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country A and the economic efficiency of the entire world. If, however, the most
favoured nation principle is applied between the three countries, then country A will
apply its tariffs equally to all exporting countries and will therefore necessarily
import product X from country B because it is cheaper to do so. The most efficient
result is thus attained.
granted by any Member to any product originating in or destined for any other
country shall be accorded immediately and unconditionally to the like product
originating in or destined for the territories of all other members. The words of
Article I:1 refer not to some advantages granted with respect to the subjects that
fall within the defined scope of the Article, but to any advantage; not to some
products, but to any product; and not to like products from some other Members,
but to like products originating in or destined for all other Members.
Similarly, in EEC-Imports of Beef case, the panel applied Article I:1 to European
Communities regulations making the suspension of an import levy conditional on
the production of a certificate of authenticity.
seven percent customs duty on the other three types of unroasted coffee. Brazil,
which exported mainly unwashed Arabica, claimed that the Spanish tariff regime
was inconsistent with Article I:1. In examining whether the various types of
unroasted coffee were like products to which the MFN treatment obligation applied,
the Panel considered:
the characteristics of the products;
their end-use and
tariff regime of other members.
The panel stated as follows: The Panel examined all arguments that had been
advanced during the proceedings for the justification of a different tariff treatment
for various groups and types of unroasted coffee. It noted that these arguments
mainly related to organoleptic differences resulting from geographical factors,
cultivation methods, the processing of the bean, and the generic factor. The Panel
did not consider that such differences were sufficient reason to allow for a different
tariff treatment. It pointed out that it was not unusual in the case of agricultural
products that the taste and aroma of the end product would differ because of one or
several of the above mentioned factors. The Panel furthermore found relevant to its
examination of the matter that unroasted coffee was mainly, if not exclusively, sold
in the form of blends, combining various types of coffee, and that coffee in its end
use, was universally regarded as a well defined and single product intended for
drinking. The Panel noted that no other contracting party applied its tariff regime in
respect of unroasted, non-decaffeinated coffee in such a way that different types of
coffee were subject to different tariff rates. In the light of the foregoing, the Panel
concluded that unroasted, non-decaffeinated coffee beans listed in the Spanish
Customs Tariffshould be considered as like products within the meaning of
Article I:1.
In addition to the three criteria used by the Panel in Spain-Unroasted coffee case,
there is one more criteria that has assumed importance and that is consumers
tastes and habits.
In Indonesia-Autos case , the Panel found with respect to the requirement under
Article I:1 that advantages are granted unconditionally and immediately, as
follows: under the February 1996 car programme the granting of customs duty
benefits to parts and components is conditional to their being used in the assembly
in Indonesia of a National Car. The granting of tax benefits is conditional and limited
to the only Pioneer company producing National Cars. And there is also a third
condition for these benefits: the meaning of certain local content targets. Indeed
under all these car programmes, custom duty and tax benefits are conditional on
achieving a certain local content value for the finished car. The existence of these
conditions is inconsistent with the provisions of Article I:1 which provides that tax
and custom duty advantages accorded to products of one Member ( here on Korean
products) be accorded to imported like products from other Members immediately
and unconditionally .
In Canada-Autos case, the Appellate Body also discussed the concepts of
immediately and unconditionally, and found: The measures maintained by
Canada accords the import duty exemption to certain motor vehicles entering
Canada from certain countries. These privileged motor vehicles are imported by a
limited number of designated manufacturers who are required to meet certain
performance conditions. In practice, this measure does not accord the same import
duty exemption immediately and unconditionally to like motor vehicles of all other
Members, as required under Article I: 1 of the GATT 1994. The advantage of the
import duty exemption is accorded to like motor vehicles from all other Members.
Accordingly, we find that this measure is not consistent with Canadas obligations
under Article I: 1 of the GATT 1994.
In the Belgian Family Allowances case, a dispute of 1952 concerning a Belgian
Law providing for an exemption from a levy on products purchased form countries
which had a system of family allowances similar to that of Belgium, the Panel held
that the Belgian law at issue introduced a discrimination between countries having
a given system of family allowances and those which had a different system or no
system at all, and made the granting of the exemption dependent on certain
conditions. The panel concluded that the advantage- the exemption from a levy-was
not granted unconditionally and that the Belgian law was, therefore, inconsistent
with the MFN treatment obligation of Article I: 1.
and customs duty benefits based on various conditions and other criteria not
related to the import them, are inconsistent with the provisions of Article 1 of GATT.
