Plethora of some advances in ore-dressing

B P Ravi, VA J Aruna,T Banerjee, S N Goswami, H K Jain, Sanjay Kumar and O S Panwar,

Regional Ore Dressing Laboratory, Indian Bureau of Mines, Ajmer
ibm_rodl_ajm@yahoo.co.in
Abstract

As with any technology, mineral processing faces some problems. Some of the problems
faced by the mineral processing industry are enumerated. The advances made to solve some of
the problems are discussed. Collaborative sustained efforts by the academic, research, industrial,
governmental organizations related to the mineral field is the need of hour for fulfilling
sustainable eco-friendly, socio-economic growth.
Introduction
Mineral processing involves the comminution, liberation and separation/extraction of
minerals from ores-rocks, based on their differential physic-chemical properties, producing

diverse utilitarian products with maximum purity, recovery with minimum cost and
environmental disturbance. Our industrial growth depends on proper sustainable management of
finite mineral resources. As with any technology, mineral processing faces some problems,
necessitating the evolutionary and revolutionary technological developments.
Problems faced by the mineral industry
The problems faced by the mineral industry are enumerated below:
1. The industry is demanding and risky from ecologic, economic and time points of view.
2. The resources are finite and non renewable, non-recyclable type.

Mineral type
Non-ferrous
Ferrous
Industrial
Fuel

Advances in mineral processing

Unit operations
Severance
Separation
Storage
Sundries

Base
Cost reduction
Enhanced revenue
Conservative
Productive

The diverse advances in mineral processing are categorized and described below;

1. Geo-technical mapping
2. Little waste process
3. Pre-concentration
4. Efficient comminution
5. Improvement in screening and classification
6. Gravity concentration
7. Magnetic concentration
8. Flotation
9. Combination processes
10. Ancillary developments

Geo-Technical mapping

It is a preventive step at project development stage. It solves the problems due to

fluctuating ore characteristics like mineral type, granulometry, hardness and grade. It is
categorization, compilation and mapping of the source using geological, characterization, mine
planning and processing data. Normally the characterization and process diagnostic amenability
tests are conducted on spilt core/ duplicate exploratory samples from the source.
The data obtained is used to

1. Ensuring uniform mill feed by mine planning and blending and to have a coherent picture
of deposit and its process response with reference to geometry and time.
2. Generate different ore types for flow-sheet evolution for studying the ore variability on
the evolved process and modifications needed to obtain the best results
3. Varying the plant unit operation parameters based on above mentioned data for obtaining
the best results
4. Enabling smooth plant operation by automation and instrumental control
This is normally practiced in complex, low grade, high throughput ore dressing plants
mentioned below:

as

1] Geo technical mapping of Rajpura- Dariba Pb-Zn ores; ore types categorized as lead zinc ores
associated with carbonate-quartz type, ores associated with cal silicates, ores associated with
carbonaceous mica-cal silicates, and copper bearing lead and zinc ores. The beneficiation plant
was fed with a blend of above ore types in a definite proportion for the existing plant. The ores
associated with carbonaceous-mica-calsilicates and copper yielded dirty concentrates with low
recoveries. Alternatively, depression of graphite with eco friendly depressants / gravity
concentration of lead concentrates and de-coppering/ de-leading, followed by zinc flotation was
recommended and practiced by creating the facility in the existing concentrator.
2] Geo technical mapping of beach sand heavy mineral prospects are carried out by
screening at 1 and 0.1 mm followed by sink-float test and magnetic separation of sinks at various

intensities with mineralogical and chemical analysis, to assess the recoverable amount of heavy
minerals from the samples at different co-ordinates of the prospect, instead of relying only on the
reserve figures.
2

Little waste process

It is mineral conservative, eco-friendly, preventive step. It is carried out at project

development and implementation stage to reduce costs, reduce environmental damage, increase
overall revenue and utilize the diverse mineralogical constituents. This is based on the
philosophies (1) The mineral resources are finite and non-renewable/recyclable (2) No mineral

is a waste and any mineral has multi utilitarian functions depending on our Researchdevelopment and needs. It is a simple technology needing multidisciplinary approach with open
mind. It is based on the saying An efficient mineral processing technologist is the one who
utilizes all mined material producing a spectrum of products with little waste at minimum cost,
with maximum purity, recovery and viability.
A few case studies of little waste process are mentioned below:
1] Processing kaolin bearing sand yielding expensive paper coating grade clay, filler grade clay,
glass grade silica sand, feldspar concentrate foundry grade sand and coarse building sand.

