Two-Dimensional Geometry

9/12/2015
TwodimensionalGeometryandtheGoldensection
TwodimensionalGeometryandthe
Goldensection
or
FascinatingFlatFactsaboutPhi
Onthispagewemeetsomeofthemarvellousflat(thatis,twodimensional)geometryfacts
relatedtothegoldensectionnumberPhi.Afollowingpageturnsourattentiontothesolid
worldof3dimensions.
ContentsofthisPage
The
iconmeansthereisa
Thingstodo
investigationattheendofthesection.
ConstructionsfortheGoldenratio
Constructingtheinternalgoldensectionpoints:phi
GivenanylineAB,findapointGphiofthewayalongit.
Constructingtheexternalgoldensectionpoints:Phi
GivenanylineAB,makeanewlineAGwhichisPhitimesaslong.
Hofstetter's3ConstructionsofGoldPoints
Usingonlycircles
Anotherevensimplermethod!
Lemoine'sconstructionofthegoldensection
PentagonsandPentagrams
Therearetwokindsoftrianglesinpentagonsandpentagrams,bothhavesidesof
lengthPhiand1.
The367272triangle
Pentagramsandthe367272triangle
MakingaPaperKnottoshowtheGoldenSectioninPentagons
FlagsoftheWorldandpentagramstars
PhiandTriangles
PhiandtheEquilateralTriangle
Useahexagoninacircletomakeanequilateraltriangleandthenyou'vealready
gotagoldensectionpointonaline!
PhiandthePentagonTriangles
Thetwotrianglesofthepentagonandpentagramhavesomemoreinteresting
interactionsinvolvingPhi.
PhiandanotherIsoscelestriangle
PhiandRightangledTriangles
PhiandRectangles
PhiandaTrapezium(Trapezoid)
PhiandtheRoot5Rectangle
Arectanglewhichis5wideand1unithighcontainstwogoldenrectangles.
Theshapeofapieceofpaper
"A"seriesPaper
Fibonaccipaper
PhiandotherPolygons
Decagons
Penrosetilings
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Untilrecently,itwasthoughtthattherewerenoflattilingsthathadfivefold
symmetry,untilPenrosediscoveredtwotilesthatdo!Thesetilingsinvolvethetwo
pentagon/pentagramtrianglesandapplytherelationshipswefoundintheprevious
section.
AnotherIrregulartilingusingPhi:theAmmannChair
MoreGeometricalGems
ARectangle/TriangledissectionProblem
Anothergeometricproblemwhich,surprisingly,involvesPhi.
BalancinganLshape
BalancingaCrescent
EllipseandRing
TheFibonacciandtheGoldenSpiral
Wereturntothespiralofseashellsandseedsandfinditsequation.
TheFibonacciSquaresSpiral
TheGolden(orPhi)Spiral
TrigonometryandPhi
PhiandTriggraphs(sin,cosandtan)
Isthereanysignificanceinthevalueoftan(x)wheretan(x)=cos(x)?
MoretrigratiosandPhi(sec,csc,cot)
OtheranglesrelatedtoPhi
Binet'sFormulaforFib(n)inTrigterms
PhiandPowersofPi
PhiandsomeGeometricandCalculusproblems
LeonardochasesaRabbit
LinksandBibliography
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ConstructionsfortheGoldenRatio
Let'sstartbyshowinghowtoconstructthegoldensectionpointsonanyline:firstalinephi
(0618..)timesaslongastheoriginalandthenalinePhi(1618..)timesaslong.John
Turnerhasnicknamedthetwopointsthatdividealineatthegoldenratio(0.618oftheway
fromeitherend)asgoldpoints.
Constructingtheinternalgoldensectionpoints:phi
IfwehavealinewithendpointsAandB,howcanwefindthepoint
whichdividesitatthegoldensectionpoint?
Wecandothisusingcompassesfordrawingcirclesandasetsquarefor
drawinglinesatrightanglestootherlines,andwedon'tneedaruleratallformeasuring
lengths!
(Infactwecandoitwithjustthecompasses,buthowtodoitwithoutthesetsquareisleft
asanexerciseforyou.)
WewanttofindapointGbetweenAandBsothatAG:AB=phi
(061803...)bywhichwemeanthatGisphiofthewayalongtheline.
ThiswillalsomeanthatthesmallersegmentGBis061803..timesthe
sizeofthelongersegmentAGtoo.
AG GB
51
=
=phi=0618033..=
AB AG
2
Here'showtoconstructpointGusingsetsquareandcompassesonly:
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1. FirstwefindthemidpointofAB.Todothiswithoutaruler,putyour
compassesononeend,openthemouttobesomewherenearthe
otherendofthelineanddrawasemicircleoverthelineAB.Repeat
thisattheotherendofthelinewithoutalteringthecompasssize.
Thetwopointswherethesemicirclescrosscanthenbejoinedandthis
newlinewillcrossABatitsmidpoint.
2. NowwearegoingtodrawalinehalfthelengthofABatpointB,but
atrightanglestotheoriginalline.Thisiswhereyouusetheset
square(butyouCANdothisjustusingyourcompassestoohow?).
SofirstdrawalineatrightanglestoABatendB.
3. PutyourcompassesonB,openthemtothemidpointofABanddraw
anarctofindthepointonyournewlinewhichishalfaslongasAB.
NowyouhaveanewlineatBatrightanglestotheABandBCishalf
aslongastheoriginallineAB.
4. Jointhepointjustfoundtotheotherendoftheoriginalline(A)to
makeatriangle.Puttingthecompasspointatthetoppointofthe
triangleandopeningitouttopointB(soithasaradiusalongthe
rightangleline)markoutapointonthediagonalwhichwillalsobe
halfaslongastheoriginalline.
5. Finally,putthecompasspointatpointA,openitouttothenewpoint
justfoundonthediagonalandmarkapointthesamedistancealong
theoriginalline.ThispointisnowdividestheoriginallineABintotwo
parts,wherethelongerpartAGisphi(061803..)timesaslongasthe
originallineAB.
Whydoesthiswork?
Itworksbecause,ifwecallthetoppointofthetriangleT,thenBTis
halfaslongasAB.SosupposewesayABhaslength1.ThenBTwill
havelength1/2.Wecanfindthelengthoftheothersideofthe
triangle,thediagonalAT,byusingPythagoras'Theorem:
AT2=AB2+BT2
i.e.
AT2=12+(1/2)2
AT2=1+1/4=5/4
Now,takingthesquarerootofeachsidegives:
AT=(5)/2
PointVwasdrawnsothatTVisthesamelengthasTB=AB/2=1/2.
SoAVisjustATTV=(5)/21/2=phi.
ThefinalconstructionistomarkapointGwhichissamedistance(AV)alongthe
originalline(AB)whichwedousingthecompasses.
SoAGisphitimesaslongasAB!
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Constructingtheexternalgoldensectionpoints:Phi
ThistimewefindapointoutsideofourlinesegmentABsothatthenewpointdefinesaline
whichisPhi(1618..)timesaslongastheoriginalone.
Here'showtofindthenewlinePhitimesaslongastheoriginal:
1. Firstrepeatthesteps1and2abovesothatwehavefoundthe
midpointofABandalsohavealineatrightanglesatpointB.
2. NowplacethecompasspointonBandopenthemouttotouchAso
thatyoucanmarkapointTontheverticallinewhichisaslongas
theoriginalline.
3. PlacingthecompasspointonthemidpointMofAB,open
themouttothenewpointTontheverticallineanddraw
anarcontheoriginallineextendedpastpointBtoanew
pointG.
4. ThelineAGisnowPhitimesaslongastheoriginallineAB.
Whydoesthiswork?
Ifyoufollowedthereasoningforwhythefirstconstruction(forphi)worked,youshouldfind
itquiteeasytoprovethatAGisPhitimesthelengthofAB,thatis,thatAG=(5/2+1/2)
timesAB.
Hint:
LetABhavelength1againandsoAM=MB=1/2.SinceBTisnowalso1,howlong
isMT?ThisisthesamelengthasMGsoyoucannowfindouthowlongAGissince
AG=AM+MG.
