive power
This is the rate at which solar radiation leaves a unit area of a surface by emission. The unit is
given as W/m2.
3.2.14 Peak sun hour
This is defined as the equivalent number of hours per day when Solar Irradiance averages
1KW/m2.
33
3.2.15 Global solar radiation

This is the amount of solar radiation from the sun incident on a surface usually measured on a
daily basis. It could then be averaged monthly in order to deduce its monthly values. It could
be extraterrestrial (i.e., the amount of solar radiation incident on the earth surface before
diffusion by cloud cover), direct (beam radiation) or diffuse (scattered) components. It is
measured in W/m2.
3.2.16 Clearness index
This is defined as the ratio of radiation received on a horizontal surface in a period (usually
one day) to the radiation that would have been received on a parallel extraterrestrial surface
in the same period. Mathematically, it is represented as:
KT
H
Ho
3.23
3.2.17 Variation in day length

This is the number of hours between sunrise and sunset measured in hours. It can otherwise
be referred to as maximum hours of optimum sunshine. It is usually denoted as N and it is the
same as td. This is given mathematically as:
N td
td
3.24
15
2 cos
tan tan
3.25
15
3.2.18 Extraterrestrial solar radiation (Ho)

This is the amount of solar radiation experienced outside the earths atmosphere. It is
expressed mathematically as:
H0
24
I SC (1 0.033cos
360n
)(cos cos sin
365
3.2.19 Relative sunshine

34
2 s
sin sin )
360
3.26
This is the ratio of the average daily hours of bright sunshine over a period to the maximum
daily hours of bright sunshine for the same period. It is expressed as:
RT
n
N
n
td
3.27
3.3 Estimation of average global solar radiation

Different models exist that correlates different meteorological parameters to evaluate the
global solar radiation (H) of a place. Some of these include those that evaluate H from the
correlation of parameters such as maximum and minimum temperatures, amount of cloud
cover, extraterrestrial radiation, relative humidity, latitude, elevation, soil temperature,
precipitation, evaporation and number of rainy days, etc.. Another model also exists that
correlates the global solar radiation to the relative sunshine hours. For the purpose of this
course the Angstrom-Prescott model type of equation 3.28 will be used. This is given as:
KT
H
Ho
a b
n
N
3.28
where:
KT = clearness index, Ho = extraterrestrial solar radiation, n = the monthly average sunshine
hours, N = maximum sunshine duration or day length, a and b are correlation coefficients (or
constants). The ratio
n
is called the relative sunshine.
N
Based on the Angstrom-Prescott model, page developed a model represented by equation

3.29. The model was reported to be applicable anywhere in the world. Thus for this course,
equation 3.29 will be very useful for determining the global solar radiation of a place.
KT
H
Ho
0.23 0.48RT
3.29
35
3.4 Utilization of solar energy

Of the sources of renewable energy, solar energy has enjoyed wide utilization in various
applications whether of industrial, domestic or agricultural uses. However, worthy of note is
the fact that, the technologies that employ solar energy can be classified as either passive
solar or active solar depending on the way the solar energy is captured, converted and
distributed.
-
Passive solar technologies use the indirect method of harnessing and discharging
solar energy in the form of thermal energy through the creation of channels and
spaces for material circulation. The material could be liquid (e.g. water) or gases (e.g.
air). The principle creates a system containing fluid or materials that receives heat by
direct solar heating and distribute the heat via spaces or channel located within it.
Applications of this include the design of passive solar buildings in which, the
windows, walls and floors are designed and made to receive and distribute heat.
Another is the thermosiphon solar water heater.
Active solar technologies use the direct method of harnessing the solar energy either
with solar thermal collectors or photovoltaic panels. With these technologies, solar
energy can be converted to either heat or electricity via electrical or mechanical
conversion devices.
Adopting solar technology depends on certain factors which are capable or aiding the growth
of solar technology utilization across the globe, especially developing countries. These
factors are highlighted below.
Factors that may likely aid the adoption and promotion of solar technology utilization
1. Availability of efficient conversion system
2. Economics of solar energy equipments and their applications
36
3. Cost of operation and maintenance: this must be low

4. Ease of mobility: the device should be easy to transport
3.4.1 Modes of utilization of solar technology
There are basically two broad modes of utilizing solar energy technologies. These are:
1. Utilization as solar thermal energy
2. Utilization as photovoltaic cell generated electricity/solar lighting
3.4.1.1 Utilization as solar thermal energy
This is a simple way of utilizing solar energy directly. The solar thermal conversion system
receives the suns energy in the form of heat. This heat may therefore be employed for
different purposes ranging from general heating purposes, space heating and cooling of
residential buildings, solar cooking etc. Also, solar thermal energy system can be used to
generate electricity. In this type of system, various solar tracking and concentrating devices
are used to focus sunlight and achieve high temperature to generate steam for driving turbines
in solar thermal electric power plants. Sometimes, instead of the fluid being water, other
working fluids may be used. For instance, different but suitable gases and other volatile
liquids may be used. Sometimes, the solar tracking and concentrating devices are used to
focus sunlight to a receiver. At the receiver, the temperature increases to a very high value
and it is used to melt salt. The hot molten salt is then driven to generate steam in a cyclic
manner. The steam is used to generate electricity with a steam turbine. The maximum
theoretical thermodynamic conversion efficiency of using the hot molten salt to generate
steam that produces the electricity is given by the Carnot cycle efficiency as equation 3.30.
Carnot
thot tcold
thot
3.30
37
A schematic diagram of the operating processes of a solar thermal power plant is displayed in
Fig. 3.4.
Fig. 3.4: Schematic diagram showing the cycle processes of solar thermal power plant (Source: Patel, M.R,
1999. Wind and solar power system, CRC press, Boca Raton, 159)
There are basically three alternative configurations of solar thermal collectors. These are the
Dish, Central receiver and the Parabolic trough.
In employing solar thermal energy for space cooling, solar heated water is used to vaporize
ammonia or propane at a moderate pressure. The vapour is then channelled in such a way that
it drives a turbine which in turn drives a vapour compression cooling unit. The disadvantages
of this vapour compression system lie with the working fluid and the efficiency. While
propane is highly flammable, ammonia is toxic. The systems efficiency is very low and
required improved design. Another alternative means of providing solar cooling is by the
principle of absorption cooling or absorption air conditioning. The schematic flow diagram of
absorption cooling is given in Fig. 3.5.
38
Fig. 3.5: Schematic flow diagram of an absorption cooling system. (Source: [http://www.google.com.ng/
imgres?imgurl=http://sustainablesources.com/images/heatcoolsolar4.gif&imgrefurl=http://solarheatcool.sustaina
blesources.com/&h=449&w=350&sz=5&tbnid=0A7FAFQmkjHSGM:&tbnh=90&tbnw=70&zoom=1&docid=n
fsFUKdnT_pxNM&hl=en&sa=X&ei=gzm1T7HSF-KM0AX6s2E&ved=0CKgBEPUBMAU&dur=5374, May
17, 2012])
3.4.1.2 Utilization as photovoltaic cell generated electricity/solar lighting