2] Calcination, screening, hydration and classification of calcitic rock-phosphate from gas rich
desert areas of Iran yielded acid grade phosphate rock, hydrated lime and coarse aggregate.
Alternatively composting the rock phosphate tails yielding ready to use natural manure.
3] The Palbora mill of South Africa yields a copper, molybdenite, uranium, apatite, magnetite,
ilmenite, silica sand concentrates besides producing filler grade clay and aggregates.
4] Reverse flotation of calcareous wollastonite followed by WHIMS of non float from Rajasthan
yielded a ceramic grade wollastonite and a high grade low silica calcite product. The filtration of
all products also reduced the water requirement in arid area of Rajasthan besides solving the
problem of tailing disposal.

5] Blending of hydrated lime sludge from calcium carbide plant with low grade lime stone
powder followed by cement manufacturing different shades of floor tiles is done at Kota
6]Production of building materials from plant tails, fly ash and red mud is done at pilot level.
7]Bubbling SO2 rich thermal plant emission through the caustic tails of bauxite industry solves
dual ecological problem due to SO2 and free caustic soda in an energy demanding Al smelter
3

Pre-concentration

It is a cost reduction step by rejecting bulk of the material at mine site reducing the
transportation cost of the barren rock, reducing the processing cost and tailing disposal/

management problems besides producing highly pure concentrates yielding higher revenues.
The work is carried out during flow sheet evolution and implemented during recession cycle by
auditing studies. The coarse waste generated may find use in civil engineering work. Valuable
ore is sorted from the mixed waste rock using diverse properties like reflectance, fluorescence,
and radioactivity, magnetic and electrical susceptibility. A few examples are mentioned below.
1] Gunson Sorter has successfully sorted diamond bearing ore from Kimberlitic rocks based on
XRF. This is also recommended for implementation at diamond mines at Panna
2] Dry High Force magnetic separators are recommended for pre-concentrating iron ore fines
from low grade dumps at mines

3] Centrifugal gravity separators like WOC/DWP are practiced at refractory phosphates of

Mussorie yielding direct soil fertilizer grade concentrates .
4

Comminution

It is the most vital stage in mineral processing. It accounts for over 50%of capital and
operating costs. Bulk of the process inefficiency occurs due to interlocking and generation of
slimes due to over comminution. The subsequent concentration efficiency and kinetics depends
on the narrow size band and the minimum distribution of oversize and slimes. Hence most of the

work is concentrated in this area but foolproof solutions are still elusive. It is further subdivided
into crushing and grinding operations.
Crushing: Some of the developments are as follows. In case of high O/B mines, an in-pit
crushing-conveying system with a preconcentrator is employed to reduce the haulage costs.
1] The SAG/AG mills are incorporated in case of sticky ores with varying hardness ore types at
high capacities. The SAG/AG mills reduce capital costs and media consumption significantly,
besides minimizing the over grinding and slimes generation. The typical case was SAG milling
in weathered magnetite of KIOCL at Kudremukh.

2] It is a well established that a combination of blasting and crushing consumes less energy with
relation to grinding. Hence, Crush more and grind less was the rule. The advent of BARMAC
fine crusher in sand preparation for abrasive materials replaced hitherto energy inefficient rod
mills.
3] Incorporating HPRG tertiary closed circuit crushing ahead of mills in the case of rock
phosphate concentrator, Jhamarkotra saved 20Kw/t power, besides nearly doubling the plant
capacity from 1500 TPD to 2500 TPD for RSMML.
4] Similarly KIOCL employed HPRG crushing for magnetite concentrate filter cakes reducing
the power consumption by 5Kwh/t, besides reduction of capital cost by 50 crore rupees.