Hofstetter's3ConstructionsofGoldPoints
Usingonlycircles
KurtHofstetterhasfoundabeautifullysimpleconstructionforaline
anditsgoldensectionpointusingonlycompassestodraw4circles:
1. OnanystraightlineS,picktwopointsXandY.
Witheachascentredrawacircle(green)throughtheother
pointlabellingtheirpointsofintersectionG(top)andB
(bottom)andthepointswheretheymeetlineSasPandQ
2. WithcentreX,drawacirclethroughQ(blue)
3. WithcentreY,drawacirclethroughP(blue)labellingthetoppointof
intersectionofthebluecirclesA
GisagoldpointofAB(GisatthegoldensectionofAB).
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ASimpleConstructionoftheGoldenSection,KurtHofstetterinForum
GeometricorumVol2(2002)pages6566whichhastheprooftoo.
Anotherevensimplermethod!
KurtHofstetterhasdiscoveredaverysimple
constructionsofthegoldpointonalineABjustusing
circlesandonelinetofindthegoldpoint(s)onagiven
linesegmentAB:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
WithcentreA,drawacirclethroughB
WithcentreB,drawacirclethroughA
ExtendBAtomeetthefirstcircle(centreA)atC
LabelthelowerpointonbothcirclesasD
WithcentreCdrawanothercirclethroughB
Wherethelargercirclemeetsthecirclecentredon
B,labeltheupperpointE
LineDEcrosseslineABatG.
GisagoldpointofAB
TheothergoldpointonABcanbeconstructedsimilarly.
UliEggermannofGermanypointsoutthatwealsohaveAasthegoldpointofCG!
ItisquitesimpletoprovetoousingthepropertiesofPhiandphithatphi=1/Phiand
1+phi=Phi:
IfABis1thensoisCA:theyarebothradiiofthesamecircle
AboveweconstructedG,thegoldpointofAB(=1),sothatAGisphi
CG=CA+AG=1+phi=Phi
SinceCAis1andCGisPhithenCA/CG=1/Phi=phi
soAisthegoldpointofCG
KurtHofstetter'sproofwaspublishedasAnother5stepDivisionofaSegmentin
theGoldenSectioninForumGeometricorumVol4(2004)pages2122.
Lemoine'sConstructionoftheGoldenSection
Inthisconstructiontofindthegoldpointofagivenline
segmentABrediscoveredbyKHofstetterbutgoingbackto
1902,weagainneedtoconstructonlyoneline:
1. WithAascentre,drawthefirstcirclethroughB
2. WithBascentre,drawasecondcirclethroughA
usinglabelsC(top)andD(bottom)forthetwopoints
ofintersectionwiththefirstcircle
3. Throughthetoppoint,C,drawathirdcirclethroughA
andBanduselabelEforitsotherintersectionwith
thefirstcircle
4. DrawthelineCDandwhereitmeetsthethirdcircle,
labelthispointF
5. WithcentreEdrawacirclethoughFwhereitmeetsthelineABlabelthispointG
GisagoldpointofAB.
Also,ifBAisextendedtomeetthelargercirclewithcentreEatG',then
AisagoldpointofG'B.
A5stepDivisionofaSegmentintheGoldenSectionKHofstetterinForum
GeometricorumVol3(2003)205206.
TheearliestreferencetothisconstructionappearstobeinGomtrographieouArtdes
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ConstructionsGomtriquesbyE.Lemoine,publishedbyC.Naud,Paris,1902,page51.
PhiandPentagons
Thereisanintimateconnectionbetweenthegoldensectionandtheregular5sidedshape
calledapentagonanditsvariationthepentagramthatweexplorefirst.
PentagonsandPentagrams
Thepentagramisasymmetrical5pointedstarthatfitsinsideapentagon.
Startingfromapentagon,byjoiningeachvertextothenextbutoneyoucan
drawapentagramwithouttakingyourpenoffthepaper.
Thepentagramhas5trianglesontheedgesofanotherpentagonatitscentre.Let'sfocuson
oneofthetrianglesandthecentralpentagonasshownhere.
Alltheorangeanglesattheverticesofthepentagonare
equal.Theyarecalledtheexternalanglesofthepolygon.
Whatsizearethey?Thispracticaldemonstrationwillgive
ustheanswer:
Takeapenandlayitalongthetopedgepointing
right
Turnitaboutthetoprightvertexthrough
theorangeanglesothatitpointsdowntothelower
right
Movethependownthatsideofthepentagontothenextvertexandturnitthroughthe
nextorangeangle
Repeatmovingitalongthesidesandturningthroughtherestoftheorangeanglesuntil
itliesbackonthetopedge
Thepenisnowbackinitsstartingposition,pointingtotherightsoithasturned
throughonecompeteturn.
Ithasalsoturnedthrougheachofthe5orangeangles
Sothesumofthe5orangeanglesisoneturnor360
Eachorangeangleistherefore360/5=72
Thegreenangleisthesamesizeastheorangeanglesothatthetwo"base"anglesofthe
bluetriangleareboth72.
Sincetheanglesinatrianglesumto180theyellowangleis36sothat72+72+36=
180.
Thebasicgeometricalfactswehaveusedhereare:
Theexternalanglesinanypolygonsumto360.
Theanglesonastraightlinesumto180.
Theanglesinatrianglesumto180.
Sothepentagramtrianglehasanglesof36,72and72.Nowlet'sfindouthowlongits
sidesare.
The367272triangle
Inthisdiagram,thetriangleABCisisosceles,sincethetwosides,ABandAC,areequalas
arethetwoanglesatBandC.
[Also,anglesABCandACBaretwiceangleCAB.]
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IfwebisectthebaseangleatBbyalinefromBtopointDonACthenwe
havetheanglesasshownandalsoangleBDCisalso72.BCDnowhastwo
anglesequalandisthereforeanisoscelestriangleandalsowehaveBC=BD.
SinceABDalsohastwoequalanglesof36,ittooisisoscelesandsoBD=AD.
SointhediagramthethreesidesBC,BDandDAareallthesamelength.
WealsonotethatthelittletriangleBCDandthewholetriangleABC
aresimilarsincetheyareboth367272triangles.
Let'scallthesmallestsegmenthere,CD,length1andfindthelengthsoftheothersin
relationtoit.WewillthereforelettheratioofthesmallertolongersidesintriangleBCD
bersothatifCDis1thenBCisr.
InthelargertriangleABC,thebaseisnowrandasitisthesameshapeasBCD,thenits
sidesareinthesameratiosoAbisrtimesBC,e.d.ABisr2.
Also,wehaveshownBC=BD=ADsoADisr(andCDis1).
FromthediagramwecanseethatAC=AD+DB.
ButAC=1+randinisoscelestriangleABC,AB(whichisr2)isthesamelengthasAC(which
is1+r),so
r2=1+r
andthisistheequationwhichdefinedthegoldenratio.
risPhiorphiandsincelengthsarepositive,wethereforehavethatrisPhi!
Sothetrianglewithangles36,72,72hassidesthatareproportionaltoPhi,Phiand1
(whichisthesameas1,1,phi).
Pentagramsandthe367272triangle
Ifwelookatthewayapentagramisconstructed,wecanseetherearelots
oflinesdividedinthegoldenratio:Sincethepointscanbejoinedtomakea
pentagon,thegoldenratioappearsinthepentagonalsoandthe
relationshipbetweenitssidesandthediagonals(joiningtwononadjacent
points).
ThereasonisthatPhihasthevalue2cos(/5)wheretheangleisdescribedinradians,or,
indegrees,Phi=2cos(36).
[SeebelowformoreangleswhosesinesandcosinesinvolvePhi!]
SincetheratioofapairofconsecutiveFibonaccinumbersisroughlyequalto
thegoldensection,wecangetanapproximatepentagonandpentagram
usingtheFibonaccinumbersaslengthsoflines:
Thereisanotherflattertriangleinsidethepentagonhere.Hasthisanygoldensectionsinit?
Yes!Weseewherefurtherdownthispage,butfirst,aquickandeasywaytomakea
pentagramwithoutmeasuringanglesorusingcompasses:
MakingaPaperKnottoshowtheGoldenSectioninaPentagon
Here'saneasymethodtoshowthegoldensectionbymakingaKnottyPentagramit
doesn'tneedaruleranditdoesn'tinvolveanymathseither!