One of the common ways of utilizing solar energy is for generating electricity. Solar energy
can be converted directly to electricity by the use of photovoltaic (PV) cells/panels. A PV cell
(sometimes called solar cell) is composed of crystalline semiconductor cells or materials. The
semiconductor cells (wafers) are made of ultra-thin layer phosphorous-doped silicon and
thick layer of boron-doped silicon. The phosphorous-doped silicon is the n-type
semiconductor while the boron-doped silicon is the p-type semiconductor. At the top surface
of the material, where the p-n junction is located, an electrical field is created. The electrical
39
field, at the strike of sunlight, leads to the transfer of electrons from the semiconductor
terminal to the electrical appliance, thereby producing electricity.
A typical silicon photovoltaic cell produces between 0.5 and 0.6 volts direct current
under no load condition. However, the output from a PV system depends on: efficiency, size
of the PV system and intensity of sunlight. A PV system has proven to be very reliable in
space applications. Other areas of application include its use as standalone electricity
generation for remote areas, grid connected electricity generation, hybrid power systems, etc.
3.4.1.2.1 Advantages of the PV systems

1. It can be employed anywhere in the world, as long as the sun shines there.
2. It is quiet and has no issue of noise pollution
3. It has no sunshine magnitude constraint, unlike wind turbine that cannot produce electricity
below certain wind speed value.
4. It is easy to install
5. Needs no tall tower or stand unlike wind turbines
6. It does not produce vibrations and its not toxic
7. The application is simple to adapt.
8. It has no distribution and transmission losses
9. Its production is free of environmental pollution
3.4.1.2.2 Disadvantages of PV systems

The major disadvantages are in the high production and capital costs, and also its
intermittence. The high cost of production is due to the cost of material technology which
commonly is the crystalline semiconductor. However, the capital cost has been reducing from
the 1980s. Its cost reduced an average of US$ 20/watt to US$ 5/watt between the 1980 and
40
1990s. Also, the cost of PV electricity has also decline within the stated period from US$
0.20/kWh to US$ 0.15/kWh. Presently, the levelized cost is around US$ 20 to 40/kWh. This
is still high compared to electricity generated from fossil sources. Its intermittence nature
means it can only be used when there is sunshine. Other disadvantages include the lack of
competent energy storage system and the very low conversion efficiency which is below
30%.
3.5 Flat-Plate Collector Design

The flat-plate collector is the commonest type of solar collector for water heating systems and
space heating. It is mainly used for residential water heating and space heating installations.
This type of collector transfers the heat of the sun to water either directly or through the use
of another fluid and heat exchanger. They are mostly employed for low temperature (usually
below 90o C). A Flat-plate collector design makes use of a rectangular panel (less than 3.0
m2 in area). It has an insulated bottom surface in a metal casing with a dark-coloured
absorber plate on the top that absorbs most of the solar energy. The insulation prevents the
heat from escaping through the back of the collector via conduction and radiation. A glass or
plastic cover called the glazing surface is placed over the absorber plate. The cover allows
solar energy to pass through but reduces heat losses by radiation from the absorber. Also, the
glass cover act as a convection shield to reduce losses from the absorber plate beneath. The
glazing surface traps the heat within the collector and the absorber plate transfers energy from
solar radiation to a fluid that circulates within it. The fluid can be air, antifreeze or water. The
absorber plates are often coated to maximize the solar radiation collection. The absorber is
made of thermally stable polymers, steel, copper or aluminium sheet of 1 to 2 mm diameter.
Tubes of diameter 1 to 1.5 cm are placed inside the metal casing to heat liquid or air. They
are soldered, brazed or clamped to the absorber plate bottom. Worthy of note is that flat-plate
41
collectors can trap and absorb both direct and diffuse solar radiation. When sunlight passes
through the glazing, it strikes and heats up the absorber plates which in turn heat the fluid in
the tubing. Thermal insulation of thickness 5 to 10 cm is usually placed behind the absorber
plate to prevent heat losses. A picture of a flat-plate collector is shown in Fig. 3.6, while a
detail labelled diagram is shown in Fig. 3.7.
As a result of the fact that the cover is mostly made of glass, it permits radiation of
wavelength below 2 m but is opaque to the longer wavelength of the infra-red region. Based
on this, heat is trapped within the space between the absorber and the cover material.
However, because the enclosed air is warmer that the ambient air, there is always minimal
heat loss to the surrounding from the top of the cover by conduction, convection and
radiation. The rate of heat lost is however proportional to the difference in the temperature of
the enclosure and the surrounding. As the temperature of the air space increases more than
the surrounding, the rate of heat loss also increases. This phenomenon affects the collector
efficiency.
In addition, a certain percentage of the incident solar insolation is lost by absorption
in the glass cover plates. This can be reduced by the use of a clear glass (or white glass).
Losses also occur as a result of reflection from the glass cover. This reflection can be
invariably reduced by coating the glass cover with anti-reflecting substances such as thin
films of magnesium fluoride for example.
42
Fig. 3.6: A photograph of a flat-plate collector (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki /File:Solar_panels,_S

antorini.jpg, accessed May 18, 2012]
43
Fig. 3.7: detailed component parts of a flat-plate collector created by sectioning through the module (source:
Ghosh, T.K and Pretas, M.K, 2011. Energy resources and systems, vol. 2: renewable resources, Springer, New
York, 82)
3.5.1 Thermal analysis and efficiency of a flat-plate collector

For a flat-plate collector of surface area A and incident solar radiation intensity I, the amount
of solar radiation received (as heat) from the sun can be represented as Q i:
Qi
3.31
I A
However, a part of this radiation is reflected back to the surrounding/sky, while another
component is absorbed by the cover (glazing) material. The third component transfers to the
absorber plate through the cover. Thus the percentage of the solar radiation that passes
through the cover (transmissivity, ) and that is absorbed (absorptivity, ) by the absorber
panel is the most important and should be accounted for. This percentage is given as the
product of and . Hence, the energy input into the system is given now as:
44
Qi
3.32
Based on the temperature difference between the system and the surrounding, heat is lost to
the surrounding. Therefore, the rate of heat loss (Q L) depends on the collector temperature
and the collectors overall heat transfer (or loss) coefficient (UL). The heat loss is therefore is
therefore given as:
3.33
QL U L A tc ta
The useful energy (Q U) is the difference between the heat input (Qi) and the heat lost (QL)
given as:
QU
UL A
3.34
tc ta
Note that (.) in equation 3.34 is referred to as the effective product transmittanceabsorptance (also called transmissivity-absorptivity product). It is defined as the ratio of the
radiation absorbed in the absorber plate to the radiation incident on the cover system. It is
given as:
3.35
where:
d = diffuse reflectance which is approximately 0.16, 0.24 or 0.29 for one, two or three glass
covers respectively when the incident angle is 60o.
In addition to this, the heat that reaches the absorber is trapped away by the fluid. This can be
evaluated as:
QU
mcp t f
3.36
ti
where:
cp = specific heat capacity of the fluid
tf = temperature supplied by the fluid
ti = inlet temperature of the fluid = temperature of the upper surface of the absorber plate
45
m = mass of the fluid

