LADDER DIAGRAM

A very commonly used method of programming PLCs is based on the use of

ladder diagrams. Writing a program is then equivalent to drawing a switching
circuit. The ladder diagram consists of two vertical lines representing the power
rails. Circuits are connected as horizontal lines, i.e. the rungs of the ladder,
between these two verticals.
In drawing a ladder diagram, certain conventions are adopted:
1. The vertical lines of the diagram represent the power rails between which
circuits are connected. The power flow is taken to be from the left-hand
vertical across a rung.
2. Each rung on the ladder defines one operation in the control process.
3. A ladder diagram is read from left to right and from top to bottom. When the
PLC is in its run mode, it goes through the entire ladder program to the end,
the end rung of the program being clearly denoted, and then promptly
resumes at the start. This procedure of going through all the rungs of the
program is termed a cycle. The end rung might be indicated by a block with
the word END or RET for return, since the program promptly returns to its
beginning.

4. Each rung must start

with an input or inputs and must
end with at least one
output. The term
input is used for a
control action, such
as closing the contacts of a switch, used as an input to the PLC. The term output is used for a
device connected to the output of a PLC, e.g. a motor.
5. Electrical devices are shown in their normal condition. Thus a switch which is normally open
until some object closes it, is shown as open on the ladder diagram. A switch that is normally
closed is shown closed.

6. A particular device can appear in more than one rung of a ladder. For example, we might have a
relay which switches on one or more devices. The same letters and/or numbers are used to label
the device in each situation.
7. The inputs and outputs are all identified by their addresses, the notation used depending on the
PLC manufacturer. This is the address of the input or output in the memory of the PLC.

Basic Example

In

drawing
ladder

diagrams the names of the associated variable or addresses of each element

are appended to its symbol.

Notation: (a) Mitsubishi, (b) Siemens, (c) Allen-Bradley, (d) Telemecanique

Logic Functions
There are many control situations requiring actions to be initiated when a
certain combination of conditions is realised.
AND

Figure shows a situation where an output is not energised unless two,

normally open, switches are both closed. Switch A and switch B have both to be
closed, which thus gives an AND logic situation. electrical circuit where an output is
energized

An example of an AND gate is an interlock control system for a machine tool

so that it can only be operated when the safety guard is in position and the power
switched on.
OR
When switch A or B, both normally open, are closed. Alternative paths
provided by vertical paths from the main rung of a ladder diagram, i.e. paths in
parallel, represent logical OR operations.

An example of an OR gate control system is a conveyor belt transporting

bottled products to packaging where a deflector plate is activated to deflect bottles
into a reject bin if either the weight is not within certain tolerances or there is no
cap on the bottle.
NOT

When there is an input to the switch, it opens and there is then no current in
the circuit. This illustrates a NOT gate in that there is an output when there is no
input and no output when there is an input. The gate is sometimes referred to as an
inverter.

An example of a NOT gate control system is a light that comes on when it

becomes dark, i.e. when there is no light input to the light sensor there is an output.
NAND
Suppose we follow an AND gate with a NOT gate. The consequence of having
the NOT gate is to invert all the outputs from the AND gate. An alternative, which
gives exactly the same results, is to put a NOT gate on each input and then follow
that with OR.

An example of a NAND gate control system is a warning light that comes on

if, with a machine tool, the safety guard switch has not been activated and the limit
switch signalling the presence of the workpiece has not been activated.
NOR
Suppose we follow an OR gate by a NOT gate. The consequence of having the
NOT gate is to invert the outputs of the OR gate. An alternative, which gives exactly
the same results, is to put a NOT gate on each input and then an AND gate for the
resulting inverted inputs. The combination of OR and NOT gates is termed a NOR
gate. There is an output when neither input A or input B is 1.

When input A and input B are both not activated, there is a 1 output. When
either X400
or X401 are 1 there is a 0 output.
XOR
The OR gate gives an output when either or both of the inputs are 1.
Sometimes there is, however, a need for a gate that gives an output when either of
the inputs is
1 but not when both are 1. Such a gate is called
an Exclusive
OR or XOR gate. One way of
obtaining such a
gate is by using NOT, AND
and OR
gates.

When input A and input B are not activated then there is 0 output. When just
input A is activated, then the upper branch results in the output being 1. When just
input B is activated, then the lower branch results in the output being 1. When both
input A and input B are activated, there is no output.

In this example of a logic gate, input A and input B have two sets ofcontac ts
in the circuits, one set being normally open and the other normally closed. With PLC
programming, each input may have as many sets of contacts as necessary.
There are often situations where it is necessary to hold an output energised,
even when the input ceases. A simple example of such a situation is a motor which
is started by pressing a push button switch. Though the switch contacts do not
remain closed, the motor is required to continue running until a stop push button
switch is pressed. The term latch circuit is used for the circuit used to carry out
such an operation. It is a self-maintaining circuit in that, after being energised, it
maintains that state until another input is received.

As an illustration of the application of a latching circuit, consider a motor

controlled by stop and start push button switches and for which one signal light
must be illuminated when the power is applied to the motor and another when it is
not applied.

With ladder diagrams, there can be more than one output connected to a
contact. When the input contacts close both the coils give outputs.

SEQUENTIAL OUTPUTS

FUNCTION BLOCKS
The term function block diagram (FBD) is used for PLC programs
described in terms of graphical blocks. It is described as being a graphical language
for depicting signal and data flows through blocks, these being reusable software
elements. A function block is a program instruction unit which, when executed,
yields one or more output values.

Ladder diagram and equivalent functional block diagram

Consider the development of a function block diagram and ladder diagram for
an application in which a pump is required to be activated and pump liquid into a
tank when the start switch is closed, the level of liquid in the tank is below the
required level and there is liquid in the reservoir from which it is to be pumped.
What is required is an AND logic situation between the start switch input and
a sensor input which is on when the liquid in the tank is below the required level.
We might have a switch which is on until the liquid is at the required level. These
two elements are then in an AND logic situation with a switch indicating that there is
liquid in the reservoir. Suppose this switch gives an input when there is liquid.

PROGRAM EXAMPLES
1) A signal lamp is required to be switched on if a pump is running and the
pressure is satisfactory, or if the lamp test switch is closed.
2) A valve which is to be operated to lift a load when a pump is running and either the lift switch is
operated or a switch operated indicating that the load has not already been lifted and is at the
bottom of its lift channel.
3) Consider a system where there has to be no output when any one of four sensors gives an output,
otherwise there is to be an output.