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Mechanical Operations (CH 31007)

Unit operations
There are many physical operations that are common to a number
of the individual industries, and may be regarded as unit
operations
Some of these operations involve particulate solids
many of them are aimed at achieving a separation of the
components of a mixture

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CH 31007

Mechanical operations
Chemical Engineering unit operations :
Fluid flow processes: fluids transportation, filtration, and solids
fluidization
Heat transfer processes: evaporation, condensation, and heat
exchange
Mass transfer processes: gas absorption, distillation, extraction,
adsorption, and drying
Thermodynamic processes: gas liquefaction, and refrigeration
Mechanical processes: solids transportation, crushing and
pulverization, and screening and sieving
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Why mechanical operations!

Foundation of designs of chemical plants, factories, and


equipment used

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Particulate Solids
Solids are difficult than Fluids !
complex geometrical arrangements
basic problem of defining completely the physical state of the
material

The most important characteristics of an individual


particle
its composition, properties as density and conductivity [provided
the particle is completely uniform]
size and shape
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Particulate Solids
Particle size affects properties such as the surface per unit volume
and the rate at which a particle will settle in a fluid
Particle shape ?
Industrial scale: Large quantities of particles are handled and it is
frequently necessary to define the system as a whole
Not the particle size
But the particle size distribution
Mean size

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Particulate Solids
To reduce the size of particles
To enlarge the size of particles or form them into
aggregates or sinters

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What will I cover?

Crushing and grinding

Mean particle size

Size distribution

Crushers and mills

Screening

Sieve or membrane: Screen of filter

Settling: different rate of sedimentation of particles or drops as they move through gas or
liquid

Special cases: Electrostatic, magnetic etc.

Slurry Transport

Mixing and Segregation

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Few things to remember!


Mid-Sem

30

Sep 14 - 22, 2015

End-Sem

50

Nov 18, 2015 onward

TA

20

??

Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering Vol. 2: P article

Technology and Separation P rocesses: Richardson, J. F., Harker, J. H., and


Backhurst, J. R.) [Butterworth-Heinemann]
Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering: McCABE, W. L., SMITH, J. C. and
HARRIOTT, P. [McGraw-Hill]

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Particle Size Reduction


Mechanical Operations (CH 31007)

Background
Materials are rarely found in the size range required
Often necessary either to decrease or to increase the size
While decreasing in size
particle size will have to be progressively reduced in stages
Most appropriate type of machine at each stage depends
size of the feed and of the product
properties as compressive strength, brittleness and stickiness

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Background
Sometimes very fine powders are too difficult to handle
Hazardous dust clouds during transportation
Size enlargement processes include
granulation for the preparation of fertilisers
compaction using compressive forces to form the tablets
in pharmaceuticals

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Single particles

The sphere of the same volume as the particle.

The sphere of the same surface area as the particle.

The sphere of the same surface area per unit volume as the particle.

The sphere of the same area as the particle when projected on to a plane
perpendicular to its direction of motion.

The sphere of the same projected area as the particle, as viewed from above, when
lying in its position of maximum stability such as on a microscope slide for example.

The sphere which will just pass through the same size of square aperture as the
particle, such as on a screen for example.

The sphere with the same settling velocity as the particle in a specified fluid.

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Sphericity

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Size Reduction of Solids (Comminution)


To increase the surface area
most reactions involving solid particles, the rate of reactions is
directly proportional to the area of contact with a second
phase
drying of porous solids, where reduction in size causes both an
increase in area and a reduction in the distance the
moisture must travel within the particles in order to reach the
surface

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Size Reduction of Solids (Comminution)


Necessary to break a material into very small particles in
order to separate two constituents, especially where
one is dispersed in small isolated pockets
Colour and covering power of a pigment is considerably
affected by the size of the particles
More intimate mixing of solids can be achieved if the
particle size is small

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Mechanism of Size Reduction


A single lump of material is subjected to a sudden impact/blow
few relatively large particles
a number of fine particles
relatively few particles of intermediate size

Energy in the blow is increased


the larger particles will be of a rather smaller size & more
numerous
the number of fine particles will be appreciably increased, but
their size will not be much altered