Because it is difficult to estimate the collector temperature, t c, it is convenient to relate the
actual useful energy (heat) gain of a collector to the useful energy (heat) gain if the whole
collector were at the fluid inlet temperature (t i). The quantity that relates this is called the
collector heat removal factor (F) and given as:
F
mc p t f
I
ti
UL
3.37
ti t a
Equation 3.37 is obtained by dividing equation 3.33 by equation 3.34 after the assumption.
The maximum possible useful energy gain in a solar collector is known to occur when the
collector is at the inlet fluid temperature. Therefore, the actual useful energy gain is therefore
found by multiplying the maximum possible useful energy gain (equation 3.34) by the
collector heat removal factor (equation 3.37). It is given as:
QU
U L A ti ta
AF
UL
ti ta
3.38
Equation 3.37 is the widely used equation for measuring collector energy (or heat) gain and is
generally referred to as Hottel-whitter-Bliss equation.
Efficiency of a flat-plate collector ()
The efficiency of a flat-plate collector is a measure of the performance. It is the ratio of the
useful energy gained to the solar energy incident on the collector over a particular period.
This is:
QU dt
3.39
A Idt
At a particular instant of time, it is:

QU
AI
AF I
UL
tc
ta
3.40
AI
F I
UL
tc t a
3.41
46
Note: (.) is given by equation 3.35 in all the equations.

The transmittance can be determined from:
nkL
3.42
cos
where:
k = constant of proportionality. The value of k for glass range from about 0.01/cm for
absolute clear (white) glass to 0.32/cm for poor quality glass with a greenish cast.
Class Exercise
1. A flat-plate solar collector was employed for water heating at Ibadan (7.39o N, 3.9o E),
Oyo state, Nigeria on January 31, 2011 at 11 am LST. The data relating to the solar collector
are stated below. Determine the (a) energy input into the collector system, (b) useful energy
from the collector and (c) the collector efficiency.
Glass transmittance and absorptance are 0.8 and 0.85; number of glass cover = 2; solar
collector area = 2.5 m2; collector fluid temperature = 60o C; overall collector heat loss
coefficient = 8.0 W/m2 oC; ambient temperature = 28o C; d = 0.2; heat removal factor = 0.82;
Isc = 1353 W.
Solution
The steps required to solve the questions are:
-
Determine (.) using equation 3.35
Determine I using equation 3.1
Solve Qi using equation 3.32
Solve Qu using equation 3.38
Solve using equation 3.40
2. If for question 1 above, the glass transmissibility is required. You are therefore required to
estimate it. Given that the angle of refraction is 25 o, distance travelled by the radiation in the
system is 0.2 cm, k = 0.2/cm.
47
Solution: Use equation 3.42
References/Bibliography
Aswathanarayana, U., 2010. Solar energy, In Aswathanarayana, U., Harikrishnan, T and
Thayyib Sahini, K.M. (eds), Green energy technology, economics and politics, CRC press,
Boca Raton, 21
Bakirci K., 2009. Models of Solar Radiation with hours of bright sunshine: A review.
Renewable and sustainable Energy Reviews, 13, 2580-2588
El-Metwally, M., 2005. Sunshine and global solar radiation estimation at different sites in
Egypt, Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, 67: 1331-1342
Ghosh, T.K and Pretas, M.K, 2011. Energy resources and systems, vol. 2: renewable
resources, Springer, New York, 82
Hutchinson, M.F., Booth, T.H., McMahon, J.P., Nix, H.A., 1984. Estimation of monthly
mean values of daily total solar radiation for Australia, Solar Energy, 32: 277-290
Janjai, S., Pankaew, P., Laksanaboonsong, J., 2009. A model for calculating hourly solar
radiation from satellite data in the tropics, Applied Energy, 86: 1450-1457
Jin, Z., Yezheng, Wu, Gang, Y., 2005. General formula for estimation of monthly average
daily global solar radiation in China, Energy Conversion and Management, 46: 257-268
Lewis, G., 1983. Estimates of irradiance over Zimbabwe, Solar Energy, 31: 609-612
Odod, J.C., Sulaiman, A.T., Aidan, J., Yguda, M.M., Ogbu, F.A, 1995. The importance of
maximum air temperature in the parameterisation of solar radiation in Nigeria, Renewable
Energy, 6: 751-763
Oyedepo, S.O, 2010. Renewable energy lecture note, Covenant University, Ota
(Unpublished)
Rathore, N.S and Panwar, N.L, 2007. Renewable energy sources for sustainable
development, New India Publishing agency, New Delhi, 1-3
Robaa, S.M., 2003. On the estimation of global and diffuse solar radiation over Egypt,
Mausam, 54: 17-35
Robaa, S.M., 2009. Validation of the existing models for estimating global solar radiation
over Egypt, Energy Conversion and Management, 50: 184-193
Struckmann Fabio, 2008. Analysis of a flat-plate solar collector, Project report 2008
MVK160 Heat and Mass Transport, May 8, 2008, Lund Sweden.
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Swartman, R.K., Ogunalade, O., 1967. Solar radiation estimates from common parameters,
Solar Energy, 11: 170-172
Trabea, A.A., Shaltout, M.A.M, 2000. Correlation of global solar radiation with
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New York
Webb J. 1995. By the light of the Sun, New sci. J., 121, 40
49
4.0 WIND ENERGY

