J. Physiol. (1981), 314, pp.

343-357
With 7 text-f gurem
Printed in Great Britain

343

MECHANISM OF THE EFFECT OF CYANIDE ON CELL MEMBRANE

POTENTIALS IN NECTUR US GALL-BLADDER EPITHELIUM
BY ELSA BELLO-REUSS, TIMOTHY P. GRADY AND LUIS REUSS
From the Department of Physiology and Biophysics and the Department of Medicine,
Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, Missouri 63110, U.S.A.

(Received 14 July 1980)

SUMMARY

1. Addition of sodium cyanide to the mucosal or the serosal medium bathing the
isolated gall-bladder of Necturus maculosus causes hyperpolarization of both apical
and basolateral membrane of the epithelial cells. The effect of cyanide is practically
immediate, reversible (if exposure is brief), and long-lasting (> 30 min).
2. The hyperpolarization is accompanied by: (a) reduction of the equivalent
resistance of the cell membranes, as shown by cable analysis and input resistance
measurements, and (b) increase of the potassium selectivity of both cell membranes,
as evidenced by the effects of external substitutions of potassium for sodium on cell
membrane potentials. We conclude that the cyanide-induced hyperpolarization is
caused mainly or exclusively by an increase of the potassium permeability of the cell
membranes.
3. Addition of the calcium ionophore A23187 (51zM) to the mucosal medium in the
presence of 1 mM-calcium caused similar effects to those produced by cyanide. After
either cyanide or A23187, addition of the other agent did not cause further membrane

potential changes.
4. Quinine (100/sM, mucosal medium) reduced the potassium permeability of the
apical membrane both under control conditions and during exposure to cyanide.
5. We suggest that the cyanide-induced increase of the potassium permeability of
the cell membrane is mediated by an elevation of intracellular calcium ion activity,
attributable to release from mitochondrial sources.
INTRODUCTION

Cyanide, by its well-known effect on energy metabolism, reduces ATP contents of

cells and therefore inhibits ion transport mechanisms that depend on the operation
of the sodium pump. Inhibition of sodium or fluid transport by cyanide has been
reported in a number of transporting epithelia (amphibian skin: Hviid Larsen, 1973;
gall-bladder: Diamond, 1964; proximal renal tubule: Windhager & Giebisch, 1961).
The effect of cyanide on the spontaneous electrical potential across epithelia has
sometimes been considered as an indication of a direct role of ion transport in the
generation of that potential (Fr6mter, 1979). However, in excitable tissues metabolic
inhibitors have been shown to exert effects on membrane ionic permeability
0022-3751/81/4760-1081 $07.50 ( 1981 The Physiological Society

E. BELLO-REUSS, T. P. GRADY AND L. REUSS

(Godfraind, Krnjevic & Pumain, 1970). This possibility, i.e. that the effect of cyanide
on membrane potentials is mediated in part by changes of membrane permeability,
has not been examined in fluid-absorbing epithelia. The studies described in this paper
were designed to test this possibility in the isolated gall-bladder of Necturus
maculosus. This is a leaky salt-transporting epithelium, well characterized in terms
of the electrical properties of the cell membranes (Fr6mter, 1972; Reuss & Finn,
1975a,b; Van Os & Slegers, 1975; Reuss, 1979; Reuss & Weinman, 1979; Graf &
Giebisch, 1979). The relatively large size of the cells makes them amenable for
intracellular micro-electrode studies. Membrane potentials and resistances were
measured before and after exposure to cyanide during incubation in normal (sodium
chloride) or high-potassium bathing media. The effects of cyanide on electrical
parameters were correlated with those on the rate of fluid transport, measured in
parallel experiments. A preliminary report of these studies has appeared (Reuss,
Bello-Reuss & Grady, 1980).
344