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Mechanism of Size Reduction


Size of the fine particles: closely connected with the
internal structure of the material
Size of the larger particles: more closely connected
with the process by which the size reduction is effected
Grind limit: After some time there seems to be little
change in particle size but may result in a change
in shape rather than in size

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Effect of progressive grinding on size distribution


persistent
mode

transitory
mode

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Method of Application of the Force


Impact: particle concussion by a single rigid force
Compression: particle disintegration by two rigid forces
Cutting or Shear: produced by a fluid or by particle
particle interaction
Attrition or Rubbing: arising from particles scraping
against one another or against a rigid surface

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Method of Application of the Force


Impact: Coarse, medium, or fine particles
Compression: Coarse and relatively few fine particles
Cutting / Shear: definite particle size & shape, no fines
Attrition / Rubbing: very fine particles

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Crushing + Attrition
Stress applied between two surfaces (either surface
particle or particleparticle) at low velocity, 0.0110 m/s

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Jaw Crusher

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Gyratory Crusher

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Crushing Rolls

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Impact + Attrition
Stress applied at a single solid surface (surfaceparticle
or particleparticle) at high velocity, 10200 m/s

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Hammer Mill

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Fluid Energy Mill

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Shear + Attrition
Stress applied by carrier mediumusually in wet grinding
to bring about disagglomeration

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Sand Mill

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Colloid Mill

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Ball Mill

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Ball mill
May be used wet or dry although wet grinding facilitates
the removal of the product.
The costs of installation and power are low.
May be used with an inert atmosphere and therefore can
be used for the grinding of explosive materials.
The grinding medium is cheap.
Suitable for materials of all degrees of hardness.
May be used for batch or continuous operation.
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Hammer Mill

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Hardinge conical ball

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Question!
If a ball mill, 1.2 m in diameter, is operating at 0.80 Hz, suggest the
modification in operating condition to achieve its improved
efficiency.

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Ideal Crusher or Grinder !!


Large capacity
Product of single size or size distribution
Requirement of small power input per unit of product

Size reduction is a very inefficient process and only between 0.1 and
2.0 per cent of the energy supplied to the machine appears as
increased surface energy in the solids
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Energy Requirements

for p = -2

Rittingers law
fc is thefor
crushing
strength
of the
the increase
material in surface
The energy required
size reduction
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Energy Requirements
for p = -1

Kicks law
The energy required for size reduction the reduction ratio

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Energy Requirements

Neither of these two laws permits an accurate calculation of the energy


requirements

Rittingers law is applicable mainly to that part of the process where


new surface is being created and holds most accurately for fine
grinding where the increase in surface per unit mass of material is large

Kicks law, more closely relates to the energy required to effect elastic
deformation before fracture occurs

Kicks law is more accurate than Rittingers law for coarse crushing
where the amount of surface produced is considerably less

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Energy Requirements
for p = -3/2

Bonds law

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Work index: the


amount of energy
required to reduce
unit mass of material
from an infinite
particle size to a size
L2 of 100 m

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Problem

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Classification of size reduction equipment

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Nature of the material to be crushed

Hardness

The hardness of the material affects the power consumption and the wear on the machine.
With hard and abrasive materials it is necessary to use a low-speed machine and to protect
the bearings from the abrasive dusts that are produced.

Structure

Normal granular materials such as coal, ores and rocks can be effectively crushed employing
the normal forces of compression, impact, and so on. With fibrous materials a tearing action
is required

Moisture content

It is found that materials do not flow well if they contain between about 5 and 50 per cent
of moisture. In general, grinding can be carried out satisfactorily outside these limits.

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Nature of the material to be crushed


Crushing strength
The power required for crushing is almost directly proportional to the
crushing strength of the material.

Friability
The friability of the material is its tendency to fracture during normal
handling. In general, a crystalline material will break along well-defined
planes and the power required for crushing will increase as the particle size
is reduced.

Stickiness
A sticky material will tend to clog the grinding equipment and it should
therefore be ground in a plant that can be cleaned easily.

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Nature of the material to be crushed


Soapiness
In general, this is a measure of the coefficient of friction of the
surface of the material. If the coefficient of friction is low, the
crushing may be more difficult.

Explosive materials
must be ground wet or in the presence of an inert atmosphere.

