Workshop of the

The Dutch Royal Institute of EngineersEl

El Cuello de Botella de las Baterias

Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Dirk Uwe Sauer

Electrochemical Energy Conversion and Storage Systems Group
Aachen University

Why electrification of vehicles?

1. Limited resources oil is limited and

World-wide CO2 emissions

can get very expensive as seen in 2008

2. Climate change CO2 emissions must

be reduced worldwide by 70% until
2050 (in Germany by 90%)

This is, what the world is currently doing

world

Why electrification of vehicles?

1. Limited resources oil is limited and
can get very expensive as seen in 2008
Quelle: Powerlight Corporation

2. Climate change CO2 emissions must

be reduced worldwide by 70% until
2050 (in Germany by 90%)

Electricity is available in the long-run in

almost unlimited quantities from

renewable energy sources,

nuclear power plants, or
fossil power plants with carbon capture!

Quelle: K. Puchas, LEA Oststeiermark

Quelle: GtV e.V.

No. 3

Land requirement for bio fuels vs. electricity for mobility

Harvest from bio mass of

2nd

generation (BTL) expected:

60,000 km/ha/year

Harvest from photovoltaics in

Germany:
1,000,000 km/ha/year
Assumptions: Solar energy in Germany 1000 kWh/m2/a,
photovoltaics with 10% efficiency, land use factor 1/3, vehicle
energy consumption 20 kWh / 100 km, efficiency grid & vehicle
60%

16x more driving with electricity from PV compared with bio fuels
No. 4

Energy efficiency fuel cell vs. electric vehcile

Starting point: electrical power (from CO2-free sources)

Quelle: ATZ online

usable energy with fuel cell

vehicles: 25 30%

Quelle: minispace.com

usable energy with electric

vehicles: 70 75%

Energy needs for fuel cell vehicles with clean hydrogen is

2.5 x higher compared with electric vehicles

No. 5

Electric- and hybrid electric vehicles are under

construction - everywhere

Quelle: Volvo

Quelle: Daimler
Helmond, 19.05.2010
Prof. Dr. Dirk Uwe Sauer

Quelle: Daimler

Quelle: minispace.com

The battery - bottleneck for the e-mobility?

Quelle: Think

Quelle: Tesla Motors

No. 6

Electrification concepts for passenger cars

Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV)
Storage capacity approx. 1 kWh, charging only
during driving, fuel reduction max. 20%
Plug-in Hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV)
Storage capacity 5 10 kWh, charging from
the grid, 30 to 50 km electrical driving range,
full driving range with conventional engine or
fuel cell, driving with empty battery possible
Electric vehicle (EV)
Storage capacity 15 40 kWh, charging from
the grid, 100 to 300 km electrical driving range
Helmond, 19.05.2010
Prof. Dr. Dirk Uwe Sauer

The battery - bottleneck for the e-mobility?

No. 7

Gravimetric power density vs. energy density

(power and energy density of specific products taken from data sheets and measurements)

Specific Power, W/kg at Cell Level

100,000
SuperCap
10,000

Li-Ion
Very High Power

Blei spiral
wound

Li-Ion
High Power
NiMH

1,000

NaNiCl2
Zebra

NiCd

100

Li-Ion
High
Energy

LiM-Polymer

Blei
10

Quelle Ragone Plot: Saft

1
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

Specific Energy, Wh/kg at Cell Level

Helmond, 19.05.2010
Prof. Dr. Dirk Uwe Sauer

The battery - bottleneck for the e-mobility?

No. 8

The lithium ion system (Rocking Chair)

discharging

eR

LiMO2

e-

graphite

oxygen

Li+ LiC6
m Metal ion
graphite

Li+

separator

Graphik: Saft

Li+
elektrolyte &
separator

POSITIVE

NEGATIVE

Main technologies in the focus for lithium-ion batteries

Li-ion liquid

cathode material
Good lifetime,
high safety risk
Highest safety risk,
good electrical performance
Short lifetime, safety better
compared with Co & Ni
Popular mixed material with
optimum of different features
High variability of mixed
materials (e.g. additional Al)
3.3 V material, cheap & safe,
lower energy density

LiCoO2

anode material
Hard Carbon
LiC6

3.7 V material,
low number of full cycles

LiNiO2
LiMn2O4
LiCo1/3Ni1/3Mn1/3O2
LiCoxNiyMnzO2
LiFePO4

Graphit
LiC6

3.7 V material, expensive

good cycle lifetime (EV)