4.1 Introduction
Wind is created by the movement of rushing air. When land air that has been sun heated rises
it leaves a space to be filled by cooler surrounding air. The filling takes place immediately the
space is created in a way that could be described and felt as a rush. This fast movement of air
is called wind. It is reported that one primary forcing function causing surface winds from the
poles towards the equator is convective circulation. In this, solar radiation heats the air near
the equator and the low density heated air rises to the surface where it is displaced by cooler,
denser and higher pressure air. At the upper atmosphere near the equator, the air tends to flow
back towards the pole. This movement of air from the pole to the equator and back to the pole
in a circular global convective travel of air gives rise to wind and its effects round the globe.
Another phenomenon causing wind is the temperature differential between land and
sea or water bodies. The absorptivities and thermal time constant of land and water are
different. During sunny periods or in the day the rate at which the temperature of the land
builds up is higher than that of the water bodies or sea. Therefore, air closer to the ground
tends to be heated up by conduction, radiation and convection. The heated air then rises and
travels to cooler areas of water bodies and sea. Cooler surface air from water and sea
environment also travels to fill the space left by the hot air. This circle of air movement
reverses during the night times. At night, the land losses its heat faster than water or sea, thus
hot air rises from the water sea side to the cooler land area.
Apart from the mentioned causes of wind flow, another phenomenon of wind
movement is caused by the boundary layer frictional effects between the wind (or moving air)
and the roughness of the earths surface. The presence of buildings, trees, mountains, and
other obstructions hinder the free movement of air stream. This creates mechanical
turbulence around the obstruction and the wind speed in a horizontal direction increases with
50
height near the surface. Also, the higher the altitude the lower the drag effect on moving
winds. Thus wind speeds at higher heights are always more than those at lower heights.
4.2 Wind power

Wind power (or energy) can be described as the means by which the mechanical energy in
the air movement is employed to produce electricity or do meaningful work. Wind power as
an energy source is a green energy source. It is a non-depleting, naturally available, non-toxic
and environmentally friendly source of valuable and usable energy. Moreover, wind energy
has historically been used directly to power ships, for pumping water or grinding grain, but
the principal application of wind power today is the generation of electricity. Large scale
wind farms are typically connected to the local electric power transmission network, with
smaller turbines being used to provide electricity to isolated locations. Transforming wind
power to electricity is very common around the world. Within the year 2006 alone, wind
turbines were used to generate up to a total of 26.6 billion kWh per year of electricity in the
United States of America, representing about 0.4 percent of the nations total electricity
generation and also corresponding to about 65.3 percent of the sum total of Nigerias
generation in year 2003 and 2004 put together.
The technology of wind power to electricity conversion works with a windmill (a
device used to harness wind power) or wind turbines (or wind generator). With the windmill,
the blades pick up the mechanical energy from the moving wind, turns a drive shaft
connected to an electric generator which in turn produce electricity. The wind turbines (Figs.
4.1 and 4.2) on the other hand, directly convert the kinetic energy of the wind into electrical
energy. The production of electricity from wind on a large scale involves creating wind
farms. Wind farms are areas of land, usually large flat area of land, containing clusters of
51
dozens of wind machines used for the production of electricity. The location of these farms
depends on factors ranging from availability of wind, wind speed, to absence or presence of
windbreaks. Moreover, the availability and speeds of wind varies throughout a country and
from season to season. Areas located in between deserts and large water bodies, like sea or
oceans, enjoy rich supply of wind during summer. This is because the heating of the deserts
by the sun makes hot air rise and cooler air from the surroundings of the large water bodies
moves to fill the space created by the rising hot air. The movement of these land and
sea/ocean breeze generates enormous wind power and can be used to do useful work. The
magnitude of wind power available in a place can be determined from the knowledge of the
mean wind speed of the place. Consequently, when a particular site appears promising for
wind farm development, detailed site specific measurements are carried out through erecting
meteorological masts, up to about 30 to 50 m in height depending on the terrain, for
measuring wind speed and wind direction at different heights. Typical hub heights for wind
turbines are 60 m and it is projected to reach about 100 m by year 2030 (FMPS, 2006).
Moreover, actual measurements are needed because the power output of a wind farm is
sensitive to wind speeds. Therefore wind speed can determine the viability or otherwise of a
wind farm project, while detailed and reliable information about variation in wind speeds and
direction over the year is vital for any prospective wind power development. Apart from the
wind speed, the wind speed frequency distribution, commonly described by a Weibull
distribution is also important (FMPS, 2006).
In addition, wind power is proportional to the cube of the mean wind speed, meaning
that doubling the average wind speed leads to increase in wind power by a factor of eight. A
mathematical relationship that can be used for the computation is given as (Stiebler, 2008):
52
1
AV 3C p KV 3
2
(4.1)
Where:
P = Wind Power,
= air density which is assumed for practical calculation to be approximately 1.2
kg/m3,
A = swept area of the turbine rotor =
rotor diameter
V = mean wind speed,

Cp = Coefficient of power (which in reality, maximum values range between 0.4 0.5
due to losses that can be profile loss, tip loss or loss due to wake rotation).
Cp
Power of wind rotor

Power available in the wind
1
C p
K = constant of proportionality and equal to 2
Knowing the average wind power for a place can also lead to an understanding of the average
wind energy flux density over an entire area. The relationship between wind energy flux
density and average wind power of a place over a certain period (which most times is taken
per year) is given mathematically as:
E P Tmax e
v 1

4 v
(4.2)
Where:
53
E Wind energy flux density = wind energy per unit area
= turbine efficiency (a term that is used to take into account the various losses in
bearings, couplings and gear boxes),
P = wind power flux,
Tmax = maximum time period (which for a year (365 days) in hours is 8760 hrs.),
V = mean wind speed over the place.
Wind resources are usually expressed in wind speeds (measured in meters per second (m/s))
from which energy units can be obtained.
Fig. 4.1: Diagrammatic view of wind turbine major components (Sterzinger and Svrcek, 2004).
54
Fig. 4.2: Diagrammatic representation of the internal component of a nacelle

(Sterzinger and Svrcek, 2004).
4.3 Criteria for establishing wind farm

Before embarking on wind farm development, it is worthwhile to fist know where a certain
wind speed is possible and what would be the corresponding energy output from such speed.
A complete assessment study begins with site selection and preparation, followed by
installation of wind speed measuring equipment. In order to have adequate measurement and
statistically significant analysis, wind speed measurements covering some years (or at least a
year) are always required. This is done in order to capture the associated fluctuations of wind
speeds across a location. Fig. 4.3 presents a flowchart showing the steps to complete resource
assessment and decision making. The analysis and modelling stage is critical as it exposes the
sites potential and determines the degree of viability of wind-to-power project at the site.
The analysis of the wind speed over the area is of utmost importance because the
performance of a wind energy conversion system depends of the magnitude of the average
wind speed. Although daily wind speed values are highly variable over a period because of
the inherent fluctuations associated with it, wind speeds are however homogenous over a long
period of months or years. Therefore monthly average wind speeds are very useful in
analysing the suitability of a site for utilization of a wind energy conversion system (WECS).
55
Three wind speeds are important to the design of WECS. These are: cut-in wind
speed, cut-out wind speed and the rated wind speed.
Cut-in wind speed: This is the wind speed below which the WECS will not operate.
Cut-out wind speed: This is the wind speed above which the WECS may suffer damage if
operated. It also called furling wind speed.
Rated wind speed: This is the speed for which the WECS is designed to produce maximum
power.
Based on the aforementioned, wind speeds closer to the rated wind speed are always
desirable at a site. However, the range of wind speeds for active WECS (e.g. wind turbine)
are those between cut-in and cut-out speeds. Just as important is the determination of the
wind profile characteristic prevalent in an area or site is, so also is the knowledge of using the
sites wind speed range for appropriate turbine selection. In making a decision over a sites
suitability for wind farm development, the sites wind data and analysis are considered to
determine the economic viability or otherwise of the sites potential. If the report is
favourable, then a decision can be reached and the site can be employed for a wind farm
development. Wind speeds from 3.5 m/s and above are usually considered suitable for turbine
applications while those above 4 to 5 m/s are very good for electricity production.
56
Site selection
Site preparation
Installation of wind speed