Takealengthofpaperfromarollforinstancethetypethatsupermarketsusetoprintout
yourbillorcutoffastripofpaperacoupleofcentimetreswidefromthelongsideofa
pieceofpaper.Ifyoutieaknotinthestripandputastronglightbehindit,youwillseea
pentagramwithalllinesdividedingoldenratios.
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ThisismyfavouritemethodsinceitinvolvesaKnot(t)!
Hereare5picturestohelp(wellitisapentagramsoIhadtomake5pictures!)althoughit
reallyiseasyonceyoupracticetyingtheknot!
1. Asyouwouldtieaknotinapieceofstring...
2. ...gentlymakeanoverandunderknot,rollingthepaperroundasinthediagram.
3. (Thisistheslightlytrickybit!)
Gentlypullthepapersothatittightensandyoucancreasethefoldsasshowntomake
itlieperfectlyflat.
4. Nowifyouholdituptoabrightlight,you'llnoticeyoualmosthavethepentagram
shapeonemorefoldrevealsit...
5. Foldtheendyoupushedthroughtheknotback(creasingitalongtheedgeofthe
pentagon)sothatthetwoendsofthepaperalmostmeet.Theknotwillthenhanglikea
medalattheendofaribbon.
Lookingthroughtheknothelduptothelightwillshowaperfectpentagram,asinthe
diagramabove.
FlagsoftheWorldandPentagramstars
Herearetwoflagswithjustone5pointed
star:GuineaBissau(left)andPuertoRico
(right)fromtheFOTWFlagsOfTheWorld
websiteathttp://flagspot.net/flags/site.
ItsColouringBooklinkhassmallpicturesof
theflagsusefulforansweringthequestionsinthisQuiz.
Thingstodo
1. HowmanyfivepointedstarsarethereontheUSAflag?Hasthisalwaysbeenthecase?Whatisthe
reasonforthatnumber?
2. Manycountrieshaveaflagwhichcontainsthe5pointedstarabove.Findatleastfourmore.
3. WhichNorthAfricancountryhasapentagramonitsflag?
4. Somecountrieshaveaflagwithastarwhichdoesnothave5points:Whichcountryhasasix
pointedstarinitsflag?
5. Findallthosecountrieswithaflagwhichhasastarofmorethan6points.
6. ProjectMakeacollectionofpostagestampscontainingflagsorspecialiseinthosewithafive
pointedstarorpentagram.Youmightalsoincludemathematiciansthathaveappearedonstamps
too.Here'saSwissstamptostartoffyour(virtual)collection.
ProfRobinWilsonhasaStampCornersectionintheMathematicalIntelligencer.
HehasproducedabookStampingThroughMathematicsSpringerVerlag,136pages,(2001)
whichhasgotsomegoodreviews,egthisandthis.Thereisalsoacomprehensivewebsite
calledSciPhilatelywithseveralsectionsonmathsandalsoJeffMiller'sMathematicianson
Stampspageisalargecatalogueofstampswithpictures.JimKuzmanovichalsohasapage
onmathematicalstampcollecting.
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PhiandTriangles
PhiandtheEquilateralTriangle
ChrisandPennyatReginaUniversity'sMathCentral(Canada)
showhowwecanuseanycircletoconstructonitahexagonand
anequilateraltriangle.Joiningthreepairsofpointsthenrevealsa
lineanditsgoldensectionpointasfollows:
1. Onanycircle(centreO),constructthe6equallyspaced
pointsA,B,C,D,EandFonitscircumferencewithout
alteringyourcompasses,sotheyarethesamedistanceapart
astheradiusofthecircle.ABCDEFformsaregularhexagon.
2. Chooseeveryotherpointtomakeanequilateral
triangleACE.
3. Ontwoofthesidesofthattriangle(AEandAC),marktheir
midpointsPandQbyjoiningthecentreOtotwooftheunusedpointsofthehexagon
(FandB).
4. ThelinePQisthenextendedtomeetthecircleatpointR.
QisthegoldensectionpointofthelinePR.
QisagoldpointofPR
Theproofofthisislefttoyoubecauseitisaniceexerciseeither
usingcoordinategeometryandtheequationofthecircleand
thelinePQtofindtheirpointofintersectionorelseusing
planegeometrytofindthelengthsPRandQR.
Thediagramonthelefthasmanygoldensectionsandyet
containsonlyequilateraltriangles.Canyoumakeyourown
designbasedonthisprinciple?
ChrisandPenny'spageshowshowtocontinueusingyour
compassestomakeapentagonwithQRasoneside.
EquilateralTrianglesandtheGoldenratioJFRigby,MathematicalGazettevol72
(1988),pages2730.
PhiandthePentagonTriangle
Earlierwesawthatthe367272triangleshownhere
asABCoccursinboththepentagramandthedecagon.
Itssidesareinthegoldenratio(herePisactuallyPhi)and
thereforewehavelotsoftruegoldenratiosinthepentagram
starontheleft.
Butinthediagramofthepentagraminapentagonontheleft,wenotonly
havethetall367272triangles,thereisaflatterontoo.Whataboutits
sidesandangles?
PhiandanotherIsoscelestriangle
IfwecopytheBCDtrianglefromthereddiagramabove(the
367272triangle),andputanothertriangleonthesideaswe
seeinthisgreendiagram,weareagainusingP=Phiasaboveand
getasimilarshapeanotherisoscelestrianglebuta"flat"
triangle.
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Theredtriangleofthepentagonhasangles72,72and36,thisgreenonehas36,36,
and108andthenewcombinedtriangle,BDEalsohasangles36,36,and108.
AgaintheratiooftheshortertolongersidesisPhi,butthetwoequalsidesherearethe
shorterones(theywerethelongeronesinthe"sharp"triangle).
Thesetwotriangles,the"sharp"367272andthe"flat"3636108,arethebasicbuilding
shapesofPenrosetilings(seethePenroseTilingssectionmentionedlaterformore
references).Theyarea2dimensionalanalogueofthegoldensectionandmakeavery
interestingstudyintheirownright.TheyhavemanyrelationshipswithboththeFibonacci
numbersandPhi.
PhiandRightangledTriangles
Pythagoreantrianglesarerightangledtrianglesthathavesideswhicharewholenumbersin
size.Sincethegoldensection,Phi,isnotapurefraction(itisirrational),wewillnotbeable
tofindaPythagoreantrianglewithtwosidesingoldensectionratio.
However,thereisasarightangledtrianglethatdoeshavesidesinthegoldenratio.Itarises
ifweaskthequestion:
Istherearightangledtrianglewithsidesingeometricprogression,thatis
theratiooftwoofitssidesisalsotheratiooftwodifferentsidesinthesametriangle?
Ifthereissuchatriangle,letitsshortestsidebeoflengthaandlet's
userasthecommonratiointhegeometricprogressionsothesidesof
thetrianglewillbea,ar,ar2.
Sinceitisrightangled,wecanusePythagoras'Theoremtoget:
(ar2)2=(ar)2+(a)2
a2r4=a2r2+a2
Wecandividethroughbya2:
r4=r2+1
andifweuseRtostandforr2wegetaquadraticequation:
R2=R+1or
R2R1=0
whichwecansolvetofindthat
R=
15
2
=Phiorphi
SinceRisr2wecannothaveRasanegativenumber,so
R=r2=Phiso
r=Phi
Thesidesofthetrianglearetherefore
a,aPhi,aPhi
andanyrightangledtrianglewithsidesinGeometricProgression
hastwopairsofsidesinthesameratioPhiandonepairofsidesintheGoldenRatio!
WewillmeetthistriangleanditsangleslateronthispageinthesectiononTrigonometry
andPhi.
AtrigonometricintersectionDQuadling,Math.Gaz.(2005),Note89.70
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PhiandRectangles
PhiandtheTrapezium(Trapezoid)
ScottBeachhasinventedthetrisocelestrapezoid(ortrapeziumas
wesayintheUK).Itisatallisoscelestrianglewithitstoppartcutoff
toformaquadrilateralwiththefollowingproperties:
1. thetopandbottomedgesareparallel
2. theanglesatAandBareequalasarethoseatCandD
3. allthesidesexceptthetopareofequallength
(hencetrisocelesinScott'snameforthisshape)
4. thetopandbottomedgesareintheproportionofthegolden
section:thetopedgeisphi==0.618...timesaslongasthebaseor,equivalently,
thebaseisPhi==1.618...timesaslongasthetopedge.