Titanat
Li4Ti5O12

2.2 V Material, safe,

low energy density

Silizium
Li22Si6

3.7 V material, high

energy denstiy,
under investigation
No. 10

Lithium-ion batteries Performance of different materials

only cathode material

Potential in mV vs. Li / Li+

4400
4200

LiMn2O4

4000

Li(Ni,Co,Mn)O2

3800
3600

Li(Ni,Co)O2

LiFePO
4

3400

LiCoO2

3200
Quelle: ZSW Ulm

3000
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

spezifische Kapazitt [mAh/g]

160

180

200

No. 11

Important technology innovations under development

Improved energy density by

y 5 Volt cathode materials e.g. LiCoPO4

Advantage: high potential, high safety
disadvantage: costs of cobalt,

sufficient cycle lifetimes not confirmed

y Silicon anode materials (LiSi5)

Advantage: theo. 11x higher energy

density of the anode compared with

graphite
Disadvantage: high volume expansiun,

severe lifetime problems

Quelle: Stanford University Silicon Nano Wires

y Energy densities up to a maximum of 300 Wh/kg might be possible

No. 12

Actual main R&D topics for Li-ion batteries

Li-ion liquid

Separators
General: very expensive
component in Li-ion cells

Electrolyte

standard
LiMn2O4

standard

Multi-layer separator with a

Shut-Down
melting layer ( turns to
high resistance at overheating)
Ceramic separator minimizes
the risk of short circuits at high
temperatures

LIBOB

Separion
Polymere

Electrolyte and binders are major components with

regard to deep temperature performance and
lifetime.

Ionic
liquids

Electrolyte: EC, PC,

DMC, DEC, EMC
salts: LiPF6, LiCF3SO3,
LiN(CF3SO2)2
Additives
Higher security
safe, low conductivity at
room temperature
Possible electrolyte for
5 Volt cells
No. 13

Different cell concepts

Round cells

y Long years of experience with cell design

y High lifetime expectations
y Cooling difficult
Coffee bag cells

y Very good cooling properties

y High energy density
y Tightness of foils still in question
Prismatic cells

y Simple system design

y Combines several advantages of round
cells and coffee-bag cells
No. 14

Discharge characteristic of Li-Ion High Power batteries

4 ,1
4 ,0
4.0

Safthigh
highpower
power cell
cell
Saft

3 ,9
3 ,8
3 ,7

3 ,5
3.5
3 ,4

V ol ta ge (V)

cell voltage [V]

3 ,6

3 ,3
3 ,2
3 ,1

3 ,0
3.0
2 ,9
2 ,8
2 ,7
2 ,6
2 ,5
2.5

8
8

D /3

D /2

1/3 C

12
12
capacity [Ah]

1 D = 15 A

2D

1C=15A

50 A

2C

20
20

16
16

C ap a cit y (Ah )

3.33C

1 50 A

10C

2 85 A

19C

No. 15

Electrical performance (cell level)

Energy (Wh)

150
150
100
100

50
50

00

Quelle: Saft

3
4
5
Storage duration (Years)

Calendar life assessment at 40C and

100 % SOC

high power
2000 4000 W/kg
80 100 Wh/kg
~ 90%
< 5%/month (25C)
106 (3.3% DOD)

150
150
E n e r g y (W h )

Power density
Energy density
Efficiency
Self discharge
Cycle lifetime
E n e rg y (W h )

Energy (Wh)

y
y
y
y
y

high energy
200 400 W/kg
120 160 Wh/kg
~ 95%
< 5%/month (25C)
up to 5000 full cycles

100
100
50
50
Quelle: Saft

00

1000

2000
3000
Cycle number

4000

Cycle life assessment at 20C

at 80 % DOD cycle
No. 16

5000

Ageing effects by cycling NiMH-batteries

y Grid expansion during
emplacement of hydrogen
leads to mechanical stress
and thereby destroys
crystals of metal alloy

volumeexpansion:
LaNi5 LaNi5 H6 approx.20%

2 cycles

10 cycles

50 cycles

hydrogen absorption

No. 17

Zyklenzahl
number
of cycles

The
r
cy c e i s a l
le li
ot o
f
e
o
t
r
ime f addi
doidepth
Life time as a function of cycle
tio
ng e batteries;
t
(Generally similar for lithium-ion-, NiMH- and lead-acid
nerg o supp nal ba
6
absolute numbers
varying depending on the product)
ttery
y tra ort g
10
r
i
d
d st
i ng
Zyklen
cycles
abil
!
ity
quivalente
Vollzyklen
equivalent full
cycles
5

10

55 years
with on cycle
per day

10

different
products and
technologies

15 years
10 years
1 cycle/day
3

10

Helmond, 19.05.2010
Prof. Dr. Dirk Uwe Sauer

20

40
60
SOC [%]

80

The battery - bottleneck for the e-mobility?