measuring instrument
Data collection and storage
Analysis and modelling
Results evaluation
Simulation with practical wind turbine
Decision Making
Fig. 4.3: Step by step procedure for carrying out complete resource assessment study
4.4 Design parameters for wind energy conversion systems

A wind turbine is a rotating machine which converts the kinetic energy in the wind into
mechanical energy. If however, the mechanical energy is converted to electricity, the
machine is called a Wind Generator, or Wind Energy Converter (WEC), commonly referred
to as Wind Energy Conversion Systems (WECS). There are various design parameters which
are very necessary for proper consideration. These parameters are evaluated using different
models as stated below.
Tip-Speed Ratio (TSR): This is an important parameter of WECS. It is the ratio of the
circumferential velocity of the blade tips to the wind speed, given by (Stiebler, 2008):
(4.3 (a))
Where:
57
= TSR
u = blade speed (m/s),
= wind speed (m/s).
The circumferential speed of the blade tip is expressed in terms of angular speed () (or
number of revolution per minute (N) of the rotating turbine) and related to u as (etin, 2005):
(4.3 (b))
Making Eq. ii into Eq. i give:

(4.3)
It has been shown empirically that the optimum TSR for maximum power output, depending
on the number of blades, occurs at (Ragheb, 2009):
(4.4)
Where:
r = Radius of the rotating turbine
D = Diameter of rotating turbine
n = number of blades.
Wind Turbine Torque Coefficient (CT): This is derived from the power coefficient (Cp) as;
(4.5)
The relationship between CP and , and also CT and are given by Figs 4.3 and 4.4 below.
58
Fig. 4.3: Curve showing the relationship between CP and for a 3 blade rotor (Stiebler, 2008)
Fig. 4.4: Curve showing the relationship between CT and for a 3 blade rotor (Stiebler, 2008)
However, the torque of a turbine is expressed in terms of its torque coefficient as:
(4.6)
Eq.2.6 shows that turbine torque varies with the square of wind speed while the power from it
varies with the cube of the wind speed as shown earlier (Eq. (4.1)). Based on this equation
also, the magnitude of the torque in a turbine depends on the shape of the rotor blades. This
shape determines the swept area of the turbine rotors and would lead to the maximum
59
developable torque. Thus a relationship exists between the turbine torque, swept area, wind
speed and the power developed.
Turbine Rotor Forces: According to Stiebel (2008), the main rotor properties follow from
the lifting force and drag force of a blade as described by aerofoil theory. With an aerofoil
element of width and depth given by w and d respectively, subjected to a wind speed v, and
depending on the angle of attack, , between wind direction and blade profile cord, the lift
and drag forces (F1 and F2) are given as:
(Force is normal to oncoming wind flow)
(4.7)
(Force is parallel to oncoming wind flow)
(4.8)
C1 and C2 are characteristic for a given blade profile. Moreover, C1 and C2 are both functions
of . The ratio
is called the glide ratio or the lift to drag ratio. Observing
Eq. (2.8) reveals that the turbine force is proportional to the square of wind speed (just like
the torque) and directly to the swept area. This can generally be interpreted to be:
(From F
P
)
v
(4.9)
Relating Eq. (2.6) to Eq. (2.9) gives the relationship between the torque on a wind turbine and
the force developed as a result of the turbine rotation as:
(4.10)
Also the power (P) and drag force (S) can be related to turbine force (F) as:
(4.11)
(4.12)
60
Where:
Cs = the drag coefficient.
The relationship between the drag coefficient and the TSR is given by Fig. 2.5 below.
Fig. 2.5: Curve showing relationship between Cs and TSR () (Stiebler, 2008)
The concept of the Betz Law

Consider Fig. 2.6 below
Fig. 2.6: Idealized fluid model for a wind rotor (Stiebler, 2008)
61
According to Stiebler (2008), when a homogenous flow of wind, with initial value before the
turbine blade plane v1, moves through an ideal turbine rotor, it suffers a retardation, due to
the conversion process of kinetic energy to power, to another speed v3 (after the turbine).
According to Newtons second law:
v .v Av22 v1 v3
P F .v2 m
However, according to the principle of conservation of Energy, Power is given as:

P
E 1
1
v12 v32 Av2 v12 v32
m
t 2
2
(4.13 (a))
Equating the two:
v2
v1 v3
2
(4.13 (b))
Thus the wind speed in the plane of the turbine rotor is given by the average of the wind
speed before and after the turbine
Therefore, substituting (b) into (a) gives:
P
v v
1
A 1 3 v12 v32
2
2
v 3 v 2 v
1
A v13 1 3 3 3
v1 v1 v1
4
(4.13 (c))
The maximum or minimum power extractable from the wind can then be determined by
differentiating P with respect to
v3
:
v1
v3
v
dP
1
3
A v1 1 3 2 3
v 4
v1
v1
d 3
v
1
Based on this, the maximum power can be said to occur at:
v3 1
v1 3
(4.13 (d))
62
Based on this, Betz asserted that the maximum useful power occurs when the relation above
is satisfied.
Therefore, according to Betz, the maximum useful power is given from (c) and (d) as:
16 1
Pmax Av13
27 2
(4.13)
16
where: 0.593
27
Therefore going by relation of Eq. 2.13, Betz law states that the maximum extractable power
from the wind by an ideal turbine is not more than 59.3% of the power available in the wind.
This Betz limit is therefore referred to as the turbines maximum coefficient of performance
or maximum power coefficient.
Capacity Factor
The capacity Factor (CF) of a WECS is a measure of the electrical energy extracted from the
system as a fraction of the theoretical maximum available to it. It can be mathematically
expressed as the ratio of electrical energy generated from the WECS during a given period to
that which it would have produced had it been running continually at maximum output, i.e.:
CF
PEP
PEI Nh
where: PEP = Electricity generated during the period (kWh); P EI = WECSs installed capacity
(kW) and Nh = Number of hours in the period.
Moreover, the variation in CF is basically due to differences in local wind speeds and
WECSs design parameters, particularly the ratio of the rotor swept area to the capacity of the
WECS (DTI, 2001).
63
4.5 Classification of wind energy conversion systems