Sowecouldcallthisatraphiziumor,intheUSA,atraphisoid!
Ithastheinterestingpropertythatthediagonalsbisectthetoptwoanglestheyellow
anglesinthediagramareallequal.
Sowhatwastheshapeoftheisoscelestrianglewhichhaditstoppartremovedtomake
thetraphizium?
ThediagramshowsthewholeisoscelestriangleAEBwiththemissing
partofthesidesDEandCEgiventhelengthx.
SincethetrianglesAEBandDECaresimilar(theanglesarethesamein
eachtriangle)thentheirsidesareinthesameratio(proportion)to
eachother.
InthelargetriangleAEBthebaseis1andthesidesare1+x.
InthesmallertriangleDECthebaseisandthesidesarex.
Thereforetheratioof1to(1+x)isthesameastheratiooftox.
or1/(1+x)=/x
i.e.x=(1+x)
Collectingthex'sononesidewehave(1)x=
sothatx=/(1)
Ifwedividetopandbottombyandusing=1/weseethisisthe
sameas1/(1)=1/=
Soxisthelargergoldensectionnumberandthecutoffpointonthesideoftheisosceles
triangleisagoldensectionpoint!
IfwesplitthetrianglesinhalffromEtothebase,wecanseethatthesineofthegreen
angleis1/(2(1+))=1/(22)=2/2=(1)/2.
Thismakesitabout78.98984..=1.37863...radians.
Thingstodo
1. HereisanothertrapeziumPQRSthatisconstructedusingtheothergoldpoint
onatheequalsidesofanisoscelestrianglePQT.
Also,thegoldpointmakesthethreeequallengthsidesSP=PQ=QRinthe
resultingtrapeziumsoitistrisoceles(touseScott'sphrase)andsoisaspecial
isoscelestriangle.
PSisPhitimesaslongasSTandQRisPhitimesaslongasRT.
NotethatPQTisnotthesameshapeasABEabove!
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Whatisthelengthofthetopedge,x,inthisnewtrapezium?
2. Canyoufindanyotherpropertiesoftheanglesorlinesinthistrapezium?
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PhiandtheRoot5Rectangle
Ifwedrawarectanglewhichis1unithighand5=2236long,wecandrawasquareinit,
which,ifweplaceitcentrally,willleavetworectanglesleftover.Eachofthesewill
bephi=0618..unitswideand,ofcourse,1unithigh.
Sincewealreadyknowthattheratioof1:phiisthesameasPhi:1,thenthetworectangles
areGoldenRectangles(onesideisPhiorphitimestheother).
ThisisnicelyillustratedonIronheartArmoury'sRootRectanglespagewhereheshowshow
toconstructalltherectangleswithwidthanysquareroot,startingfromasquare.
Thisrectangleissupposedtohavebeenusedbysomeartistsasitisanotherpleasing
rectangularshape,likethegoldenrectangleitself.
Theshapeofapieceofpaper
Modernpapersizeshavesidesthatareintheratio2:1.Thismeansthattheycanbefolded
inhalfandthetwohalvesarestillexactlythesameshape.Hereisanexplanationofwhythis
isso:
"A"seriesPaper
TakeasheetofA4paper.
Folditinhalffromtoptobottom.
Turnitroundandyouhaveasmallersheetofpaperofexactly
thesameshapeastheoriginal,buthalfthearea,calledA5.
Sinceitsareaisexactlyhalftheoriginal,itssidesare(1/2)of
theoriginals,or,anA4sheethassides2timesbiggerthanasheetofA5.
DothisonalargeA3sheetandyougetasheetofsizeA4.
Thesidesmustbeintheratioof1:2sinceiftheoriginalsheethastheshortersideof
length1andthelongersideoflengths,thenwhenfoldedinhalftheshorttolongerside
ratioisnows/2:1.
Bythetwosheetsbeingofthesameshape,wemeanthattheratiooftheshorttolongside
isthesame.Sowehave:
1/s=s/2/1whichmeansthats2=2andsos=2
Fibonaccipaper
Ifwetakeasheetofpaperandfoldacornerovertomakeasquareatthetopandthencut
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offthatsquare,thenwehaveanewsmallerpieceofpaper.
Ifwewantthesmallerpiecetohavethesameshapeastheoriginalone,then,ifthelonger
sideislengthfandtheshortsidelength1intheoriginalshape,thesmalleronewillhave
shortersideoflengthf1andlongersideoflength1.
Sotheratioofthesidesmustbethesameineachiftheyhavethesameshape:wehave1/f
=(f1)/1or,f2f=1whichisexactlytheequationfromwhichwederivedPhi.
Thusifthesheetsaretohavethesameshape,theirsidesmustbeintheratioof1toPhi,
or,thesidesareapproximatelytwosuccessiveFibonaccinumbersinlength!
161803398874989484820458683436563811772030917980576..More..
PhiandotherPolygons
Decagons
Thesmallestangleinthe"pentagramtriangle"was36sowecanpack
exactlytenofthesetogetherroundasinglepointandmakeadecagonas
shownhere.
161803398874989484820458683436563811772030917980576..More..
Hereisadecagona10sidedregularpolygonwithallitsanglesequal
andallitssidesthesamelengthwhichhasbeendividedinto10
triangles.
Becauseofitssymmetry,allthetriangleshavetwosidesthatarethe
samelengthandsothetwootheranglesineachtrianglearealsoequal.
Ineachtriangle,whatisthesizeoftheangleatthecentreofthe
decagon?
Wenowknowenoughtoidentifythetrianglesinceweknowoneangleand
thatthetwosidessurroundingitareequal.Whichtriangleonthispageisit?
Fromwhatwehavealreadyfoundoutaboutthistriangleearlier,wecannowsaythat
TheradiusofacirclethroughthepointsofadecagonisPhitimesaslongasthe
sideofthedecagon.
ThisfollowsdirectlyfromEuclid'sElementsBook13,Proposition9.
161803398874989484820458683436563811772030917980576..More..
Penrosetilings
Recently,ProfRogerPenrosehascomeupwithsometilingsthatexhibitfivefoldsymmetry
yetwhichdonotrepeatthemselvesforwhichthetechnicalterm
isaperiodicorquasiperiodic.Whentheyappearinnatureincrystals,theyare
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calledquasicrystals.Theywerethoughttobe
impossibleuntilfairlyrecently.Thereisalotin
commonbetweenPenrose'stilingsandthe
Fibonaccinumbers.
Thepicturehereismadeupoftwokinds
ofrhombusorrhombs,thatis,4sidedshapes
withallsidesofequallength.Thetworhombs
aremadefromgluingtwooftheflatpentagon
trianglestogetheralongtheirlongsidesandthe
otherfromgluingtwoofthesharppentagon
trianglestogetheralongtheirshortsidesas
showninthediagamsbelow.
Notethatthetop"flat"diagramshowsthesharpandflat
triangleshavethesameheightandthattheirbasesare
intheratioPhi:1(or1:Phi1whichis1:phi):
ThesharptriangleisPhitimestheareaoftheflat
triangle
iftheshortestsharptriangle'sside=thelongest
flattriangle'sside
SincetheKiteandDartaremadeoftwoidentical
triangles,then
ThedartisPhitimestheareaofthekite
Thediagramontherightshowstherelationshipbetween
thekiteanddartandapentagonandpentagram.
YoucanmakesimilartilingpictureswithQuasitiler3.0,a
webbasedtoolanditslinkmentionsmorereferencesto
Penrosetilings.
AfloorhasbeentiledwithPenroseRhombsatWadham
CollegeatOxfordUniversity.
HerearesomeinterestinglinkstothePenrosetilingsat
othersites.