100

No. 18

Quelle: Boston Consulting Group, 2009

No. 19

Quelle: Boston Consulting Group, 2009

No. 20

Cost development of consumer cells of the type 18650

(standard cell e.g. used in battery packs of laptops)
3

energy density
specific energy
specific costs

500

2.5

400

300

1.5

200

100

0.5

costs [US$ / Wh]

spec. energy [Wh/kg], energy density [Wh/l]

600

Source: Institute of Information Technology, AABC 2004, San Francisco

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

0
No. 21

Most important battery manufacturers of lithium-ion

consumer batteries (type 18650 cell)

Battery manufacturer

Country

Sanyo

Japan

588

Samsung

Korea

386

Sony

Japan

359

Panasonic

Japan

237

LG Chem

Korea

ca. 200

Production in million cells

source: Institute Information Technology, data for 2007

No. 22

Main tracks of current R&D activities on Li-ion batteries

Maximising safety and reliability

Reduction of costs by material selection and economcy of scale
Transferring life cycle results from the lab to the field
Improving the usable DOD while maintaining the lfietime
Optimisation of system technology (mainly costs)
Improving the energy density

Consolidation of the technology and preparing for mass production is in the

focus.
Improving of energy density improves the market penetration only slightly.
No. 23

Products are available on the market

Specific Power, W/kg at Cell Level

GAIA
LiFePO4

Saft VHP
6 Ah

100,000
SuperCap
10,000

Li-Ion
Very High Power

Blei spiral
wound

LiTeC
HP 6 Ah

GS Yuasa
LEV 50
A123

Li-Ion
High Power

Saft VL M

NiMH

1,000

NaNiCl2
Zebra

NiCd

100

Kokam
Coffee Bag
E- One Moli
Li-Ion
High
Energy

LiM-Polymer

Blei
10

GAIA HE 60 Ah
Quelle Ragone Plot: Saft
1
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

Specific Energy, Wh/kg at Cell Level

No. 24

What follows from costs and performance of lithium-ion

batteries?
Batteries are expensive

y 15 kWh/100km x 300 /kWh = 4,500 /100km

(selling price to the car manufacturer, after (!) cost reduction)
Batteries for electric vehicles cost as much as the total remaining car

y Costs for a small to medium size vehicle (all parts and manufacturing)
are in the order of 5,000 /vehicle
Lithium-ion batteries achieve many more cycles than typically used,
but the battery will die even without cycling after a certain time

No. 25

Why long-ranging full electric vehicle are not economic

for the mass market . An example.
Size of the battery for 200 km full electric driving: approx. 30 kWh
(ranges from 24 kWh for very efficient small vehicles to 40 kWh)
Costs for battery purchase (selling from battery manufacturer to car
manufacturer): approx. 30 x 300 = 9,000
Selling price to the user: approx 9,000 x 1,8 = 16,200 for the battery only

Weight at 100 Wh/kg 300 kg

Battery dies after 10 to 15 years anyway, even if it wouldnt be used at all..
Average usage of vehicles in Germany: 37 km/day

80% of the battery dies unused.

A full electric vehicle as a mass product remains a short ranging vehicle.
100 km full electric driving range seems to be an appropriate sizing.
No. 26

Fast charging and exchangeable battery

concepts try to make the full electric vehicle a
one-by-one replacement of todays conventional
vehicles.
This is nonsense from an economical and from
an ecological point of view.