There are two broad classifications of wind energy conversion systems. The first is according
to the electrical output while the second is according to the machines axis of rotation relative
to the wind direction.
4.5.1 Classification according to Machine output
This classification is as presented in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Classification of WECS according to output
S/N
Scale
Capacity
Utilization
Small
Up to 2 kW
Utilized for places needing relatively

low power amd for remote applications
Medium
Above 2 but not more than 100 kW
Can be employed as stand alone power

generating units, water pumping and
other agricultural purposes requiring
Large
Above 100 kW
For community wide electricity and grid

connected electricity
4.5.2 Classification according to Machines axis of rotation

This can be either Horizontal axis machines or Vertical axis machines
4.5.2.1 Horizontal axis machines
In this type of machine, the axis of rotation is horizontal and the aeroturbine plane is
vertically facing the wind.
4.5.2.2 Vertical axis machines
These machines have their axis of rotation vertical
4.5.2.3 Differences between the Horizontal and Vertical axes machines
64
Of these two types of turbine machines mentioned above, the horizontal axis machines have
been found to be more efficient and capable of producing higher values of electrical energy.
It is the most employed of the two. However, the disadvantages of horizontal axis wind
turbine machines include their weight, required height and the inability to produce in
turbulent winds. Horizontal axis turbine is always heavier that the vertical type machine.
Vertical axis on the hand can produce from winds coming from all directions and also is
suitable in areas with inconsistent wind supply. In addition, vertical axis wind turbines can be
employed at low heights because of its ability to withstand turbulence.
2.3.3 Advantages of Using Wind Energy Conversion Systems

Wind energy is one of the lowest-priced renewable energy technologies available today,
costing between 4-6 cents per kW-hr. depending on the wind resource base and financing of
the particular project (ECN-UNDP, 2005). The construction time of wind energy technology
is also less than other energy technologies, it uses cost-free fuel, the operation and
maintenance cost is very low, and capacity addition can be in modular form, making it
adaptable to increasing demand. In addition, it has ability for generating high amount of
electricity to meet world consumption. It is a clean, easily accessible, naturally applicably,
enormously available, environmentally friendly, non-depleting and non-toxic source of
valuable and usable energy. Its installations are also very durable.
2.3.4 Disadvantages of Using Wind Energy Conversion Systems
(i) Noise emission: Like many other mechanical systems, wind energy systems are sources of
noise pollution. When in operation, aerodynamic noise of the blades prevails over other
components and such could be disturbing and frustrating. Residents around wind turbines
65
installations have complained in time past of the noise effects of the energy systems. Typical
causes of turbine noise could be due to the high tip speed ratio (Ragheb, 2009).
(ii) Oscillating shadow: The rotating turbine blades cast shadows on the surroundings,
thereby causing optical disturbance for residents around the installations. This has created
agitations that wind turbines impinge on clarity of vision for vehicle drivers on roads close to
wind installations.
(iii) Dangers to flying animals: It has been reported that several birds have been killed by the
rotating blades of wind turbines.
(iv) Land vibrations: During the operation of wind turbines and their installations, the
mechanical parts cause some vibratory movements to diffuse into the ground, most especially
when the turbine operates at high tip speed ratio (Ragheb, 2009). These vibratory motions are
felt differently depending on closeness to the system.
(v) Dangers to sea animals: Offshore wind energy systems have their blades located below
the surface of water where fishes find their easy life. Unknowingly these fishes stray into the
path of the blades and are killed.
Understanding the implications and agitations surrounding these disadvantages, various
countries have taken mitigating steps at reducing or eliminating the effects of operating wind
energy systems on the surrounding residents and animals. These steps have been enshrined
into legislations and standards to guide the practices of establishing wind farms.
66
etin, N.S., Yurdusev, M.A., Ata, R., and zdemir, A, 2005. Assessment of optimum tip
speed ratio of wind turbines, Mathematical and Computational Applications, 10 (1), 147-154
Federal Ministry of Power and Steel (FMPS), 2006. Renewable Electricity Action
Programme, International Center for Energy, Environment and Development (ICEED),
Abuja, available online [http://w ww.iceednigeria.org/REAP-postconference.pdf, accessed
January 19, 2010]
Ragheb, M. 2009. Optimal rotor tip speed ratio, available on the web [https://netfiles.uiuc.ed
u/mragheb/www/NPRE%20475%20Wind%20Power%20Systems/Optimal%20Rotor%20Tip
%20Speed%20Ratio.pdf, accessed November 15, 2010]
Sterzinger, G and Svrcek, M. 2004. Wind turbine development: Location of manufacturing
activity, Renewable energy policy project, Technical report, 13-14, available on web
[http://www.repp.org/articles/static/1/binaries/WindLocator.pdf, accessed 25 May 2009]
Stiebler M. Wind energy systems for electric power generation, Green Energy and
Technology, Berlin: Springer; 2008
67
5.0 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

5.1 Introduction
Geothermal energy can be explained to be the thermal energy stored in the sub-surface of the
earth (Imperial College, 2003). It is a non-conventional source of energy, naturally occurring
and capable of direct exploitation and application for gainful purposes. In actual sense, the
word geothermal is coined from the Greek words geo meaning earth and thermal meaning
heat (Ghosh and Prelas, 2011). Thus geothermal energy can be directly described as the
energy derived from the earths heat content. All of the heat stored in the earths crust above
15oC to a depth of 10 km is termed geothermal (Rai, 2004). It has various applications which
include for space heating, building heating, water heating, industrial and agricultural
processes, heat pumps and electricity generation.
According to Ghost and Pretas (2003), the earth crust is extremely hot with a temperature of
about 4200oC. This heat transports through cracks or faults in the crust to the surface (Rai,
2004). In some cases, hot molten magmas which are commonly present at depths greater than
24 to 40 km travels towards the surface due to some geologic conditions which may lead to
volcanic eruptions. The rate at which heat flows to the surface from the earth is estimated to
be about 0.063 W/m2 with the total outflow amounting to about 32 x 1022 W (Imperial
College, 2003).
5.2 Geothermal energy recovery and utilization