TheGeometryJunkyardhasagreatpageofPenrose
links
IvarsPeterson'sScienceNewsOnlinehasaninteresting
DissectingtheSharpandFlat
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pageaboutquasicrystalsshowinghowPenrosetilingsare
Triangles:
foundinnature.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
EricWeisstein'sPenroseTilingsentryinhisWorldof
Herethesharptriangleisdissectedinto
twosmallersharptrianglesandoneflat
Mathematicsonlineencyclopaedia.
triangle,theflattriangleintoonesmaller
PenroseTilestoTrapdoorCiphers,1997,chapters1
flatandonesharptriangle.Ateachstage
and2areonPenroseTilingsand,aswithallofMartin
allthetrianglesaredissectedaccording
Gardner'smathematicalwritingstheyareajoytoread
tothispattern.
andaccessibletoeveryone.
Repeatinggivesrisetooneversionofa
PenroseTiling.
ANearGoldenCuboidbyGrahamHoare
inMathematicsTodayVol41,April2005,page53givestherelationshipbetweenthe
pentagon/pentagramandPenrose'skiteanddart.
AnotherIrregulartilingusingPhi:theAmmannChair
Asingletilewhichproducesan"irregular"tilingwasfoundbyRobert
Ammannin1977.ItsdimensionsinvolvepowersofthesquarerootofPhi
():
=1/2=1/2=1.27201964951406
whichmeansitcanbesplitintotwosmallertilesofexactlythesame
shape.Theyalldependonthepropertyofthat
n+2=n+1+n
TheAmmann
ChairTiling
Bysplittingthelargertile,andanyothersofidenticalsize,inthesame
way,wecanproducemoreandmoretilesallofexactlythesameshape,
butthewholetilingwillneverhaveanyperiodicpattern.
Eachtimewesplitatile,wemakeonethatis
=1/=1=0.618039...
timesthesizeandonethatis
=1/2=1/=1/2=0.78615137...
timesthesize.Thereareonlytwosizesoftileineachdissection.
Thebuttonsunderthetileshowsuccessivestagesasthedissections
getmorenumerous.
Thistilingisirregularoraperiodicwhichmeansthatnopartofitwill
appearasanindefinitelyrecurringpatternasintheregulartilings.
theoriginaltile'sdimen
thesplittile'sdimensio
1 2 3
4 5 6 7 8
.. 11 .. 15
Start
Thingstodo
1. Therearejusttwosizesoftileineachstageofthedissectionsinthediagram,alargerandasmaller
tile.
a. Howmanysmallertilesarethereateachstage?
b. Howmanylargertilesarethereateachstage?
c. Howmanylargerandsmallertilesarethereatstage15?
2. Usethebuttonbythediagramtoshowthedimensions.PickonesideoftheAmmanChairtile.
a. Whatisitslengthintheoriginaltile?
b. Inthefirstsplit,whatisthelengthofyourchosensideonthelargerofthetwotiles?
c. Inthefirstsplit,whatisthelengthofyourchosensideonthesmallerofthetwotiles?
d. Whatisitslengthonthesubsequenttwosizesoftileateachsubsequentstage?
e. Whatisthelengthofyourchosensideoneachofthetwosizesoftileatstage15?
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3. Useyouranswertothefirstquestiontofindhowmanytilesgetsplitateachstage.
4. Therearethreenewsidesaddedtothediagramatthefirstsplit.
a. Howmanynewsidesareaddedatthesecondsplit(stage)?Useyouanswertotheprevious
question.
b. Howmanynewsidesareaddedatthethirdsplit(stage)?
c. Findaformulaforthenumberofedgesateachstage.
5. Followingonfromthepreviousquestion,howmanysidesarethereintotalateachstage?
6. Rotationsandreflectionsoftheoriginaltile:
a. Doesthetileappearrotated180?
b. Doesthetileappearrotated90and90?
c. Doesthetileappearreflectedinaverticalmirror?
d. Doesthetileappearreflectedinahorizontalmirror?
EnriqueZeleny'sAmmannChairMathematicademonstrationshowsthesedissections
eitheranimatedonthepageorusingthefreeMathematicaPlayer,andincolourtoo.
TilingsandPatternsBGrnbaum,GCShephard(aDoverpaperbackoftheoriginal1987
editionisdueoutin2009)ISBN0486469816isencyclopaedicinitsdepthandrangeof
tilingsandpatterns.ItmentionsthisAmmanntilingonpage553.
PenroseTilestoTrapdoorCiphers:AndtheReturnofDrMatrix,MGardner,(The
MathematicalAssociationofAmericaRevisededition1997),thesecondchaptergivesmore
onAmmann'sworkbutomitsthissimplestofaperiodictilingsgivenabove.Aswithall
mathematicalbooksbyMartinGardner,theyareexcellentandIcannotrecommendthem
highlyenough!
AperiodicTiles,R.Ammann,B.Grnbaum,G.C.Shephard,Discreteand
ComputationalGeometry(1992),pages125.
161803398874989484820458683436563811772030917980576..More..
MoreGeometricalGems
HerearesomeorelittlegemsofgeometryshowingPhiinunexpectedplaces.
Thefirstisaboutcuttingthreetrianglesfromarectangle.Thenexttwoareaboutbalancing
aflatshapeonapinheadorpencilpoint.Thefinaloneisaboutareasofflatcircularshapes.
Firstthetwobalancingpuzzles.
Thecentreofgravityofaflatshapeisthepointatwhichtheshapebalanceshorizontally
onapointsuchasthetipofapencil.Ifyouarecareful,youcangettheshapetospinon
thatpoint,alsocalledthepivot(al)point.
ARectangleTriangledissectionProblem
Theproblemis,givenarectangle,tocutoffthreetrianglesfromthe
cornersoftherectanglesothatallthreetriangleshavethesamearea.
Or,expressedanotherway,tofindatriangleinsideagivenrectangle(any
rectangle)whichwhenitisremovedfromtherectangleleavesthree
trianglesofthesamearea.
Asshownhere,theareaoftheleftmosttriangleisx(w+z)/2.
Theareaofthetoprighttriangleisyw/2.
Theareaofthebottomtriangleis(x+y)z/2.
Makingtheseequalmeans:
x(w+z)=ywandx(w+z)=z(x+y).
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Thefirstequationtellsusthatx=yw/(w+z).
Thesecondequation,whenwemultiplyoutthebracketsandcancelthezxtermsoneach
side,tellsusthatxw=zy.Thismeansthaty/x=w/z.
Orinotherwords,wehaveourfirstdeductionthat
Bothsidesoftherectanglearedividedinthesameproportion.
Returningtoxw=zy,weputx=yw/(w+z)intoitgivingyw2/(w+z)=zy.
Wecancancelyfromeachsideandrearrangeittogivew2=z2+zw.
Ifwedividebyz2wehaveaquadraticequationinw/z:(w/z)2=1+w/z
LetX=w/zthenX2=1+X
ThepositivesolutionofthisisX=Phi,thatis,w/z=Phiorw=zPhi.
Sincewehavealreadyseenthaty/x=w/zthen:
Eachsideoftherectangleisdividedinthesameratio
ThisratioisPhi=16180339...i.e.1:1618or0618:1.
TheGoldenSectionstrikesagain!
ThispuzzleappearedinJAHHunter'sTriangleInscribedInaRectangleinThe
FibonacciQuarterly,Vol1,1963,Issue3,page66.
AfollowuparticlebyHEHuntleyentitledFibonacciGeometryinvolume2(1964)of
theFibonacciQuarterlyonpage104showsthat,iftherectangleisitselfagoldenrectangle
(theratioofthelongersidetotheshorteroneisPhi)thenthetriangleisbothisoscelesand
rightangled!
Balancingan"L"shape
Inthisfirstproblem,supposewetakeasquarepieceofcard.Wherewillthepivot
pointbe?
Thatshouldbeeasytoguessatthecentreofthesquare.
Nowsupposeweremoveasmallsquarefromonecornertomakean"L"shape.
Wherewillthepencilpointbenowifthe"L"istobalanceandturnfreely?
Thecentreofgravitythistimewillbeclosetothecentrebutdownalittleononeof
thesquare'sdiagonals.
Ifwetookoffaverylargesquaretomakethe"L"shapequitethin,thenthecentre
ofgravitywouldlieoutsidetheLshapeandwecouldnotbalanceitatall!