METHODS

Preparations and solutions

Necturi (Necturus maculosus) were obtained from Mogul-Ed Co., Oshkosh, WI, U.S.A., or Rand
McNally Co., Somerset, WI, U.S.A., and kept at 4C. The gall-bladders were removed, opened,
washed, and mounted, generally mucosal side up, in a modified Ussing chamber. Both sides of the
chamber were continuously perfused with a bathing solution of the following composition (mM):
NaCl, 109-2; KCl, 2 5; CaCl2, 1 0; NaHCO3, 2-4. The pH was about 8-2 after equilibration with room
air. All experiments were performed at 24 +1 C. Sodium cyanide was added to the serosal or the
mucosal bathing solution. The cyanide concentration in the medium was not measured. Unless
stated otherwise, a nominal 5 mM-sodium cyanide concentration was employed. To rule out an
osmotic effect of the high cyanide concentrations the effect of Ringer solution plus sucrose, at the
same osmolality as Ringer solution plus 5 mM-sodium cyanide, was tested. No significant effects
on potentials or resistances were observed.
To estimate the potassium selectivity of the cell membranes, the mucosal or the serosal side of
the tissue was briefly (ca. 2 min) exposed to potassium-Ringer, i.e. a solution in which all sodium
chloride was equimolarly replaced with potassium chloride. During exposure to cyanide, sodiumRinger and potassium-Ringer solutions had the same cyanide concentration. In experiments in
which the time course of the effect of cyanide or the selectivity of the basolateral membrane were
studied, the tissues were mounted serosal side up, the subepithelial layers removed as decribed
before (Reuss, 1979), and the cells impaled from the basolateral surface.
In a few experiments, the divalent cation ionophore A23187 (Calbiochem-Behring Corp., La Jolla,
CA, U.S.A.) was added to the mucosal medium to a final concentration of 5 x 10-6 M. Finally, some
tissues were exposed to ouabain (Sigma Chemical Co., St Louis, MO, U.S.A.), 10-4 M, on the serosal
side only.
Electrical measurements

Potentials and resistances were measured as previously described (Reuss & Finn, 1975a, b; Reuss,
1979; Reuss & Grady, 1979a). Glass micro-electrodes with an inner fibre were filled with
3 M-potassium chloride or 4 M-potassium acetate and selected for tip resistances of 20-50 MCI and
low tip potentials. Extracellularelectrodes were sodium-Ringer-agar or 3 M-potassium chloride-agar
bridges connected to calomel half-cells. Extracellular current-passing electrodes were silver/silver
chloride pellets connected to the bathing media with sodium-Ringer-agar bridges. Liquid junction
potential corrections were made as described before (Reuss, 1978). Impalements were performed
with motorized remote control micromanipulators (Stoelting, Chicago, IL, U.S.A.) under microscopic
observation at x 200-60 (MS inverted microscope, Nikon Inc., Garden City, NY, U.S.A., or
Biovert inverted microscope, Reichert, Austria). By referring the intracellular micro-electrode to
the macro-electrodes in the two bathing media, apical membrane potential (Vmc) and basolateral

CYANIDE AND K PERMEABILITY IN GALL-BLADDER

345
membrane potential (V,,) were measured. The transepithelial potential (Vms) was measured as the

difference between the two calomel half-cells. The serosal side was usually grounded. High-input
impedance (> 1012 0) electrometers, provided with digital read-outs to 0-1 mV, were used. Their
outputs were displayed on a storage oscilloscope (Tektronix, Beaverton, OR, U.S.A.) and a twoor three-channel pen recorder (Brush 2400, Gould Inc., St Louis, MO, U.S.A.). In some experiments
the data were digitized and stored for analysis with a model 1074 signal averager (Nicolet
Instrument Corp., Madison, WI, U.S.A.).
The transepithelial resistance (Rt) and the ratio of apical to basolateral membrane resistances
(Ra/Rb) were measured from the deflexions produced in Vms, Vm, and V, by calibrated transepithelial current pulses, of 25-50fA cm-2, after appropriate corrections for the voltage drops in the
solutions.
To estimate changes in cell membrane resistances during exposure to cyanide, the cable properties
of the tissue were determined. One intracellular micro-electrode was used to apply current pulses
(5 x 10-9 A, I sec duration) and a second micro-electrode, inserted at variable distances x from the
first one, was used to measure the intracellular potential change (Vx) elicited by the intracellular
current. Inasmuch as preliminary experiments revealed time-dependent changes in the electrical
coupling of the cells after cyanide, the following procedure was preferred (Reuss, 1978): after the
cell membrane potentials and Vx were stable, the serosal perfusate was changed to one containing
cyanide until peak cell membrane potential changes were obtained with both micro-electrodes;
thereafter, the tissue was perfused again with control medium. Vx was measured at 10 sec intervals
before, during and after cyanide exposure. Only records in which membrane potentials were fully
reversible were accepted. From the comparison of the values of Vx in the absence and in the presence
of cyanide, the direction of the change of the resistance of the two cell membranes in parallel was
determined. Because of the possibility of an effect of cyanide on intercellular coupling resistance,
the input resistance of the epithelium was measured with a single micro-electrode, applying
identical current pulses in the extracellular position and after impalement (Reuss & Finn, 1975a).
These measurements were carried out before, during and after exposure to cyanide.

