Wikipedia - Epidural (CHECKED)

Epidural - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
28/04/15 03:33
Epidural
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The term epidural (from Ancient Greek

, "on, upon" + dura mater) is a
simplified and all-inclusive term often
used to refer to techniques such as
epidural analgesia and epidural
anaesthesia. The epidural route is
frequently employed by certain
physicians and nurse anaesthetists to
administer diagnostic (e.g. radiocontrast
agents) and therapeutic (e.g.,
glucocorticoids) chemical substances,
as well as certain analgesic and local
anaesthetic agents. Epidural techniques
frequently involve injection of drugs
through a catheter placed into the
epidural space. The injection can result
in a loss of sensationincluding the
sensation of painby blocking the
transmission of signals through nerve
fibers in or near the spinal cord.
Contents
Epidural
Intervention
A freshly inserted lumbar epidural catheter. The site has been prepared with
tincture of iodine, and the dressing has not yet been applied. Depth markings
may be seen along the shaft of the catheter.
ICD-9CM
03.90 (http://icd9cm.chrisendres.com/index.php?
srchtype=procs&srchtext=03.90&Submit=Search&action=search)
anaesthesia
MeSH
D000767
2 Indications
OPS-
8-910 (http://ops.icd-code.de/ops/code/8-910.html)
1 Difference from spinal
3 Anatomy
301 code:
4 Technique
5 Special situations
5.1 Epidural analgesia
during childbirth
5.2 Epidural analgesia
after surgery
5.3 Caudal epidural
analgesia
5.4 Combined spinal-
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidural
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epidural techniques
5.5 Epidural steroid
injection
6 Side effects
7 Complications
8 History
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Difference from spinal anaesthesia

Spinal anaesthesia is a technique whereby a local anaesthetic drug is injected into the cerebrospinal fluid. This
technique has some similarity to epidural anaesthesia, and lay people often confuse the two techniques.
Important differences include:
To achieve epidural analgesia or anaesthesia, a larger dose of drug is typically necessary than with spinal
analgesia or anaesthesia.
The onset of analgesia is slower with epidural analgesia or anaesthesia than with spinal analgesia or
anaesthesia.
An epidural injection may be performed anywhere along the vertebral column (cervical, thoracic, lumbar,
or sacral), while spinal injections are typically performed below the second lumbar vertebral body to
avoid piercing and consequently damaging the spinal cord.
It is easier to achieve segmental analgesia or anaesthesia using the epidural route than using the spinal
route.
An indwelling catheter is more commonly placed in the setting of epidural analgesia or anaesthesia than
with spinal analgesia or anaesthesia.
Indications
Injecting medication into the epidural space is primarily performed for analgesia. This may be performed using
a number of different techniques and for a variety of reasons. Additionally, some of the side-effects of epidural
analgesia may be beneficial in some circumstances (e.g., vasodilation may be beneficial if the subject has
peripheral vascular disease). When a catheter is placed into the epidural space (see below) a continuous infusion
can be maintained for several days, if needed. Epidural analgesia may be used:
For analgesia alone, where surgery is not contemplated. An epidural injection or infusion for pain relief
(e.g. in childbirth) is less likely to cause loss of muscle power, but has to be augmented to be sufficient for
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surgery.
As an adjunct to general anaesthesia. The anaesthetist may use epidural analgesia in addition to general
anaesthesia. This may reduce the patient's requirement for opioid analgesics. This is suitable for a wide
variety of surgery, for example gynaecological surgery (e.g. hysterectomy), orthopaedic surgery (e.g. hip
replacement), general surgery (e.g. laparotomy) and vascular surgery (e.g. open aortic aneurysm repair).
As a sole technique for surgical anaesthesia. Some operations, most frequently Caesarean section, may be
performed using an epidural anaesthetic as the sole technique. This can allow the patient to remain awake
during the operation. The dose required for anaesthesia is much higher than that required for analgesia.
For post-operative analgesia, after an operation where the epidural technique was used as either the sole
anaesthetic, or was used in combination with general anaesthesia. Analgesics are given into the epidural
space typically for a few days after surgery, provided a catheter has been inserted. Through the use of a
patient-controlled epidural analgesia (PCEA) infusion pump, a person has the ability to give themselves
an occasional dose of pain medication through an epidural catheter.
For the treatment of back pain. Injection of analgesics and steroids into the epidural space may improve
some forms of back pain. See below.
For the treatment of chronic pain or palliation of symptoms in terminal care, usually in the short- or
medium-term.
The epidural space is more difficult and risky to access as one ascends the spine (because the spinal cord gains
more nerves as it ascends and fills the epidural space leaving less room for error), so epidural techniques are
most suitable for analgesia anywhere in the lower body and as high as the chest. They are (usually) much less
suitable for analgesia for the neck, or arms and are not possible for the head (since sensory innervation for the
head arises directly from the brain via cranial nerves rather than from the spinal cord via the epidural space.)
Anatomy
The epidural space is the space inside the bony spinal canal but just outside the dura mater ("dura"). In contact
with the inner surface of the dura is another membrane called the arachnoid mater ("arachnoid"). The
cerebrospinal fluid that surrounds the spinal cord is contained by the arachnoid mater. In adults, the spinal cord
terminates around the level of the disc between L1 and L2 (in neonates it extends to L3 but can reach as low as
L4), below which lies a bundle of nerves known as the cauda equina ("horse's tail"). Hence, lumbar epidural
injections carry a low risk of injuring the spinal cord.
Insertion of an epidural needle involves threading a needle between the bones, through the ligaments and into
the epidural potential space taking great care to avoid puncturing the layer immediately below containing CSF
under pressure.
Technique
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Procedures involving injection of any substance into the epidural space