Hazardous materials
Materials yielding dusts that are harmful to the health must be
ground under conditions where the dust is not allowed to escape.
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Types of Crushing Equipment


Crushers
(coarse & fine)

Grinders
(intermediate & fine)

Ultrafine grinders

Cutting machines

Jaw crushers

Hammer mills

Hammer mills with


internal
classification

Knife cutters

Gyratory crusher

Bowl mills, Roller mills Fluid-energy mills

Dicers

Crushing rolls

Attrition mills

Slitters

Agitated mills

Tumbling mills
(Ball mill, Rod mill,
pebble mill, Tube mill)

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Methods of operating crushers


Free crushing
feeding the material at a comparatively low rate so that the
product can readily escape
short residence time prevents the production of appreciable
quantities of undersize material

Choke feeding
the machine is kept full of material
discharge of the product is blocked so that the material remains
in the crusher for a longer period
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Methods of operating crushers


Open circuit grinding choke feeding
Closed circuit grinding free crushing

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Recap

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Particle Size Distribution

Single particle size !!

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It is important to use the method of size measurement


which directly gives the particle size which is relevant to
the situation or process of interest.

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Why!
Quantitative indication of the mean size and of the spread of sizes
Results of a size analysis can most conveniently be represented by
means of a cumulative mass fraction curve

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Size frequency curve


Size frequency curve

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Cumulative distribution

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Differential frequency distribution

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Different distributions

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Conversion between distributions


Many modern instruments actually measure a number
distribution, which is rarely needed in practice

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Conversion between distributions


If N is the total number of particles in the population,
the number of particles in the size range

the surface area of these particles

aS is the factor relating the linear dimension of the particle


to its surface area
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Conversion between distributions


S is the total surface area of the population of particles

For a given population of particles, the total number of


particles, N, and the total surface area, S are constant.

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Conversion between distributions


assuming particle shape is independent of size,
i.e. aS is constant

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Conversion between distributions


Similarly, for the distribution by volume

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Conversion between distributions

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Describing the mixture by a single number


The mode
Most frequently occurring size in the sample
For the same sample, different modes would be obtained for
distributions by number, surface and volume

The median
Easily read from the cumulative distribution as the 50% size
The size which splits the distribution into two equal parts

Different means including arithmetic, geometric, quadratic,


harmonic, etc.
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Different means

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Mean sizes based on volume


Considering unit mass of particles consisting of n1 particles of
characteristic dimension d1, constituting a mass fraction x1
volume mean diameter

mean volume diameter

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Different means

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Problem

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Solution

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Problem

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Solution

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Quiz!

The size analysis of a powdered material on a mass basis is represented by


a straight line from 0% mass at 1 micron particle size to 100% mass at 101
micron particle size. What is the surface mean diameter of the particles
constituting the system?

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Recap
Frequency distribution curves
Cumulative curves
Cumulative distribution is the integral of the frequency
distribution
Distributions can be by number, surface, mass or volume

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Methods of particle size measurement


Sieving (>50 m)
dry sieving using woven wire sieves is a simple, cheap method
gives a mass distribution and a size known as the sieve diameter
sieve series are arranged so that the ratio of aperture sizes on
consecutive sieves is 2, 21/2 or 21/4 according to the closeness of
sizing
horizontal & vertical vibration
lower limit of size!!

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Screen efficiency
F = feed, D = overflow, B = underflow
xF , xD , xB mass fraction of material A
(1-xF), (1-xD), (1-xB), mass fraction of material C
F=B+D
F xF = D xD + B xB

Screen efficiency
=

based on oversize

(1 )
;
(1 )

= =
=

based on undersize

(1 )
;
(1 )

overall effectiveness

( )( ) (1 )
( )2 1

Capacity and effectiveness of screens


The capacity of a screen is measured by the mass of
material that can be fed per unit time to a unit area of
the screen.
Capacity and effectiveness are opposing factors.
To obtain maximum effectiveness, the capacity must be
small, and large capacity is obtainable only at the
expense of a reduction in effectiveness.