Experimental procedure
Experiments were started 30-60 min after mounting the tissue. Both bathing media were
exchanged continuously. The effect of cyanide was usually studied by maintaining one or two
micro-electrodes in the same cell(s) during both the control period and the period of exposure to
cyanide. In a few experiments, several cells were impaled before and at given intervals after cyanide.
Ionic substitutions (potassium for sodium) were performed, before and during exposure to
cyanide, maintaining the micro-electrode in the same cell.
Measurements of fluid transport rate
The rate of fluid transport was measured at 10 min intervals in 'unilateral' gall-bladder
preparations as described by Diamond (1968). The transported fluid was collected under mineral
oil and the volume measured in a previously calibrated glass capillary. In two experiments, fluid
transport was estimated with a volume marker in the mucosal solution (r1251]iothalamate: Abbott,
North Chicago, IL, U.S.A.).
Statistics
All values are reported as means + S.E. Statistical comparisons were made by conventional paired
data analysis.
RESULTS

Effects of cyanide on fluid reabsorption

In the experiments summarized in Fig. 1 it can be seen that in the first 10 min period
after cyanide (5 min exposure, serosal side) fluid re-absorption (Jv) was reduced to
about 3000 of control. A slow further decrease was observed; 45 to 55 min after
cyanide Jv was still significantly different from zero. Addition of ouabain at this time
(not shown) resulted in complete inhibition of fluid transport. The possibility exists
that the apparent reduction of Jv produced by cyanide in unilateral preparations is
caused by fluid accumulation in the gall-bladder wall and not by a reduction of

346

E. BELLO-REUSS, T. P. GRADY AND L. REUSS

140

120

CN

100

80
6040-

20

-40

-20

20

40

60

Time (min)

Fig. 1. Effect of cyanide (5mM-sodium cyanide, serosal side: arrow) on the rate of fluid
transport (Jv). Data normalized to the value observed in the 10min period preceding
exposure to cyanide. Mean J, was 8 61Al. cm-2 hr-1. Note that Jv is reduced by about 70 %
within 15 min of exposure to cyanide.

transepithelial fluid transport. To rule out this possibility, Jv was estimated in two
tissues mounted in chambers from the change of [1251]iothalamate concentration in
the luminal fluid measured at 10 min intervals. The results were similar to those shown
in Fig. 1, i.e. Jv decreased immediately after serosal exposure to 5 mM-cyanide.
When Jv measurements were attempted with the horizontal capillary technique
in cannulated gall-bladder sacs (Diamond, 1968; Reuss, Bello-Reuss & Grady, 1979)
a rapid apparent increase of Jv was measured. Inasmuch as this observation could
not be reproduced in chamber-mounted tissues or in 'unilateral' preparations, we
conclude that the apparent increase Of Jv was caused by relaxation of the gall-bladder
wall and increase of its compliance.

Effects of cyanide on cell membrane potentials

A typical record of transepithelial and cell membrane potentials during a brief
exposure to cyanide on the serosal side is shown in Fig. 2. In every experiment of
this kind, the result, as illustrated in the middle and bottom traces, was hyperpolarization of apical and basolateral membranes, with no consistent change in
transepithelial potential (upper trace). Three characteristics of this response are
noteworthy. First, its rapidity: at high cyanide concentration the effect is maximal
within 30 sec. This time course is consistent with the apparent thickness of the
unstirred layer in such preparations (Reuss, 1979). Secondly, its reversibility: if
exposure to cyanide is kept to less than ca. 10 min, the effects are fully reversible,

CYANIDE AND K PERMEABILITY IN GALL-BLADDER

-40
-30

>EE--20

1llllllllllIIIi

ii

iiilli

347

II

10 _

20

E -20

-401-80

260

E -20
,,-40
-60
-80 -_
-

1 min
- N
Fig. 2. Effect of cyanide (2 mm, serosal medium) on transepithelial potential (Vms) and
cell membrane potential (apical, Vmc; basolateral, Vc,). Cell impaled from the serosal side,
after removal of subepithelial tissue. In this and similar records the mucosal medium
potential is referred to the serosal one, and the cell membrane potentials are referred to
the respective bathing media. Voltage deflexions were produced by transepithelial current
pulses of 1 sec duration, at 1O sec intervals. Cyanide produces rapid, reversible hyperpolarization of both cell membranes.

