UOP Flanges

Training Services
Flanges
EDS-2004/FL-1
Purpose
Introduce the common types and uses of flanges,

outline the methods to select or design a flange
for a given application, describe some of the
common reasons for flange leakage, and outline
methods for correcting leakage.
EDS-2004/FL-2
The purpose of this presentation is to discuss the common types of flanges and
gaskets used in refineries and petrochemical plants. Included is the means used to
select an appropriate standard flange for a given service. The means of designing a
flange for circumstances where a standard flange cannot be used are briefly
introduced. The presentation closes with a discussion of the common causes of and
corrections for leakage problems.
Outline
Introduction
Standards
Materials
Flange Selection
Flange Facings
Gaskets
Finishes
Flange Design
Leakage Causes and Correction
EDS-2004/FL-3
The presentation will cover the applicable Standards encountered in the

determination of a flange class, materials in terms of product form, specified
dimensions of a flange, flanged connection components with their associated
tolerances, flange design basis criteria, and some common causes of flange leakage
and proposed solutions.
Flanged Joint
A flanged joint connects piping or equipment by

means of bolting, allowing easy disassembly and
assembly (e.g., valves, instruments, manways)
The joint provides a seal against the contained
fluid at design conditions
Fluid molecule size plays a role (e.g., water is much

bigger than hydrogen)
A flanged joint is composed of three components -flanges, gasket, and bolts

Performance is influenced by another factor,
assembly of the joint
Because of their cost and the potential for leaks,
use flanges only when absolutely necessary
EDS-2004/FL-4
The flexibility of a flanged connection comes with a price. The joint is subject to
leakage. Providing a seal while maintaining flexibility is the goal of the system
design. Fluid molecule size is a factor in determining the difficulty of sealing a
joint. It is more difficult to achieve adequate joint tightness to prevent leakage of
material with a small molecule size. For example, hydrogen services are common
in hydrocarbon processing plants, but are very difficult to seal due to the small size
of the hydrogen molecule. Because of leakage concerns (either initially or during
service), the use of flanged joints is limited to locations where the ability to easily
disassemble the joint is important. Other joints are welded.
The contained fluid may be a vapor or a liquid. The design considerations are
nearly the same.
Flanged Joint
(continued)
The gasket provides the seal, bolts provide the forces

necessary to seat the gasket and hold the joint together,
flanges provide the surfaces for the gasket to seal
against and carry the applied forces around the gasket.
The joint allows for easy disassembly and reassembly
of piping or removal of components (e.g., valves and
instruments).
Because of their cost and the potential for leaks, use
flanges only when absolutely necessary.
EDS-2004/FL-5
The gasket provides the seal against the contained fluid. Seating of the gasket
involves compressing the gasket so it flows and fills the flange face surface
imperfections without being crushed. The resulting seal must be maintained
throughout the operating cycle when internal pressure is attempting to separate the
flange faces and find a leak path between the gasket and the flange. In elevated
temperature services, differential thermal expansion of the joint components and the
time dependent effects of creep conspire to create leaks by reducing the forces
holding the flanges together. Proper assembly techniques must be observed and
alignment of the flange faces must be maintained throughout the operating cycle.
Connection by means of bolting allows a joint to be easily and quickly taken apart
to accommodate access for installation, removal, maintenance, inspection, or
disassembly of a vessel, piping system, or piece of equipment. Examples include
vessel manways (for access), valves or expansion joints (for removal or
replacement), filters or strainers (to allow removal of the internal element(s)), and
unloading nozzles (to allow removal of the vessel contents such as catalyst).
Stud Bolts
with Hex Nuts
Gasket
Flange
Gasket Compressible material providing the seal

Bolts Provide the force to compress the gasket and form the seal
Flange Transmits the force from the bolts to the gasket (must not
distort or deflect)
PPF-R00-01
EDS-2004/FL-6
A joint consists of two flanges, one on each side of a gasket, and bolts used to
squeeze the assembly together. The squeezing force comes from tightening the
bolts, which applies force to the opposing flanges. The flanges must remain,
essentially, ridged in order to transmit the forces evenly to the gasket surface(s).
The gasket is then compressed to provide and maintain the seal.
A flanged joint is composed of these three separate and independent, although
interrelated, components. Proper controls must be exercised in the selection and
application of all three elements to attain a joint which has, and maintains, an
acceptable leak tightness.
Stud bolts and hex nuts are, by far, the most common bolting configuration. For
cast iron flanges, which tend to be brittle, machine bolts are often used because they
will fail (break) before the flange
Flanges
Flanges may be uniquely designed or selected

from standardized designs in a recognized
document giving dimensions and pressure
temperature capacities
Design methods or standards referenced must
be in accordance with the governing code
EDS-2004/FL-7
The flanged system can be uniquely designed for a specific application or selected
from industry recognized and accepted standardized code compliant designs.
The existence of localized stresses, stress concentrations, and discontinuity stresses
of a relatively high order in all pressure equipment is well known. The code
accounts for localized stresses by using compensating factors in the design formulas
for stress.
Standard Flanges
Flanges from accepted standards have a

proven record of widespread safe, reliable use
They are economical because standardized
dimensions allow vendors to tool up for
efficient production
Everyone uses the same basis and benefits
from economies of scale
Users may obtain flanges easily and quickly,
and need only stock a limited number of
varieties
EDS-2004/FL-8
Standardized design avoids the costs and delays associated with customized design
and fabrication. Standardized flanges should be used whenever possible. Unique
designs are reserved for instances where standard designs are inadequate, e.g.
limiting clearance constraints or sizes and design conditions outside of the scope of
the available standards. Many flange fabricators have their own standard flanges.
Taylor Forges large diameter Class 175 and Class 350 flanges are examples. The
fabricator has the necessary dies and equipment to efficiently produce these flanges,
which are not covered by industry standards. These flanges must be checked to
insure that they are adequate for the intended service, but significant cost and
delivery time savings can be realized if they can be used. Similarly, flanges with
industry standard dimensions, but non standard materials, may be suitable. Again,
the design must be reviewed for adequacy but, if acceptable, the flange can be
easily made with existing dies, etc.
Code compliance assures consistent safe engineering practice.
Referenced Standards
The following standards are referenced by the Pressure
Vessel Code (ASME Section VIII) and the Process Piping
Code (ASME B31.3)
ASME B16.5, Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings

Covers flanges from nominal pipe size to 24 inches
(12 inches for Class 2500)
Most commonly used standard for refinery and
petrochemical plant flanges
ASME B16.42, Ductile Iron Pipe Flanges and

Flanged Fittings Classes 150 and 300
Used for many ASME pumps (usually in nonhazardous service)
EDS-2004/FL-9
ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) Section VIII, Division 1,

Pressure Vessels, governs the design and fabrication of the majority of all refinery
equipment.
ASME B31.3, Process Piping, is the document to which the majority of the piping
in a petroleum refinery or chemical plant is designed and fabricated.
Flanges must either comply with one of the industry standards incorporated into the
applicable Code, or be uniquely designed in accordance with that Code. In most
cases, the applicable Code references the design rules/methods in ASME Section
VIII, Division 1, Appendix 2 when a special design is necessary.
ASME B16.5 is referenced for flange selection by both Section VIII, Division 1 and
B31.3.
Class 2500 flanges are for use in very high pressure service and have an upper size
limit of 12". The concept of flange classes will be discussed later.
Referenced Standards
(continued)
ASME B16.47, Large Diameter Steel Flanges

Covers flanges from 26 to 60 inches, in Classes 150
through 900
Range of included materials is more limited than in
B16.5 (e.g., few nonferritic materials such as Inconel)
ASME B16.20, Metallic Gaskets for Pipe Flanges Ring - Joint, Spiral - Wound, and Jacketed
Unlike its predecessor, API 601, it does not specify

default materials.
ASME B46.1, Surface Texture (Surface Roughness,

Waviness, and Lay)
EDS-2004/FL-10
The scope of ASME B16.47 begins where B16.5 ends. B16.47 covers a more
limited range of materials than B16.5 (i.e., no high alloys such as Inconel). Two
styles are included. Series A flanges are similar to flanges built to MSS-44, a
standard often applied to pipelines. They are designed for connection to relatively
thin piping and are limited to a maximum temperature of 450F. Series A flanges
may also be found on valve bodies intended for process services. Series B flanges
follow the basis used for B16.5 (and the old API 605) and are used for
refinery/petrochemical services. Series B is generally more compact than Series A.
It is important to note that Series A and Series B flanges are incompatible, i.e., they
cannot be bolted together.
The edition of each referenced document that is specified (i.e., accepted) by the
governing Code must be used. The referenced edition may not be the most recent
edition.
B16.20 is the standard covering the majority of gasketing used with B16.5 flanges.
These are the gaskets commonly found in refineries and petrochemical plants.
B16.20 includes gasket dimensions, materials, marking requirements, etc.
B46.1 is referenced in B16.5 and B16.47 and defines the flange face surface finish
specifications and tolerances.
Obsolete Reference Standards
API 601, Metallic Gaskets For Raised - Face

Pipe Flanges and Flanged Connections
(Double - Jacketed Corrugated and Spiral
Wound) replaced by ASME B16.20.
API 605, Large Diameter Carbon Steel

Flanges replaced by ASME B16.47.
EDS-2004/FL-11
Both of these are obsolete and are not maintained. These have been replaced by
B16.20 and B16.47 respectively.
Scope of ASME B16.5
Materials
Pressure - Temperature Ratings
Dimensions
Tolerances
Marking
Testing
EDS-2004/FL-12
Subject areas of B16.5 include acceptable flange materials, pressure-temperature

ratings for flange class determination, tables of standardized dimensions (based
upon flange class), tolerances associated with different components of a flange,
required code compliant marking, and the testing required for flanges.
Materials for B16.5
Permissible flange materials are listed

in Table 1A, bolting materials in Table 1B
Flange materials are organized into groups
of materials with similar compositions and
mechanical properties
Ratings are based upon the material in each
group with the lowest allowable stress
EDS-2004/FL-13
Materials tables have been grouped to provide compatible flanged joint ratings for
materials likely to be used together.
Groups frequently have more than one material covered in a respective group.
With ratings based on the material in the group with the lowest allowable stress,
ratings for some materials within a group are conservative.
Material type is also dependent on product form: forging, casting, or plate.
Materials for B16.5

(continued)
Bolt materials are divided into three groups

based upon strength
High strength (e.g., A193 B7 or B16) may always
be used
Intermediate strength (e.g., A193 B8 Class 2)
may be used, provided it has the ability to
maintain a sealed joint
Low strength (e.g., A307 and A193 B8 Class 1) is
limited to Class 150 and Class 300 flanges and
certain gaskets
Stud bolts with 2 nuts are typically used

EDS-2004/FL-14
Bolts must have adequate strength to be able to both seat the gasket and maintain a
seal for the specific application throughout the operating cycle.
Low strength bolts are used in the lower Class flange applications, which are
generally lower temperature and pressure operating conditions.
Stainless steel bolts are avoided because of low yield strength and high thermal
expansion.
Stud bolts, or bolts without heads and threaded over their full length, are used
because they are less expensive and can be safer. A nut is used on each end. Two
nuts on each end, tack welding of the nuts, or spiking (damaging of the bolt
thread just outside of the nut) of the thread may be used to prevent backing off or
loosening of the nuts when vibration is a concern. Bolt engagement must be enough
so that at least two threads show outside of the nut to ensure full engagement.
Otherwise, the bolt may project any distance beyond the nut and either nut may be
engaged first, either before or after the bolt is inserted through the bolt hole from
either direction. Either nut may be tightened to stress the bolt This provides more
flexibility in assembly than a headed bolt. Headed bolts are normally used only
with studding flanges (see slide 38) where use of a nut on both ends of the bolt is
impossible. Even there, a stud bolt with one nut could be used.
Materials for B16.5

(continued)
Flanges may be either forged or cast

Forged flanges are preferred due to a lower
likelihood of flaws or brittle material
Cast flanges are usually provided as an integral
part of cast valves and other components
In forged and cast construction, the grain tends
to be non-directional or circumferential, limiting
the potential for large cross grain stresses
EDS-2004/FL-15
Forged flanges are generally considered to be a higher quality product. Cast

material can have inclusions or imperfections that can affect material properties,
even leading to brittle (sudden) failure. They are permitted as part of valves and
other complex components because casting is the accepted (and cost efficient)
method of producing these components, including integrated flanges. Rather than
weld a separate flange to the component, the flanges are included in the casting.
Welding would be more costly, would impose the potential problems found at
welds, may require heat treatment, and would often increase the flange face to
flange face length of the component,
Materials for B16.5

(continued)
Only blind and certain reducing flanges (those

without hubs) may be made from plate
One reason is that a flat plate closely approximates
a blind flanges shape (e.g., there is no raised hub)
Another reason is that the directional nature of the
grain in these flanges is not a serious additional
concern because there will be cross grain bending
stresses in blind flanges regardless of how the grain
is oriented
EDS-2004/FL-16
Although plate material is listed in ASME B16.5, there are severe limitations placed
upon its use. It is rarely acceptable to make a flange out of plate material.
Flange Classes
Flanges are organized into classes for identification

Classes used by B16.5 are:
Class 150
Class 300
Class 400
Class 600
Class 900
Class 1500
Class 2500
EDS-2004/FL-17
Classes provide an easy method to identify categories of flanges. The dimensions

of each size of flange within each class are standardized.
The design pressure and temperature for the flange form the required rating. The
rating is used to determine the applicable flange class.
Flange class and flange rating are not the same. An example of a flange class is the
designation Class 300. An example of a rating is 250psi at 300F. A rating of
Class 300 is meaningless.
Flange Classes
(continued)
Class 150 flanges are lightly built and are often

avoided, especially when imposed loads (e.g.,
from piping) or cyclic loads are present
Class 150 flanges are not used above a design
temperature of 700F because they may tend to
deform or creep, possibly opening and leaking
Class 400 (and sometimes Class 900) flanges are
usually avoided because valves and fittings are
not commonly available for them
EDS-2004/FL-18
Class 150 flanges are typically used in low temperature and pressure service where
their light weight construction is suitable. They are not suitable for cyclic services
or where large imposed loads are present. They are inexpensive and very
commonly used in refineries and petrochemical plants.
Use of Class 400 may be acceptable for systems that do not contain valves or other
components not available in the classification. Consider, however, the need to
stock a few Class 400 flanges for these lines. It is often cost efficient to use Class
600 even for these instances to avoid the need to have rarely used spare flanges,
gaskets, and bolts in the warehouse. As a practical matter, these spares will
probably not be found if and when they are needed.
Flange Classes
(continued)
A rating table is provided for each material group