Soweareleftwiththequestion
Whatisthelargestsizeofsquarethatwecanremovesothatwecanstilljust
balancetheLshape?
NickLordfounditwaswhentheratioofthebigsquare'ssideandtheremoved
square'ssideareinthegoldenratiophi!
Note79.59:BalancingandGoldenRectanglesNLord,MathematicalGazettevol79
(1995)pages5734.
BalancingaCrescent
Hereisasimilarproblembutthistimeusingcircles:toremovethelargestcircleandstill
haveapivotalpoint:
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Thefull
Removingasmall
Removingalarge Thelimitpointiswhentheradiiofthe
circle
circleatthetop
circlemovesthe
twocirclesareinthegoldenratioand
balancesat movesthebalance balancepointoutside thecentreofgravityisjustonthe
itscentre pointdownalittle thecrescentshape
edgeoftheinnercircle
point
EllipseandRing
Thethirdlittlegeometricalgemisaboutaringandanellipse.Anellipseistheshapethata
plateoranythingcircularappearswhenviewedatanangle.
Herearetwocircles,
oneinsidetheother.
Theyellowandred
areasdefineanouter
ring.Alsotheorange
andredpartsforman
ellipse(anoval).
Iftheringis
Iftheinner
verynarrow,
circleisvery
thetwo
small,the
circlesare
ellipsewillbe
similarinsize
verynarrow
andthe
andtheouter
ellipsehasamuchbigger ringwillbemuchbiggerin
areathanthering.
areathantheellipse.
Sothequestionis
Whatratioofcirclesizes(radii)makestheellipseequalinareatotheringbetweenthetwo
circles?
Theanswerisagainwhentheinnerradiusis0.618ofthelargerone,thegoldenratio.
Thisisquiteeasytoproveusingthesetwoformulae:
Theareofacircleofradiusrisr2
Theareaofanellipsewith"radii"aandb(asshownabove)isab
(Notehowthat,whena=bintheellipse,itbecomesacircleandthetwoformulaearethe
same.)
Sotheoutercirclehasradiusa,theinnercircleradiusbandtheareaoftheringbetween
themistherefore:
Areaofring=(b2a2)
Thisisequaltotheareaoftheellipsewhen
(b2a2)=ab
b2a2ab=0
Ifwelettheratioofthetwocirclesradii=b/a,beK,say,thendividingtheequationbya2we
have
K2K1=0
whichmeansKiseitherPhiorphi.ThepositivevalueforKmeansthatb=Phiaora=phib.
Theequationofanellipseis
(x/b)2+(y/a)2=1
Whena=b,wehavetheequationofacircleofradiusa(=b):
(x/a)2+(y/a)2=1or
x2+y2=a2asitismoreusuallywritten.
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YoumighthavespottedthatthisequationismerelyPythagoras'Theoremthatallthe
points(x,y)onthecirclearethesamedistancefromtheorigin,thatdistancebeinga.
Note79.13ANoteontheGoldenRatio,ADRawlings,MathematicalGazettevol79
(1995)page104.
TheChangingShapeofGeometryCPritchard(2003)CambridgeUniversityPress
paperbackandhardback,isacollectionofpopular,interestingandenjoyablearticles
selectedfromtheMathematicalGazette.Itwillbeofparticularinteresttoteachersand
studentsinschoolorindeedanyoneinterestedinGeometry.Thethreegemsabovearegiven
inmoredetailinthesectiononTheGoldenRatio.
161803398874989484820458683436563811772030917980576..More..
TheFibonacciSpiralandtheGolden
Spiral
TheFibonacciSquaresSpiral
OntheFibonacciNumbersandGoldenSectioninNaturepage,welookedataspiralformed
fromsquareswhosesideshadFibonaccinumbersastheirlengths.
Thissectionanswersthequestion:
WhatistheequationoftheFibonaccispiral?
TheGoldensectionsquaresareshowninredhere,the
axesinblueandallthepointsofthesquareslieonthe
greenlines,whichpassthroughtheorigin(0,0).
Also,theblue(axes)linesandthegreenlinesareeach
separatedfromthenextby45exactly.
ThelargerectangleABDFistheexactlythesame
shapeasCDFH,butis(exactly)phitimesaslarge.Also
ithasbeenrotatedbyaquarterturn.Thesameapplies
toCDFHandHJEFandtoallthegoldenrectanglesin
thediagram.SototransformOE(onthexaxis)toOC
(ontheyaxis),andindeedanypointonthespiralto
anotherpointonthespiral,weexpandlengthsbyphitimesforeveryrotationof90:thatis,
wechange(r,theta)to(rPhi,theta+/2)(where,asusual,weexpressanglesinradianmeasure,
notdegrees).
SoifwesayEisat(1,0),thenCisat(Phi,/2),Aisat(Phi2,),andsoon.
Similarly,Gisat(phi,/2),andIisat(phi2,)andsoonbecausephi=1/Phi.
Thepointsonthespiralarethereforesummarisedby:
r=Phinandtheta=n/2
Ifweeliminatetheninthetwoequations,wegetasingleequationthatallthepointsonthe
spiralsatisfy:
r=Phi2theta/
or
r=MthetawhereM=Phi2/=1.35845627...
Forordinary(cartesian)coordinates,thexvaluesareyvaluesaregeneratedfromthepolar
coordinatesasfollows:
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x=rcos(theta)
y=rsin(theta)
whichwecanthenuseinaSpreadsheettogenerateachartasshownhere.
Suchspirals,wherethedistancefromtheoriginisaconstanttothepoweroftheangle,are
calledequiangularspirals.Theyalsohavethepropertythatalinefromtheorigintoany
pointonthecurvealwaysfinds(thetangentto)thecurvemeetingitatthesameangle.
Anothernameisalogarithmicspiralbecausetheangleofanypointfromthexaxis
throughtheoriginisproportionaltothelogarithmofthepoint'sdistancefromtheorigin.
ToseethattheFibonacciSpiralhereisonlyanapproximationtothe
(true)GoldenSpiralabovenotethat:
atitsstarttherearetwosquaresmakingthefirstrectanglebut
thetruegoldenspiralabovehasno"start"
thosetwosquaresmakearectangle1x2butallrectanglesinthe
truespiralaretrueGoldenRectangles1xPhi.
Alltheotherrectanglesontherightareratiosoftwo
neighbouringFibonaccinumbersandaretherefore
onlyapproximationstoGoldenRectangles
TheGoldenorPhiSpiral
Inthespiralabove,based
onFibonaccisquares
spirallingoutfroman
initialtwo1x1squares,
wenotedthat
onequarterturnproduces
anexpansionbyPhiinthe
distanceofapointonthe
curvefromthe"origin".
Soinonefullturnwe
haveanexpansionofPhi4.
Inseashells,wenotice
anexpansionofPhiinoneturn,sothatnotonlyhasthe
shellgrowntoPhitimesasfarfromitsorigin(nowburieddeepinsidetheshell).Also,
becauseofthepropertiesofthegoldensection,wecanseethatthedistancesmeasuredon
theoutsideoftheshellalsohaveincreasedbyPhianditisofteneasiertomeasurethis
distanceontheoutsideofashell,asweseeinthepicturehereontheleft.
Inthiscase,theequationofthecurveis
r=Phitheta/(2)whenthetaismeasuredinradiansor
r=Phitheta/360ifthetaisindegrees.
Noticethatanincreaseintheanglethetaof2radians(360oronefullturn)
makesrincreasebyafactorofPhibecausethepowerofPhihasincreasedby1.
Iwillcallthisspiral,thatincreasesbyPhiperturn,theGoldenSpiralorthePhi
Spiralbecauseofthispropertyandalsobecauseitistheonewefindinnature(shells,etc.).
ClickontheSpreadsheetimagetoopenanExcelSpreadsheettogeneratetheGoldenSpiral
inanewwindow.
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TrigonometryandPhi
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Whatistrigonometry?
Wecananswerthisbylookingattheoriginofthewordtrigonometry.
Wordsendingwithmetryaretodowithmeasuring(fromtheGreekwordmetronmeaning
"measurement").(Whatdoyouthinkthatthermometrymeasures?Whataboutgeometry?