even at 10 mm concentration. Thirdly, there is a consistent lack of initial depolarization: in squid giant axon, cyanide produces hyperpolarization, but this effect takes
a longer time and is preceded by a transient small depolarization, interpreted as being
caused by inhibition of the (electrogenic) sodium pump (De Weer, 1978).
Fig. 3 shows an experiment similar to the one illustrated in Fig. 2, but here the
serosal side of the tissue was exposed continuously to cyanide-containing medium for
almost 30 min. After the initial hyperpolarization, the cell membrane potentials
returned slowly toward control values. However, the cells remained hyperpolarized
30 min after addition of cyanide, i.e. at a time at which fluid transport was greatly
reduced (see Fig. 1).
The effects of serosal addition of cyanide on membrane potentials are summarized
in Table 1. In this series, the cell membrane potentials changed from about 67 to about
92 mV, a value close to the potassium equilibrium potential of about 96 mV (Reuss
& Weinman, 1979). When ouabain-treated tissues were exposed to cyanide (data not
shown) the cells hyperpolarized, but the maximal cell membrane potentials were
reduced, as expected from the ouabain-dependent decrease of intracellular potassium
activity (Reuss, Weinman & Grady, 1980).
Addition of sodium cyanide to the mucosal bathing medium also resulted in cell

E. BELLO-REUSS, T. P. GRADY AND L. REUSS

348

CN

20
E

101
-100

-80 4

20

10

20

30

U]

-100

Iyeplaie Ia 30 III afe cyanide. III

-80roarztn Note als tha1 th cell islsill
Time (min)
Fig. 3. Experiment similar to the one shown in Fig. 2. Cyanide exposure (serosal side)
indicated by the top line (5 mm). In this experiment the cell was impaled from the mucosal
side. in a preparation with intact subepithelial tissue. Note the slower time course of the
hyperpolarization. Note also that the cell is still hyperpolarized ca. 30 min after cyanide.
Compare with the time course of transepithelial fluid transport (Fig. 2). Resistance
changes described in the text.
TABLE 1. Effects of cyanide on potentials and resistances
TransBasolateral
Apical
Transepithelial
membrane
membrane
epithelial
potential
resistance
potential
potential

(Vms, mV)

(Vmc, mV)

(Vcs mV)

(Rt, Qcm2)

Ratio of
cell membrane
resistances

(Ra/Rb)

1P60+0-20
152+9
-67-7 +2-0
-0 9+002
-66-8+2 0
Control
142 + 9*
2-97 + 1.32*
-0 9 +0 3
-91-8 + 4.0*
-92-7 + 4.0*
Cyanide
Cyanide was added as 5 mM-sodium cyanide to the serosal solution. Observations were paired,
with the micro-electrode in the same cell; in this series, each tissue was exposed to cyanide only
once. Values in cyanide were measured at the peak change of Vcs (see Figs. 2 and 3). The ratio of
cell membrane resistances was calculated from the voltage deflexions produced across each
membrane by transepithelial current pulses. All values were corrected for the voltage drops in the
bathing media. Asterisks indicate values significantly different from control (P < 0-01 or better).
n = 6 experiments.

hyperpolarization (ca. 10 mV with 5 mM-cyanide) with no change of transepithelial

potential
Jn summary, cyanide produces cell membrane hyperpolarization, with no initial
depolarization, at a time at which the rate of fluid transport is greatly decreased. This
effect is independent of the side of the tissue exposed to cyanide, and reversible if
exposure is brief. There is no change in transepithelial potential. The cell membrane
potentials during incubation in high-cyanide media approach the value of the
potassium equilibrium potential

CYANIDE AND K PERMEABILITY IN GALL-BLADDER

A

349

15

10
E

5.2
4

CN

R'

CN

R'

Fig. 4. Effect of cyanide (5mM, serosal solution) on cable properties (A) and input
resistance of the tissue (B). In A, V. values are plotted under control conditions (R), at
the time at which the effect of cyanide on membrane potentials was maximal (CN) and
after removal of cyanide (R'). Straight lines connect V. values obtained in one cell. The
data were obtained in five preparations. Note that V. falls reversibly during exposure to
cyanide. In B, the input resistance was measured with a single electrode by a similar
protocol to that described for A. Rinput also falls reversibly during exposure to cyanide.
See text.

