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7. Antiderivatives
An antiderivative of a function f is a function F such that Dx[F(x)] = f(x).
Example. An antiderivative of x3 is (1/4) x4. This is because Dx [(1/4) x4] = x3. An
antiderivative "undoes" the derivative in the sense that it tells what function must be
differentiated to get the original function.
Example. An antiderivative of f(x) = 2x is F(x) = x2 since F '(x) = 2x.
Another antiderivative of f(x) = 2x is F(x) = x2 + 3.
Another antiderivative of f(x) = 2x is F(x) = x2 - 17.
Theorem. If F(x) is one antiderivative of f(x), then so is F(x) + C for any constant C.
Proof. If F(x) is one antiderivative of f(x), then
Dx [F(x)] = f(x).
For any constant C, Dx [F(x) + C) ] = Dx [F(x)] + Dx [C] = f(x) + 0 = f(x).
Hence every F(x)+C is also an antiderivative as well. QED
But could there be any other possibility for an antiderivative? Suppose G(x) is also an
antiderivative of f(x), so Dx[G(x)] = f(x).
We do a clever trick: Look at G(x) - F(x). Then
Dx[ G(x) - F(x)] = Dx [G(x)] - D x [F(x)] = f(x) - f(x) = 0.
Thus G(x) - F(x) has a graph whose derivative is 0 everywhere. Such a graph must be a
horizontal straight line at some constant value C, as shown in the figure.
Hence G(x) - F(x) = C,
so G(x) = F(x) + C.
6
5
4
3
2
1

Figure. A function whose derivative is 0 everywhere must be constant.

Theorem. If F(x) is one antiderivative of f(x), then the most general antiderivative of f(x) is
F(x) + C
where C is a constant.
The most general antiderivative for f(x) is written

f(x) dx.
In an answer it always has + a constant, such as +C or +K.
Summary: If F(x) is one antiderivative of f(x), then
f(x) dx = F(x) + C.
Example. 2x dx = x2 + C
This means that whenever F(x) satisfies F '(x) = 2x, then in fact F(x) has the form
F(x) = x 2 + C for some constant C.
We call the "integral" sign and finding the antiderivative is often called "integration."
Think of the integral sign as being attached to the dx portion. The function f(x) is called the
"integrand." The dx will be useful soon. For now it just tells us that the variable of
differentiation was named x. The constant C is usually called the "constant of integration."
The most basic fact about the antiderivative of f(x) is then that its derivative is f(x):
Theorem. Dx [ f(x) dx ] = f(x).
Frequently what you need, however, is a quick way to compute antiderivatives.
Here are the most basic rules for finding antiderivatives:
Rule 1: If a is constant, then

a dx = a x + C.

Example. Find 5 dx.

This is the case a = 5. The answer is 5x + C.
Note that the answer contains the added arbitrary constant C.
The justification is that Dx [ax +C] = a.
Rule 2: If r is any constant other than r = -1, then
xr dx =
xr+1
------- + C
r+1
Example. x3 dx = (x4)/ 4 + C.
This is the case r = 3.
Justification: Dx [ xr+1 / (r+1)] = (r+1) xr / (r+1) = xr
Rule 3: If a is constant,
a f(x) dx = a