For a given material group, temperature, and nonshock pressure, the table indicates the appropriate
flange class
Each size flange in each class is built to a standard
set of dimensions
EDS-2004/FL-19
Ratings are the maximum allowable non-shock working gage pressure at the design
temperature for the applicable material. The appropriate flange class is the class
with a pressure rating at the design temperature that is greater than the design
pressure.
Note that B16.5 and B16.47 each have their own set of rating tables. Although
these tables are normally identical, there may be differences - especially just after
one documents tables have been revised. It is possible for a different flange class
to be required for the same design conditions because of this difference in the
selection tables.
B16.5 Rating Considerations
Ability to withstand stresses necessary to seat the

gasket
Special attention is required for some Class 150

and Class 300 flanges with spiral wound gaskets
Adequate thickness to sustain the stresses due to

pressure and other loadings necessary to maintain
a fluid seal
Distortion due to loadings is transmitted through
the piping or bolting
EDS-2004/FL-20
Gasket seating is the application of sufficient force to deform the gasket, causing it
to flow into and fill imperfections in the flange surface. The characteristics of the
gasket and the flange, i.e., hardness and roughness, must be matched to efficiently
produce a seal and not deform the flange.
During operation, the forces on the gasket are reduced due to the effects of the
internal pressure. Enough force must remain to prevent the internal fluid from
flowing between the gasket and the flange, i.e., leaking.
As previously mentioned, deformation of the flange itself will affect the ability to
produce and maintain a seal. The flange must remain stiff and undistorted.
Use of B16.5 Rating Tables
Determine the applicable group for the

material used (Table 1A)
Determine the design temperature and
pressure (including hydrostatic head)
that apply
EDS-2004/FL-21
Material group determination includes consideration of the chemical composition

and the product form.
Pressure can be considerably different at different locations in a vessel considering
liquid head and pressure drops. Temperature can also vary throughout a piece of
equipment .
Use internal pressure (or the external pressure applied as an internal pressure).
External pressure is not a concern because it tends to increase gasket seating forces
(and/or reduce the bolt force) and does does not pry the flange open as much as
internal pressure.
If determination of the required flange class considers a reduced design temperature
for uninsulated flanges, as permitted by the Piping Code (B31.3), the affected
flanges must be clearly identified. Future insulation of these flanges is restricted or
prohibited.

(continued)
Enter Table 2 and determine a flange class with

a pressure rating equal to or greater than the
design pressure for the applicable material and
temperature
Check the flange for hydrotest conditions
(including hydrostatic head) with a maximum
permitted pressure of 1.5 times the 100F rating
rounded up to next multiple of 25 psi
EDS-2004/FL-22
The allowance of a hydrotest maximum permitted pressure of 1.5 times the 100oF
(ambient) rating is based on the fact that this is a short-term loading condition, and
the material properties are in the elastic range.
Excluding the effects of hydrostatic head, hydrotest is not intended to govern the
design of a flange. Determination of the test pressure involves the same allowable
stress ratio (1.5) used to determine the required flange rating for hydrotest.
Hydrostatic head may occasionally result in hydrotesting governing the required
class.
Section 2.5 of ASME B16.5 states;
Flanged joints and flanged fittings may be subjected to system hydrostatic
tests at a pressure not to exceed 1.5 times the 100F rating rounded off to the
next higher 25 psig. Testing at any higher pressure is the responsibility of
the user, subject to the requirements of the applicable code or regulation .
Section 8.3 requires flanged fittings to be tested at a minimum pressure of 1.5 times
the pressure rating at 100F, rounded up to the next multiple of 25 psig.

(continued)
If the flanges are made of different materials,

both must be checked
The highest resulting flange Class governs

both flanges
Interpolation is permitted between the listed

temperatures
EDS-2004/FL-23
Be sure to consider both flanges used in the system - the metallurgy's may differ.
One example is a thermowell connection. The thermowell assembly, including the
flange, is usually made as one piece using stainless steel. The flange may be paired
with a low chrome or carbon steel flange on the vessel. The required flange class
for both metallurgy's must be checked, and the greater class used. This may be a
different class than is necessary for the remainder of the vessel!

(continued)
Flanges used to be designated by Pound

rather than Class (e.g., 600 Pound).
Previously, this referred to the pressure
capacity of a carbon steel flange at 850F
(500F for 150 Pound).
This is no longer true; therefore, the word
Class is used and, except as noted below, the
number is only an identifier.
EDS-2004/FL-24
The pound designation has a historical origin based on the empirical testing
method development that equated a class with a certain allowable pressure at a
standardized reference temperature.

(continued)
Rating table pressures for Class 300 and above

are based upon the formula:
PT = PR x SI / 8750 PC
where:
PT = rated pressure (psi)

PR = Class (e.g., 300 for Class 300)
SI = material allowable stress at
temperature (psi), determined
from the rules in Annex D of
B16.5
PC = ceiling pressure per Annex D of
B16.5
EDS-2004/FL-25
The allowable stresses used are not exactly as listed in other Codes (e.g., B31.3 or
Section VIII).

(continued)
Rating table pressures for Class 150 comply

with the formula on the previous slide, except
use 115 for PR and limit PT to 320 - 0.3T (T =
temperature in F)
B16.5 ratings originated with experience and
were essentially empirical
Recently (1996), the ratings have been revised
to agree more closely with the formulas
EDS-2004/FL-26
Class 300
Temperature - Pressure Ratings
Material
Temp
(F)
2 Cr - 1 Mo (psi)
321 S.S.
(psi)
100
200
300
400
500
750
750
730
705
665
720
645
595
550
515
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
EDS-2004/FL-27
For each respective material, as the temperature increases, the allowable stress
decreases and, accordingly, the allowable pressure (pressure-temperature rating)
decreases. This trend of a decreasing allowable stress with an increasing
temperature is the same for both materials. However, the magnitude of the decrease
is different and dependent on the respective material composition and mechanical
properties. Different materials have different capacities at the same temperature.
Note that, below the creep range, the allowable pressure for stainless steel flanges
declines more rapidly than for low alloy (or even carbon steel) flanges. This is
because stainless steel is softer and more ductile than most other materials, hence, it
may be more easily deformed and leak.
Class 300
PPF-R01-02
EDS-2004/FL-28
This figure illustrates the decline in allowable pressure with temperature in a

graphical form.
Stainless steel ratings are generally lower than for many other materials.
Example
Material
SA182 - F11 class 2 (1 Cr - Mo)
Design Pressure
PD = 400 psig
Design Temperature
1000F
Allowable Stress (per the Pressure Vessel
Code)
@ 1000F
SH = 6,300 psi
@ ATM.
SC = 20,000 psi
Use Class 600 Flange
EDS-2004/FL-29
A182-F11 Class 2; Low Chrome (1-1/4 Cr - 1/2 Mo) Forging material -- Use ASME
B16.5 material group No. 1.9 to select the required flange class.
Allowable stresses at temperature are taken from the governing Code, in this case,
the ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code, Section II, Part D - Properties; Table
1A, Maximum Allowable Stress Values S for Ferrous Materials. Allowable stress
values are used for the check of hydrotest conditions.
Check for Hydrostatic Test Pressure

PT = ( 1.3 ) PD
PT = ( 1.3 ) 400
SC
SH
20,000
6 ,300
PT = 1,650 psi < 2 ,250 psi

1,500 * 1.5
Allowable Pressure @ Ambient
EDS-2004/FL-30
The purpose of the hydrotest is to confirm the adequacy of the piece of equipment
for the service conditions by performing the test at an inflated (elevated) pressure
and ambient conditions. The objective is to get to a similar relative stress level (i.e.,
stress vs allowable stress) as that seen during operation (which has a higher design
temperature and lower design pressure), in a controlled, safe, test environment at
the low temperature ambient conditions. At the higher design temperature, the
material has a lower allowable stress. At the ambient test conditions, the material
has a higher allowable stress which is used to adjust the pressure to approach the
relative stress level present at operating conditions.
Flange Material:
A B C , SA182-F11 class 2 (1 Cr - Mo)
D , SA182-F316 (16 Cr-12 Ni-2 Mo)
B
A
Design Pressure: PD = 850 psi

Design Temperature: T = 850F
Allowable Stress (per the Pressure Vessel Code):
A182-F11 @ 850F : SH = 18,700 psi
@ ATM. : SC = 20,000 psi
A182-F316 @ 850F : SH = 11,600 psi
@ ATM. : SC = 20,000 psi
For A & B, Use Class 600
For C & D, Use Class 900
PPF-R00-03
EDS-2004/FL-31
A182-F11 Class 2; Low Chrome (1-1/4 Cr Mo) Forging material -- Use ASME
B16.5 material group No. 1.9 for selection of the required flange class.
Allowable stresses at temperature are taken from the ASME Boiler & Pressure
Vessel Code, Section II, Part D - Properties; Table 1A, Maximum Allowable Stress
Values S for Ferrous Materials.
A182-F316; Stainless Steel Forging material -- Use ASME B16.5 material group
No. 2.2 for selection of the required flange class.
The class of the low chrome flange C is increased to match the Class 900 required
for the mating stainless steel flange D. By itself, the pressure-temperature rating of
the low chrome flange C for Class 600 would be acceptable. In this case, the higher
resulting flange class of the mating flanges governs both flanges. This is necessary
so that the bolt size and locations for the two flanges match, and the sealing surfaces
and gasket requirements are compatible.
PT = (1.3) PD
SA 182-F11
PT = (1.3) 850 x
SC
SH
20,000
18,700
PT = 1,182 psi < 2,250 psi
EDS-2004/FL-32

(continued)
SA 182 - F 316
PT = (1.3) 850
20,000
11,600
PT = 1,905 psi < 3,250 psi

2,160 * 1.5
Allowable Pressure @ Ambient
EDS-2004/FL-33
Flange Types
Integral Flanges (flange is part of or buttwelded

to the piping or vessel so the system acts as an
integral structure)
Welding neck
Long welding neck
Integrally reinforced
Ring
Studding
Specialty joints such as exchanger closures
EDS-2004/FL-34
This classification covers types of construction where the flange is integral (i.e.,
part of the same piece) with the neck or vessel wall, butt-welded to the neck or
vessel wall, or attached to the neck or vessel wall by any other type of welded joint
that is considered to be the equivalent of an integral structure. In welded
construction, the neck or vessel wall is considered to act as a hub. The whole
system acts as one.
Integral Flanges
Welding Neck
Weld Neck
Ring
PPF-R00-04
EDS-2004/FL-35
Welding neck is the most common type of an integral flange. They are designed so
that the outside diameter at the junction to the pipe matches the outside diameter of
the joining pipe. The inside diameter must be specified. They are used where
joining to a pipe.
Ring weld is a ring butt-welded onto the end of a pipe. This is typically used only
in low pressure service.
Integral Flanges
(continued)
Long Welding Neck
PPF-R00-05
EDS-2004/FL-36
Long welding neck flanges are usually dimensioned by their inside diameter. The
outside diameter varies with their wall thickness. They are one piece nozzles that
provide much of the required reinforcement for the vessel opening in their neck.
Because their dimensions do not match those of standard pipes, they are not suitable
for welding to a pipe. They are normally welded to the vessel and used where
control of the inside diameter is important. Two examples are manways and small
nozzles through which instruments are inserted. They can use a constant ID and a
varying OD because they do not attach to a pipe, hence they do not need to match a
pipes OD.
Integral Flanges
(continued)
Allow room for

the nuts on the
bolts (bolts are
removed through
the mating flange)
Integrally Reinforced
PPF-R01-06
EDS-2004/FL-37
These flanges have a thick nozzle neck. The reinforcement for the vessel opening is integral
to the flange. The reinforcement is provided by thickening the nozzle neck, sometimes to a
greater dimension than the outside diameter of the flange itself! The thick hub makes them
unsuitable for connection to piping. Therefore, they are dimensioned by their inside
diameter for the same reason as a long welding neck flange, and welded directly to the
vessel.
Integral reinforcement is preferred over built-up pad reinforcement for several reasons:
The reinforcement is concentrated near the nozzle/shell junction, where local stresses
are at their maximum
The reinforcement is one piece, stresses and forces do not transfer from piece to piece
across welds
There are far fewer welds to make. Welds are costly, are prone to flaws, create
residual thermal stresses, create heat affected zones with related metallurgical
concerns, and can cause warpage of the joined pieces.
There is no flange to pipe weld. This weld would be in a high stress zone caused by
the flange rotation and local stresses , as the bolts are tightened.
On the other hand, integral nozzles are machined from a large forging, itself an expensive
undertaking
Flared Nozzle
R
Weld
PPF-R00-94
EDS-2004/FL-38
Often a flare is provided at the base to move the vessel/nozzle weld away from the stress
concentration zone at the junction of the shell and nozzle. This places the stress
concentrations due to geometry and stresses due to welding at different locations. The detail
also allows a contoured, controlled junction geometry to be more easily provided because
the transition is part of the forging, not the weld. Additionally, the flared detail provides
the needed clearance to adequately radiograph the welded joint.
Although a clearly better detail than a conventional integral nozzle, flared nozzles
are more costly than conventional integral nozzles. The differential becomes
greatest when the flared portion extends beyond the flanged portion. This requires
an increase in the initial forging size and additional machining to arrive at the
required geometry.
UOP uses the flared detail in high temperature services (i.e., the creep range of the
material) where differing stresses and creep rates may redistribute (and concentrate)
stresses to the weld. Significant cracking has been detected in services such as
catalytic reforming. Flared nozzles are also used in high pressure, heavy wall
(greater than 4 inches (100 mm)) services. Here the stresses are high and its
difficult to ensure the proper material properties throughout the thickness. The
ability to radiograph the joint is also important. Cyclic or fatigue services are
another instance where UOP uses a flared nozzle detail.
Integral Flanges
(continued)
Studding
PPF-R01-07
EDS-2004/FL-39
These flanges set into a vessel head or shell where clearance is critical. The design
allows for compact installation applications. They are dimensioned by their inside
diameter.
This type of flange allows a low projection from the mating vessel shell. Often this
design includes the nozzle reinforcement as part of the flange. When determining
the flange dimensions to provide sufficient opening reinforcement, the effect of the
bolt holes must be considered because they project into the area providing the
reinforcement.
A danger with this type of nozzle is that the bolt engagement is within the flange
and is not visible. Use of a short, or wrong diameter, bolt is not visually apparent.
A flange failure due to insufficient thread engagement is possible. When stud bolts
are used with a through bolted flange, a short bolt is easily seen. A small diameter
stud bolt may be seen by comparison with the bolt hole. If the bolt size is still
adequate, nuts of the proper size may be used and the bolt will be fully engaged and
will work. The thread size in a studded outlet cannot be adjusted to fit a bolt of the
wrong size (e.g., only the tip of the threads may be engaged).
UOP uses studded outlets only where there is a severe space or clearance problem
in a low pressure service (e.g., CCRs).
Flange Types
Loose Flanges (no direct attachment between