require the operator to be technically proficient in order to avoid
complications.
The subject may be in the seated, lateral or prone positions.[1] The level
of the spine at which the catheter is best placed depends mainly on the
site and type of an intended operation or the anatomical origin of pain.
The iliac crest is a commonly used anatomical landmark for lumbar
epidural injections, as this level roughly corresponds with the fourth
lumbar vertebra, which is usually well below the termination of the
spinal cord. The Tuohy needle is usually inserted in the midline,
between the spinous processes. When using a paramedian approach, the
tip of the needle passes along a shelf of vertebral bone called the lamina
until just before reaching the ligamentun flavum and the epidural space.
Along with a sudden loss of resistance to pressure on the plunger of the
syringe, a slight clicking sensation may be felt by the operator as the tip
of the needle breaches the ligamentum flavum and enters the epidural
space. Practitioners commonly use air or saline for identifying the
epidural space. However, evidence is accumulating that saline is
preferable to air, as it is associated with a better quality of analgesia and
lower incidence of post-dural-puncture headache.[2][3] In addition to the
loss of resistance technique, realtime observation of the advancing
needle is becoming more common. This may be done using a portable
ultrasound scanner, or with fluoroscopy (moving X-ray pictures).[4]
After placement of the tip of the needle into the epidural space, a
catheter is often threaded through the needle. The needle is then
withdrawn over the catheter. Generally the catheter is inserted 46 cm
into the epidural space.[5] The catheter is typically secured to the skin
with adhesive tape or dressings to prevent it becoming dislodged.
The catheter is a fine plastic tube, through which anaesthetics may be
injected into the epidural space. Many epidural catheters have a blind
end but have three or more orifices along the shaft near the distal tip (far
end) of the catheter. This not only disperses the injected agents more
widely around the catheter, but also reduces the incidence of catheter
blockage.
Sagittal section of the spinal column