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For coarse crushing, Kicks law may be used


mean diameter of feed = 45 mm, mean diameter of product = 4 mm,
energy consumption = 13.0 kJ/kg, compressive strength = 22.5 N/m2

mean diameter of feed = 42.5 mm, mean diameter of product = 0.50 mm


compressive strength = 45 MN/m2

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Methods of particle size measurement


Microscopic analysis (1100 m)
measurement of the projected area of the particle and also
enables an assessment to be made of its 2-D shape

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Methods of particle size measurement


Sedimentation and elutriation methods (>1 m)
the rate of sedimentation of a sample of particles in a liquid
The suspension is dilute and so the particles are assumed to fall
at their single particle terminal velocity in the liquid (usually
water)
Stokes law is assumed to apply
the method using water is suitable only for particles typically less
than 50 mm in diameter

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terminal falling velocity of a particle in a fluid increases


with size

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Assumptions
The suspension is sufficiently dilute for the particles to
settle as individuals (i.e. not hindered settling)
Motion of the particles in the liquid obeys Stokes law
(true for particles typically smaller than 50 mm)
Particles are assumed to accelerate rapidly to their
terminal free fall velocity UT so that the time for
acceleration is negligible

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Sedimentation

Particles are assumed to accelerate rapidly to their terminal free fall velocity
UT so that the time for acceleration is negligible
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Ergun Equation

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Permeametry
This is a method of size analysis based on fluid flow
through a packed bed

The pressure gradient across a packed bed of known


voidage is measured as a function of flow rate
The diameter we calculate from the CarmanKozeny
equation is the arithmetic mean of the surface
distribution
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Electrozone Sensing

Particles are held in suspension in a dilute electrolyte which is drawn


through a tiny orifice with a voltage applied across it

As particles flow through the orifice a voltage pulse is recorded

The amplitude of the pulse can be related to the volume of the particle
passing the orifice

Thus, by electronically counting and classifying the pulses according to


amplitude this technique can give a number distribution of the
equivalent volume sphere diameter

The lower size limit is dictated by the smallest practical orifice and the
upper limit is governed by the need to maintain particles in suspension

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Although liquids more viscous than water may be used to reduce


sedimentation, the practical range of size for this method is 0.31000 mm
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SAMPLING
In practice, the size distribution of many tonnes of powder are often
assumed from an analysis performed on just a few grams or
milligrams of sample
The importance of that sample being representative of the bulk
powder cannot be overstated
The powder should be in motion when sampled
The whole of the moving stream should be taken for many short
time increments

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Methods of particle size measurement


Microscopic analysis (1100 m)
measurement of the projected area of the particle and also
enables an assessment to be made of its 2-D shape

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Methods of particle size measurement


Sedimentation and elutriation methods (>1 m)
the rate of sedimentation of a sample of particles in a liquid
The suspension is dilute and so the particles are assumed to fall
at their single particle terminal velocity in the liquid (usually
water)
Stokes law is assumed to apply
the method using water is suitable only for particles typically less
than 50 mm in diameter

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terminal falling velocity of a particle in a fluid increases


with size

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Assumptions
The suspension is sufficiently dilute for the particles to
settle as individuals (i.e. not hindered settling)
Motion of the particles in the liquid obeys Stokes law
(true for particles typically smaller than 50 mm)
Particles are assumed to accelerate rapidly to their
terminal free fall velocity UT so that the time for
acceleration is negligible

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Sedimentation

Particles are assumed to accelerate rapidly to their terminal free fall velocity
UT so that the time for acceleration is negligible
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Ergun Equation

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Permeametry
This is a method of size analysis based on fluid flow
through a packed bed

The pressure gradient across a packed bed of known


voidage is measured as a function of flow rate
The diameter we calculate from the CarmanKozeny
equation is the arithmetic mean of the surface
distribution
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Electrozone Sensing

Although liquids more viscous than water may be used to reduce


sedimentation, the practical range of size for this method is 0.31000 mm
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Electrozone Sensing

Particles are held in suspension in a dilute electrolyte which is drawn


through a tiny orifice with a voltage applied across it

As particles flow through the orifice a voltage pulse is recorded

The amplitude of the pulse can be related to the volume of the particle
passing the orifice

Thus, by electronically counting and classifying the pulses according to


amplitude this technique can give a number distribution of the
equivalent volume sphere diameter