the flange and piping or vessel, does not act as
one integral structure)
Slip-on
Lap joint
Blind Flanges (closures)
Flat, solid discs used to close an opening (e.g., a

manway cover). Generally thick because they
are flat, spanning the opening like a beam,
developing through thickness bending moments
EDS-2004/FL-40
Loose flanges cover types of flanged construction where there is no direct

attachment between the flange and the pipe, neck, or vessel wall and where the
means of attachment between the flange and pipe, neck, or vessel wall is not
considered to be equivalent to an integral structure. In these cases, the pipe, neck,
and/or vessel wall has less influence upon the response of the flange to applied and
pressure loadings than in an integral design.
Loose Flanges
Vent
Slip-on
Lap Joint
PPF-R01-08
EDS-2004/FL-41
A lap joint flange rests on the lap or stub of the piping. Slip-ons slide onto the end
of a pipe and are welded to the pipe, usually after the flanges are bolted together.
Slip-ons provide some ability to adjust the axial location of the flange. They are
limited to low pressure, non-hydrogen, services with no applied moments or forces.
Both types of flange may be rotated in place so that the bolt holes of the mating
flanges line up. This is not possible with welded in place welding neck flanges
(unless the butt welds are made insitu).
Types of Flange Facing

Flat Face
Inexpensive
Used with a full face gasket in low
temperature/pressure services
Easily sealed (i.e., containment of
large molecules), non-dangerous, noncyclic services that require low bolt
loads and sealing pressures
ASME non-process pumps and
utilities such as cooling water are
examples
PPF-R00-09
EDS-2004/FL-42
This style of flange may be used in refineries for low pressure utility lines and low
pressure/temperature process services where ASME pumps are acceptable. This is
especially true when the pumps are cast iron, which tends to be brittle. Flat face
flanges and full face gaskets are used to reduce the imposed bending moment
stresses by moving the bolt force and resultant gasket force closer together.
Tightening of the bolts is likely to deflect the flange surfaces towards each other.
This causes a non-uniform application of load to the gasket, possibly interfering
with the ability to seat and/or seal the gasket. If the deflected flanges contact each
other, a portion of the bolt forces will transfer directly from one flange to another
without further seating/sealing the gasket.
The large gasket surface area, coupled with the limited force available from the
bolts, means that the gasket seating/sealing stress that can be achieved is limited.
Therefore, these flanges are not applicable for gasket systems requiring high
seating or sealing forces.

Tongue and Groove
Mating flanges are different - one

with a 3/16 inch recess, the other
with a inch raised portion
The gasket is confined on both
edges and partially protected from
the internal environment
The projecting sealing surface is
subject to damage
Reduced bolt load when compared
to raised face, due to the smaller
gasket area
PPF-R00-10
EDS-2004/FL-43
The gasket is contained in the mating flanges groove. A potential detriment to this
type of flange facing is that the small protruding portion on one of the flanges can
be subject to damage during handling, reducing or destroying the ability to
subsequently effect a seal.

Male-Female
Similar to tongue and groove

except the gasket is confined
only against blowout
The sealing surface is not
protected from the internal
environment
Projecting portion is larger and
less likely to be damaged than
on the tongue and groove style
PPF-R00-11
EDS-2004/FL-44
Blowout is the internal pressure force that directionally acts to push the gasket
radially outward. Although the projecting portion of the flange is much sturdier
than on the tongue and groove type, it can still be damaged. Even a radial scratch
will affect sealing.

Lap Joint
Stub end fitting
Allows use of a different metallurgy

for the flange than for the piping
Is not welded
Avoid in cyclic or services other than
low pressure
Compensates for some misalignment
Limit to low temperature services to
avoid differential thermal expansion
problems
Sealing may be more difficult
because the flange and sealing
surface (stub) are independent
PPF-R00-12
EDS-2004/FL-45
Because the flange rests on the lap (stub end) of the piping, it does not see the
internal service fluid. This potentially allows different materials to be used for the
flange and pipe/stub. The flange may be a lower grade of material (e.g., low
chrome) that is acceptable for the temperature and pressure, but not the internal
atmosphere. A higher grade piping material (e.g., Inconel) is required because it is
directly exposed to the corrosive environment. Very significant cost savings can be
realized in these cases if this style of flange is acceptable.
Lap joint flanges are limited to low pressure, non-cyclic services where there are no
external loads. These flanges are subject to severe distortion because the end of the
hub is not restrained.
Distortion or flange rotation under imposed loads or during gasket seating is likely
and can reduce the seating and sealing pressures on the gasket, leading to leakage.
Differential thermal expansion between the flange and the pipe can also pose a big
problem. The differential expansion may be due to differing coefficients of thermal
expansion between the two materials, and/or differing temperatures because the
flange and stub are not directly connected, thereby limiting heat transfer.

Slip-On
Vent
Allows adjustment of the flange

position(s) in situ
Must be double welded and vented
Not used above Class 150 (except
for manways and some reducing
flanges) or 500F
Not used in hydrogen atmospheres
and cyclic services
PPF-R02-13
EDS-2004/FL-46
The enclosed space between the flange and the pipe must be vented to relieve any trapped
vapor. The vapor may come from gasses released during welding, or may gather from
diffusion of the contained materials through the pipe or weld into the open space between
welds. There, it can combine into molecules too large to get out. Hydrogen is a prime
example of this phenomenon. If not vented, the trapped gas can crack the welds. Hydrogen
accumulation may also cause blistering and hydrogen embrittlement.
The system depends upon a couple of fillet welds to hold it together and prevent leakage
between the flange and the pipe. Thermal stresses, piping movements, and the
forces/moments developed when the flange is bolted together can damage, even break, one
or both of the welds, permitting leakage, and/or rotation of the flange, reducing the gasket
sealing forces also leading to leaks.
UOP restricts the use of slip-on flanges to Class 150 in low temperature (<500F), noncyclic, non-hydrogen, services that are not subject to severe corrosion or external loads and
do not require postweld heat treatment due to process or material characteristics. This is
because of their poor fatigue life, potentially large distortions and internal stresses, and
susceptibility to thermal cracking at the fillet weld attachments due, in part, to the stress
concentrations at the notch at the edges of the fillet welds. Externally applied loads are also
a concern because a pair of fillet welds does not provide the smooth stress flow or
dependability of a butt weld. The fillet welds are also small, limited by the pipe and flange
hub thicknesses, and subject to stress concentrations, undercuts, and cracking at the inside
base. This area cannot be inspected, backgouged, or ground. Inspection of the fillet welds
is difficult at best. Cracking or internal corrosion cannot be seen.

Ring Joint
The gasket is confined within

grooves provided in the mating
flange faces
Historically used for high pressure,
high temperature services, or
aggressive operating conditions
Expensive
PPF-R02-14
EDS-2004/FL-47
Most commonly used in very severe or aggressive service. The confined gasket
will not be displaced by high internal pressures, and tends to be self sealing. A
higher internal pressure forces the gasket more tightly against the outer portion of
the groove, increasing the seal at that point. Because of their infrequent, specialty
use (requiring stocking of a few flanges and gaskets not generally used in the plant),
the drawbacks and other points noted on the following slides, and experience that
shows other flange and gasket styles (notably raised face with spiral wound gaskets)
are as safe and reliable, ring joints are being specified and used less frequently.
Still, some refiners mandate their use because of their self sealing characteristics
and their intrinsic resistance to blow out.
Ring joint flanges are expensive. Both flanges must be machined to create the
grooves in the respective flange. The grooves in mating flanges must align with
each other. The height of the raised portion of the flange must be such that the
groove does not project into the portion of the flange relied upon to carry the
imposed stresses.
Unlike male and female and tongue and groove flanges, both mating flanges are
identical.
Ring Joint Flanges
The seal is provided by pressure against the sides

of the groove (the gasket does not contact the
bottom of the groove)
Two narrow sealing surfaces are formed, one on
each side of the groove, with very high imposed
stresses
One sealing surface is protected from the internal
atmosphere and possible corrosion
The sealing surfaces are small and sheltered,
protecting them from damage (e.g., when the
flange is open(ed) during a turnaround)
EDS-2004/FL-48
The seating surfaces for the gasket are small, resulting in very high seating
pressures (high unit load per surface area). The gasket seals along a line on either
side of the groove. An added advantage is that the outside sealing surface is
isolated from the possibly damaging effects of the internal atmosphere (e.g.,
corrosion). The recessed groves are also less likely to be damaged when the flange
is exposed or handled, although foreign material (e.g., dirt, moisture) can gather in
them and must be thoroughly removed before the flange is closed. Cleaning is
necessary for any flange; it is even more critical for ring joints. Because of the
small, narrow, sealing surface, debris or damage (e.g., scratches) on the surface will
have an even greater effect. The gaskets are typically a soft metal material (e.g.,
iron) suitable for the internal atmosphere.
Good resulting seal with applications for hydrogen service and high pressure
service.
Ring Joint Flanges

(continued)
Internal pressure tends to increase the sealing

pressure on the outside of the gasket
Due to flange distortion during operation, the
groove, and the gasket contained in it, may
become non circular
The gasket cannot then be (easily) replaced with a

new one
Grooves have flat bottoms

Flat is used to insure the gasket touches only where
desired
Groove dimensions are standardized in B16.5 and
identified by a groove number
EDS-2004/FL-49
The gasket behaves like a self actuated gasket. In other words, higher contained
pressures increase the gasket seal by pressing the gasket against the side of the
groove.
During regular service, flanges tend to distort, even on a small scale, which can be a
maintenance concern causing difficulty replacing the gasketing.
Ring Joint Flanges

(continued)
A generous radius (1/8 inch or 3mm) is provided at

the intersection of the flat bottom and the sloped
sides to prevent initiation of a crack
Where differential expansion occurs, do not use
for flanges over 10 inch NPS
Very sensitive to scratches in the sealing area of
the grooves
Grooves must be machined into the flange an
additional cost
Grooves of mating flanges must match each other
and the gasket
EDS-2004/FL-50
The junction of the groove side and bottom is a discontinuity which results in stress
concentrations. The junction is susceptible to cracking, with cracks observed to
extend deep into the flange body. UOP specifies a larger radius for the corners of
the groove than is required by B16.5 to reduce the stress intensification at this
location.
Different mating flange materials thermally expand at different rates, offsetting the
grooves and setting up a shearing of the gasketing. The limitation on flange size
(10-inch) keeps the magnitude of the differential movement within acceptable
bounds.
Because of the very small width of the sealing surface (little more than a wide line),
and the fact that ring joints are most frequently used for elevated pressure systems,
even a small scratch can allow leakage around the gasket.
As noted earlier, the flange must be thick enough that the groove depth does not
infringe upon the portion of the flange considered to be carrying the stresses. This
may require a thicker flange than necessary for other types of flange facings.
Another potential concern is that small amounts of process fluid may remain in the
groove, a potentially dangerous situation when the flange is opened.