f(x) dx

Example. 3 x4 dx = 3 x4 dx = 3 [x5 / 5 + C 1]
= 3 x5 / 5 + 3 C 1 = 3 x5 / 5 + C

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Note how we have final arbitrary constant + C. There is no extra information in + 3 C1
than in + C.
Rule 4:
(f(x) + g(x)) dx = f(x) dx + g(x) dx
(f(x) - g(x)) dx = f(x) dx - g(x) dx
except that the constants of integration are usually combined into one constant.
This means that terms combined by addition or subtraction have their antiderivatives
combined the same way.
Example. (2 x3 - 7 x2 ) dx
= 2 x3 dx - 7 x2 dx
= (2/4) x4 - (7/3) x3 + C
= (1/2) x4 - (7/3) x3 + C.
We can easily check the answer:
Dx [(1/2) x4 - (7/3) x3 + C] = (4/2) x3 - (7/3)(3) x2 = 2 x3 - 7 x2
The same procedures apply when there are several terms.
Example. (5 x2 - 3 x + 2 ) dx
= 5 x2 dx - 3 x dx + 2 dx
= (5/3) x3 - (3/2) x2 + 2 x + C
As usual, roots should be replaced by exponents.
Example. (2 x ) dx
= (2 x(1/2) ) dx
= 2 x(1/2) dx
= 2 x(1/2)+1 / [(1/2 + 1] + C
= 2 x3/2 / (3/2) + C
= (4/3) x3/2 + C
Example. 1 / x5 dx
= x -5 dx
= x(-5+1) / (-5+1) + C
= x-4 / (-4) + C
= -(1/4) x -4 + C
Example. Find

3 x2
----x

dx

Solution.

=
=
=
=

3 x2
----x

dx

3 x2
----- dx
x 1/2
3 x2-1/2 dx

3 x3/2 dx
3 x5/2 / (5/2) + C
(6/5) x5/2 + C

Sometimes considerable algebra is needed to simplify the expression before you find the
antiderivative:
Example. Find

3 x2 - 2x
-----------x4

dx

Solution. Break up the integrand into two parts.

3 x2 - 2x

-----------x4
3 x2

dx

------ x4

3 x -2 - 2x-3

2x
-----x4

dx

dx

3 x(-2+1) / (-2+1) - 2 x (-3+1) / (-3 + 1) + C

= - 3 x-1 + x-2 + C

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If the name of the variable is not x, then the notation changes accordingly.
Example. Find 5 t(1/3) dt
Here we seek all functions F(t) so that F '(t) = 5 t1/3
We just use the usual rules, replacing x by t:
5 t(1/3) dt
= 5 t(1/3) dt
= 5 t(4/3) / (4/3) + C
= (15/4) t4/3 + C

8. Uses of antiderivatives
Example. Find a function f(x) such that the slope of the line tangent to the graph at x is
2x+3 and such that f(1) = 9.
Solution. We are given that f '(x) = 2x+3. Hence f(x) is an antiderivative of 2x+3, or
f(x) = (2x + 3 ) dx
= x2 + 3 x + C.
But we also know that f(1) = 9. Hence
9 = 11 + 3(1) + C = 4+C
Hence C = 5. Hence
f(x) = x2 + 3 x + 5.
Example. The rate of change of g(t) is 3 t and when t = 4, g = 9. Find g(t).
Solution. g '(t) = 3 t. Hence
g(t) = 3 t dt
= 3 t1/2 dt
= 3 t3/2 / (3/2) + C
= 2 t3/2 + C
But g(4) = 9, so
9 = 2 (4)3/2 + C
9 = 16 +C
C = -7
Answer: g(t) =2 t3/2 - 7
Example. The concentration C(t) of a drug administered into the blood stream is changing,
so that its rate of change t hours after the start of treatment is 3 t2 + 2t mg/l/hour. When
the treatment started, the concentration was 2 mg/l.
(a) Find C(t).
(b) Find the concentration 3 hours after the start of treatment.
Solution. (a) C '(t) = 3 t2 + 2t
Hence C(t) = (3 t2 + 2t) dt