Canyouthinkofanymorewordsendingwithmetry?)
Also,thegonpartcomesfromtheGreekgonia)meaningangle.ItisderivedfromtheGreek
wordfor"knee"whichisgony.
Theprefixtriistodowiththreeasintricycle(athreewheeledcycle),trio(threepeople),
trident(athreeprongedfork).
Similarly,quadmeans4,pent5andhexsixasinthefollowing:
a(fivesidedand)fiveangledshapeisapentagonmeaningliterallyfiveanglesand
asixangledoneiscalledahexagonthenwecouldcall
afourangledshapeaquadragon
(butwedon'tusingthewordquadrilateralinsteadwhichmeans"foursided")and
athreeangledshapewouldbeatriagon
(butwecallitatriangleinstead)
"Trigon"wasindeedtheoldEnglishwordforatriangle.
Sotrigononmeans"threeangled"or,aswewouldnowsayinEnglish,"triangular"and
hencewehavetrigoniametriameaning"themeasurementoftriangles".
Withthankstoproteusofsoftnetforthisinformation.
PhiandTriggraphs
Herearethegraphsofthreefamiliartrigonometricfunctions:sin
x,cosxandtanxintheregionofxfrom0to/2(radians)=90:
Thegraphsmeetat
theorigin,wheretanx=sinx
inthemiddle,wheresinx=cosxi.e.wheretanx=1orx=
45=/4radians
atanotheranglewheretanx=cosx
Whatangleisatthethirdmeetingpoint?
tanx =cosxand,sincetanx=sinx/cosx,wehave:
sinx =(cosx)2
=1(sinx)2because(sinx)2+(cosx)2=1.
or
(sinx)2+sinx=1
andsolvingthisasaquadraticinsinx,wefind
sinx=(1+5)/2or
sinx=(15)/2
Thesecondvalueisnegativeandourgraphpictureisforpositivex,sowehaveouranswer:
thethirdpointofintersectionistheanglewhosesineisPhi1=06180339...=phi
whichisabout066623943..radiansor381727076..
Onourgraph,wecansaythattheintersectionofthegreenandbluegraphs
(cos(x)andtan(x))iswheretheredgraph(sin(x))hasthevaluephi[i.e.atthexvalueofthe
pointwheretheliney=phimeetsthesin(x)curve].
Isthereanysignificanceinthevalueoftan(x)wheretan(x)=cos(x)?
Yes.Itisphi=0618033988...=0786151377757...
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Here'showwecanprovethis.
Takeageneralrightangledtriangleandlabelonesidetandanother
side1sothatoneangle(callitA)hasatangentoft.
ByPythagoras'sTheorem,thehypotenuseis(1+t2).
Sowehave:
Forallrightangledtriangles:
tanA=t
1
cosA=
(1+t2)
sinA=
t
(1+t2)
WenowwanttofindtheparticularangleAwhichhastan(A)=cos(A).
Fromtheformulaeabovewehave:
t=1/(1+t2)
Squaringbothsides:
t2=1/(1+t2)
Multiplybothsidesby1+t2:
t2(1+t2)=1
t2+t4=1
IfweletTstandfort2thenwehaveaquadraticequationinTwhichwecaneasilysolve:
t4+t21=0
T2+T1=0
T=(1(1+4))/2
2
SinceTist itmustbepositive,sothevalueofTwewantinthiscaseis
T=(51)/2=phi
SinceTist2thentisphi.
Since1+Phi=Phi2thenthehypotenuse(1+T2)=Phiasshowninthetriangle
here.
Fromthe1,Phi,Phitriangle,weseethat
tan(A)=cos(A)
tan(B)=1/sin(B)ortan(B)=cosec(B)
Whatistheanglewhosetangentisthesameasitcosine?
Inthetrianglehere,itisangleA:
A=38.1727076=3010'21.74745"=0.1060352989..ofawholeturn=0.666239432..
radians.
Theotherangle,Bhasitstangentequaltoitscosecant(thereciprocalofthesine):
B=90A=51.8272923..=5149'38.2525417.."=0.143964701..ofawholeturn=
0.90455689..radians.
Noticehow,whenweapplyPythagoras'Theoremtothetriangleshownherewithsides1,Phi
androotPhi,wehave
Phi2=1+(Phi)2=1+Phi
whichisoneofourclassicdefinitionsof(thepositivenumber)Phi.....
andwehavealreadymetthistriangleearlieronthispage!
Thenextsectionlooksattheothertrigonometricalrelationshipsinatriangleandshowsthat,
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wheretheyareequal,eachinvolvesthenumbersPhiandphi.
Notationforinversefunctions
Acommonmathematicalnotationfortheanglewhosesinis0.5isarcsin(0.5)although
youwillsometimesseethiswrittenasasin(0.5)orsin1(0.5).
Wecanprefixarc(ora)toanytrigonometricalfunction(cos,cot,tan,etc.)tomakeitinto
its"inverse"functionwhich,giventhetrig'svalue,returnstheangleitself.
Eachoftheseinversefunctionsisappliedtoanumberandreturnsanangle.
e.g.ifsin(90)=0then90=arcsin(0).
Whatisarccos(0.5)?
Theanglewhosecosineis0.5is60.
Butcos(120)=0.5asdoescos(240)andcos(300)andwecanadd360toanyofthese
anglestofindsomemorevalues!
Theanswerisarccos(0.5)=60or120or240or300or...
Withalltheinversetrig.functionsyoumustcarefullyselecttheansweroranswersthatare
appropriatetotheproblemyouaresolving.
"Theanglewhosetangentisthesameasitscosine"canbewrittenmathematicallyinseveral
ways:
tan(A)=cos(A)isthesameasarctan(cos(A))=A
Canyouseethatitcanalsobewrittenasarccos(tan(A))=A?
MoretrigratiosandPhi(sec,csc,cot)
Inarightangledtriangleifwefocusononeangle(A),wecancallthetwosidesroundthe
rightangletheOppositeandtheAdjacentsidesandthelongestsideistheHypotenuse,
orAdj,OppandHypforshort.
YoumightwonderwhywegiveanametotheratioAdj/Opp(the
tangent)ofangleAbutnottoOpp/Adj.
Thesameappliestotheothertwopairsofsides:
wecallOpp/HypthesineofAbutwhataboutHyp/Opp?
SimilarlyAdj/HypiscosineofAbutwhataboutHyp/Adj?
Infacttheydohavenames:
theinverseratiotothetangentisthecotangentorcoti.e.Adj/Oppcot(x)=1/tan(x)
theinverseratiotothecosineisthesecantorseci.e.Hyp/Adjsec(x)=1/cos(x)
theinverseratiotothesineisthecosecantorcosecorsometimescsci.e.Hyp/Opp
csc(x)=1/sin(x)
You'llnoticethatthesesixnamesdivideintotwogroups:
secant,sine,tangent
cosecant,cosine,cotangent
andshowanotherwayofchoosingonerepresentativeforeachofthe3pairsofratios(x/y
andy/xwherexandyareoneofthethreesides).
Hereisagraphofthesixfunctionswheretheangleismeasuredinradians:
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ThisextendedsetofgraphsrevealstwomoreintersectionsinvolvingPhi,phiandtheir
squareroots:e.g.
ifAistheanglewherecos(A)=tan(A)thensin(A)=phiandcosec(A)=Phi
ThevalueofAisA=38.172..=0.666239...radians
ifBistheanglewheresin(B)=cot(B)thencos(B)=phiandsec(B)=Phi
ThevalueofBis51.827..=0.904556...radians.
NoticethatAandBsumto90aswewouldexpectofanytwoangleswherethesineofone
isthecosineoftheother.
SomeResultsinTrigonometryLRaphael,FibonacciQuarterlyvol8(1970),page
371,continuedonpage392.
Thingstodo
2
1. Abovewesolvedcos(x)=tan(x)usingthe1,t,(1+t )triangle.Usethesametriangleandadaptthe
methodtofindthevalueofsin(x)forwhichsin(x)=cot(x).
Ifyouusetheformulaeabovethenrememberthatyouwillfindt,thetangentoftheangleforwhich
sin(x)=cot(x).Sincewewantthecotangent,justtakethereciprocalofttosolvesin(x)=cot(x)=1/t.