Effects of cyanide on resistances

As evidenced by the deflexions in the Vms records in Figs. 2 and 3, cyanide produces
a small reduction of the transepithelial electrical resistance. During serosal exposure
to cyanide, with the tissue bathed with sodium-Ringer solution, the ratio of cell
membrane resistances (Ra/Rb) increased by about 85 % at the time of maximum cell
hyperpolarization, i.e. within 1-2 min of exposure (Table 1). The magnitude of this
change, however, varied widely from preparation to preparation. As shown in Fig.
3, frequently Ra/Rb fell progressively, after the initial increase, during prolonged
exposure to cyanide. Since at this time transepithelial fluid transport had diminished,
the observed decrease of Ra/Rb may be the result of a reduction in the width of the
lateral intercellular spaces, which would result in an apparent increase of Rb. In our
analysis, Rb is the equivalent resistance for current flow from the cell to the serosal
medium, therefore including the basal and lateral membranes of the cell and the
intercellular spaces (which are in series with the lateral membrane). In the absence
of measurements of width of the spaces, however, this explanation remains
speculative.
The main transepithelial conductive pathway in this tissue is intercellular, located
at the junctional complexes in series with the lateral intercellular spaces (Frdmter,
1972; Reuss & Finn, 1975a). To establish the effect of cyanide on cell membrane
resistances, the cable properties of the tissue were examined, as described in Methods.
For a given intracellular current, the voltage deflexion (Vt) elicited in another cell,

E. BELLO-REUSS, T. P. GRADY AND L. REUSS

350
01-20 -m
E

-40 1

-60 -80

-100J

Fig. 5. Changes of apical membrane potential (Vmc) produced by exposure to potassiumRinger solution on the mucosal side (lower bars), under control conditions (panel on the
left) and after serosal addition of 5 mM-sodium cyanide (panel on the right). The arrow
in the central panel indicates the time of cyanide addition. Note the hyperpolarization
and the larger effect of potassium-Ringer on Vmc when the tissue is exposed to cyanide.
The voltage deflexions resulted from transepithelial current pulses of constant density
throughout the trace, at 5 sec intervals. Their amplitudes reflect roughly the changes of
Ra/Rb during the experiment.

at a distance x, depends on: (a) the resistance to current flow from the cells to the
bathing media (Rz, the equivalent resistance of Ra and Rb in parallel), and (b) the
resistance of the epithelial sheet itself (cells and cell-to-cell junctions), Ri. Standard
cable analysis measurements (Fr6mter, 1972; Reuss & Finn, 1975a) allow one to
calculate Rz and Ri. However, such measurements take several minutes and
preliminary experiments revealed time-dependent changes of the cable properties. To
circumvent this difficulty, Vx was measured under control conditions, shortly after
exposure to cyanide, and after -returning to cyanide-free media, by means of
continuous intracellular recording of two cells in each preparation. The value of VX
during exposure to cyanide was measured at the peak hyperpolarization. As shown
in Fig. 4A, Vx decreased reversibly during exposure to cyanide. The fractional fall
of Vx during cyanide exposure appeared to be inversely proportional to Vx(R), and
thus to the inter-electrode distance, suggesting a decrease of the space constant for
intra-epithelial current spread. This interpretation is not certain, however, because
the measurements were made in different tissues. In any event, the effect of cyanide
on Vx is consistent with a reduction of R,, an increase of Ri, or a combination of
changes such that the dominant factor is a fall of R. or a rise of Ri. To distinguish
between these possibilities, the input resistance of the epithelium was determined
(Reuss & Finn, 1975 a). As illustrated in Fig. 4B, the input resistance decreased during
exposure to cyanide, indicating that the metabolic inhibitor produces a reduction of
Rz, i.e. an increase of cell membrane conductance. If the mechanism of the decrease
of Vx during cyanide were an increase of Ri, the input resistance would rise.
Prolonged exposure to cyanide caused a slow, progressive increase of input
resistance, and a reduction of V,. Both effects are compatible with delayed uncoupling
of the cells.
The effect of cyanide on R, and the hyperpolarization of the cell membranes can
be explained by an increase in cell membrane permeability to potassium. If this