Raised Face
The sealing surface is raised 0.06 inch

(1mm) for Class 150 and Class 300
flanges and 0.25 inch (6 mm) for
other flanges
Raised faces help prevent contact of
the flange edges due to rotation from
high bolt loads
The most common type of facing in
refineries
The sealing surface is exposed and
susceptible to damage when opened
during a turnaround
PPF-R00-15
EDS-2004/FL-51
Raised face flanges are the most common type of refinery/petrochemical flange. The
protruding portion of the flange is the raised face. There are standard dimensions to the
raised faces and the associated tolerances are specified in B16.5.
The raised face concept arose from the rotation problem discussed for flat faced flanges.
Using a raised, or protruding, sealing surface moved the flange extremities, where the bolt
forces are applied, further apart. If the flange did deform a bit, the increased separation kept
the flanges from coming into contact. The raised face also adds a bit more metal to the
flange, increasing its bending stiffness.
Flanges with raised faces are extensively used because of their simplicity of design and they
are adequate for average and most severe services. Gasket replacement is simple because
the gasket rests on the flat, raised surface. It does not need to fit into a groove, which may
become distorted, or otherwise align with any features of the flanges. Another useful
feature is that the two flanges are identical, they are not a matched pair. This eases the
warehousing problem.
In a few instances, a groove has been machined into one of the flanges into which a thicker
gasket was placed. The idea is to provide gasket confinement or retention, as well as a
somewhat self actuating performance. This has been viewed as a safety enhancement.
Unlike tongue and groove or male/female flanges, there is no projecting portion of the
flange to be damaged by handling. On the other hand, the flanges are no longer identical,
the gasket has to be thicker, and it cannot have inner or outer stiffening rings. The thicker
gasket is more compressible and more difficult to seal. All in all, this design has not
achieved wide usage. The gasket styles normally used provide blow out resistance,
eliminating the grooves perceived benefit.
Specialty Types
Generally developed to make the joint smaller

and lighter
Normally proprietary and, therefore, more
expensive
May be less tolerant of mis-alignment and
applied forces
Components are matched and may not be
interchangeable
EDS-2004/FL-52
Because of the added cost and the need to stock non standard components in the
plant warehouse, specialty flanges are used only where they provide a significant
advantage. Two of the most common uses are where space and access are limited,
requiring either a smaller flange or a different joining (bolting) method than is used
for the typical flange, and for systems requiring rapid assembly and disassembly.
Specialty Types
(continued)
Examples are:
Dur O Lok
Uses a coupling style system with a self
energized gasket
Graylock
Clamping style system using two clamps
with the bolts oriented parallel to the
piping diameter
EDS-2004/FL-53
There are many other types of specialty flanges.
DUR O LOK Couplings
Changing the Load Path Reduces Size

and Eliminates Leaks
10-1/2" Dia.
4-3/4" Dia.
Small offset in load

path and multi-grooved
couplers insure positive
gasket seal and consistent
assembly dimensions
under all conditions.
Large offset in load

path leads to leakage
under stress, temperature
changes and bolt
relaxation.
Load path through a bolted flange.
Load path through DUR O LOK coupling.
Three Inch Class 300 Joint
PPF-R01-16
EDS-2004/FL-54
A full encirclement multiple-groove design distributes the holding force around the entire
pipe perimeter without excessive stress concentration. The load path through the flange is
nearly straight, minimizing the bending imposed on the system. The offset bolting used for
standard flanges creates large internal bending loads.
The compact design reduces cross-sectional area by 60% compared to flanges -- twice as
many lines can fit in same rack space
Weight is as little as one-tenth that of a standard flange, saving material, transportation, and
support costs.
Boltless, threadless design means pipelines can run close to walls or to each other because
wrench swing room is not a factor. Assembly and disassembly is faster and easier.
Good for low pressure drop services and catalyst transfer (there is no inner lip to create
catalyst fines). Also good to reduce the turbulence caused by the internal ledges of
conventional flanges.
The components are supplied as a matched set and may not be interchangeable.
With Dur-O-Lok flanges, the piping must be assembled with a near perfect fit because it is
not possible to use the bolts to pull or bend the system into alignment. They are also not
suitable where external loads and moments are imposed.
Dur-O-Loks are currently available through 20-inch NPS. Larger flanges are possible, but
the manufacturer is not set up to make larger flanges.
DUR O LOK Couplings
Tapered
Retaining Ring
Split Coupler
Lock Device &
Assembly Prover
Hub
Seal Cavity
PPF-R00-17
EDS-2004/FL-55
The smooth interior surface with no lips, edge, or burrs prevents damage to catalyst
during transport, prevents leaks in liquid service.
The interlocking grooves transmit forces evenly across the seal cavity to provide
dimensional stability.
DUR O LOK Couplings
Tapered
Retaining Ring
Hub
Self energized Seal
Split Coupler
Seal Cavity
Multiple Matched Grooves
Split Coupler
Lock Screw Groove
Hub
PPF-R00-18
EDS-2004/FL-56
This Dur-O-Lok Coupling has a simple, 7-part (counting the locking device)
assembly process. A standard ASME flange has bolts, each with a nut on each end,
two flanges, and a gasket. The Dur-O-Lock assembly process is easier than a
standard flange - there is no concern with the order or amount of bolt tightening.
The self energizing seal uses the internal pressure to add to the sealing force. Orings are used for low temperatures (up to about 450F) and a proprietary design is
used for more elevated temperatures.
Grayloc Assembly
Seal Ring
(Install Prior
to Start-Up)
Grayloc Clamp Half (Typical)

Bolting Centerline 4-Places (Typical)
Grayloc Hub
beveled for
attachment to
piping
Temporarily Installed Gasket Plate.

Do not remove until welding of hubs
to piping is completed and seal rings
are ready to be installed. (Save for
future use.)
"O" Ring
Valve
Grayloc
Hub
Studbolt (Typical)
Studbolt Nut
PPF-R04-19
EDS-2004/FL-57
The hubs are clamped together and then bolted. This design uses far fewer bolts
than a standard flange. The bolts are oriented perpendicular to the pipe axis. The
standard flange bolt orientation is parallel to the pipe axis. As with the Dur-O-Lok,
this is an easy system to assemble and disassemble, and it requires less space than a
traditional flange. There must, however, be bolt removal clearance perpendicular to
the pipe, and the two sides of the connection cannot be pulled into alignment by the
bolting process.
Gaskets
Gaskets create a static seal between two members

of an assembly and maintain the seal during
operating conditions that may fluctuate
The seal is provided by gasket material flowing
into imperfections in the mating surfaces
The force to effect the seal is provided by the
bolting compressing the gasket
EDS-2004/FL-58
Gaskets are the component of a flanged joint that provides the seal against leakage.
Compression of the gasket is introduced by bolt-up of the flange, causing the gasket
to flow and fill the irregularities in the flange surface. This is called seating the
gasket. The force must not be too high, however, because it can crush the gasket.
The compressive force is applied perpendicular to the face of the gasket. The
gasketing flow characteristics and the amount of force/stress needed to seat the
gasket are dependent on the gasketing material.
Gaskets
(continued)
Sufficient initial force is necessary to deform the gasket

into the imperfections, thus seating the gasket
For gasket design, the necessary compressive stress
depends upon the gasket style and materials and is
called Y
Sufficient force must be present during operation to
maintain the seal against the internal pressure,
preventing leakage
For gasket design, the required ratio of gasket
compressive stress to internal pressure depends upon
the gasket style and materials and is called M
EDS-2004/FL-59
Different types and styles of gaskets have unique flow characteristics. The force to
seat the gasket is the stress in pounds per square inch required to compress or
deform and flow the gasket material. Sufficient force must also be maintained
during operation to seal against internal pressure. The magnitude of this net force is
quantified by a ratio termed M as described above. The stress on the gasket will
be reduced during operation because the internal pressure tends to try to force the
flanges apart. Resisting this force uses some of the force imposed by the bolts,
leaving less available to compress the gasket.
Gaskets
(continued)
Y and M have no theoretical basis but are empirical,

developed from experience.
Gasket material must be suitable for the temperatures,
pressures, and environment to which it is exposed.
Gasket filler material was asbestos, now its generally
graphite or, sometimes, Teflon or another non-asbestos,
compressible material. Teflon is generally used in acid
services below 400 F.
EDS-2004/FL-60
Asbestos was used for years in nearly all services. Asbestos has excellent resistance
to nearly every conceivable refinery atmosphere and flowing stream content and is
suitable for use at all temperatures encountered in these plants. However, in the
past 10 or 15 years, health concerns related to the inhalation of asbestos fibers have
reduced its use.
Graphite is now a commonly used filler material. It is inert in a reducing
atmosphere up to 3000F; however it has a limitation of 850F in an oxidizing
atmosphere.
Teflon is also resistant to the great majority to atmospheres in refineries, but it is
only good for low temperature service, up to about 450F.
Many other proprietary materials are available, most of which are tailored for a
specific application or set of circumstances. These materials are a complex
combination of components and binders and are not suitable for services outside of
those for which they were developed. If used in other services, they may fail very
rapidly.
Representative M and Y Values
Spiral Wound
Corrugated & Jacketed
Flat & Jacketed
Ring Joint
Flat Face
Asbestos
Elastomers
Metal
M
2.5 - 3
2.5 - 3.5
3.25 - 3.75
5.5 - 6.5
Y (psi)
10,000
2900 - 6500
5500 - 9000
18,000 - 26,000
2 - 3.5
1 - 2.75
4 - 6.5
1600 - 6500
400 - 3700
8800 - 26,000
EDS-2004/FL-61
Spiral wound gaskets are the most commonly used. Ring joints can be seen to
require a large seating force (Y) and must also maintain a large compressive
stress vs contained stress ratio. Because they are most often applied to high
pressure services, the large M value (5.5 - 6.5) means the sealing stress must also
be very high. This can may make it more difficult to maintain a seal during
operation when using a ring joint gasket than with other types of gasket. This is not
usually a concern because the required seating stresses (Y) are very high to begin
with and the sealing area is small, resulting in continuously high stresses.
Neither M nor Yvalues have theoretical standing, and those now in use are
based on practical experience and some formal experimentation.
Types of Gaskets
Flat Face
Metallic
Nonmetallic
Corrugated Metal
Covers most of the face to minimize flange rotation and

possible contact
Low seating stresses due to the large gasket area
Used only in limited, non-hazardous services
Nonmetallic gaskets are made of a suitable, compressible
material held together with a binder. Asbestos was common,
most are now proprietary materials
PPF-R00-20
EDS-2004/FL-62
Flat ring gaskets are widely used wherever service conditions permit because of the
ease with which they may be cut from flat sheets and installed. With a large seating
surface, the seating load is spread over a large area and, as a result, it is difficult to
obtain a high sealing pressure and solid seal. Therefore, these gaskets are used
for low pressure services and services where small leakage is not a hazard (e.g.,
water and air). They are also used where piping joins to an ASME pump (used only
in low pressure/temperature services) with a flat face flange.
Types of Gaskets
Jacketed and Filled
Jacketed
Double
Jacketed
Corrugated
Double Jacketed
This was the standard refinery gasket
Still common for large diameters and applications with more than
circumferential sealing surfaces
Soft compressible filler material is contained within a thin wrapper
Corrugations provide the seal, and a labyrinth leak path
PPF-R00-21
EDS-2004/FL-63
The outer wrapper on a jacketed gasket makes the gasket more rugged by
protecting the soft inner material from damage. It also provides some resistance to
blow out.
Corrugated jackets are more rugged than flat jackets because the deformations add
strength to the system. They also can provide a better seal because the sealing force
is concentrated at the peaks of the corrugations; it is not spread over the gross
surface of the gasket. The labyrinth path referred to means that it is a complex
path with a lot of twists and turns, difficult to pass through. If the fluid finds its
way past one corrugation, there is another waiting.
Jacketed gaskets, especially the corrugated style, require less seating force than
spiral wound gaskets.
This type of gasket is sometimes used in large diameter, often low pressure
applications, where a spiral wound gasket may tend to unravel or spring apart
during handling. The problem is particularly acute for vertical sealing surfaces.
When the spiral wound gasket is removed from its backing cardboard, its quite
unstable. For a horizontal sealing surface, the gasket can lie atop one of the flanges.
Regeneration Tower body flanges and large diameter access openings on FCC
Reactor and Regenerators are examples of where they are used. Jacketed gaskets
are also used for specialty exchanger gaskets, such as channel gaskets that also seal
at the baffle between passes. It would be difficult, if not impossible, to wind a
spiral wound gasket to include the diametrical piece.
Types of Gaskets
Kammprofile
A serrated metallic filler sandwiched between two layers of

sealing material
Upon bolt-up the sealing material deforms into and is held
by the serrations
Seal stress is concentrated at the peaks of the serrations,
while the valleys prevent the sealing material from flowing
Metallic filler can be reused
Becoming more popular, especially in Europe
PPF-R00-22
EDS-2004/FL-64
The serrated filler is fabricated of solid metal and has concentric grooves machined
into the faces. This greatly reduces the gasket contact area on initial tightening,
thereby reducing the total required bolt load.
The gasket material flows into the serrations of the metallic filler which holds the
gasket in place. Blow-out of this style gasket is nearly impossible, and no special
flanges (e.g., with grooves) are necessary. The assembly is mostly metal, hence it is
rugged and requires less careful handling than other gaskets. No grooves or
projections on the flange are necessary. The soft gasket material must be changed
each time the flange is opened.
Types of Gaskets
Self Actuated
Seal
Pressure
O-Ring
Seal
Seal
Pressure
K-Ring
Seal
Gaskets for which an increase in the pressure to be

contained increases the sealing pressure.
Examples are O-rings, K-rings, and to a lesser degree,
gaskets for ring joint flanges.
Gasket material must be soft and deformable.
Acceptable materials have low limiting temperatures
(200-400F).
PPF-R00-23
EDS-2004/FL-65
This the type of gasket used in the Dur-O-Lok coupling.

The seal with this style of gasket is based on the internal pressure. Internal pressure
deforms the gasket and seals it against the outside of the groove. The greater the
pressure, the greater the provided seal.
Self actuated gaskets must be changed every time the flange is opened because they
are soft and depend upon the ability to plastically deform. After use, they cannot be
reliably removed and then re-deformed into another, slightly different,
configuration to seal the flange again.
Types of Gaskets
Ring Joint
Ring joint gaskets are either oval

or octagonal (oval is preferred
because it works in the current
and old groove shapes)
Made of a variety of hard metallic
materials to avoid distortion
Must be compatible with the
internal atmosphere and softer
than the flange material
Must be no rougher than 63
microinch Ra
Hard to handle
PPF-R00-24
EDS-2004/FL-66
The rings are fabricated of solid metal, usually soft iron, soft steel, Monel, 4-6
percent chromium, or stainless steels. Oval rings will work in the current octagonal
grooves and the older oval grooves. Octagonal gaskets only work in octagonal
grooves.
The alloy steel rings must be heat treated to soften them. The gasket must be softer
than the flange material to insure that it is the gasket that flows and fills
imperfections, i.e., the gasket distorts upon use. The gasket can be replaced,
although they are frequently reused. One reason for reuse is that if the flange or
groove distorts during operation, the existing gasket (which also distorted) will
continue to provide a seal. A new gasket may not function as well because it may
not fit well into the distorted grooves. The second reason is that the gasket is made
of soft metal that is not crushed or strained well beyond its yield point as other
gasket materials and styles are. The gasket can, therefore, function as well on reuse
as the initial use.
The gaskets are wedged into the grooves in the flanges. They fit against the sides of
the groove and do not touch the bottom.
An internal ceramic rope is frequently provided to shield the gasket from the worst
of the internal atmosphere.
Types of Gaskets
Spiral Wound
Composed of alternating layers of compressible filler

material and metal rings wound in a spiral, forming a
labyrinth leak path sealed at the peaks
Most common type of gasket in refinery service
PPF-R00-25
EDS-2004/FL-67
The upper picture has an outer ring. The lower picture has an inner and an outer
ring.
The sealing portion of the gasket is formed by layers of thin metal windings, as
shown in the figures, alternating with the compressible gasket material.
Spiral wound construction creates a very difficult labyrinth leak path which gives
good sealing characteristics. The spiral metal windings greatly enhance the
resistance of the gasket to blow-out, to the point where it essentially never occurs.
They act to resist any inner pressure via circumferential tensile stress in the same
way a pressure vessel shell acts.
Spiral Wound Gaskets
Commonly used in refineries due to excellent

sealing performance through a wide range of
temperatures, pressures, liquid or gaseous
atmospheres (including hydrogen), and flange
finishes
Layers provide many sealing surfaces and a
labyrinth path in the direction of leakage
Forgiving to seal stress variations (e.g.,
overstress) and less prone to relax over time
EDS-2004/FL-68
Spiral wound gaskets are forgiving to flange surface finish variation and fit-up.
The metal windings stiffen the gasket (hence the higher required seating stresses)
and make it less susceptible to crushing than gaskets where the entire bolt load is
carried by the compressible gasket material.
There are few, if any, welds in the gasket assembly.