(not drawn to scale). The spinal cord
(yellow core) is in intimate contact
with the pia mater (blue). The
arachnoid (red) exists superficial to
the pia mater, and is attached to it by
many trabeculae, giving it a spiderlike appearance. This space (light
blue) is filled with cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF) and is called the subarachnoid
space. Superficial to the arachnoid is
the dura mater (pink) and although
they are unattached, they are kept
firmly pressed against one another
because of pressure exerted by the
CSF. Superficial to the dura mater is a
space (pale green), known as the
epidural space, that exists between it
and the internal surfaces of the
vertebral bones and their supporting
ligamentous structures. This space is
likewise pressed closed by
surrounding tissue pressure, so it is
called a 'potential' space. The
vertebral bones (taupe) are attached to
one another by the interspinous
ligaments (teal).
Choice of agents A person receiving an epidural for pain relief may receive local anaesthetic, an opioid, or
both. Common local anaesthetics include lidocaine, mepivacaine, bupivacaine, ropivacaine, and chloroprocaine.
Common opioids include morphine, fentanyl, sufentanil, and pethidine (known as meperidine in the United
States). These are injected in relatively small doses, compared to when they are injected intravenously. Other
agents such as clonidine or ketamine are also sometimes used.
Bolus or infusion?
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For a short procedure, the anaesthetist may introduce a single dose of medication (the "bolus" technique). This
will eventually dissipate. Thereafter, the anaesthetist may repeat the bolus
provided the catheter remains undisturbed. For a prolonged effect, a continuous
infusion of drugs may be employed. There is some evidence that an automated
intermittent bolus technique provides better analgesia than a continuous infusion
technique, though the total doses are identical.[6][7][8]
Level and intensity of block Typically, the effects of the epidural block are
noted below a specific level on the body. This level may be determined by the
anaesthetist. A high insertion level may result in sparing of nerve function in the
lower spinal nerves. For example, a thoracic epidural may be performed for
upper abdominal surgery, but may not have any effect on the perineum (area
around the genitals) or pelvic organs.[9] Nonetheless, giving very large volumes
into the epidural space may spread the block both higher and lower.
Epidural infusion pump with
opioid (sufentanil) and
anesthetic (bupivacaine) in a
locked box
The intensity of the block is determined by the concentration of local anaesthetic

solution used. For example, 0.1% bupivacaine may provide adequate analgesia
for a woman in labour, but would likely be insufficient for surgical anaesthesia.
Conversely, 0.5% bupivacaine would provide a more intense block, likely
sufficient for surgery.
Removing the catheter

The catheter is usually removed when the subject is able to take oral pain medications. Catheters can safely
remain in place for several days with little risk of bacterial infection,[10][11][12] particularly if the skin is
prepared with a chlorhexidine solution.[13] Subcutaneously tunneled epidural catheters may be left in place for
longer periods, with a low risk of infection or other complications.[14][15][16]
Special situations
Epidural analgesia during childbirth
Epidural analgesia provides rapid pain relief in most cases. It is more effective than nitrous oxide, opioids,
TENS, and other common modalities of analgesia in childbirth.[17] Epidurals during childbirth are the most
commonly used anesthesia in this situation. The medication levels are very low to decrease the side effects to
both mother and baby. When in labor the mother does not usually feel pain after an epidural but they do still feel
the pressure. Women are able to bear down and push with contractions.[18] Epidural clonidine has been
extensively studied for management of analgesia during labour.[19] Epidural analgesia is a relatively safe
method of relieving pain in labour. In a 2011 Cochrane review which included 38 randomized controlled studies
involving 9658 women, wherein all but five studies compared epidural analgesia with opiates, epidural
analgesia in childbirth was associated with the following advantages and disadvantages:[20]
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Advantages
Disadvantages
More use of instruments to assist with the
birth
Better pain relief than other pain medication

Fewer babies needing naloxone to counter opiate
use by the mother
Decreased maternal hyperventilation and increased
oxygen supply to baby
Decreased circulating adrenocorticotropic hormone
and decreased fetal distress [21]
Increased risk of Caesarean section for fetal

distress
Longer delivery (second stage of labour)
Increased need for oxytocin to stimulate
uterine contractions
Increased risk of very low blood pressure
Increased risk of muscular weakness for a
period of time after the birth
Increased risk of fluid retention
Increased risk of fever
However, the review found no difference in overall Caesarean delivery rates, nor were there effects on the baby
soon after birth. Also, the occurrence of long-term backache was no different whether an epidural was or was
not used.[20]
Though complications are rare, some women and their babies will experience them. Some side effects for the
mother include headaches, dizziness, difficulty breathing and seizures. The child may experience slowed
heartbeat, temperature regulation issues and there could be high levels of drugs in the babies system from the
epidural.[22]
Differing outcomes in frequency of Cesarean section may be explained by differing institutions or their
practitioners: epidural anaesthesia and analgesia administered at top-rated institutions does not generally result
in a clinically significant increase in caesarean rates, whereas the risk of caesarean delivery at poorly ranked
facilities seems to increase with the use of epidural.[23]
Regarding early or late administration of epidural analgesia, there is no overall difference in outcomes for firsttime moms in labour.[24] Specifically, the rate of caesarean section, instrumental birth, or duration of labour is
equal, as well as baby Apgar scores and cord pH.[24]
Epidurals (other than low-dose ambulatory epidurals[25]) preclude maternal movement, but "walking,
movement, and changing positions during labor help labor progress, enhance comfort, and decrease the risk of
complications."[26]
One study concluded that women whose epidural infusions contained fentanyl were less likely to fully
breastfeed their infant in the few days after birth and more likely to stop breastfeeding in the first 24 weeks.[27]
However, this study has been criticised for several reasons, one of which is that the original patient records were
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not examined in this study, and so many of the epidural infusions were assumed to contain fentanyl when
almost certainly they would not have.[28] In addition, all those who had received epidural infusions in this study
had also received systemic pethidine, which would be much more likely to be the cause of any effect on
breastfeeding due to the higher amounts of medication used via that route. If this were the case, then early
epidural analgesia which avoided the need for pethidine would be expected to improve breastfeeding outcomes
rather than worsen them. Traditional epidural for labour relieves pain reliably only during first stage of labour
(uterine contractions till cervix is fully open). It does not relieve pain as reliably during the second stage of
labour( passage of the fetus through the vagina).
Epidural analgesia after surgery