The earth is described according to Imperial College (2003) as a giant furnace. Within the
earth crust both radioactive materials and radioactive decay processes of potassium, uranium
and thorium generate heat. Although there is no accurate estimate of the amount of
68
geothermal energy resources available around the world, its amount within the earth is
enormous. Despite this availability, the resources have been widely untapped. Few nations
have been reported to assess and utilize geothermal energy. With the presence of several hot
spots scattered around the world, the potential of geothermal energy as a viable source of
useful energy cannot be overemphasized. For instance, in Nigeria the hot springs of Erin
Ijesha in Osun State may be a pointer to the fact that there may be available potential for
geothermal energy in some places in the country. The mountainous terrains of areas closer to
the volcanic belts of Cameroon may also be significant for geothermal energy in Nigeria.
Sources of geothermal resources include dry and wet steams, hot brine, hot rock and molten
magma. These are explained below (Imperial College, 2003).
Dry steam: Dry steams are mostly obtained from vapour-dominated geothermal systems or
fields (Rai, 2004). The steams are dry saturated and superheated and produced from dry
geothermal fields at very high pressures. The dry steam occurs as a result of the heating effect
of hot rocks on ground water. This water gets heated at very high temperature to steam. The
steam therefore moves upward and reaches the surface at about 200 oC and 8 Bar. Dry steams
are located at very deep drilling ranges and are very scarce. They are however the easiest and
most economical to tap because they have limited corrosion problems. The corrosiveness is
due to the presence of corrosive gases and erosive material (Imperial College, 2003; Rai,
2004).
Wet steam: Wet steam unlike the dry steam is mostly obtained from liquid-dominated
geothermal systems or fields (Rai, 2004). In this, the geothermal fields are wet and produce
hot pressured water at temperatures which range within 175 to 315oC (Rai, 2004). The hot
water often contains impurities such as sulphur compounds or gases. Moreover, when the
fluid is tapped, it flows to the surface, and by so doing there is a drop in pressure. The
69
reduction in pressure however causes about 10 to 20 % of it to flash into steam. Wet steam
geothermal sources are commoner than the vapour-dominated geothermal fields (Imperial
College, 2003; Rai, 2004).
Hot brine: Hot brines are very hot salt solutions. They occur in large deep sedimentary basins
containing moderately high temperature solution (about 160 oC) under very high pressure
(about 1000 Bar). Fields containing hot brines are referred to as geopressured systems (or
fields). Geopressured brines are known to also contain, in dissolved form, large amounts of
methane (a natural gas) at temperature below 180oC. The gas is released when the pressure is
reduced. Geopressured brines are tapped from very deep underground acquifers at depth
ranging from about 2400 to 9000 m (Imperial College, 2003; Rai, 2004).
Hot rocks: These are also referred to as petrothermal systems. These are heated rocks at very
high temperatures. They occur at moderate depths below the ground to which water does not
have access, either because of the absence of ground water or due to the low or lack of
permeability of the rock. Based on this, the heat from the rock can be indirectly tapped by
drilling the rock and introducing cold water into it. The direct heat transfer between the rock
and water, heats up the water. The hot water (or steam) is then recovered to the surface and is
used. The temperature of the hot rocks varies from 150 - 290oC (Rai, 2004). Majority of the
potential geothermal explorable heat is stored in dry rocks. Globally, the normal temperature
range is between 20 and 30oC per kilometre. This temperature gradient is sufficient to
produce temperature of 80oC for space heating at depths of 2.2 km and temperature of 180 oC
at the accessible depth of 3.5 km (Imperial College, 2003).
Molten Magma: It is sometimes called molten lava. It is the extreme case of hot rock and has
temperatures higher than 650oC. It is found either at moderate depths, especially in recently
70
active volcanoes or volcanic regions or at depths below the volcanoes. Their very high
temperature is an impinging factor against its extraction.
5.2.1 Geothermal energy recovery
Worthy of note first and foremost is that, the total stored geothermal energy exceeds those of
nuclear resources and total fossil fuels. There are basic steps to follow in order to explore,
exploit and recover geothermal energy from its source. To know a potential geothermal field
may be through the simple process of observation. Fields where hot water or steam comes out
of the ground are potential geothermal fields. However, because of the high cost of
geothermal drilling, it is required to ascertain the energy potential of a reservoir before
drilling is undertaken (Rai, 2004).
According to Ghosh and Prelas (2011), the identification and quatification of geothermal
resources require geologic, hydrologic, geochemical and geophysical techniques that allow
gathering of information regarding the potential use of specific sites. This information is
required in order to first determine the suitability of the sites for geothermal energy recovery.
A preliminary surface indication of a geothermal resources in a site is given by fumaroles (or
steam vent), volcanoes and solfataras (vent in volcanoes) and geysers (or springs of hot water
or steam). Sometimes, the presence of a preliminary indicator is not enough to ascertain the
reservoir capacity. Important questions to be answerd for a potential geothermal field to be
ascertained as suitable include (Lumb, 1981; Ghosh and Prelas 2011):
1. Can geothermal phenomena be identified at the field/site?
2. Is the field useful for geothermal energy production?
3. Can production well be drilled at the site with the highest possibility of tapping into
the resources?
4. What is the shape, size and depth of the field/site?
71
5. What is the classification of geothermal field?

6. What are the production zones?
7. What is the heat content of fluids that will be discharged by the geothermal wells?
8. Are there characteristics that might cause problems during field development?
9. What is the source of the recharge water?
10. What is the homogeneity of the water supply?
11. What is the characteristic of the geothermal system (i.e. is it water or vapourdominated)?
The methods of providing information regarding the geothermal reservoir characteristics
include heat flow rate determination, chemical compositional analysis of the surface or
ground water, electrical resistivity measurement and seismic measurement (Rai, 2004).
Heat flow rate in the ground: This is measured in bore holes to a depth of about 100 m or
more. It is commonly expressed in Heat Flow Units (HFU). 1 HFU is equivalent to 0.0418
W/m2. Values greater than 1 HFU, indicates potential geothermal field/site.
Chemical compositional analysis of the surface or ground water: The chemical
compositional analysis to determine the mineral salts present in the ground water may lead to
information relating to identifying the type of geothermal reservoirs. Also the analysis of hot
well or spring water can indicate the possible water origin and the reservoir temperature.
Electrical resistivity measurement of the ground: The electrical resistivity usually depends
on the salinity and temperature of the ground water and the porosity of the rocks. A low value
may indicate the presence of hot and/or saline water. Hot water containing substantial
amounts of dissolved mineral salts is often present in wet geothermal reservoirs. The
measurements are made at a surface depth at many points and also at varying depths in a
particular location on site to be selected for geothermal energy recovery.
72
Seismic measurement: This could be passive or active. Passive seismic measurement

technique involves those associated with minor earthquakes or microseismic activities. It can
be detected by a seismometer. Active seismic measurements are similar to those done for oil
exploration where a shock wave is generated in the ground by means of explosives or impact
with heavy mass. The corresponding signals are then detected at a distance to the impact
location. This provides information regarding the underground structure.
Once a geothermal well/reservoir is established, the heat recovery from the well/reservoir is
recovered by drilling. The commonest drilling method is rotary drilling via rotary bits and
similar to that used for oil and gas. The difference is in the temperature. Geothermal wells
have higher temperatures (up to 350oC) than oil and gas wells.
5.2.2 Geothermal energy utilization