(continued)
Asbestos used to be the universal filler material

Filler materials are now commonly a non asbestos
material
Graphite and sometimes Teflon (for low
temperature applications) are the most common
Specialty materials are available for particular
conditions
Filler material must be specified for each gasket

(there is no default)
Windings are commonly 304 Stainless Steel
Must be compatible with the internal atmosphere

EDS-2004/FL-69
These gaskets are now specified in accordance with ASME B16.20. Up until the
early 1990s, API 601 governed gasket design and characteristics. Most API 601
requirements have been incorporated into ASME B16.20, so little was lost by the
change. One notable difference is that API 601 specified default materials. If
nothing else was called for, they were required. B16.20 does not have default
materials so the designer must be careful to call out the filler, winding, and ring
material for every gasket.
Type 304 stainless steel was the default winding material specified by API 601. It
is still the most common material and is recommended for general use. Type 316L,
or stabilized (Type 321 or 347) stainless steel may be required where sensitization,
and intergranular stress corrosion cracking, is a concern.
Graphite windings may be unsuitable for oxidizing atmosphere services over 800F
because the graphite dissolves. For spiral wound gaskets, consider using another
material, e.g., ceramic or mica, for the first few windings, where oxygen exposure is
possible. The remaining windings may then be graphite.
Specialty filler materials are often tailored for a specific type of application. They
may not work well, and may even be outright dangerous, in another service. They
are often a blend of a number of components, and sensitive to variations in the
proportions or quality of those materials.

(continued)
Gaskets have an outer ring for stability

By using the flange bolts as a guide, the outer ring
is used to center the gasket
The outer ring also helps resist blowout and acts
as a limit stop, preventing crushing of the outer
windings from overbolting
The outer ring is normally carbon steel, protected
against corrosion
EDS-2004/FL-70
Stability refers to handling for installation.

The outer ring aligns the gasket by fitting against the inside edge of the flange bolts.
As noted in the jacketed gasket discussion, handling of large spiral wound gaskets
can be difficult - they can spring apart and wobble around. Jacketed gaskets are
sometimes specified for large diameter, low pressure services.

(continued)
An inner ring is provided for additional (handling)

stability for large gaskets
An inner ring is also used to protect the flange
surface from corrosion due to the internal
atmosphere
Use the same material as for the windings
An inner ring is frequently used for Class 900 and
higher flanges to resist inner deflection and
possible gasket buckling due to the high bolt loads
present
The bolt load tends to squeeze the outer portion of

the gasket and push the gasket inward
EDS-2004/FL-71
As describer on slide 63, large diameter spiral wound gaskets are difficult to handle,
especially in a vertical orientation. An inner ring helps keep them from unraveling.
Use of a jacketed gasket is also often considered.
The inner ring also assists in maintaining the integrity of the ID of the gasket as the
flanges rotate about the outer edge of the gasket and tend to push the gasket inward.
It also provides additional gasket strength to resist blowout. For some filler
materials (e.g., Teflon), an inner ring may be required by the governing standard
(ASME B16.5).
Inner rings are also advisable when the mating flanges are different metallurgy's
with differing coefficients of thermal expansion. As the system heats and cools, the
differing movements may put the gasket into shear.
ASME B16.5 requires inner rings for some gaskets in high pressure services ( 24
inch Class 900, 12 inch Class 1500, and 4 inch Class 2500). UOPs criteria is to
provide an inner ring for all Class 900 and higher flanges.

(continued)
Graphite (and Teflon) filler materials act as

incompressible fluids as the flanges press upon
the gasket
As the gasket is squeezed, the filler material
presses outward into the windings and ring
This can cause bucking of the windings and a
failure of any gasket
Asbestos is a system of compressible fibers and
does not create radial forces as it is compressed
All winding and ring materials must be specified
(is no default)
EDS-2004/FL-72
When the bolts for high pressure flanges are tightened, the large forces present may
slightly deform the flanges and create a inward component of the force acting on the
gasket. As noted on the slide, an incompressible filler material, such as graphite or
Teflon, can lead to a similar problem. Asbestos, on the other hand, is a fibrous,
compressible, material. Compression of the gasket does not create radial forces on
the windings or ring.
The gasket inner ring needs to be checked to insure that this force will not damage
the gasket (i.e., buckle the inner ring). Outer rings, and even the windings, may also
be subject to buckling. This is the reason that, in high pressure service, the outer
ring often has a wavy (non-planar) appearance.
The inner ring and winding material must be compatible with the internal
atmosphere of the vessel or piping. As noted previously for the filler material,
ASME B16.20 does not specify default materials for the ring(s) and windings. The
designer must be careful to call them out. Often the outer ring is made of a low
alloy material (carbon steel if the temperature is below 1000F) because it is not
exposed to the internal atmosphere.

(continued)
Durable
Works with a wide range of fairly rough flange
finishes
Easily replaced because it rests upon a flat
surface and is less affected by flange distortions
Gaskets must be replaced each time the flange is
opened
EDS-2004/FL-73
Gaskets have standardized dimensions and tolerances specified in ASME B16.20 in

accordance with Classes compatible with ASME B16.5 (and B16.47).
Seating of the gasket yields the gasket materials. Parts may even be crushed. When
opened, the gasket does not return to its original dimensions or regain its original
elasticity. Therefore, it cannot be reliably reseated and must be replaced.
Flange Surface Finish
Surface finish is critical to the proper

performance of the flanged joint
Finish is provided by a cutting tool producing

serrated concentric or spiral grooves
Too rough or too smooth and the gasket will

not seal
Provide 45 - 55 grooves per inch
Surface finish is measured and designated

by Ra, an arithmetic average of the surface
roughness
EDS-2004/FL-74
The finish is the smoothness of the metallic surface of the flange face that mates
against the gasket. This is the sealing surface. The facing is both the sealing
surface finish and the geometry (e.g., ring joint grooves, tongue and groove, raised
face).
If the metallic surface is too rough, the peaks and valleys of that surface will be too
large for the gasket to deform or flow and fill for seating.
If the metallic surface is too smooth, the gasket deformations will be too large and
they will not match the surface deformations of the flange face. The gasket cannot
bite into the flange surface and may slide or be deformed inward by the bolt load.
A surface that is too smooth can be as bad, or worse, i.e., difficult to seal, than one
that is too rough. Spiral wound gaskets have been shown to be susceptible to this
problem.
B16.5 requires 45-55 grooves per inch so that a leak would have to pass at least 4555 grooves for a 1-inch wide gasket. The finish is produced by cutting small
concentric or spiral grooves, producing a series of peaks and valleys opposing a
radial leak. A lapping or back-and-forth method of finish production is not
acceptable because it produces some radial grooves, enhancing leakage.
Determination of Ra
Centerline The surface profile defines equal areas above

and below this line.
Ra Arithmetic average of the absolute values of the surface
profile deviations from the centerline.
Ra =
L
L 0
ydL
Y + Y2 + Y3 + Y4 + Y5 + ... YN
Ra (approx) = 1
N
1
PPF-R00-34
EDS-2004/FL-75
Ra is defined as Roughness Average and is intended to be a means of quantifying

the surface finish. Mathematically the area above and below the centerline (average
level of deformation) is equal. Ra is the absolute value of the surface profile
deviation from this centerline. In other words, it measures (characterizes) the
magnitude of the deviation from the centerline.
Ra is defined in metric terms (micrometers), but is normally represented in microinches, e.g., 125 microinch Ra.

(continued)
There is an optimal surface finish for use with

each gasket type
125 - 250 microinch Ra for spiral wound gaskets

63 - 80 Ra for metal jacketed
125 - 250 Ra for Kammprofile
63 Ra for ring joint
500 - 750 Ra for flat non-metallic gaskets
EDS-2004/FL-76
ASME B16.5 and UOP allow a surface finish 250 Microinch Ra maximum for
spiral wound gasketing. This is based upon vendor recommendations, successful
operating experience, and experience that ASMEs older 500 Ra is too rough to
obtain a good seal.
A minimum roughness value must also be specified; smoother is not always better.
The gasket must deform to fill imperfections in the flange surface, but if the flange
is too smooth, the gasket roughness becomes a problem. For spiral wound gaskets
ASME B16.5 and UOP use 125 Microinch Ra , minimum.
Ring joints use a harder, usually metallic, material (e.g., soft iron) that is harder to
deform and, therefore, requires a smoother finish.

(continued)
Surface finish is evaluated by visual comparison and

feel to a standard comparitor of finishes.
Mechanical means are not used because they may not
distinguish between a uniformly rough surface and a
smoother surface with a few large discrepancies (and
its prohibited by ASME B16.5). Both may have the
same calculated Ra but perform differently.
Protect flange finishes from corrosion, oxidation, and
damage during handling, PWHT, storage, etc. Cover
with oil or petroleum jelly and a wood, plastic, or
metal cover.
Flanges may be refinished in the field.
EDS-2004/FL-77
Use of visual comparison for surface finish evaluation is an ASME B16.5

compliance requirement. Mechanical means are not accepted.
Refinishing must use a spiral or concentric groove pattern corresponding with the
requirements in the applicable Standard (e.g., ASME B16.5). Lapping or any other
means of finishing that may produce radial scratches or an uneven surface is
unacceptable.
Flange Markings Required by B16.5
Manufacturers name and/or trademark

ASTM material identification (specification,
grade, and melt identification for forged or
cast flanges)
Flange Class (e.g., Class 300)
Designation of governing standard, e.g. ASME
B16.5
EDS-2004/FL-78
Flange Markings Required by B16.5

(continued)
Nominal pipe size (NPS) of flange (e.g., 6 inch)
Ring joint flanges shall be marked with the letter

R and the ring groove number per B16.5
All markings are to be on the outer rim

of the flange for visibility while in operation
EDS-2004/FL-79
The size of a flange or flanged fitting is specified by its nominal pipe size. Use of
nominal indicates that the stated size or dimension is only for designation, not
measurement. The actual dimension may or may not be the nominal size and is
subject to established tolerances.
A ring joint number defines a particular set of dimensions for the groove (width,
depth, radius).
Gasket Markings Required by B16.20
Ring Joint Gaskets

Manufacturers name or trademark
Gasket number prefixed by R, Rx, or Bx
Gasket material identification
Designation of ASME B16.20
EDS-2004/FL-80
The R designation denotes the common, familiar, style of ring joint gasket. This
is the gasket to use with ring joint flanges complying with ASME B16.5. These are
the flanges used in refineries and petrochemical plants.
The RX designation is used for special nonsymmetrical, vented, gaskets for use
with API 6B flanges, classes 720, 960, 2000, 2900, 3000, and 5000.
The BX designation denotes a symmetrical gasket with a vent for use with API
6BX flanges, classes 2000 - 10,000. These gaskets are boxier than the R style.
API 6B and 6BX are both old, out of print, unused publications for line pipe. RX
and BX gaskets will probably disappear eventually. Note that these gaskets will
not fit, and cannot be used with, B16.5 ring joint flanges.

(continued)
Manufacturers name or trademark

Flange size (NPS)
Pressure Class
Winding material identification (may be
omitted for 304 windings)
Filler material identification
EDS-2004/FL-81

(continued)
Spiral Wound Gaskets (continued)

Centering and inner ring material
identification (may be omitted for carbon steel
outer and 304 inner rings)
Flange identification if other than B16.5 (e.g.,
B16.47)
Designation of ASME B16.20
EDS-2004/FL-82
These markings are to be prominently displayed on the gasket. The markings are
usually on the outer ring, and are not visible on an installed gasket.
It is critical that the proper pressure class of gasket, one matching the flange class,
be used. Use of the wrong gasket can result in leaks and even catastrophic failure
because the gasket does not fit properly. The gasket may be over or under
compressed or warped, creased, and even folded. The outer ring may be too large
for the bolt circle, resulting in gasket distortion as it is squeezed into place. Too
small of an outer ring may result in the gasket not being properly centered on the
sealing surface, especially when the sealing surface is vertical (because the gasket
outer ring may rest upon the lower bolts). The gasket may not be strong enough for
the seating forces or internal pressure.
Before starting up a unit, check to insure that the proper gasket is in each flanged
joint. Plants have been started up with temporary rubber or cardboard gaskets in
place, or even with no gasket at all!
PPF-R02-26
EDS-2004/FL-83
In the illustrated case, the gasket was manufactured by Lammons. It is for a 2-inch
pipe flange and is suitable for both Class 300 and Class 600 flanges. The windings
(and inner ring, if it had one) are made of type 347 stainless steel. The filler
material is flexible graphite and the gasket complies with ASME B16.20
Flange Design
Codes encourage use of standardized flanges
Codes often recognize standards in addition

to B16.5
In situations where no suitable flange exists

in an accepted standard, the flange may be
designed
EDS-2004/FL-84
Standard flanges conforming to ASME B16.5 and B16.47 may be freely used
without any design calculations at the pressure-temperature ratings assigned. Listed
gaskets and bolting materials must also be used in accordance with any guidelines
in B16.5 and B16.47.
A flange may also be designed from scratch for custom applications. This allows
wide flexibility in the choice of dimensions for the flange. Flanges for situations
not covered by the recognized flange standards may be addressed, as may situations
require different dimensions or ratings than used for the standard flanges. An
example is a flange for a location with limited clearances. All designed flanges
must comply with the rules of the governing Code.
Flange Design
(continued)
Design rules and methods are given in