Epidural analgesia has been demonstrated to have several benefits after surgery, including:
Effective analgesia without the need for systemic opioids.[29]
The incidence of postoperative respiratory problems and chest infections is reduced.[30]
The incidence of postoperative myocardial infarction ("heart attack") is reduced.[31][32]
The stress response to surgery is reduced.[31][33]
Motility of the intestines is improved by blockade of the sympathetic nervous system.[31][34]
Use of epidural analgesia during surgery reduces blood transfusion requirements.[31]
Despite these benefits, no survival benefit has been proven for high-risk individuals.[35]
Caudal epidural analgesia

The caudal approach to the epidural space involves the use of a Tuohy needle, an intravenous catheter, or a
hypodermic needle to puncture the sacrococcygeal membrane. Injecting local anaesthetic at this level can result
in analgesia and/or anaesthesia of the perineum and groin areas. The caudal epidural technique is often used in
infants and children undergoing surgery involving the groin, pelvis or lower extremities. In this population,
caudal epidural analgesia is usually combined with general anaesthesia since most children do not tolerate
surgery when regional anaesthesia is employed as the sole modality.
Combined spinal-epidural techniques

For some procedures, the anaesthetist may choose to combine the rapid onset and reliable, dense block of a
spinal anaesthetic with the post-operative analgesic effects of an epidural. This is called combined spinal and
epidural anaesthesia (CSE). The practitioner may insert the spinal anaesthetic at one level, and the epidural at an
adjacent level. Alternatively, after locating the epidural space with the Tuohy needle, a spinal needle may be
inserted through the Tuohy needle into the subarachnoid space. The spinal dose is then given, the spinal needle
withdrawn, and the epidural catheter inserted as normal. This method, known as the "needle-through-needle"
technique, may be associated with a slightly higher risk of placing the catheter into the subarachnoid space.
Epidural steroid injection