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C(t) = t3 + t 2 + K [I use K for the constant of integration to avoid confusion with C(t).]
But C(0) = 2, so
2 = 03 + 0 2 + K
2=K
C(t) = t3 + t 2 + 2
(b) Now C(3) = 33 + 32 + 2 = 38 mg/l.
Suppose that the position of an object on the x-axis at time t is called x(t). Then the
velocity of the object is v(t) = x '(t). The acceleration of the object is
a(t) = v '(t).
Example. Suppose a vehicle moves in a straight line so that its position t seconds after the
start of the experiment is
x = 4 t3 + 6 t 2 + 7t + 25 feet
(a) Find its position when t = 0.
Answer: x(0) = 25 feet.
(b) Find its velocity.
Solution: v(t) = x '(t) = 12 t2 + 12 t + 7.
(c) Find its velocity when t = 1.
Answer: v(1) = 12+12+7 = 31 feet/second
(d) Find its acceleration at time t.
Solution: a(t) = v '(t) = Dt [12 t2 + 12 t + 7] = 24 t + 12 feet/sec/sec
(e) Find its acceleration when t = 1.
Answer: a(1) = 24+12 = 36 feet/sec/sec
Here ia a new notation: x '' (t) = Dt [x '(t)] = a(t) = Dt [v(t)]
Thus x '' (t) means the derivative of the derivative of x(t). We call it the second derivative
of x(t). If x(t) is the position at time t, then x''(t) is the acceleration at time t.
We can generalize this further. The third derivative of x(t) is written x '''(t) and means the
derivative of the second derivative:
x ''' (t) = Dt [x ''(t)].
It will not be used in this course. When x(t) is the position, there is no common English
name for x '''(t).

Example. A bug moves on the x-axis. At time t seconds its velocity is

v(t) = 30 t2 + 2 t cm/sec.
When t = 0, the bug is located at x = 5 cm.
(a) Find its position x at all times t.
(b) Find its position when t = 2.
Solution. (a) We know that Dt [x(t)] = v(t) = 30 t2 + 2 t
Hence x(t) is an antiderivative of v(t), so
x(t) = (30 t2 + 2t) dt
x(t) = 10 t3 + t 2 + C
for some constant C.
When t = 0, the position is x = 5. Hence

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5 = 10 (0)3 + (0)2 + C
5 = C.
The answer is:
x(t) = 10 t3 + t 2 + 5
(b) When t = 2, the bug is at
x(4) = 10 (2)3 + (2)2 + 5 = 89 cm.
Example. A car moves on the x-axis. At time t seconds its acceleration is
a(t) = 12 t + 2 feet/sec/sec.
When t = 0, its velocity is 16 feet/sec. When t = 1 the car is located at x = 20 feet.
(a) Find its velocity at all times t.
(b) Find its position at all times t.
(c) Find its position when t = 2.
Solution.
(a) Since Dt [v(t)] = a(t) it follows that
v(t) = a(t) dt
v(t) = (12t+2) dt
v(t) = 6 t2 + 2t + C
But when t = 0, the velocity is 16, so
16 = 6 (0)2 + 2(0) + C = C
16 = C
Hence v(t) = 6 t2 + 2t + 16 feet/sec
(b) Since Dt[x(t)] = v(t) it follows that
x(t) = v(t) dt
x(t) = (6 t2 + 2t + 16) dt
x(t) = 2 t3 + t 2 + 16 t + K
(I use a different name for the constant of integration, since C already appeared in the
problem.)
When t = 1 we know x = 20. Hence
20 = 2 (1)3 + (1)2 + 16 (1) + K
20 = 2 + 1 + 16 + K
K=1
Hence x(t) = 2 t3 + t 2 + 16 t + 1
(c) When t = 2, the position is
x(2) = (2)3 + (2)2 + 16 (2) + 1
x(2) = 45 feet