Appendix 2 of ASME Section VIII, Division 1
Method is required by the Pressure Vessel

and Process Piping Codes
Design rules analyze two situations

Gasket seating
Maintenance of a seal against the internal
design pressure
EDS-2004/FL-85
The rules in the ASME Boiler and Pressures Vessel Code, Section VIII, Division 1,
Appendix 2 apply to most, if not all, situations. The provisions of Appendix S,
including the Rigidity Index, should also be applied. Other Codes, specifications,
and practices (e.g., ASME B31.3, the Piping Code) refer to the Appendix 2 rules.
Gasket seating is the stress required to deform the gasket to fill the mating surface
imperfections and form a seal. It is achieved with direct force by bolting the flanges
together with no internal pressure present. The full force in the bolts transfers
directly to the gasket, supplying an applied stress.
Maintenance of a seal includes consideration of the internal design pressure and any
other forces operating on the flange. The bolts provide the force necessary to
maintain a seal against these conditions, using a seated gasket. The gasket stress
generally decreases as internal pressure is applied because the internal pressure
works to separate the flanges. Resistance to this force uses some of the force
present in the bolts. The remainder of the bolt force is available to provide a sealing
stress on the gasket. Increased internal pressure results in both a greater pressure
trying to bypass the gasket (leak) and less force sealing the gasket (by tending to
separate the flanges, counteracting some of the bolt force), a double whammy!
Flange Design
(continued)
Design rules are actually evaluation methods
Design begins by selecting a gasketing system

and flange dimensions, then evaluating them by
comparing stress levels to allowable stresses for
the materials at temperature
Flange dimensions may be from any available

flange (e.g., Taylor Forge specialty classes) or
may be uniquely developed
EDS-2004/FL-86
Taylor Forge is one manufacturer that offers custom specialty size and class flanges
(e.g., Class 175 and Class 350 large diameter flanges) designed in accordance with
the requirements of the ASME Code. They are not included in B16.5 or B16.47. If
a unique flange is needed, use of a specialty flange available from a supplier will
save cost because the supplier has the necessary dies and manufacturing equipment
available. The specialty flange must be checked in accordance with the Code rules.
It cannot be used without a check even if the vendor says that it complies with the
Code.
Flange Design
(continued)
Flanges in most accepted standards have been

designed in accordance with the ASME Code
method
B16.5 flanges are an exception
Other design methods which evaluate flanges

for their tendency to leak based upon the
design conditions and the contained fluid are
available, but not yet incorporated into Codes
EDS-2004/FL-87
The design rules that are currently in Section VIII, Division 1, Appendix 2 are stress
based. The stresses within the flange are determined and compared to allowable
stresses. Although it has proven to be a successful approach, this is actually an
indirect and somewhat flawed method. This is because leaks develop as a result of
gaps, which are themselves a result of deformations or strain. Strain is often related
to stress -- at least while in the elastic region -- deformations may not be directly
related to stress. The evaluation method may ensure the flange does not yield and
that a reasonable load is applied to the gasket but it does not, for example, ensure
that the force is uniformly applied to the gasket.
Other methods are being developed that directly analyze the potential for leakage
(considering the contained fluid, including the size of its molecules), the real
problem being targeted. These design methods will likely become a part of the
Code shortly, but they are not included yet. The design method covered in this
presentation is the Codes stress based approach.
Forces Acting on Flanges
Internal pressure acting across the inside

diameter acts to open the joint
This force is applied axially through the

pipe or nozzle wall
Internal pressure acts upon the exposed

flange face inside of the gasket, tending
to open the joint
EDS-2004/FL-88
Internal pressure acting across the inside diameter is commonly termed the
Hydrostatic End Force (HD) and comes to the flange from the closed end of the
piping system or vessel to which it is welded. The end force reaches the flange
through the hub and pulls on the ring portion of the flange.
For a gasket covering the entire raised face, e.g., a sheet gasket, the internal
pressure acting upon the exposed face (HT) would be zero. As a conservative
allowance leakage, hence pressure, is assumed to be possible as far as the average
gasket diameter. Spiral wound gaskets do not cover the full surface of the flange
face, hence the force acts over the exposed surface inside of the gasket as well as
half of the gasket width.

(continued)
The sealing force on the gasket acts over most

of the gasket surface
The reciprocal force tends to open the joint,

but relaxes if the joint does tend to open
Bolt forces act at the centerline of the bolt

circle
This force tends to close the joint
EDS-2004/FL-89
Bolting drawing the flanges together creates the sealing force on the gasket.
The bolts are the primary source of force to seal the gasket and keep the joint
closed. Sometimes other factors, such as an axial compressive force or a bending
moment at the flange, also contribute, at least over part of the circumference.
The bolt force is defined as W.
In order to calculate the moments and resulting stresses acting on a flange, the
forces are multiplied by the appropriate lever arms which are measured from the
point of force application to the bolt circle.
The initial compression force applied to a joint must be sufficient to initially seat
the gasket and flow the gasket into the imperfections on the gasket seating surfaces.
It must also be great enough to compensate for the total hydrostatic end force and
any applied forces and moments present during operating conditions while
maintaining enough residual load on the gasket/flange interface to maintain the seal.

(continued)
Applied axial or bending loads
May tend to open or close the joint
For gasket seating, consider only the seating

force necessary (based upon Y for the
gasket) and (to allow for overtightening) the
average of the resulting bolt load and the bolt
load using the allowable bolt stress
Use ambient allowable stresses

EDS-2004/FL-90
An external bending moment acts to compress one side of the gasket and unload the
other side, which has a direct effect on sealing of the gasket against the internal
fluid.
For gasket seating, there is no internal pressure because the unit is not yet operating.
For seating of the gasket, the stress analysis involves a comparison of calculated
values against ambient condition allowable stress values. Some ASME B16.5 Class
150 and Class 300 flanges, particularly those just before the number of bolts
changes, may be found to be overstressed for gasket seating of spiral would gaskets,
although experience shows that they work in service.

(continued)
For operation, consider all of the forces and

allowable stresses of each component at their
design temperature
Sealing force on the gasket is based upon the

internal pressure and M for the gasket
EDS-2004/FL-91
The required sealing force on the gasket (HG) must be large enough to squeeze the
gasket together and maintain the seal against the internal pressure trying to leak
around the gasket during operation.
The gasket factor M relates the gasket stress required to maintain a seal at design
pressure to the design pressure. It is generally on the order of magnitude of 3. An
M factor of 3 means that a sealing stress over the gasket surface of at least three
times the design pressure is necessary to maintain a seal, e.g., 1500 psi for an
internal pressure of 500 psi.
See slide 61 for representative Y and M values for various gasket styles.
The calculated stresses in the flange for operation are compared against the
allowable stresses at the coincident design temperature.
Forces Experienced by a Flange

in Operation
Forces
HG = Compressive force on
the gasket
HT = Pressure force on the
flange face
HD = Hydrostatic end force
W = Tightening bolt force
PPF-R01-27
EDS-2004/FL-92
This figure illustrates the forces acting upon a flange.

HT is determined from the internal pressure and is considered to act up to the point
of the resultant gasket reaction force HG. This will be a point beyond the inner
diameter of the gasket.
Design Procedure
Follow the procedure of ASME Section VIII,

Division 1, Appendix 2
For convenience some flange and gasket
manufacturers (e.g., Taylor Forge) provide
worksheets
Check required bolt area (must be less than the
available bolt cross sectional area at the root of
the threads), bolt spacing (maximum per Code
to prevent flange deflection and possible loss of
seal between bolts), and stresses in the flange
EDS-2004/FL-93
The bolt cross sectional area determines the magnitude of the available cold boltup
seating force and the operating bolt load available to maintain a seal. The total bolt
area is determined by the number and size of the bolts and the bolt area at the root
of the threads because the bolt is threaded the full length, exposing the threaded
portion to the full bolt load.
Design Procedure
(continued)
Most allowable stresses are as listed in the Code

Longitudinal hub stress may reach 1.5 x Code
allowable because it is a bending stress
(maximum at a point, decreasing to 0 at the
neutral axis)
If slight yielding occurs, the load redistributes
safely
EDS-2004/FL-94
Most of the stresses within the flange are uniform across the cross section, i.e.,
membrane stresses. There is no redundancy or ability to redistribute these stresses
if they become excessive; therefore, the Code allowable stresses are applied.
For a bending stress, the maximum exists on the inside and outside surfaces of the
hub, and decreases to zero at a point half way between. If a slight overstress in the
hub causes yielding, the load redistributes more to the ring portion of the flange.
The ring is also subjected primarily to bending and is thus able to absorb the
additional load so that a new equilibrium within safe limits is established.
Therefore, a higher allowable, 1.5 X the Code value, is permissible in these cases.
Critical Dimensions in a Flange
Positions
G = Average gasket diameter
B = Flange I.D. (bore)
hG = Distance from bolt hole to the gasket force, HG
hT = Distance from bolt hole to the position of HT
hD = Distance from bolt hole to the position of HD
PPF-R02-28
EDS-2004/FL-95
Standard practice is to dimension, and determine the internal bending moments,

relative to the position of the center line of the bolt holes.
Bolting tends to load the outer portion of the gasket more than the inner portion of
the gasket because the flange body is not infinitely stiff and does rotate very
slightly. This can have a tendency to expose an inner portion of the flange face to
the internal atmosphere over which HT acts. Conservatively this increases HT..
External Loadings
Equivalent Pressure Method
A conservative method of evaluating the suitability

of a flanged joint for axial and bending loads
imposed by the piping
Loads are converted into an equivalent internal

pressure, which is added to the actual internal
pressure
The flange is then evaluated for the total pressure

(internal pressure + equivalent pressure)
EDS-2004/FL-96
This commonly used approach results in a very conservative design. It is intended

for routine design investigations into the effect of loadings other than internal
pressure on flanges. The internal design pressure is added to the calculated
equivalent pressure from the other loads. Determination of other loads can come
from a flexibility analysis of the piping system, for example.
The applied loads may be axial or shear forces and torsion or prying moments.
The axial force and the resultant prying moment (determined by a vector sum of
the y and z moments) are considered to affect the flange seal and are converted to
an equivalent pressure. Shear forces and torsional moments apply shear stresses to
the bolts but do not (directly) affect the flanges ability to maintain a seal.
External Forces on a Flange
Thermal
Growth
V
M
F
PPF-R00-92
EDS-2004/FL-97
V = Vertical shear from, for example, thermal growth acting parallel to the
flange face (mostly affects the bolt shear)
M = The resultant bending moment from, for example, thermal growth or weight
acting perpendicular to the plane of the flange face. It tends to open the
flange on one side and compress or close it on the other.
T = Torsional moment from, for example, thermal growth acting in the plane of
the flange face.
F = Axial force due, for example, to thermal growth of the horizontal run of a
piping system acting perpendicular to the flange face. It can be a tensile or
compressive force on the flange.
External Loadings
Equivalent Pressure Method (continued)
Imposed loads are converted into an equivalent

pressure via the following formula:
PEQUIV = 16 M / G3 + 4 F / G2
where:
M = Bending moment
F = Axial force
G = Diameter at gasket reaction
EDS-2004/FL-98
The equivalent pressure formula converts the axial load into a force per bolt and
determines the maximum bolt force caused by the bending moment and assumes its
presence on all of the bolts. The internal pressure that would cause these same bolt
forces is then found, and called the equivalent pressure.
One reason this is conservative is that is considers the maximum tensile bolt force
caused by the moment to be present on all of the bolts. It also assumes only the
bolts resist the moment when, in fact, the moment places the gasket into
compression over about half of the circumference.
External Loadings
Equivalent Pressure Method (continued)
Shear and torsion on the bolts must be

considered separately
The method is very conservative, especially
for bending loads
EDS-2004/FL-99
The equivalent pressure method illustrated is used for looking up the Class of a
flange to be used for anticipated conditions of internal pressure and externally
imposed loads.
The illustrated method is simple to implement but is very conservative.
Flange Assembly
Ensure flange faces are parallel

Avoid pulling or pushing the flange into assembly
position
The resulting piping forces will affect the joints

performance
Be sure the gasket is properly placed and centered
The gasket must not be creased, twisted, bunched,

etc.
EDS-2004/FL-100
Flange faces that are not parallel will impose a moment on the flanged connection
when it is bolted up. This moment will act to open up the joint on one side.
Residual forces and moments are developed as a result of flange mis-alignment or
poor fit-up and can overstress the bolts or cause flange rotation, resulting in flange
leakage.
Gaskets that have been folded, creased, twisted, etc., cannot be seated to form a
seal. They may even function like a wedge, thicker on one side than the other,
forcing the flanges apart.
ASME B31.3 requires that each flange be aligned to within 1mm per 200mm (1/16
inch per foot) across any diameter. Many believe this is too large, and call for an
alignment tolerance of half this value, i.e. 1/2 mm per 200 mm (1/32 inch per foot).
In some cases, e.g., flexible small diameter piping, a larger margin may be
acceptable.
Flange Assembly
(continued)
Do not overtighten the bolts
Bolts may yield, the gasket may be crushed, or the

flange may be distorted (e.g., the outer portion
squeezed together, causing a rotation tending to
unload some of the gasket)
Tighten the bolts uniformly