The application of geothermal energy varies but it is strongly dependent on the temperature
of the resources. For instance, for electricity generation, the temperature of the resources
must be greater than 150 oC. Below 150oC, the resources can be employed for different
applications which include drying of agriculture products, space heating in buildings,
refrigeration (low temperature limit), soil warming, fish farming (e.g. hatching) etc. Apart
from its use for electricity at temperature above 150oC, it can also be employed for
evaporation of highly concentrated solutions, in the industry for some chemical processing,
timber drying etc. Some of the various uses of geothermal energy at particular temperature is
illustrated with Fig. 5.1.
73
Fig. 5.1: Some uses of geothermal energy at different temperature levels (Ghosh and Prelas 2011)
5.3 Environmental consequences of geothermal energy exploitation

Unlike other non-conventional sources of energy like wind and solar, the processes leading to
recovery of geothermal energy resources are not entirely clean. They release toxic gases to
the environment and cause environmental pollution. For instance:
1. Steam and hot water from hydrothermal systems contain dissolved solids in the water,
trapped solid particles as well as noncondensable gases. The gases are mostly carbon dioxide
74
(CO2) with varying amount of methane (NH4), hydrogen, ammonia (NH3) , hydrogen
sulphide (H2S) and nitrogen. CO2 and NH4 are greenhouse gases that have direct effect on
the atmosphere. H2S forms corrosive acid (or acid rain) in the atmosphere with the right
conditions. Acid rain has corrosive tendencies on buildings, roofing materials and paints and
also damages crops, forest, streams, lakes and rivers. Burning H2S can lead to the formation
of SO2. Humans exposed to large volumes of methane, NO x, and SOx could develop
respiratory infections. In addition to this, excess H2S in geothermal fields cause harmful
effects on the bearings of drilling machines and attacks the electrical equipment because of
the corrosive tendencies of its moist state.
2. Land erosion is another associated environmental effect of geothermal energy processing.
As a result of the large amount of water involved in exploitation of geothermal resources,
land erosion can result.
3. Noise pollution is another associated environmental problem. The noise emanates from
exhausts, blow-downs, and processes of centrifugal separation.
4. Contaminated water: Sometimes, the water from wet geothermal fields contains toxic
substances such as mercury, arsenic, ammonia etc. If this water is discharge into land water
or sea, it could be injurious both to human and aquatic organisms.
5. Seismicity or earthquakes: Fears have been expressed that continuous exploitation of
geothermal fields could lead to imbalance of the earth crust and could cause earthquakes in
the future. This is especially true if the practice takes place in zones of high shear stress
where fairly large temperature differentials occur.
5.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of geothermal energy

75
5.4.1 Some advantages

1. It is cheaper than fossil based fuels
2. It delivers more energy than other energy modules
3. It has vast applications
4. It is the least polluting compared to other conventional sources
5. It is consistent and available throughout the year
5.4.2 Some Disadvantages

1. Overall production efficiency is low
2. The steam and hot water coming out from the ground may contain impurities and
some gases that pollute the atmosphere
3. Noise from drilling
Imperial College, 2003. Energy studies, 2nd ed. Imperial College press, London
Ghosh, T.K and Pretas, M.K, 2011. Energy resources and systems, vol. 2: renewable
resources, Springer, New York, 82
Lumb J.T., 1981. Prospecting for geothermal resources, In: Rybach L, Muffler LJP (eds)
Geothermal systems, principles and case histories. Wiley, New York, 77108
76

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Course Title: ENERGY SOURCES AND UTILIZATION

1.0 FOSSIL FUEL: PROCESSING AND UTILIZATION

1.2 Formation of fossil fuels

Fig. 1.1: schematic steps of conversion from plants sources to coal

1.3 Classification of Fossil fuels

13.2 Natural gas

Aquifer gas: This is a natural gas found trapped in water aquifers

1.4 Processing of fossil fuels

Fig. 1.3: Flow diagram of a typical oil refinery (Source: www.globalpetroleum.com/oil%20Refinery.pdf)

1.4.2 Mining of coal

1.5 Utilization of fossil fuels

REFINING CRUDE OIL

The NZ Refining Company, situated 40 km from Whangarei at Marsden Point, processes

VII-Energy-A-Refining Crude Oil-1

Uses of refined oil

Super or Premium petrol

Refinery fuel and loss

VII-Energy-A-Refining Crude Oil-2

H.V.U.2 Waxy dust

AGO = Automotive Gas Oil

Figure 1 - Schematic representation of the Marsden Point Refinery

Jet fuel/Dual purpose kerosene

HEAT EXCHANGER cooling, condensation

Figure 2 - Fractional distillation

Figure 3 - Schematic representation of the inside of the distillation column

VII-Energy-A-Refining Crude Oil-6

VII-Energy-A-Refining Crude Oil-7

Ea1 activation energy

VII-Energy-A-Refining Crude Oil-9

Figure 5 - The Butane Deasphalting unit

VII-Energy-A-Refining Crude Oil-10

Shell ADIP process

Figure 6 - ADIP process

VII-Energy-A-Refining Crude Oil-11

(where R is an alkene), and thiol degradation:

CH2 CH2 CH2 SH + H2

CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3 + H2S

VII-Energy-A-Refining Crude Oil-12

VII-Energy-A-Refining Crude Oil-13

Figure 7 - Catalytic Reforming Unit

(R consists of branched or unbranched alkane chains)

Long-chain alkanes of more than twenty carbon atoms.

VII-Energy-A-Refining Crude Oil-14

CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3

CH2 CH2 CH2 SH + H2

CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3 + H2S

H3C CH2 CH2 CH3

VII-Energy-A-Refining Crude Oil-15

VII-Energy-A-Refining Crude Oil-16

An outline of the hydrocracking unit is given in Figure 8.

VII-Energy-A-Refining Crude Oil-17

FIRST STAGE REACTORS

Fres h H2 gas from HMU

Figure 8 - The two-stage hydrocracking process

Tail gas incinerator

Figure 9 - The sulfur recovery unit

VII-Energy-A-Refining Crude Oil-19

VII-Energy-A-Refining Crude Oil-20

Figure 10 - The hydrogen manufacturing unit

N CH2 CH CH3 + H2O + CH3CHCH2

VII-Energy-A-Refining Crude Oil-22

Figure 11 - The water treatment plant

VII-Energy-A-Refining Crude Oil-24

How is coal mined?