CYANIDE AND K PERMEABILITY IN GALL-BLADDER

8

100

100

80

80

60
5E
EE

351

60

.140

40

20

20

M
S
M
S
Fig. 6. Effects of potassium-for-sodium substitutions on cell membrane potentials before
and after addition of cyanide. A, changes of apical membrane potential brought about
by exposure of the apical surface to potassium-Ringer solution, under control conditions
(open bars) and during 5 mM-sodium cyanide (hatched bars). Letters under each pair of
bars indicate side of cyanide addition (M, mucosa, S, serosa). B, changes of basolateral
membrane potential produced by serosal potassium-for-sodium substitution. Side of
cyanide addition indicated under each pair of bars. Number of observations: A(M), 12;
A(S), 3; B(M), 1; B(S), 6.

interpretation is correct, the effect of raising extracellular potassium activity on cell

membrane potentials should be increased by cyanide.

Effects of cyanide on cell membrane relative permeability to potassium

Fig. 5 illustrates the effect of cyanide on the magnitude of the change of apical
membrane potential produced by transient exposure of the mucosal surface to
potassium-Ringer solution. As summarized in Fig. 6, addition of cyanide to either
side of the tissue resulted in an increase of the magnitude of the cell depolarization
caused by exposure to potassium-Ringer. This result is entirely consistent with the
conclusion advanced above, i.e. that the hyperpolarizing effect of cyanide is secondary
to increased membrane permeability to potassium.

Effects of the calcium ionophore A23187

Among several possible mechanisms, the effect of cyanide on potassium permeability
could be due to an increase of intracellular calcium activity. Since the early
observation in red blood cells (Gardos, 1959) a calcium-induced increase in potassium
conductance has been demonstrated in a number of cells (for a review see Lew &
Ferreira, 1978). A qualitative test of this hypothesis was provided by experiments in
which the effect of A23187 (5/uM, mucosal side) on membrane potentials was
examined in tissues bathed with sodium-Ringer solution (nominal calcium concentration, 1 mM). The result of a typical experiment is shown in Fig. 7. The ionophore

352

E. BELLO-REUSS, T. P. GRAD Y AND L. REUSS

20

10
> -0

_80

Itrtt~

-60
80

: E

1111M1

II lIII

II

Ii

111 1

-100-

_80]-'

-5

10 20

25

30

Time (min)

Fig. 7. Effect of mucosal addition of the calcium ionophore A23187 (5/tM) on cell
membrane and transepithelial potentials. Symbols are as in Figs. 2 and 3. A23187 was
added at time zero. Note that the direction, magnitude and time course of the membrane
potential changes are similar to those produced by cyanide.

caused hyperpolarization comparable in magnitude and time course to that produced

by cyanide at high concentrations. In six experiments exposure to A23187 resulted
in a change of apical membrane potential from - 715 + 541 to -96 4 + 1P7 mV; the
basolateral membrane hyperpolarized from -72 4 + 5 4 to - 96-8 + 1 8 mV. Exposure
of the apical surface of the cells to potassium-Ringer solution caused a control
depolarization of 63 9 + 5 7 mV, whereas during exposure to A23187 the same
perturbation resulted in a reduction of apical membrane potential of 82 4 + 03 mV.
The effects of A23187 on base line potentials and cell membrane potential changes
produced by potassium-Ringer were thus very similar to the cyanide effects described
above. When tissues were successively exposed to sodium cyanide on the serosal side
and A23187 on the mucosal side, the agent applied last did not cause further
hyperpolarization. This was observed regardless of whether cyanide or A23187 was
applied first. In three experiments, A23187 increased the basolateral membrane
potential from 73 7 + 6-6 to 91-0 + 2 2 mV; after serosal addition of cyanide Vc; was
904 + 3 6 mV. Conversely, in four experiments cyanide hyperpolarized the basolateral
membrane from 76 6 + 2 1 to 930 + 09 mV; after addition of A23187 during continuous exposure to cyanide, Vc, was 92-5 + 3 1 mV, i.e. it remained unchanged.

Effects of quinine
Quinine has been found to block calcium-induced potassium permeability in human
red blood cells (Hardy, Ellory, Ferreira, Fleminger & Lew, 1975) and in pancreatic
fl-cells (Atwater, Dawson, Ribalet & Rojas, 1979). We tested the effect of quinine
(0 1 mm, added to the mucosal solution) in tissues bathed in control medium and in
high-potassium medium, both in the absence and presence of cyanide. The results
are summarized in Table 2.