Bolt tensioning devices are the most reliable method
Torquing is common, but unreliable
EDS-2004/FL-101
Uniform bolt tightening assures uniform seating of the gasket and accurate application of the
calculated design loads in the flange.
Bolt tensioning devices achieve an accurate and pre-determined bolt loading in a single operation.
The most common form of bolt tensioning essentially provides a hydraulic load which acts directly
upon the stud bolt. The hydraulic load is transmitted to the bolt by the puller. This force stretches
the bolt, and the extension, or strain, is retained by engaging the nut. Since strain and stress are
proportional in the elastic range, the applied extension results in a known applied bolt load equal to
the force applied by the puller.
The hydraulic load, commonly called the applied load, is retained by the bolt when the hydraulic
tensioner is released. The magnitude of the load is determined to provide the necessary gasket
seating and sealing stresses.
Bolt tension indicating washers are another reasonably accurate method of insuring a known bolt
force. These washers are bowed up in the center. They are designed to flatten under a known force.
When the bolt is tightened, the washer flattens when this force is reached. Use of the proper washer
then indicates when the required bolt force is present.
Other methods of bolt tightening develop much less predictable bolt tensions. Use of a torque
wrench, or measurement of the applied torque, is especially unreliable. The angle of the threads,
friction along the threads, type of lubricant, and friction between the nut and outer surface of the
flange are all variable factors that resist the applied torque without resulting in any load being
applied to the gasket. Use of a torque based method for providing bolt tension typically results in a
30 percent (or greater) variation in bolt stress around the flange. Bolt tensioning methods normally
result in a variation of about 10 percent.
Flange Assembly
(continued)
The order of bolt tightening is very important
Tightening in circumferential order will not achieve a

uniform seal (recent evidence suggests this may not be as
bad as previously thought)
Tighten bolts in a diametrically opposed pattern
Do not fully tighten the bolts in one step
Proceed through the tightening sequence several times
(usually three) to achieve the desired bolt force
After each step, adjust to an even gap between the flanges
Refer to ASME PCC-1 2000, Guidelines for Pressure
Boundary Bolted Flange joints Assembly
Avoid use of flange cements on the gasket -they tend

to damage the flange surface and are difficult to remove
without causing further damage to the sealing surface
EDS-2004/FL-102
The objective is to close the flange at a uniform and constant rate, bringing all portions of
the flange around the full circumference together at the same rate. Uneven compression of
the gasket around the circumference must be avoided. Uneven gasket compression from
tightening one side before the other cannot be effectively recovered.
Use of a flange cement may even glue the gasket to both flanges, meaning the gasket must
be torn apart to separate the flanges. Gasket remains may remain stuck to the flanges. The
glue can also damage, perhaps etch, the flange sealing surface, promoting current or future
leakage.
Bolt lubricants are often recommended. Lubricants reduce the unknowns related to friction
when bolts are tensioned via torquing. The type and amount of lubricant are chosen so that
the nut does not back off or loosen.
Bolts tend to cross talk, or be affected by what happens to other bolts. Each time a new
bolt is tightened it will reduce the strain, and stress, on the previously tightened bolts. This
is why the bolts are tightened in stages and why after each stage the gap between the flanges
is measured and evened by adjusting individual bolt tightnesses before proceeding with the
next round of tightening. After three stages, further adjust bolts in a circumferential pattern
to even the flanges.
Thick, large diameter flanges with large diameter bolts may also need a disassembly
procedure. Usually this is to back-off to 50 - 70% of the bolt load, even the flange gap, drop
to 20 - 30% of the bolt load, even the gap, then remove the nut.
Sequential Order
1-2
3-4
5-6
7-8
9-10
11-12
13-14
15-16
17-18
19-20
Rotational Order
1
2
13
14
5
6
17
18
9
10
3
4
15
16
7
8
19
20
11
12
PPF-R00-29
EDS-2004/FL-103
This is a graphical representation of the recommended sequential and rotational

order of bolt tightening for uniform sealing of a flanged joint with 20 bolts. It can
be seen that two diametrically opposed bolts are tightened followed by two more on
a diameter approximately 90o from the previous set. This procedure continues until
each bolt has been tightened once, then is repeated. This approach is applicable to
any similar situation of bolt tightening, e.g., automobile tires. Usually three cycles
are used to fully tighten the bolt. Do not tighten any bolts fully on the first two
cycles because the flange system is still loose enough that flange rotation and
unrecoverable uneven gasket compression can (will) result.
B16.5 (Annex F) requires the bolt threads to be engaged to the surface of the nut.
B16.5 also says that the points on the bolt are not part of the bolts overall length.
B31.3 permits an underengagement of one thread. Standard practice is for at least
two threads of the bolt to be exposed beyond the nut. This ensures full engagement
and the ability to fully develop the bolts strength. More extension is wasteful, may
create clearance problems, and exposes more of the bolt to rust or damage,
complicating disassembly. Under engagement may reduce the bolts capacity
below that required. If below the surface of the nut, a depression is formed that can
collect dirt, water, oil, etc. This can complicate disassembly and contribute to bolt
corrosion (rust).
Sequential Order
1-2
3-4
5-6
7-8
9-10
11-12
13-14
15-16
17-18
19-20
21-22
23-24
Rotational Order
2
1
10
9
18
17
6
5
14
13
22
21
4
3
12
11
20
19
8
7
16
15
24
23
PPF-R00-30
EDS-2004/FL-104
This figure illustrates the sequence for tightening a flange with 24 bolts.
Leakage Causes
Damage to the flange surface (especially radial

scratches or corrosion)
Imposed loads (e.g., flange misalignment, i.e. mating
flanges are not parallel, thermal movements, weight)
Flange faces are not flat
Are distorted or contain raised or depressed areas
EDS-2004/FL-105
Radial scratches or corrosion are one of the most common causes of leakage. The
scratch provides a direct, preferential leak path under the gasket. Scratches are
often too deep and/or too narrow for the gasket to effectively seal.
Take precautions to prevent damage and protect flanges during any Post Weld Heat
Treatment. Corrosion, oxidation, etc., may interfere with the ability to seat the gasket and
its subsequent ability to maintain a seal against pressure.
Flanges out of parallel or containing a wavy surface finish (not flat) can cause a non
uniform seating of the gasket.
Leakage Causes
(continued)
Flange cupping or rotation due to bolt loads

Improper surface finish
Too rough and the gasket may not seal
Too smooth and the gasket may slide and/or not seal)
Inadequate thread engagement between the bolts

and nuts
Vibration may cause the nuts to back off or loosen
slightly, reducing the bolt force and, therefore, the
sealing force on the gasket
EDS-2004/FL-106
Flange rotation about the outer ring of a gasket will cause a decrease or unloading
of the gasket seating/sealing stress at the ID of the gasket. Stresses on the outer
portion of the gasket will increase, possibly to the point they crush the gasket. The
gasket will be substantially thinner at the OD than on the ID.
Ensuring the nuts are the proper size for the bolt, and that the bolt is properly
engaged in the nut are critical for proper gasket performance, achievement of a seal,
and safety. Special care must be taken to ensure proper bolt engagement in
studding flanges.
One example graphically illustrates the consequences of improper engagement.
The bolts on a studding flange outlet of a high pressure hydrogen compressor were
not properly tightened. The bolts were also a size too small. The latter fact meant
that only the tips of each thread, not the full depth, was engaged. Because it was a
studding flange, neither the bolt nor the engagement was visible. Proper tightening
would have ensured engagement of all the threads and revealed any bolt weakness
during boltup because the full bolt stress would have been applied. The problem
would have been revealed by a pressure test too (either hydro of pneumatic,
probably the latter for a compressor), but none was performed. As it was, the bolts
held at first, but the thread tips sheared off and the connection failed as startup
proceeded and the bolt stress increased. Hydrogen was then released under pressure
and ignited. There were several fatalities in the ensuing explosion.
Flange Distortion Due to Boltup
Bolt
Force
Weld
Gasket Load Moves

to Outside
Possible Flange
Contact
Gasket May
be Forced Inward
Weld
Highly Stressed
Areas
Flange Prior
to Boltup
Distorted Flange (Exaggerated)

after Boltup
PPF-R00-93
EDS-2004/FL-107
If the flanges come into contact, some of the bolt force will be transferred at the
contact point rather than through the gasket, reducing the sealing stress on the
gasket.
Flange distortion reduces the stress on the inner part of the gasket and increases the
stress on the outer part. This shift can result in a net inward radial force on the
gasket, possibly extruding the gasket inward, and can also result in crushing of the
outer part of the gasket due to high local stresses. For these and other reasons,
leakage may result.
Flange distortion produces highly stressed areas in the flange, including the welded
joint to the pipe (or vessel). Thermal residual stresses, differing material properties
in the welds heat affected zone, and weld flaws may already exist here. Cracking
potential is increased.
Leakage Causes
(continued)
Inadequate bolt tightness
May be due to:

An improper bolt tightening sequence
Inelastic relaxation (e.g., creep) or yielding
of the bolt
Yielding the bolt or differential expansion
between the bolt and flange (e.g., the flange
expands more and yields the bolt or the bolt
expands more and loosens)
EDS-2004/FL-108
One cause of differential expansion is flanges and bolts at different temperatures during
startup/shutdown and other transient thermal conditions. The bolts are typically slower to respond to
internal temperature changes. They are generally cooler than the flange because they are on the
outer extremity of the flange and exposed to atmospheric cooling conditions. The poor heat transfer
mechanism between the flange and bolts also slows heating of the bolts. The greater thermal
expansion of the flange increases the bolt strain, perhaps into the inelastic range. The bolts later
catch up to the flange temperature, further elongating and possibly loosening, leading to leakage.
When the system cools, inelastic strain is not recovered, the bolt loosens, and the flange leaks.
Steady state conditions can result in the same phenomena when the flange is warmer than the bolts,
often the case in an uninsulated system. If the bolts are in the creep range, creep relaxation over time
is another problem. On cooldown, cooling of the bolts more rapidly than the flange can create
excessive bolt strain. Since the bolts are more exposed to cooling and are also a much smaller mass
than the flange, hence containing much less heat, more rapid bolt cooling is not at all unlikely.
Another cause of differential thermal expansion is bolts and flanges of different metallurgy's. If the
bolts expand more (e.g., austenitic stainless steel bolts in a low chrome flange), they obviously
loosen. If the flange expands more, the resultant bolt strain may yield the bolt. Inelastic creep
elongation is also a possibility. In either case, the result is a loss of strain at shutdown because the
bolt is inelastically distorted and does not return to its original length at shutdown, thereby loosening.
Leaks develop during shutdown. Creep can result in a loss of bolt strain over time, resulting in
leakage development after a period of successful service, and/or at shutdown. Another problem is
the high gasket loads caused by the flange growth. The load can be enough to crush the gasket.
If the flanges are made of different materials (e.g., austenitic stainless steel paired with low chrome
steel), it can be very difficult to insure that one or the other of the above problems wont occur. Low
chrome bolts in such a mixed flange are usually best. They expand less than the flanges, tending
to tighten (and possible yield). Austenitic stainless steel bolts will expand more than the flanges,
thereby loosening.
Leakage Causes
(continued)
Insulating an existing flange increases the bolt

temperature and thermal expansion relative to the
flange, possibly tending to loosen the bolt.
Insulating the assembly may increase the temperature
to the point where the flange is no longer rated for the
temperature (i.e. piping where credit was taken for
the lower flange and bolt temperatures of uninsulated
flanges).
Uninsulated flanges are exposed to uneven cooling
from weather conditions.
EDS-2004/FL-109
Insulating existing flanges to reduce process heat loss can be very detrimental to the
flange bolting and can cause the the bolt temperature to increase beyond the
material limits of the Code. Even if that is not a concern, elevating the temperature
of the bolt relative to the flange when compared to the uninsulated condition, will
cause the bolt to elongate relative the the flange thickness, reducing the net applied
bolt force, potentially leading to leakage.
In some cases, flange and bolt temperatures lower than the process temperature, in
accordance with B31.3 procedures, were used to select the flange class and the bolt
and flange materials. Insulating the flange will increase the flange and bolt
temperatures and may result in conditions beyond the ratings of the flange Class, in
addition to potential concerns with the adequacy of the materials used.
All of the above conditions, and others, can result in a loss of the bolt force, which
translates directly into a loss of the gasket sealing stress and leakage.
Uneven cooling of uninsulated, hot, flanges can cause them to warp and leak. For
example, rain may cool the top of a flange in a horizontal line while the bottom
remains hot. One way to address this is to provide a rain or weather shield over the
flange. It must allow sufficient air circulation and be far enough from the flange to
avoid any insulating effect. The flange may have been designed considering the
uninsulated temperature Another problem is that if part of the flange becomes
insulated, and part is not, uneven temperatures and possible warping are present.
Leakage Causes
(continued)
Rapid startup causing the flange to heat and expand

before the bolts
May inelastically deform the bolts
When the bolts then heat and expand, they will, in
effect, loosen
Improper gasket type or material

Damage to the gasket, e.g. crushed, extruded or
buckled
Use of a gasket intended for a different flange class
Different temperatures around the flange
circumference
EDS-2004/FL-110
Some leakage may be due to the loading/unloading characteristics of the gasket

material. Gaskets behave generally inelasticly and follow different stress strain
curves when loading and unloading. This may result in leakage when unloading,
for example. Depending on the elasticity or cold flow properties of the gasket, its
ability to respond and sustain a load may be impaired. Selection of a different
gasket material with preferable cold flow properties and improved load carrying
capacity would be warranted.
Leaks have been traced to the presence of shipping or temporary gaskets, cardboard
gaskets, and even no gasket at all. Carefully check all gaskets before testing or
startup. In one instance, use of a gasket intended for a flange several classes lower
resulted in a major flange failure, a fire, and a fatality.
A superheated steam condenser (steam on the shell side) is an example of a case
where the temperature may vary around a body flange. The bottom of the
exchanger contains liquid water and is much cooler than the top, which contains
superheated steam. The temperature differential, and resultant varying thermal
expansion around the flange, can lead to leaks. There are many ways to address this
problem, from flow changes within the exchanger to reduce the temperature
differences to some of the measures discussed later to reduce the bolt strain
differentials.
Behavior of Bolt
in an Unyielding Flange
EDS-2004/FL-111
PPF-R01-31
Creep is the increase in strain with time under constant loading conditions or the
decrease in stress under constant displacement.
With a constant bolt displacement imposed by an unyielding flange, creep
relaxation, or a reduction in stress with time, will occur if the bolt temperature is in
the creep range. The figure illustrates this rather dramatically. In the example, bolt
creep relieves 2/3 or more of the initial elastic extension, resulting in a decline in
the hot bolt stress to 1/3 or less of the original value. This is one reason to avoid
insulating flanges. Insulating them may move the bolt temperature into the creep
range.
High temperature bolt creep relaxation causes insufficient gasket load and flange
leakage.
Leak Correction
If flanges are mis-aligned, separated, or rotated, consider

a spacer between the flanges, with a gasket on each side
If the surface finish is damaged or incorrect, consider
refinishing the flange
Take care to retain the required flange dimensions after
refinishing
In some cases, consider a different gasket that will perform
with the existing finish
Use a spiral or concentric finish, do not lap
Replace the gasket