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Epidural steroid injection may be used to treat radiculopathy, radicular pain and inflammation caused by such
conditions as spinal disc herniation, degenerative disc disease, and spinal stenosis. Steroids may be injected at
the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, or caudal/sacral levels, depending on the specific area where the pathology
(disease, condition, or injury) is located.
Side effects
In addition to blocking the nerves which carry pain, local anaesthetic drugs in the epidural space will block
other types of nerves as well, in a dose-dependent manner. Depending on the drug and dose used, the effects
may last only a few minutes or up to several hours. Epidural analgesia typically involves using the opiates
fentanyl or sufentanil, with bupivacaine or one of its congeners. Fentanyl is a powerful opioid with a potency 80
times that of morphine and side effects common to the opiate class. Sufentanil is another opiate, 5 to 10 times
more potent than Fentanyl. Bupivacaine is markedly toxic if inadvertently given intravenously, causing
excitation, nervousness, tingling around the mouth, tinnitus, tremor, dizziness, blurred vision, or seizures,
followed by depression: drowsiness, loss of consciousness, respiratory depression and apnea. Bupivacaine has
caused several deaths by cardiac arrest when epidural anaesthetic has been accidentally inserted into a vein
instead of the epidural space.
Sensory nerve fibers are more sensitive to the effects of the local anaesthetics than motor nerve fibers. This
means that an epidural can provide analgesia while affecting muscle strength to a lesser extent. For example, a
labouring woman may have a continuous epidural during labour that provides good analgesia without impairing
her ability to move. If she requires a Caesarean section, she may be given a larger dose of epidural local
anaesthetic.
The larger the dose used, the more likely it is that side effects will be evident. For example, very large doses of
epidural anaesthetic can cause paralysis of the intercostal muscles and thoracic diaphragm (which are
responsible for breathing), and loss of sympathetic nerve input to the heart, which may cause a significant
decrease in heart rate and blood pressure. This may require emergency intervention, which may include support
of the airway and the cardiovascular system.
The sensation of needing to urinate is often significantly diminished or even abolished after administration of
epidural local anaesthetics and/or opioids. Because of this, a urinary catheter is often placed for the duration of
the epidural infusion. People with continuous epidural infusions of local anaesthetic solutions typically
ambulate only with assistance, if at all, in order to reduce the likelihood of injury due to a fall.
Large doses of epidurally administered opioids may cause troublesome itching, and respiratory
depression.[36][37][38][39]
Complications
These include:
failure to achieve analgesia or anaesthesia occurs in about 5% of cases, while another 15% experience
only partial analgesia or anaesthesia. If analgesia is inadequate, another epidural may be attempted.
The following factors are associated with failure to achieve epidural analgesia/anaesthesia:[40]
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Obesity
Multiparity
History of a previous failure of epidural anaesthesia
History of regular opiate use
Cervical dilation of more than 7 cm at insertion
The use of air to find the epidural space while inserting the epidural instead of alternatives
such as saline or lidocaine
Accidental dural puncture with headache (common, about 1 in 100 insertions[41][42][43]). The epidural
space in the adult lumbar spine is only 3-5mm deep, which means it is comparatively easy to cross it and
accidentally puncture the dura (and arachnoid) with the needle. This may cause cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
to leak out into the epidural space, which may in turn cause a post dural puncture headache (PDPH). This
can be severe and last several days, and in some rare cases weeks or months. It is caused by a reduction in
CSF pressure and is characterised by postural exacerbation when the subject raises his/her head above the
lying position. If severe it may be successfully treated with an epidural blood patch (a small amount of
the subject's own blood given into the epidural space via another epidural needle which clots and seals the
leak). Most cases resolve spontaneously with time. A change in headache pattern (e.g., headache worse
when the subject lies down) should alert the physician to the possibility of development of rare but
dangerous complications, such as subdural hematoma or cerebral venous thrombosis.[44]
Delayed onset of breastfeeding and shorter duration of breastfeeding: In a study looking at breastfeeding
2 days after epidural anaesthesia, epidural analgesia in combination with oxytocin infusion caused women
to have significantly lower oxytocin and prolactin levels in response to the baby breastfeeding on day 2
postpartum, which means less milk is produced. In many women undergoing epidural analgesia during
labour oxytocin is used to augment uterine contractions.[45]
Bloody tap (occurs in about 1 in 30-50).[46] It is easy to injure an epidural vein with the needle. In people
who have normal blood clotting, it is extremely rare (estimated less than 0.07%) for permanent
neurological problems to develop.[47] However, people who have a coagulopathy may be at risk of
epidural hematoma.
Catheter misplaced into a vein (uncommon, less than 1 in 300). Occasionally the catheter may be