CYANIDE AND K PERMEABILITY IN GALL-BLADDER

35
353

TABLE 2. Effects of quinine on membrane potentials and potassium selectivity in presence and
absence of cyanide
Transepithelial
Apical membrane
Apical membrane
potential
potential change
potential
Condition
(A~e
(VMS, mY)
C1MV)
VCIm V)
Control
-0-9+0-2
-85-3+4-4
79-6 + 53
- 10 +0-2
- 73-2 + 7.0*
65-4 + 6-6*
Quinine
-1-0+0.1
-93-7 +19
83-1+4-1
Cyanide
- 1.1+01
-78-5+6.7*
69-6 +61*
Cyanide +quinine
A Vmc is the change of apical membrane potential produced by substitution of potassium-Ringer
for sodium-Ringer solution on the mucosal side. Number of experiments: six, control series; three,
5 mm-cyanide series. Asterisks indicate value significantly different from control in the same series.
E

Quinine produced cell depolarization and a reduction of the membrane potential

change induced by elevating the potassium concentration of the mucosal solution,
suggesting that apical membrane permeability to potassium decreased. The effect of
quinine was evident both under control conditions and during exposure to cyanide.
DISCUSSION

The experiments summarized above reveal the following effects of cyanide on the
electrical properties of cell membranes of Necturus gall-bladder epithelium: (1)
hyperpolarization, (2) increase in conductance, and (3) increase in potassium selectivity. This combination indicates that cyanide causes an increase in potassium
permeability of both cell membranes. The possibility of additional effects on sodium
and/or chloride permeability at the apical and/or basolateral membrane cannot be
ruled out from these data. However, if additional effects are present they must be
proportionally smaller than the effect on potassium permeability. Increases of sodium
or chloride permeability would result in cell depolarization, because intracellular
sodium activity is 20 mm or less (Reuss & Weinman, 1979; Graf & Giebisch, 1979)
and intracellular chloride activity is 30-35 mmi (Reuss & Weinman, 1979; Reuss &
Grady, 1979b), i.e. the intracellular chloride activity is higher than predicted from
equilibrium distribution. Therefore, sizeable increases of membrane permeability for
either ion would be consistent with the fall of cell membrane resistance evidenced
in the cable analysis measurements, but not with the cell membrane hyperpolarization,
which brought the potential to a value close to the equilibrium potential for
potassium. The alternative, i.e. that these effects could be caused by decreases of
sodium and/or chloride permeability, should also be considered. Such effects would
be consistent with the hyperpolarization observed, but not with the increase in total
membrane conductance. In sum, we can safely conclude that the main mechanism
of the effect of cyanide on the electrical properties of this tissue is an increase of
potassium permeability of both cell membranes. At the present time, proportionally
smaller effects on sodium and/or chloride permeability can not be excluded.
The mechanism by which the change of potassium permeability is produced has
not been entirely resolved in our experiments. Cyanide exerts its effects on both
membranes when applied to either side of the tissue. This suggests that the highly