Eliminate forces on the flange (e.g., thermal movements,
weight, misalignment)
EDS-2004/FL-112
Attempting to correct a mis-alignment with flange bolts can overstress the bolts causing
yielding of the bolting and subsequently loosening of the joint during operation and leakage.
Do not try to correct the problem with the flange bolts, consider a spacer instead.
Flange refinishing can be performed to obtain the proper surface conditions. Refinishing is
best done under controlled conditions in a shop, but can be performed in place in the field.
Care must be taken not to remove too much material, reducing the flange thickness or raised
face height. Some of the benefit of the raised face may be lost. It may also be more
difficult to make up the connection because the flange sealing surfaces will be a little
further apart. A thickness reduction may result in elevated stress levels or rotation also. All
of these points are concerns only when a relatively large amount of material is removed.
They are not a problem for a normal refinishing operation.
A more common refinishing concern is the method of refinishing used. A back-and-forth
method (lapping) or moving a circular sander type of device over the surface will be
unsuccessful because it will create radial grooves or scratches. These are ideal leak paths.
Refinishing must use a spiral or concentric finishing operation, similar to the original
finishing method, that produces the proper number of grooves over the sealing surface.
Flanges Badly Cocked

or Separated Too Far
Solution
Do not try to correct
the problem with the
flange bolts they
can be overstressed
Do use spacers with
a gasket on each side
to correct the
problem
PPF-R01-32
EDS-2004/FL-113
This figure illustrates the use of spacers for flange misalignment. Use of a spacer
may require longer bolts.
Use of a space for misalignment (the bottom case on the slide) may allow proper
gasketing, but is limited by the need for the flange bolts to pass through the holes in
both flanges. There may also be a pressure drop created at the misalignment.
Leak Correction
(continued)
Tighten bolts while on stream (hot bolting)
Used if the flange leaks after a period of successful

operation at elevated temperature without a shutdown,
indicating the bolt has elongated due to creep
May be used if the bolt has been inelastically strained
(yielded), e.g., elongated during startup
Used if the bolts thermally expand more than the flange
Dangerous, especially if the flange is leaking
Bolt replacement will be required at shutdown
If bolts loosen due to vibration, consider the use of

double nutting
Will require longer bolts and more clearance to
accommodate the two nuts
Can also weld the nut or spike the threads
EDS-2004/FL-114
Hot bolting is a dangerous operation, with safety the primary concern. By

definition, there is something wrong with the joint and it is not sealing well. There
is probably a leak of something dangerous and probably hot. Some things, like a
hydrogen fire, cannot be seen, yet are lethal. The act of tightening the bolts is also
a danger. As described before, they must be tightened in the proper order and to the
proper tension, but use of a bolt tensioner is not practical. The only plus to hot
bolting is that it may stop the leak and allow continued operation to a scheduled
shutdown.
As alternatives to double nutting, nut loosening may be prevented by tack welding
the nuts into place or spiking (damaging) the bolt threads to prevent movement of
the nut. Neither of these methods requires use of a longer bolt, but complicates
removal of the nuts if the flange is opened. Most likely new bolts and nuts will be
necessary.
Leakage Correction
Leakage only at shutdown may indicate the

bolt was inelastically elongated during
operation by greater thermal expansion of the
flange, or possibly creep of the bolts
Bolts should be replaced
Leakage, and the need for hot bolting, after

achieving an elevated operating temperature
may mean the bolts loosened due to greater
thermal expansion than the flange
EDS-2004/FL-115
As these points indicate, many of the leakage problems seen in the field are due to
differential growth (thermal or creep) of the bolt length between the nuts and the
flange thickness for the same distance. Greater bolt growth and they loosen.
Greater flange growth and the bolt is overstrained. Different relative bolt and
flange conditions during startup and shutdown than are present during steady state
operation can cause bolt damage that affects long-term performance.
Leakage Correction
(continued)
If the flange heated first and yielded the bolts,

then the bolts expanded and loosened, hot
bolting may correct a leak present at or near
startup
Hot bolting is not effective in other cases of

bolt yielding because the additional strain (due
to tightening) will not result in a significant
bolt force increase
EDS-2004/FL-116
Further complicating the problem are the different temperatures (hence thermal
growth) seen by the flange and the bolts and the potentially different materials (with
different expansion coefficients) used for the two components. For example,
stainless steel bolts will expand much more than a low chrome or carbon steel
flange.
During large start-up temperature changes, the flange heats first and the thermal
expansion is greater than that of the cooler bolt, potentially resulting in permanent
bolt stretch. When the bolt later heats and expands, the growth is additive to any
permanent bolt stretch, causing a lower gasket pressure and possible flange
leakage. Hot bolting may retighten the bolt and restore the seal.
Hot bolting is helpful if there is additional elastic strain capacity, i.e., more strain
results in more force or if the bolt has thermally expanded and loosened. A bolt
inelastically strained during startup (e.g., due to uneven heating of the flange
system) will behave elastically when the temperatures equalize, though permanent
elongation (strain) is present. If inelastic strain is present due to greater steady state
expansion of the flange than the bolt, the bolt is still in the inelastic range and hot
bolting will further strain the bolt but will not increase the stress or force.
Continued tightening of the bolt will not improve the seal, but will strain the bolt,
eventually to failure.
Leakage Correction
(continued)
Hot bolting may be avoided by using proprietary

products such as Belleville Washers, or spring
washers, to provide a constant bolt stress over
wide temperature ranges, elongation of the bolt
relative to the flange from thermal expansion or
creep, and vibration exposure
EDS-2004/FL-117
Belleville washers look like an umbrella and act like a spring between the nut and
the flange. They maintain bolt tension and seal pressures when the bolts creep at
higher temperature or are stretched by differential expansion between the flange and
the bolt. They are effective when the bolt elongates slightly more than the flange.
A small increase in bolt length can greatly decrease the bolt strain and, therefore,
the force. The washers keep the strain in the bolt. They do not help for the reverse
situation unless the situation is temporary and permanently stretches the bolt
resulting, in effect, in an elongated bolt. Of course, the washer must not be crushed
during the time the flange expands more than the bolt.
The washers give an effective spring force that compensates for different expansion
rates in a joint to maintain a high tension load in the bolts. The spring effect allows
load compensation to account for deflection of the bolts.
Leakage Correction
(continued)
Use of a sleeve and extra long bolts reduces the

relative strain differential due to thermal expansion
variances or creep
The bolt extension is cooler and elongates less than the
portion between the flanges
The total strain change averaged over the entire bolt
length is, therefore, less
A lower change in strain means a lower stress change
This reduces the chance of exceeding the bolts
yield strength and reduces the creep rate (if in the
creep range)
EDS-2004/FL-118
Strain is a dimensionless value defined as the change in length (deformation) divided by length. Using extra
long bolts and a sleeve greatly increases the overall length. The change in length due to thermal expansion is
nearly the same as for a shorter bolt because the uninsulated extended portion of the bolt is much cooler than
the portion between the flanges and expands little. Therefore, the numerator (change in length) increases a
small amount and the denominator increases appreciably resulting in a reduced total strain change. In the
elastic range, strain is directly proportional to stress and, as a result, the bolt stress change due to thermal
expansion within the flange is also reduced. The bolt stress necessary to seat and seal the flange, provided by
tightening the bolt, must still be provided. This will require a greater overall bolt extension to achieve the
necessary strain.
For a reasonable case where the thermal growth of the sleeved bolt is 50% greater than the non-sleeved bolt,
but the length between the nuts is 4 times as long:
Strain change (normal bolt length) = thermal change in length between flanges
bolt length between flanges
<is greater than>

Strain change (with a sleeve) = (thermal change in length between flanges) X 1.5
bolt length between flanges X 4
The effects of creep may also be modified. There must be sufficient stress in the bolt to seat and seal the
gasket. If part of the bolt is in the creep range, creep will still occur. One benefit is that differential thermal
expansion will add less strain and stress to a long bolt. This lower stress will reduce the effects of creep
compared to what would otherwise occur. Another benefit is that creep occurs only over the portion of the
bolt hot enough to be in the creep range. The extended part of the bolt is probably not hot enough. For the
reasons described above, the creep will relieve less strain than for a non-extended bolt.
Joint Must Compensate for Wide

Temperature Variations
Solution
Consider the use of a sleeve
around the bolts to increase the
effective bolt length
or consider the use of conical
spring washers to eliminate force

losses over wide temperature
ranges
PPF-R01-33
EDS-2004/FL-119
This slide illustrates the topics discussed on the previous two slides.
Deflection and load characteristics can be changed by stacking the conical spring
washers in series, parallel or series - parallel.
Leakage Correction
(continued)
Seal the joint by welding the flanges together

inside of the bolt circle
Use lip seals to avoid welding directly to the

flange material and to allow subsequent cutting
open and rewelding
Spacer blocks between flanges on their outer

periphery
Blocks prevent excessive flange rotation
EDS-2004/FL-120
Lip seal joints consist of two similar mating metal gaskets commonly termed welded
membrane gaskets. Each gasket is individually welded on the ID to its respective mating
flange and, upon flange joint assembly, a second welding operation joins the gaskets on
their outer diameter, thus providing a fully welded joint.
The same welded joint principle is achieved and specified in British Standard BS5500, 3.8.5
Ungasketed seal welded flanges. This construction involves an integral nubbin portion of
the flange to be used as the welded connection in place of the gasket discussed above. The
flange is specified with a tapered outer ring section to allow access to the nubbin portion and
to accommodate welding the flanges together.
Both of the above approaches involve welding inside the bolt circle to eliminate potential
leakage through the bolt holes. The fact that the welding occurs inside the bolt circle is a
detriment for assembly and disassembly because it is more difficult to access the required
weld to initially place it or grind it out. Sometimes provisions are made for future seal
welding if it proves to be necessary, but the flange is initially assembled in the normal
manner, permitting disassembly.
Spacer blocks at the flange ring OD act as physical limit stops to prevent excessive rotation
from high bolt loads which can unload most of the gasket and potentially extrude it inward.
Spacer blocks are viable only for low pressure services where the bolt force diverted to the
contact point between the flanges and the spacer is not a concern. Enough force remains to
create a gasket seal without overstressing the bolt. High pressure services cannot afford to
lose this force acting on the gasket - leakage may result. Fortunately, flanges in high
pressure service are usually thick and stiff enough to prevent excessive flange distortion.
Stiffening the flange or replacement with a thicker flange may be a solution in other
instances where a spacer block cannot be used.
Lip Seal System

Seal the joint by welding the flanges together inside of
the bolt circle, e.g., lip seals
EDS-2004/FL-121
Above is an example of a lip seal. Other configurations are also possible.
Leakage Correction
(continued)
Loosening the bolts may stop a leak if the leak

is due to flange rotation unloading a portion
of the gasket
A lower bolt load may reduce the amount of

rotation and improve contact with the gasket
EDS-2004/FL-122
Loosening the bolts is only useful if overtightening of the bolts caused a flange
distortion and that is the only cause of the leak. The bolts and flange must also still
be elastic. Otherwise, loosening will increase leakage, a very dangerous
occurrence. Even if some loosening helps, reducing the bolt load below that
required for the gasket to affect a seal will restart leakage.

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Training Services

Introduce the common types and uses of flanges,

The presentation will cover the applicable Standards encountered in the

A flanged joint connects piping or equipment by

Fluid molecule size plays a role (e.g., water is much

A flanged joint is composed of three components -flanges, gasket, and bolts

The gasket provides the seal, bolts provide the forces

Gasket Compressible material providing the seal

Flanges may be uniquely designed or selected

Flanges from accepted standards have a

ASME B16.5, Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings

ASME B16.42, Ductile Iron Pipe Flanges and

Used for many ASME pumps (usually in nonhazardous service)

ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) Section VIII, Division 1,

ASME B16.47, Large Diameter Steel Flanges

Unlike its predecessor, API 601, it does not specify

ASME B46.1, Surface Texture (Surface Roughness,

Obsolete Reference Standards

API 601, Metallic Gaskets For Raised - Face

API 605, Large Diameter Carbon Steel

Scope of ASME B16.5

Subject areas of B16.5 include acceptable flange materials, pressure-temperature

Materials for B16.5

Permissible flange materials are listed

Materials for B16.5

Bolt materials are divided into three groups

Stud bolts with 2 nuts are typically used

Materials for B16.5

Flanges may be either forged or cast

Forged flanges are generally considered to be a higher quality product. Cast

Materials for B16.5

Only blind and certain reducing flanges (those

Flanges are organized into classes for identification

Classes provide an easy method to identify categories of flanges. The dimensions

Class 150 flanges are lightly built and are often

A rating table is provided for each material group

B16.5 Rating Considerations

Ability to withstand stresses necessary to seat the

Special attention is required for some Class 150

Adequate thickness to sustain the stresses due to

Use of B16.5 Rating Tables

Determine the applicable group for the

Material group determination includes consideration of the chemical composition

Use of B16.5 Rating Tables

Enter Table 2 and determine a flange class with

Use of B16.5 Rating Tables

If the flanges are made of different materials,

The highest resulting flange Class governs

Interpolation is permitted between the listed

Use of B16.5 Rating Tables

Flanges used to be designated by Pound

Use of B16.5 Rating Tables

Rating table pressures for Class 300 and above

PT = rated pressure (psi)

Use of B16.5 Rating Tables

Rating table pressures for Class 150 comply

This figure illustrates the decline in allowable pressure with temperature in a

Check for Hydrostatic Test Pressure

PT = 1,650 psi < 2 ,250 psi

Design Pressure: PD = 850 psi

Check for Hydrostatic Test Pressure

PT = 1,182 psi < 2,250 psi

Check for Hydrostatic Test Pressure

PT = 1,905 psi < 3,250 psi