9. Integration by Substitution
We shall see a use for the alternative notation dy/dx of the derivative: If y = f(x), then f '(x)
is often written as dy/dx. The parts dy and dx are often treated separately like a fraction
(but the d's don't cancel!).
Example. Suppose y = x 3. Find dy/dx, dy, and dx.
Solution. dy/dx = 3x2
since dy/dx is just the derivative.
Then dy = 3x2 dx
because we just multiply both sides of the equation by dx.
Then dx = dy / (3x2) by dividing both sides of the equation by 3x2.
Example. Suppose u = x 2 + 1. Find du/dx, du, and dx.
Solution.
du/dx = 2x
du = 2x dx
dx = du/ (2x).
An important new method for finding antiderivatives is called "Integration by substitution."
Example. Find x(2x2 + 3 )5 dx
Solution. We introduce a new variable u so that u = 2x2 + 3.
Then du/dx = 4x and dx = du/(4x).
Now
x(2x2 + 3)5 dx
= x(u)5 (du/(4x))
= (1/4) u5 du
= (1/4) (1/6) u6 + C
= (1/24) u6 + C
= (1/24) (2x2 + 3)6 + C.
You can check the answer by differentiating.
Dx[ (1/24) (2x2 + 3)6 + C] = (1/24)(6) (2x2 + 3)5 (4x) = x(2x2 + 3)5
Example. Find x2(4x3 + 10 )100 dx
Solution. We introduce a new variable u so that u = 4x3 + 10 .
Then du/dx = 12x2 and dx = du/(12x2).
Now
x2(4x3 + 10 )100 dx
= x2(u )100 du /(12x2)
= (1/12) u100 du
= (1/12) (1/101) u101 + C
= (1/1212) u101 + C
= (1/1212) (4x3 + 10)101 + C.

Note
(1) We changed the original integral from one involving x to one involving a new variable u.
(2) The final answer contained only the original variable x.
(3) The integral involving u contained no x's.
Example. Find (2x + 3 ) dx
Solution. Introduce a new variable u so u = 2x+3.
Then du/dx = 2, so dx = du/2.
Now the integral is
u du/2
= (1/2) u1/2 du
= (1/2) u3/2 / (3/2) + C
= (1/3) u3/2 + C
= (1/3) (2x+3)3/2 + C.
The hard part is figuring out what to use for u. For the most part, it is a matter of practice.
A rough guide is:
(1) u should be prominent in the problem
(2) The derivative of u should be in the numerator (up to a multiplicative constant).
Example. Find x /(2x2 + 3 )2 dx
Solution. Let u = (2x2 + 3 ).
Note how u is prominent in the integrand.
Note also that du/dx = 4x which up to a constant is in the numerator.
Hence dx = du / (4x).
Now x /(2x2 + 3 )2 dx
= ( x /u 2 ) du/(4x)
= (1/4) 1 /u 2 du
= (1/4) u -2 du
= (1/4) u-1 / (-1) + C
= - (1/4) (2x2 + 3)-1 +C
You see how the x in the numerator cancelled when the change was made to du.
Example. Find 2x2(5x3 + 1 )4 dx
Solution. We make the substitution
u = (5x3 + 1)
It is prominent in the problem. Moreover, its derivative is du/dx = 15 x2
which up to the constant 15 appears in the numerator. Hence
dx = du / (15 x2)
2x2(5x3 + 1 )4 dx = 2x2u 4 du / (15 x2)
= (2/15) u 4 du
= (2/15) u5 / 5 + C

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= (2/75) (5x3 + 1)5 + C
Example. Find x (x + 1 ) dx
Solution. Let u = x+1.
Then du/dx = 1, so du = dx. Now
x (x + 1 ) dx
= x u du
This time the x did not cancel. But we still need to get an integral in just the variable u.
Note that since u = x +1, it follows x = u-1. Hence the integral
= (u-1) u du
= (u-1) u1/2 du
= u3/2- u1/2 du
= (2/5) u5/2 - (2/3) u3/2 + C
= (2/5) (x +1)5/2 - (2/3) (x +1) 3/2 + C
Moral. The revised integral must be just in terms of the new variable. If there are
still x's in the integral, they must be eliminated somehow.
Example. Find
t

------------ dt
(3t2+1)
Solution.
Let u = 3t2 + 1.
Then du/dt = 6t, so du = 6t dt and dt = du / (6t).
t

------------ dt
(3t2+1)
=

t
------------ du / (6t)
u1/2

=
(1/6) u -1/2 du
= (1/6) u1/2 /(1/2) + C
= (1/3) (3t2 + 1)1/2 + C

Why does the substitution method work?