Canada Auto Pact Case 2000: One of the few disputes in which MFN was
a central issue for the Appellate Body to adjudicate is the Canada Auto Pact case . In
January 1965, President Lyndon Johnson and Canadian Prime Minister Lester Pearson
signed an agreement to liberalise trade in autos and autos part between two
countries. Under the Auto Pact, Canada agreed to grant duty free treatment to
vehicles and original equipment manufacturing parts (other than tires and tubes),
but only if the importer of the cars or parts met the definition of a motor vehicles
manufacturer set forth in the Auto Pact. There were three tests to be met before a
person can be qualified as a manufacturer. First, the importer must have
produced in Canada during the base year 1963-64 motor vehicles of the category it
is importing. In other words, the importer had to have been established and made
cars in Canada since before the Auto Pact entered into force. In effect, these
importers were also foreign direct investors, such as General Motors of Canada, Ltd,
Ford Motor Company of Canada Ltd, and Chrysler Canada Ltd- American Companies
that imported cars into Canada that they made in the United States ( or elsewhere),
and that also made cars in Canada. Secondly, the importer must comply with the
ratio of (1) the sale value of its locally (Canadian) produced vehicles of that class of
vehicle to (2) the sales it makes in Canada of that type of vehicle. The ratio is called
production-to-sales ratio, because item (1) is the value of the importers local
production, and item (2) is the value of its local sales. The production-to-sales ratio
is expressed as follows:
The production is measured on annual basis. Under the Auto Pact, to receive dutyfree treatment, an importer had to keep the ratio above a certain minimum
threshold because the ratio is a gauge of the extent to which the importer is selling
the cars it makes in Canada to Canadian consumers, i.e. selling its local production
locally, and possibly also selling the cars it makes locally to foreign countries. Put
succinctly, the ratio is a measure of an importers commitment to domestic
countries. The production-to-sales ratio ensures that the importer does not get the
entire vehicle it sells in Canada from abroad. Rather, the importer uses its local
factories to source a sizeable percentage, if not all, of the local sales, and perhaps
also to source exports from those factories. In sum, the production-to-sales ration is
simply to design to ensure some production occurs locally. The Pact specifies the
production-to-sales ratio by calling for comparison between the production-to-sales
ratio in the current year with the production-to-sales ratio in a base year. The ratio
in the current year must be equal to or greater than the ratio in the base year.
Moreover, the Auto Pact specified that the ratio must never be less than 75-100
percent. Thirdly, the importer must achieve a minimum amount of Canadian value
added (CVA) in its local production of vehicles. That is, the importers Canadian
production facilities must not be mere assembly operations. There must be
significant economic activity going on. Thus, included in the CVA are the costs of
parts and materials that are of Canadian origin, Canadian labour costs, the
manufacturing overhead costs, general and administrative expenses that occurred
in Canada that are attributable to the production of vehicles, depreciation of
machinery and permanent plant equipment located in Canada that is directly
attributable to the production of vehicles and capital costs for land and buildings
used in the production of motor vehicles. The specific CVA requirement was stated
in terms of comparison: how much CVA exists in vehicle produced in the current
year in comparison with the CVA that existed in the vehicles produced in a defined
base year. The requirement was that CVA in current year had to be equal to or
greater than the CVA in the base year.
Under the Pact, Canada agreed to abolish its tariffs on imports from the United
States of certain finished vehicles, and on imports of certain parts for use as original
equipment in vehicles to be produced in Canada. Canada agreed that auto parts
could be imported duty free not only from the United States, but also from third
countries. However, not everyone could benefit from the duty-free treatment for
autos and auto parts-only qualifying person could and the qualifying persons were
non other than the major American manufacturers, namely Ford, General Motors
and Chrysler and/or their Canadian subsidiaries.
The principal legal issue that was raised in Canada Auto Pact case was the MFN
treatment. In January, 1998, the European Union and Japan challenged the Auto
Pact in the WTO, and in February 2000, a WTO Panel issued its final report, finding in
favour of the complainants. Canada appealed and the issue before the Appellate
Body was whether Canada violated MFN obligation by giving duty free treatment to
motor vehicles imported from certain WTO Members, but not extending the
advantages immediately and unconditionally to like products from all other
Members. The Panel answered in the affirmative and so too did the Appellate Body.