No. 27

Electrification concepts for passenger cars

Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV)
Storage capacity approx. 1 kWh, charging only
during driving, fuel reduction max. 20%
Plug-in Hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV)
Storage capacity 5 10 kWh, charging from
the grid, 30 to 50 km electrical driving range,
full driving range with conventional engine or
fuel cell, driving with empty battery possible
Electric vehicle (EV)
Storage capacity 15 40 kWh, charging from
the grid, 100 to 300 km electrical driving range
No. 28

Topology of hybrid- (HEV) and Plug-in

hybrid vehciles (PHEV)

IC engine

Transmission

Tank

Battery

z.B. Opel Ampera

Electric motor

Photo: www.spiegel-online.de

Tank

Power electronics

Generator

IC engine

e.g. study Mercedes

Vision S 500 Plug-in-Hybrid

Power electronics

Clutch 2

Clutch 1

Series hybrid (incl. range extender)

Photo: www.opel-ampera.com

Battery

Electric motor

Transmission

Parallel hybrid

Graphik: Dr. Kube, Volkswagen Konzernforschung, 2007

No. 29

Statistical Driving Behaviour

Stop 1

1
0.8
0.6

Stop 2

0.4

Stop 3

Single trips

0.2
Single trips (GER)

0
0

20

40

60

80
km

100

120

140

Data source: Mobilitt in Deutschland,

Bundesministerium fr Verkehr, Bau
und Stadtentwicklung

y 95 % of single trips shorter than 42 km

No. 30

Statistical Driving Behaviour

Stop 1

1
0.8
0.6

Stop 2

0.4

Single trips
Day trip

Stop 3
0.2

Single trips (GER)

Day trips (GER)

0
0

20

40

60

80
km

100

120

140

Data source: Mobilitt in Deutschland,

Bundesministerium fr Verkehr, Bau
und Stadtentwicklung

y 95 % of single trips shorter than 42 km

y 95 % of day trips shorter than 150 km

No. 31

Statistical Driving Behaviour

Stop 1

1
0.8
0.6

Stop 2

0.4

Stop 3
0.2
VMT, day trips (GER)

0
0

20

40

60

80
km

100

120

140

Single trips
Day trip

VMT: Vehicle miles travelled

Data source: Mobilitt in Deutschland,
Bundesministerium fr Verkehr, Bau
und Stadtentwicklung

y 95 % of single trips shorter than 42 km

y 95 % of day trips shorter than 150 km
y 50 % of VMT can be driven with a battery for 80 km

No. 32

Statistical Driving Behaviour

Stop 1

1
0.8

23 %

0.6

Stop 2

0.4

Single trips
Day trip

Stop 3
0.2

VMT, single trips (GER)

VMT, day trips (GER)

0
0

y
y
y
y

20

40

60

80
km

100

120

140

VMT: Vehicle miles travelled

Data source: Mobilitt in Deutschland,
Bundesministerium fr Verkehr, Bau
und Stadtentwicklung

95 % of single trips shorter than 42 km

95 % of day trips shorter than 150 km
50 % of VMT can be driven with a battery for 80 km
Recharging after every single trip increases fuel substitution by 23 %
No. 33

All-electric operation fraction of PHEVs

1
All-electric operation fraction

Stop 1

0.8
0.6

Stop 2

0.4
0.2

Stop 3
Recharging over night (GER)

0
0

20

40

60

80

100

All-electric range in km

Data source: Mobilitt in Deutschland,

Bundesministerium fr Verkehr, Bau
und Stadtentwicklung

y PHEV-35: fuel substitution of 50 % (same as EV-80)

y PHEV-50: Over night charging sufficient for 60 % of VMT (and more than 70
% of days for pure electric driving)

No. 34

All-electric operation fraction of PHEVs

1
All-electric operation fraction

Stop 1

0.8

17 %

0.6

Stop 2

0.4
0.2

Recharging after every trip (GER)

Stop 3

Recharging over night (GER)

0
0

20

40

60

80

100

All-electric range in km

Data source: Mobilitt in Deutschland,

Bundesministerium fr Verkehr, Bau
und Stadtentwicklung

y PHEV-35: fuel substitution of 50 % (same as EV-80)

y PHEV-50: Over night charging sufficient for 60 % of VMT (and more than 70
% of days for pure electric driving)

y Recharging after every trip increases fuel substitution by 17 %

No. 35

Sizing of the battery of Plug-in hybrids

very high fuel saving potential with small battery

All-electric operation fraction

100%
80%

68%
60%
45%
40%
Recharging after every trip (GER)

20%

Recharging over night (GER)

Recharging over night (USA)

0%
0

20 30 km 40

60

80

100

All-electric range in km
Helmond, 19.05.2010
Prof. Dr. Dirk Uwe Sauer

The battery - bottleneck for the e-mobility?

No. 36