misplaced into an epidural vein, which results in all the anaesthetic being injected intravenously, where it
can cause seizures or cardiac arrest[48][49] in large doses (about 1 in 10,000 insertions[43]). This also
results in block failure.
High block, as described above (uncommon, less than 1 in 500).
Catheter misplaced into the subarachnoid space (rare, less than 1 in 1000). If the catheter is accidentally
misplaced into the subarachnoid space (e.g. after an unrecognised accidental dural puncture), normally
cerebrospinal fluid can be freely aspirated from the catheter (which would usually prompt the anaesthetist
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to withdraw the catheter and resite it elsewhere). If, however, this is not recognised, large doses of
anaesthetic may be delivered directly into the cerebrospinal fluid. This may result in a high block, or,
more rarely, a total spinal, where anaesthetic is delivered directly to the brainstem, causing
unconsciousness and sometimes seizures.
Neurological injury lasting less than 1 year (rare, about 1 in 6,700).[50]
Epidural abscess formation (very rare, about 1 in 145,000).[50] Infection risk increases with the duration
catheters are left in place, although infection was still uncommon after an average of 3 to 5 days'
duration.[51]
Epidural haematoma formation (very rare, about 1 in 168,000).[50]
Neurological injury lasting longer than 1 year (extremely rare, about 1 in 240,000).[50]
Paraplegia (1 in 250,000).[52]
Arachnoiditis (extremely rare, fewer than 1000 cases in the past 50 years)[53]
Death (extremely rare, less than 1 in 100,000).[52]
The figures above relate to epidural anaesthesia and analgesia in healthy individuals.
Evidence to support the assertion that epidural analgesia increases the risk of anastomotic breakdown following
bowel surgery is lacking.[34][54]
Controversial claims:
"epidural anaesthesia and analgesia significantly slows the second stage of labour". The following are a
few plausible hypotheses for this phenomenon:
The release of oxytocin, which stimulates the uterine contractions that are needed to move the child
out through the vagina, may be decreased with epidural anaesthesia or analgesia due to factors
involving the reduction of stress, such as:
Epidural analgesia may reduce the endocrine stress response to pain[55]
Diminished release of epinephrine from the adrenal medulla slows the release of
oxytocin[56]
Diminished blood pressure, accommodated by both decreased stress and less adrenal release,
may decrease the release of oxytocin as a natural mechanism to avoid hypotension.[57] It may
also affect the heart-rate of the fetus.[58]
Still plausible (though less studied without a documented reproduction in a laboratory setting) are the
effects of the reclined position of the woman on the fetus, both immediately prior to and during delivery.
These hypotheses generally posit an interaction with the force of gravity on fetal position and
movement, as demonstrated by the following examples:
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Transverse or posterior fetal positioning may become more likely as a result of the shift in
orientation to gravitational force.
Diminished gravitational assistance is present in building pressure for commencing delivery
and for progressing the fetus along the vagina.
It is important to note that the orientation of the fetus can be established by ultrasonic stenography
prior to, during, and after the administration of an epidural block. This would seem a fine
experiment for testing the first hypothesis. It should also be noted that the majority of fetal
movement through the vagina is accomplished by cervical contractions, and so the role of gravity
and its force relative to the position of the woman in labour (on delivery, not development) is
difficult to establish.
There has been a good deal of concern, based on older observational studies, that women who have
epidural analgesia during labour are more likely to require a cesarean delivery.[59] However, the
preponderance of evidence now supports the conclusion that the use of epidural analgesia during labour
does not have a significant effect on rates of cesarean delivery. A Cochrane review of twenty trials
involving a total of 6534 women estimated that women undergoing labour using epidural analgesia were
only slightly more likely (1.07 times as likely) to undergo cesarean delivery than those in whom epidural
analgesia was not used.
Epidural analgesia does increase the duration of the second stage of labour by 15 to 30 minutes and may
increase the rate of instrument-assisted vaginal deliveries as well as that of oxytocin administration.[60][61]
Some people have also been concerned about whether the use of epidural analgesia in early labour increases the
risk of cesarean delivery. Three randomized, controlled trials showed that early initiation of epidural analgesia
(cervical dilatation, <4 cm) does not increase the rate of cesarean delivery among women with spontaneous or
induced labour, as compared with early initiation of analgesia with parenteral opioids.[62][63][64]
History
In 1885, American neurologist James Leonard Corning (18551923), of
Acorn Hall in Morristown, NJ, was the first to perform neuraxial
blockade, when he injected 111 mg of cocaine into the epidural space of
a healthy male volunteer[65] (although at the time he believed he was
injecting it into the subarachnoid space).[66]
In 1921, Spanish military surgeon Fidel Pags (18861923) developed
the technique of "single-shot" lumbar epidural anaesthesia,[67] which
was later popularized by Italian surgeon Achille Mario Dogliotti (1897
1966).[68]
Fidel Pags visiting injured soldiers at