The EU and Japan argued successfully that the 1965 Auto Pact run afoul of the
obligation laid down in article I: 1 of the GATT. The Complainants argued that Pact
discriminates in favour of American car companies, and against all other car
companies. Only the American companies can import cars and components duty
free. In contrast, the Canadian customs authorities impose a duty on these imports
by a Japanese or European car company. Thus, for example, Ford and General
Motors need not pay any duty on imports, whereas Honda Canada, Inc and Toyota
Canada, Inc must pay a duty on their imports. The Appellate Body agreeing with the
Panels reasoning said that Article I: 1 applies to de facto as well as de jure
discrimination. The Appellate Body said that it is true that Pact did not create de
jure discrimination against import of auto and autos parts but that is not the only
way to run afoul of the law. As long as there was de facto discrimination, that is
enough for the violation of MFN obligation under the GATT. The Appellate Body
found that Canada has granted an advantage in the form of duty- free treatment.
This advantage accrues to some products (autos and auto parts) from some WTO
Members (principally the United States). Canada has not accorded this advantage
immediately and unconditionally to the like products that originate in all other
Members. Quite the contrary, Canada has imposed a three- part test that effectively
prevents the extension of advantage to all other Members.
The jurisprudence of Article I: 1 extends not only to de jure discrimination but also
to de facto even if it is not manifest. In other words, any de facto discrimination,
even if it is not manifest (i.e., potential or actual) is enough for concern. Thus,
suppose the product at issue is flat screen TV sets between 35 and 40 inches, and
that Kuwait imports these from Japanese manufacturers like Sony, and Korean
producers like LG. If the Kuwaiti law somehow favours the Japanese exporters at the
expense of the Korean exporters ( or vice versa), then that law violates Article I:1.
Among the scenarios that could give rise to the violation would be the differences in
the administration of the law by Kuwaiti officials. Suppose they permit subagreements with respect to Japanese imports, but not Korean imports. Therefore,
manufacturers like Sony can obtain the services of various Kuwaitis in marketing the
TVs, by calling on its exclusive representative to enlist sub-agents and subdistributors. Through, sub-representation, Sonys TVs are brought to the attention of
Kuwaiti consumers more pervasively than LGs TVs, which are marketed only by a
central representative. This simply is a violation of MFN obligation. Thus, Article I:1
strikes not only at post-border, non-tariff measures, but also at de facto
discrimination that is not yet manifest.
Favoured-Nation principle because countries inside and outside the region are
treated differently. This may have a negative effect on countries outside the region,
and thus lead to results contrary to the liberalization of trade.
Regional integration, thus, has a great impact on the world economy today and is
the subject of frequent debate in a variety of forums, including the WTO Committee
on Regional Trade Agreements. One of the most frequently asked question is
whether these regional groups help or hinder the WTOs multilateral trading system.
The WTO Committee on Regional Trade Agreements is keeping an eye on the
development. The regional trading groups such as the European Union (EU), the
North America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEANS), the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC),
the Southern Common Market ( MERCOSUR), the Common Market of Eastern and
Southern Africa ( COMESA),etc have posed a great challenge to the Most Favoured
Nation principle which have lowered or eliminated tariffs among the members while
maintaining tariff walls between member nations and the rest of the world. The
groupings that are important for the WTO are those that abolish or reduce barriers
on trade within the group. The WTO agreements recognize that regional
arrangements and closer economic integration can benefit countries. It also
recognizes that under some circumstances regional trading arrangements could
hurt the trade interests of other countries. Normally, setting up a customs union or
free trade area would violate the WTOs principle of equal treatment for all trading
partners (most-favoured-nation).
But GATTs Article 24 allows regional trading arrangements to be set up as a special
exception, provided certain strict criteria are met (as mentioned above). In
particular, the arrangements should help trade flow more freely among the
countries in the group without barriers being raised on trade with the outside world.
In other words, regional integration should complement the multilateral trading
system and not threaten it. Article 24 of the GATT says that if a free trade area or
customs union is created, duties and other trade barriers should be reduced or
removed on substantially all sectors of trade in the group. Non-members should not
find trade with the group any more restrictive than before the group was set up. On
6 February 1996, the WTO General Council created the Regional Trade Agreements
Committee. Its purpose is to examine regional groups and to assess whether they
are consistent with WTO rules. The committee is also examining how regional
arrangements might affect the multilateral trading system, and what the
relationship between regional and multilateral arrangements might be.