354
E. BELLO-REUSS, T. P. GRADY AND L. REUSS
permeant hydrogen cyanide is the species that, after entering the cells, produces an
effect whose end result is an increase of potassium permeability. At the pH of the
bathing media, of about 8-2, the concentration of hydrogen cyanide (pK 9-3) is
sizeable for the sodium cyanide concentrations employed in our experiments. A
number of possible mechanisms of action of cyanide can be considered, including
direct membrane effects, changes in intracellular hydrogen ion activity, and changes
in intracellular calcium ion activity. Preliminary experiments with permeant organic
acids, at constant extracellular pH, reveal cell membrane potential changes much
smaller than those elicited by cyanide. In addition, the responses are characteristically
biphasic, particularly at high concentrations: hyperpolarization followed by depolarization. These data, in some respects similar to those obtained in amphibian renal
proximal tubule (Anagnostopoulos & Planelles, 1979), will be reported in detail
elsewhere. The hypothesis of an effect of cyanide mediated by an increase of
intracellular calcium activity was tested by comparing the effect of cyanide with that
of the calcium ionophore A23187. As shown in the Results section, A23187 mimicked
the effect of cyanide in magnitude and time course. Furthermore, the effects of A23187
and cyanide were not additive, suggesting a common mechanism of action. These
considerations rely on the unproven assumption that the effect of A23187 is produced
by an increase of intracellular calcium activity. Circumstantial support for this
assumption was provided by experiments with A23187 in tissues bathed in a
nominally calcium-free medium on the mucosal side. In these experiments the
hyperpolarization was much reduced, but was still clearly observable, suggesting
either that some calcium was still present in the bathing medium (the serosal solution
contained calcium to preserve the integrity of the junctions) or that A23187
penetrated the cell and exerted its effect on intracellular membranes, releasing stored
calcium (Rose & Loewenstein, 1976), and/or on the basolateral membrane, allowing
calcium entry from the serosal solution. In summary, these data, although not
conclusive, support the notion that cyanide exerts its effect by increasing intracellular
calcium activity. Intracellular liberation of calcium by mitochondrial inhibitors and
uncouplers has been demonstrated in nerve cells (Rojas & Hidalgo, 1968; Blaustein
& Hodgkin, 1969), suggesting that mitochondrial calcium stores are a likely source
of the increased intracellular calcium activity brought about by exposure to cyanide
in our experiments. Increase of ionized calcium in the cytosol has been shown to
increase potassium permeability in a number of cells (Meech, 1976; Lew & Ferreira,
1978; Iwatsuki & Petersen, 1978). In addition, mitochondrial inhibitors cause
hyperpolarization and an increase of potassium permeability in nerve cells (Godfraind
et al. 1970), muscle cells (Grabowski, Lobsiger & Luttgau, 1972), and pancreatic /Jcells (Atwater et al. 1979). These observations lend support to our interpretation of
the effect of cyanide on potassium permeability.
Quinine reduced potassium permeability both in tissues incubated under control
conditions and in preparations exposed to cyanide. If quinine is in fact a specific
blocker of calcium-induced potassium permeability (Hardy et al. 1975; Lew &
Ferreira, 1978; Atwater et al. 1979), our results suggest that cytosolic calcium activity
controls cell membrane permeability to potassium in gall-bladder epithelial cells
under physiologic conditions.
Our results demonstrate that effects of cyanide on electrical properties of epithelia

355
CYANIDE AND K PERMEABILITY IN GALL-BLADDER
can not be unequivocally interpreted as caused by inhibition of ion pumps. Further,
they indicate that effects on potassium permeability and membrane potential have
to be taken into account when transepithelial sodium or fluid transport is related to
intracellular calcium activity. It has been recently suggested that sodium transport
by frog skin and renal proximal tubule can be controlled by intracellular calcium
activity, probably by effects of the latter on apical (or outer) membrane sodium
conductance (Grinstein & Erlij, 1978; Taylor & Windhager, 1979). This interpretation
is essentially based on the demonstration of inhibition of sodium transport (frog skin)
or fluid reabsorption (proximal tubule) during sodium removal from the inner (or
peritubular) surface. Under these circumstances, intracellular calcium activity is
presumed to rise because of inhibition of basolateral membrane sodium-calcium
exchange, a mechanism previously demonstrated in a number of other systems
(Blaustein, 1974). This attractive hypothesis is apparently contradicted by observations in frog skin (Balaban & Mandel, 1979) in which A23187 caused an increase and
not a decrease of short-circuit current. Our observations suggest that mechanisms
other than the hypothetical reduction of apical membrane sodium permeability can
contribute to the effects of intracellular calcium activity on transepithelial transport.
For example, the observed potassium permeability changes could conceivably result
in potassium secretion in tissues in which intracellular potassium is at a higher
electrochemical potential than predicted from equilibrium distribution (renal proximal
tubule: Edelman et al. 1978; gall-bladder: Reuss & Weinman, 1979). Finally, it has
been recently shown that isolated mitochondria release calcium when incubated in
high-sodium media (Crompton, Capano & Carafoli, 1976; Haworth, Hunter &
Berkoff, 1980). If such a phenomenon occurs in epithelia and if elevated intracellular
calcium activity selectively increases potassium permeability, hyperpolarization
after sodium ionophoresis can be the result of membrane diffusion potential changes,
and not necessarily of stimulation of an electrogenic sodium pump.
We wish to thank Dr Paul De Weer for fruitful discussions and Dr Carlton C. Hunt for his
comments on a preliminary version of this paper. This work was supported by Grant No. AM- 19580
from the National Institute of Arthritis, Metabolism, and Digestive Diseases.

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