The lower size limit is dictated by the smallest practical orifice and the
upper limit is governed by the need to maintain particles in suspension

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SAMPLING
In practice, the size distribution of many tonnes of powder are often
assumed from an analysis performed on just a few grams or
milligrams of sample
The importance of that sample being representative of the bulk
powder cannot be overstated
The powder should be in motion when sampled
The whole of the moving stream should be taken for many short
time increments

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Particle in a Fluid
To develop an understanding of the forces resisting the
motion of a single particle

To provide methods for the estimation of the steady


velocity of the particle relative to the fluid

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Motion of Solid Particles in a Fluid


The drag force resisting very slow steady relative motion
(creeping motion) between a rigid sphere and a fluid of
infinite extent

where U is the relative velocity, x is the sphere dia.

Stokes law
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Stokes law
Stokes law is found to hold for single particle Reynolds
number,
almost exactly for Rep 0.1
within 9% for Rep 0.3

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Drag Coefficient

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Particles falling under gravity through a fluid

A particle falling from rest in a fluid will initially experience a high


acceleration as the shear stress drag, which increases with relative
velocity, will be small.
As the particle accelerates the drag force increases, causing the
acceleration to reduce.
Eventually a force balance is achieved when the acceleration is zero and
a maximum or terminal relative velocity is reached. This is known as the
single particle terminal velocity.
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Particle terminal velocity

where UT is the single particle terminal velocity

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Particle terminal velocity

in the Stokes law region

terminal velocity is proportional to the square of the particle diameter

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Particle terminal velocity


In the Newtons law region

terminal velocity is independent of the fluid viscosity and


proportional to the square root of the particle diameter

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Particle terminal velocity


In the intermediate region no explicit expression

Generally, when calculating the terminal velocity for a


given particle or the particle diameter for a given
velocity, it is not known which region of operation is
relevant.

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For a given particle size

Archimedes number
produce a straight line of slope 2 if plotted on the
logarithmic coordinates (log CD versus log Rep) of the
standard drag curve. The intersection of this straight line with
the drag curve gives the value of Rep.

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For a given UT

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Non-Spherical Particles
Shape affects drag coefficient far more in the intermediate
and Newtons law regions than in the Stokes law region.
In the Stokes law region particles fall with their longest surface
nearly parallel to the direction of motion, whereas, in the
Newtons law region particles present their maximum area to the
oncoming fluid.

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Sand particles falling from rest in air


(particle density, 2600 kg/m3)

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Effect of boundaries on terminal velocity


When a particle is falling through a fluid in the presence
of a solid boundary the terminal velocity reached by the
particle is less than that for an infinite fluid.
In practice, this is really only relevant to the falling
sphere method of measuring liquid viscosity, which is
restricted to the Stokes region.

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Effect of boundaries on terminal velocity


In the case of a particle falling along the axis of a
vertical pipe this is described by a wall factor,

the ratio of the velocity in the pipe, UD to the velocity in an


infinite fluid, Ua.
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A sphere of diameter 10 mm and density 7700 kg/m3 falls under gravity at terminal
conditions through a liquid of density 900 kg/m3 in a tube of diameter 12 mm. The
measured terminal velocity of the particle is 1.6 mm/s. Calculate the viscosity of the
fluid. Verify that Stokes law applies.

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Separation
Separation can be divided into 2 classes:
Diffusional operations: transfer of material between phases
Mechanical separation: based on physical differences, e.g. size,
shape, density

Mechanical separation are applied to heterogeneous


mixtures, NOT to homogeneous mixtures

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Mechanical Separation
Separation of
solids from gases
liquid drops from gases
solids from solids
solids from liquids

Mechanical separation can be achieved by:


Sieve or membrane: Screen of filter
Settling: different rate of sedimentation of particles or drops as
they move through gas or liquid
Special cases: Electrostatic, magnetic etc.
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Screening
Separating particles due to size ONLY
Single screen gives unsized fractions
Series of screens provides sized fractions
Commonly applied for large scale for the separation
Generally applicable for particles of a size as small as
about 50 m

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Screening
For very fine materials
difficulty of producing accurately woven fine gauze of sufficient
strength
screens become clogged
other methods of separation are usually more economical