the Docker Hospital in Melilla in
1909.
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In 1941, Robert Andrew Hingson (19131996) and Waldo B. Edwards developed the technique of continuous
caudal anaesthesia using an indwelling needle.[69] The first use of continuous caudal anaesthesia in a labouring
woman was in 1942.[70]
In 1947, Manuel Martnez Curbelo (19061962) was the first to describe placement of a lumbar epidural
catheter.[71]
References
1. "Epidural Steroid Injections" (http://www.painmanagementsb.com/services/epidural/). Pain Management Specialists.
2. Norman D (2003). "Epidural analgesia using loss of resistance with air versus saline: does it make a difference? Should
we reevaluate our practice?". AANA J 71 (6): 44953. PMID 15098532
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15098532).
3. Beilin Y, Arnold I, Telfeyan C, Bernstein HH, Hossain S (2000). "Quality of analgesia when air versus saline is used for
identification of the epidural space in the parturient". Reg Anesth Pain Med 25 (6): 5969. doi:10.1053/rapm.2000.9535
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1053%2Frapm.2000.9535). PMID 11097666 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11097666).
4. Rapp HJ, Folger A, Grau T (2005). "Ultrasound-guided epidural catheter insertion in children". Anesth Analg 101 (2):
3339, table of contents. doi:10.1213/01.ANE.0000156579.11254.D1
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1213%2F01.ANE.0000156579.11254.D1). PMID 16037140
5. Beilin Y, Bernstein HH, Zucker-Pinchoff B (1995). "The optimal distance that a multiorifice epidural catheter should be
threaded into the epidural space". Anesth Analg 81 (2): 3014. doi:10.1097/00000539-199508000-00016
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1097%2F00000539-199508000-00016). PMID 7618719
6. Lim Y, Sia AT, Ocampo C (2005). "Automated regular boluses for epidural analgesia: a comparison with continuous
infusion". Int J Obstet Anesth 14 (4): 3059. doi:10.1016/j.ijoa.2005.05.004
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijoa.2005.05.004). PMID 16154735 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16154735).
7. Wong CA, Ratliff JT, Sullivan JT, Scavone BM, Toledo P, McCarthy RJ (2006). "A randomized comparison of
programmed intermittent epidural bolus with continuous epidural infusion for labor analgesia". Anesth Analg 102 (3):
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11. Kostopanagiotou G, Kyroudi S, Panidis D, Relia P, Danalatos A, Smyrniotis V, Pourgiezi T, Kouskouni E, Voros D
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194901000-00002). PMID 18105827 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18105827).
Further reading
Boqing Chen and Patrick M. Foye, UMDNJ: New Jersey Medical School, Epidural Steroid Injections:
Non-surgical Treatment of Spine Pain, eMedicine: Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation (PM&R),
August 2005. Also available online (http://www.emedicine.com/pmr/topic223.htm).
Leighton BL, Halpern SH (2002). "The effects of epidural analgesia on labor, maternal, and neonatal
outcomes: a systematic review" (http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/a121813). Am J Obstet
Gynecol 186 (5 Suppl Nature): S6977. PMID 12011873
Zhang J, Yancey MK, Klebanoff MA, Schwarz J, Schweitzer D (2001). "Does epidural analgesia prolong
labor and increase risk of cesarean delivery? A natural experiment". Am J Obstet Gynecol 185 (1): 128
34. doi:10.1067/mob.2001.113874 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1067%2Fmob.2001.113874). PMID 11483916
External links
Epidurals for pain relief in labour
(http://www.gesundheitsinformation.de/a-z-list.130.56.en.html)
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What Is An Epidural Headache? - Epidural Headaches Explained (http://www.epidural.net/what-is-anepidural-headache.htm)
MedlinePlus Encyclopedia (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/patientinstructions/000484.htm)
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The term epidural (from Ancient Greek

1 Difference from spinal

Epidural - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Difference from spinal anaesthesia

Epidural - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Epidural - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Procedures involving injection of any substance into the epidural space

Sagittal section of the spinal column

Epidural - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The intensity of the block is determined by the concentration of local anaesthetic

Removing the catheter

Epidural - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Better pain relief than other pain medication

Increased risk of Caesarean section for fetal

Epidural - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Epidural analgesia after surgery

Caudal epidural analgesia

Combined spinal-epidural techniques

Epidural steroid injection

Epidural - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Epidural - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Epidural - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Epidural - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Fidel Pags visiting injured soldiers at

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Epidural - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(https://dx.doi.org/10.1097%2F00000539-199804000-00007). PMID 9539589

Epidural - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

brasileira de anestesiologia 57 (2): 125135. PMID 19466346 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19466346).

Epidural - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

esophagectomy". Anesth Analg 101 (5): 15217. doi:10.1213/01.ANE.0000184287.15086.1E

Epidural - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Epidural - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Epidural - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

194901000-00002). PMID 18105827 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18105827).

Wikimedia Commons has

Comprehensive information with women's stories informedhealthonline.org, Accessed July 2, 2009.

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