Created: 2009-12-11 06:16:37

Updated: 2014-07-14 11:47:52

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Concepts

Social Order: The maintenance of the stable patterns of social expectations and social
structure that exists within a society (Jary and Jary).

Social Control: These are the practices which a social group develops the enforce
conformity with the accepted norms of a society. Sociologists have distinguished two basic
processes of social control:

1. Internalization: The practices which are accepted are taught or inculcated within the
individual through socialization.

2. Sanctions: These are used when considering to non conformity or conformity. Sanctions
can be positive or negative. Positive sanctions reward conformity while negative sanctions
punish an action. Punishment can be formal such as a prison sentence or fine or informal
such as ridiculing (Jary and Jary).

Deviance: This is any social behaviour which is dissimilar from what is regarded as normal
or socially acceptable within a given society (Jary and Jary). Sociologists often refer to
primary and secondary deviance.

Edwin Lambert states that episodes of a norm violation which provokes a modest reaction
from others and has little effect on an individuals self concept is called primary deviance
(Macionis and Plummer). Primary deviance is therefore the initial act of rule breaking while
secondary deviance involves the reconstruction of the individuals identity (feelings, attitudes
and sub cultural affiliation) after the primary deviance has occurred (Jary and Jary).

According to Macionis and Plummer deviance has two elements: labels and norms. One
distinguishing type of deviance is crime. Crime may be defined as the violation of norms
which the society has enacted into laws. The social foundations of deviance are:

1. Deviance varies according to cultural norms

2. People are deviant because people label them as deviant

3. Social power defines rule making and rule breaking

(Macionis and Plummer)

Theories

Functionalist

According to Durkheim, there is nothing abnormal about deviance, in fact, deviance is

universal and has a function within the social context. This is because the concepts and
ceremonies which surround crime provide a social reaction, and ritual reaffirmation that
strengthens the social order. Deviance performs the following functions:

A. It establishes cultural values and norms

B. It clarifies moral boundaries (by clarifying what is deviant from what is not, society lays
down moral boundaries of what is right from what is wrong)

C. It promotes social unity(individuals within a society usually react collectively to social

deviance)

D. It encourages social change(Deviance pushes societies boundaries by suggesting

alternatives) (Macionis and Plummer)

Durkheim states that deviance is the result if problems which arise from pathological forms
of social solidarity and anomie. Anomie is the condition which arises when there is little
consensus, a lack of certainty with regard to social values and goals and a loss of
effectiveness in the moral framework which regulates collective life. The result is therefore
social disorder. This Durkheim argues is the result of the failure modern societies to move
from the characteristics of the mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity (Jary and Jary).

One of the main theories associated with deviance is Mertons Strain Theory. The main
argument of the theory is that deviance is the result of excessive violations within particular
social arrangements. The scope and character of the deviant act depends on how well a
society makes its cultural goals accessible to its members through the provision of
institutionalized means such as educational and/or employment opportunities. The pursuit of
conventional goals through institutionalized means is the passageway to conformity.

Merton highlighted four types of deviance: innovation, ritualism, retreatism and rebellion and
states that the strain between a cultures emphasis on wealth and the limited opportunity to
acquire that wealth gives rise to theft and other forms of deviance. Innovation is the attempt
to achieve cultural goals through unconventional means. Ritualism occurs when the strain of
limited resources prompt an individual to abandon cultural goals in favour of almost
compulsive efforts to life respectfully. They embrace cultural rules to a point. Retreatism is
the rejection of both cultural goals and the means to acquire them. Rebellion as with
retreatism the cultural goals are rejected. The rebels go further by promoting drastic
alternatives to the existing social order usually through religious and/or political
countercultures (Macionis and Plummer).

Mertons theory was broadened by Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin who applied the theory
to an analysis of juvenile delinquency. They argue that deviance is not simply a response to
limited legitimate opportunity but is a response to the availability to illegitimate opportunity.
Delinquency is more prominent among the lower class youths because they have the lowest
amount of legitimate opportunities to achieve success. They therefore look for self respect
through a deviant subculture which defines the conduct that they a re capable of and give
merit to the characteristics that they possess.

Their arguments are substantiated by Walter Miller who states that a deviant subculture
develops among the lower class youths because they contend with the least legitimate
opportunity. He highlights six focal concerns of this type of subculture:

1. Trouble with authority figures such as Teachers and the Police

2. Toughness

3. Smartness :more specifically street smarts

4. Excitement

5. Preoccupation with fate derived from the lack of control that they have or fell over their
own lives

6. Autonomy which is a desire for freedom which is frequently expressed as resentment

toward authority figures (Macionis and Plummer)

Interactionist

The main precept of this theory is that deviance is label that is given to an action. It is
secondary deviance which denotes the beginning of a deviant career to which the individual
develops a strong commitment to the deviant behaviour. This deviant behaviour has a stigma
attached to it which becomes a master status. This master status overpowers all other
dimensions of the social identity.

As a consequence the individual is diminished and discounted in the minds of the society, the
result-social isolation. Once the society has stigmatized an individual, it engages in
retrospective labelling (the interpretation of someones past consistent with present
deviance). This distorts the individuals life history in a highly selective and prejudicial way.
The result is a deepening of that individuals deviant identity. The labelling process has three
distinct consequences:

1. It influences who responds to deviance

2. It influences how people respond to deviance

3. The label is different depending on the issue of personal competence of the deviant
person.

The main proponent of the labelling theory Howard Becker who stated that an act is
therefore, deviant not because of who commits the act or the act itself but on how others
respond to the act committed. It is not only the response of the society in general, but the
response of groups of individuals who have power within the society. The proof he states can
be found in an analysis of historical and cultural eras. For example, homosexuality is a crime
in some societies but not in others. The labelling theory operates on the basis of the selffulfilling prophecy.

Travis Hirschis Control Theory

Hirschi asserts that conformity arises from four types of social control:

1. Attachment: strong attachments encourage conformity.

2. Opportunity: the greater the perception of opportunities the greater the advantages of
conformity.

3. Involvement: extensive involvement in legitimate activities hampers deviance

4. Belief: strong beliefs in conventional morality and respect for authority figures restrain
tendencies toward deviance.