Woven wire cloth is generally used for fine sizes and


perforated plates for the larger meshes

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Screening
Commonly done in dry mode, occasionally in wet mode
With coarse solids the screen surface may be
continuously washed by means of a flowing stream of
water
to keep the particles apart
to remove the finer particles from the surface of larger particles
to keep the screen free of adhering materials

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Screening
Fine screens are normally operated wet, with the solids
fed continuously as a suspension
Concentrated suspensions have high effective viscosities
and frequently exhibit shear-thinning non-Newtonian
characteristics
By maintaining a high cross-flow velocity over the surface of the
screen, or by rapid vibration, the apparent viscosity of the
suspension may be reduced and the screening rate substantially
increased.
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Multiphase systems
Dissolved or
dispersed
phase

Continuous
medium

Solution

Colloid

Coarse dispersion

Gas

Gas

Gas mixture: air (oxygen and other


gases in nitrogen)

None

None

Liquid

Gas

None

Aerosols of liquid particles: fog, mist, vapor, hair


sprays

Aerosol

Solid

Gas

None

Aerosols of solid particles: smoke, cloud, air


particulates

Solid aerosol: dust

Gas

Liquid

Solution: oxygen in water

Liquid foam: whipped cream, shaving cream

Foam

Liquid

Liquid

Solution: alcoholic beverages

Emulsion

Emulsion: milk, mayonnaise, hand cream

Solid

Liquid

Solution: sugar in water

Liquid sol: pigmented ink, blood

Suspension: mud (soil, clay or silt particles are


suspended in water)

Gas

Solid

Solution: hydrogen in metals

Solid foam: aerogel

Foam: dry sponge

Liquid

Solid

Solution: amalgam

Gel: agar, gelatin, silica gel, opal

Wet sponge

Solid

Solid

Solution: alloys

Solid sol: cranberry glass

Gravel, granite

3-Sep-15

Source: Wikipedia

Non-Newtonian fluid

3-Sep-15

Non-Newtonian fluid

Time-dependent
viscosity

Rheopectic

Apparent viscosity increases with


Printer ink
duration of stress

Thixotropic

Yogurt, aqueous iron


oxide gels, gelatin gels,
Apparent viscosity decreases with
some clays, some drilling muds,
duration of stress
many paints,
colloidal suspensions

Shear thickening Apparent viscosity increases with Suspensions of corn starch in


(dilatant)
increased stress
water, sand in water

Timeindependent
viscosity

Shear thinning
(pseudoplastic)

Nail polish, whipped


cream, ketchup, molasses,
Apparent viscosity decreases with
syrups, paper pulp in water, latex
increased stress
paint, blood, some silicone oils,
some silicone coatings

Viscosity is constant
Generalized
Stress depends on normal and
Newtonian fluids shear strain rates and also the
pressure applied on it

3-Sep-15

Custard, Water

Screening Equipment
In most cases, the particles drop through the openings
by gravity
Coarse particles drop through easily, but with fine
particles, screen must be agitated
Agitation can be done by
shaking
vibrating
mechanically or electrically

3-Sep-15

Stationary screen & Grizzly


Made of longitudinal bars up to 3 m long, fixed in a
rectangular framework
Space between bars is 2 8 in.
Usually inclined at an angle to the horizontal
Greater the angle, the greater is the throughput BUT the
screening efficiency is reduced
Effective for very coarse free-flowing solids containing
few fine particles
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Grizzlies

3-Sep-15

Source: Google Image

Electromagnetic screen

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The screen itself is vibrated

Mechanical screen

The whole assembly is vibrated


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Mechanical screen
As very rapid accelerations and retardations are produced, the
power consumption and the wear on the bearings are high
Generally mounted in a multi-deck fashion with the coarsest
screen on top, either horizontally or inclined at angles up to
45
With the horizontal machine, the vibratory motion fulfils the
additional function of moving the particles across the screen

3-Sep-15

Mechanical screen
The screen area which is required for a given operation
cannot be predicted without testing the material under
similar conditions on a small plant

In particular, the tendency of the material to clog the


screening surface can only be determined experimentally

3-Sep-15

Trommel
A very large mechanically operated screen

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Electrostatic separator

3-Sep-15

Cyclone separator

3-Sep-15

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