study called the Haberler Report , which supported the perception that the export
earnings of developing countries were not satisfactory. Later, the formation of
United Nation Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) spurred several
initiatives within the GATT. First, in 1965, the GATT contracting parties adopted Part
IV of the GATT to demonstrate a new concern for the interests of the developing
countries. Second, in 1971, the GATT adopted two waivers for two types of
preferences to favour developing countries: 1) a set aside of the MFN obligation to
permit a generalised system of preferences ; and 2) permission for developing
countries to exchange tariff preferences among themselves. In 1979, both waivers
were made permanent through the so-called Enabling Clause. The Enabling Clause
continues to guide WTO policy. The Enabling Clause settled a debate within the
GATT and established the policy of special and preferential treatment for developing
countries. At the same time, the Enabling Clause contains a so-called graduation
clause (Para 7) which is the policy that eventually preferential treatment should
end. Article XXXVI, which is incorporated in Part IV of the GATT, is a hortatory
provision of Principles and Objectives stating the need to raise standards of living
in developing countries, the need for rapid and sustained expansion of their export
earnings and increased access to world market for their products. Article XXXVI sets
out the principle that developed countries do not expect reciprocity for their
commitments to remove or reduce tariffs and other trade barriers.
To take an hypothetical example, assume that the United States grants duty free
treatment to rice from Laos, which is not yet a WTO member. The United States
does so because Laos is a less developed country in need of help. The United Sates
makes the same decision, for the same reason, for rice imported by the United
Sates from Cambodia, which is a WTO member. The normal MFN rate of 15 percent
continues to apply to rice imported by the United States from Japan, which is also a
WTO member. Would Japan have an MFN grievance against the American decision?
The answer is no. The United States can grant duty-free treatment to developing
countries under its Generalised System of Preferences program, whether they are
WTO members or not by virtue of Paragraph 1 of Enabling Clause which provides for
the general MFN waiver.
Other Exceptions
Apart from the above mentioned exceptions, there are other provisions in the GATT
which can be construed as exceptions to the Most Favoured Nation rule. Article I: 2
provides for exception to the Most-Favoured-Nation principle regarding historical
preferences which were in force at the time of the signing of the GATT, such as the
British Commonwealth. Article XX, which provides for General Exceptions to the
GATT, says that nothing in this Agreement shall be construed to prevent the
adoption or enforcement by any contracting parties of measures:- necessary to
protect public morals; necessary to protect human, animal or plant life or health;
relating to the importations or exportations of gold or silver; necessary to secure
compliance with laws or regulations which are not inconsistent with the provisions
of the GATT; relating to the products of prison labour; relating to the conservation of
exhaustible natural resources, etc. Article XXI, which provides for Security
Exceptions to the GATT, says that nothing in this Agreement shall be construed :
a) to require any contracting party to furnish any information the disclosure of which
it considers contrary to its essential security interests;
b) to prevent any contracting party from taking any action which it considers
necessary for the protection of its essential security interests- relating to fissionable
materials or the materials from the materials from which they are derived; relating
to traffic in arms, ammunition and implements of war and to such traffic in other
goods and materials as is carried on directly or indirectly for the purpose of
supplying a material establishment; taken in time of war or other emergency in
international relations;
c) to prevent any contracting party from taking any action in pursuance of its
obligations under the United Nations Charter for the maintenance of international
peace and security. Article XIV provides for exceptions to the rule of nondiscrimination in order to enable the member countries to deal with the balance of
payment difficulties. Article XIX, which deals with Emergency Action on Imports of
Particular Products ( Safeguard Measures), provides that if, as a result of unforeseen
developments and of the effect of the obligations incurred by a contracting party
under this Agreement, including tariff concessions, any product is being imported
into the territory of that contracting party in such increased quantities and under
such conditions as to cause or threaten serious injury to domestic producers in that
territory of like or directly competitive products, the contracting party shall be free,
in respect of such product, and to the extent and for such time as may be necessary
to prevent or remedy such injury, to suspend the obligation in whole or in part or to
withdraw or modify the concession.
Conclusion
The Most Favoured Nation (MFN) principle is a cornerstone of the multilateral
trading system conceived after World War II. It seeks to replace the frictions and
distortions of power-based (bilateral) policies with the guarantees of a rules-based
framework where trading rights do not depend on the individual participants
economic or political clout. Rather, the best access conditions that have been
conceded to one country must automatically be extended to all other participants in
the system. This allows everybody to benefit, without additional negotiating effort,
from concessions that may have been agreed between large trading partners with
much negotiating leverage. Although the formation of Regional Trading Blocks has
eroded the fundamental importance of the concept to some extent, it is still the
most fundamental obligation on which the entire foundation of GATT and WTO rests.
The MFN principle must be observed as a fundamental principle for sustaining the
multilateral free trade system. Regional integration and related exceptions need to