Recall the chain rule:
Dx[f(g(x))] = f ' (g(x)) g ' (x)
We rewrite these using the d notation. For this write
u = g(x), y = f(g(x)) = f(u)
Then Dx[f(g(x))] = dy/dx
while f ' (g(x)) = dy/du
g ' (x) = du/dx.

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Thus the equation looks like
dy
dy
du
---=
----dx
du
dx
In this form, it just looks as though you can cancel as usual in fractions. This notation
makes the chain rule look just like algebra, hence easy to remember.
A typical use of the substitution rule has the expression that will be u raised to a power,
together with its derivative in the numerator:
We want u'(x) [u(x)]n dx
But u'(x) = du/dx
u'(x) [u(x)]n dx
= [u(x)]n u'(x) dx
= [u(x)]n (du/dx) dx
= [u]n du
= (1/(n+1)) un+1 + C
If in doubt, we can check by differentiation.

10. Integration with the exponential and logarithm

functions
Rule 5.

ex dx = ex + C

Justification: Just differentiate ex.

Example. 4x2 + 3 e x dx
= (4/3) x2 + 3 e x + C
Rule 6.

(1/x) dx = ln |x| + C

Justification: Recall that

|x| = x if x0
|x| = -x if x < 0

If x > 0 then ln |x| = ln x and Dx[ln x] = 1/x.

If x < 0 then ln |x| = ln (-x), so
Dx[ln|x|] = Dx [ln (-x)]
= [ 1 / (-x)] Dx (-x)
= [1 / (-x)] (-1)
= 1/x.
Either way the formula works.
Note that Rule 2 told how to compute
xr dx when r -1.

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Now we know

x -1 dx = ln |x| + C

Example.

3x - x3
--------- dx
x2

3
---x

dx

= 3 ln|x| - (1/2) x 2 + C
Of course, if you know that x is positive then the answer would be
= 3 ln(x) - (1/2) x2 + C
If you know that x is negative then the answer would be
= 3 ln(-x) - (1/2) x2 + C
Example. Find 1 / (4x+1) dx
Solution. We introduce a new variable u so that u = 4x+1.
Then du/dx = 4, so dx = du/4
Hence 1 / (4x+1) dx
= 1 / u du /4
= (1/4) (1/u) du
= (1/4) ln(|u|) + C
= (1/4) ln (|4x+1|) + C
Example. Find e3x dx
Solution. We introduce a new variable u so that u = 3x.
Then du/dx = 3, so dx = du/3
e3x dx
= eu du / 3
= (1/3) eu du
= (1/3) eu + C
= (1/3) e3x + C
Example. Find (e4x ) dx
Solution.
(e4x ) dx
= (e4x )(1/2) dx

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= e2x dx
Now let u = 2x, so du/dx = 2 and dx = du/2.
The integral is now
= eu du /2
= (1/2) eu du
= (1/2) eu + C
= (1/2) e2x + C
Example. Find

ex dx
----------ex + 3

Solution. Let u = ex + 3.
Then du/dx = ex so dx = du / ex
Now the integral is

ex (du / ex)
----------u

du
----------u

= ln |u| +C
= ln |ex + 3| + C
= ln (ex + 3) + C since we know ex > 0 and 3>0 so ex + 3 > 0.
Example. Find

ln (x) dx
----------x

Solution. Let u = ln(x).

Then du/dx = 1/x. Note that having 1/x in the numerator is the same as having x in the
denominator. Now du = dx / x, so dx, = x du. Hence the integral is

ln (x) dx
----------x

u x du
----------x

=
u du
= (1/2) u2 + C
= (1/2) (ln (x))2 + C