2. OnthepreviouspagewesawtwowaystofindPhionyourcalculatorusingthe1/xbutton,square
rootbuttonandjustadding1.Here'showwecandothesamethingtofindphiandPhi.
2
Fromtan(x)=cos(x)wefoundt=phiisasolutiontot=1/(1+t )
So,touncoverthisvalueusingyourcalculator,followthesesteps:
a. Enteranynumbertostarttheprocess
b.
i. Squareit
ii. Add1
iii. Takethesquareroot
iv. Takethereciprocal(the1/xbutton)
v. Writedownthenumbernowdisplayed
c. Repeatthepreviousstepasoftenasyoulike.
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2
Eachtime,givent,wecompute1/(1+t )andkeeprepeatingthistransformation.
Eventually,thenumberwewritedowndoesnotchange.Itisphi=0.7861513777....Infact,no
matterhowbigorsmallisyourstartingvalue,you'llgetphito4or5dpsafteronlyafewiterations.
Tryit!
IfyouwantPhi,justusethe1/xbuttononyourfinalanswer.
SomeResultsinTrigonometry,BrotherLRaphael,TheFibonacciQuarterlyvol8
(1970)pages371and392.
OtheranglesrelatedtoPhi
Lookagainatthesharpandflattrianglesofthepentagonthatwesaw
above.Ifwedivideeachinhalf,wehaverightangledtriangleswith
sides1andPhi/2aroundthe36angleintheflattriangleand
sides1/2andPhiaroundthe72angleinthesharptriangle.So:
cos(72)=cos
cos(36)=cos
2
5
1
= =
10 2 2
=sin(18)=sin
=sin(54)=sin
1
= =
10 2 2
Wehavesin(18)butwhataboutcos(18)?Thishasasomewhatmoreawkwardexpressionas:
5
cos(18)=
2
Nowweknowthesinandcosofboth30and18wecanfindthesinandcosoftheangle
differencesusing:
cos(AB)=cos(A)cos(B)+sin(A)sin(B)
andget:
+ 35
cos(12)=
4
AAAAGH!asSnoopymighthavesaid.
Isthereaneater(thatis,asimpler)expression?Perhapsyoucanfindone.Letmeknowif
youdoanditwillbeaddedherewithyourname!
Thereareseveralangleswhosecosineissimilartothisone:
cos(24)=
+ 35
4
cos(48)=
+ 35
4
cos(84)=
+ 35
4
Whataboutotherangles?Fromanequilateraltrianglecutinhalfwecaneasilyshowthat:
cos(60) =
sin(30)=
cos(30) =
sin(60)=
andfroma454590degreetrianglewecanderive:
cos(45)=sin(45)=
1
2
3
2
2
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andnotforgetting,ofcourse:
sin(0)=cos(90)=0
sin(90)=cos(0)=1
Theformofcos(12)aboveisderivedfromtheexpressiononpage42of
Rootsof(HL)/15RecurrenceEquationsinGeneralizedPascalTrianglesbyCSmithandVEHoggatt
Jr.inTheFibonacciQuarterlyvol18(1980)pages3642.
Canyoufindanymoreanglesthathaveanexactexpression(notnecessarily
involvingPhiorphi)?
Letmeknowwhatyoufindandlet'sgetalistofthemhere.
Hereismyinitialattemptcanyouaddanymoreangles?
Binet'sFormulaforFib(n)intrig.terms
ThesetwoalternativeformsofBinet'sformula:
Phin(Phi)n Phin(phi)n
Fib(n)=
=
5
5
canbewrittenusingthecosinefunctionandsineasweseeinthenexttwosubsections:
ASimpleTrigformulaforFib(n)
Abovewesawthatcos(/5)=cos(36)=/2andcos(2/5)=cos(72)=/2.
Sincecos(180A)=cos(A),wehavecos(18072)=/2.So
=2cos(/5),=2cos(3/5)
WecanusetheseinBinet'sformulatorewriteitas
Fib(n)=
2n[cosn(/5)cosn(3/5)]
5
TheBeeandtheRegularPentagonWHopeJones,MathematicalGazettevol55,
1971,pg220ffwhichisareprintoftheoriginal1921version(vol10).
Binet'sFormulasolelyinTrigterms
Thistimeweevenreplacethe5'sbytrigforms:
3 5
3
9
5
sin sin
= andsin
sin
=
5
5
4
5
5
4
andsoBinet'sformulabecomesthistime:
3
3
3
9
2n+2
Fib(n)=
sin
sin
cosn sin sin
+cosn
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
or,ifyoupreferdegreesratherthanradians:
2n+2
Fib(n)=
cosn(36)sin(36)sin(108)+cosn(108)sin(108)sin(36)
5
SeeFibonacciinTrigonometricFormProblemB374proposedandsolvedbyFStern
inTheFibonacciQuarterlyvol17(1979)page93whereanotherformisalsogiven.
PhiandPowersofPi
Thereisasimple(infinite)seriesforcalculatingthecosineandthesineofananglewhere
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theangleisexpressedinradians.SeeRadianMeasure(thelinkopensinanewwindow
closeittoreturnhere)forafullerexplanation.
Basically,insteadof360degreesinafullturnthereare2radians.Theradianmeasuremakesmany
trigonometricequationssimplerandsoitisthepreferredunitofmeasuringanglesinmathematics.
Ifanglexismeasuredinradiansthen
x2 x4 x6
cos(x)=1 + +...
2! 4! 6!
x3 x5 x7
sin(x)=x + +...
3! 5! 7!
Here,n!meansthefactorialofnwhichmeanstheproductofallthewholenumbers
from1ton.
Forexample,4!=1234=24.
So,usingtheparticularanglesaboveinsin(/10)andcos(/5)wehaveformulaeforandin
termsofpowersof:
= 2sin
10
= 2
=
10
+...
1033! 1055! 1077!
+...
3,000 6,000,000 25,200,000,000
= 2cos
= 2 1
= 2
+
...
522! 544! 566! 588!
4
+
...
25 7,500 5,625,000 7,875,000,000
Intheupperformula,goingtouptothe9termonlywillgiveto9decimalplaceswhereas
stoppingatthe8terminthelowerformulawillgiveto7decimalplaces.
Thesetwoformulaeasilylendthemselvesasaniterativemethodforacomputerprogram
(i.e.usingaloop)tocomputeand.Tocomputethenexttermfromthepreviousone,
multiplyitby(/5)2orby(/10)2foranddividebytwointegerstoupdatethefactorialon
thebottom,rememberingtoaddthenexttermifthepreviousonewassubtractedandvice
versa.Finallymultiplyyournumberby2.
Youwillneedandanaccuratevalueof.Hereisto102decimalplaces:
3.14159265358979323846264338327950288419716939937510
58209749445923078164062862089986280348253421170679
82..
WiththankstoJohnRGoeringforsuggestingthisconnectionbetweenPhiand.
161803398874989484820458683436563811772030917980576..More..
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PhiandaGeometricandCalculus
problem
Thissectionisforthosewhohavealreadymetcalculusinyourmathematicscourses.Inthe
followingproblems,lookoutforPhi!
LeonardochasesaRabbit
Leonardospotsarabbitinonecornerofhisfieldwhichjust
happenstobeasquare.Hestartstochaseitatexactlythesame
momentastherabbitboltsfortheholeinthehedgeatanother
cornerofthefield.
IfLeonardoalwaysrunsalwaysdirectlytowardstherabbitandat
aconstantspeedandiftherabbitrunsataconstantspeedina
straightlinealongthehedgetowardstheholethenifbothreach
theholeatexactlythesametime,whatistheratiobetweentheir
twospeeds?
BasedonProblem307of536PuzzlesandCurious
ProblemsbyHEDudeney,whichisnowoutofprint,butyou
canoftenpickupacheapsecondhandversionbyclickingon
thislink.Dudeneyonlyconsidersthefarmermovingattwicethespeedoftherabbit
(piginDudeney'spuzzle)butinthisvariationweareaskingforanoptimumsolution.
PaulBruckmangivesthesolutioninH333FibonacciQuarterly21(1983)pages77
78pdf
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