Grinding: Tumbling mills are notorious inefficient devices despite being the work horse of the
mineral processing plant. Though most of the work is done in this area, desired results are still
elusive. Some of the developments that are practiced in Indian plants [HZL, KIOCL TAMIN]
are given below;
1] Usage of large diameter mills wrt length (>6 m) have resulted in reduction of ~10% operating
costs(KIOCL). Judicious blend of using corrosive wear resistant media [Cr cast iron balls] and
grinding additives like NaNO3, pulp thinners like Na2SiO3, CMC marginally reduced the grinding
cost.(HZL).
2] Selection of proper media viz cylindrical pebbles in lieu of balls / rods in tumbling mills
produced right granulometry while grinding soft friable ores like graphite(TAMIN). The above

concept may be useful in grinding friable iron/ chrome ores followed by gravity/magnetic
concentration, as slimes generation and losses are minimized.
3] Age old concept of Catch them young is practiced by incorporating unit concentrating
devices in mill discharge/ recirculating sands
by using unit tables/strakes/Knelson
concentrator(HGML) and Flash flotation cells for recycling sands while grinding soft, friable
heavy minerals like gold, silver, lead ores (HZL)
5

Screening and classification

The most frequently attempted unit operations in a mineral processing plant is the
screening and classification section for improving the efficiency and cost reduction, as these
units are always a part of closed circuit comminution circuits.
The use of polyurethane wear resistant screening panels is common. Currently rapified
sieve bends, high frequency fine size screens and probability multi deck screens are common.
1] The use of 200mesh wet high frequency screen at KIOCL for magnetite concentrates
reduced entrapped and interlocked silica content, resulting in an eco-friendly process as
compared to flotation of quartz by amines using columns.

2] Similar results were obtained in case of Dungarpur fluorite sample yielding chemical grade
concentrate. Multi- angle screens are in vogue to have uniform stratification for improving the
efficiency.
3] DSM rapified screens are used in closed circuit grinding of clayey limestone. In some cases,
the cyclone under flow is screened to correct the sorting inefficiency of cyclones in closed
circuit grinding of soft friable dense ores of wolfram and lead.
Classification especially by hydro cyclone is the main work horse in closed circuit
grinding. Though it is the simplest device, its inefficiency is due to sorting properties due to
mix of light and dense minerals and water reporting in underflow carries the finished material.

Some of these demerits are solved by using multistage classification, using hydraulic water or
screening the under-flow and using automated control of grinding-cyclone circuit.
1] Two stage classification of cylone underflow with Akin Cone classifier improved the closed
circuit grinding throughput by ~30% for Rakha Cu plant.
2] Incorporation of automated grinding-cyclone circuit controls using variable speed pump,
automated water addition and instantaneously adjustable cyclone apex in ball mill-cyclone
circuit of Rajpura-Dariba lead-zinc concentrator plant with stream analyzer saved over 200
million rupees/year and the cost of the automated controls was paid back within a year.

Classification as a concentrator has gained importance with the use of Floatex density
separator in iron, chrome fines processing when the gangue is quartz. The above separator due
to its automation and high capacity is used in siliceous iron and chrome ore beneficiation plants
of KIOCL and TATA respectively.
6

Gravity concentration

Recently, gravity concentration regained importance due to ecological constraints and

evolution of gravity concentration devices at coarse and slimy size range. The former gravity
concentration at coarse size finds application as a pre-concentrating device while the latter acts

as slime processor. A combination of screening, gravity, magnetic and flotation processes have
solved hitherto problematic ore processing.
1] Use of pulsator jigs, Baum jigs, Kelsly radial jigs, LARCODMS are some of the high
capacity devices that are adopted in iron ore and coal processing at coarse sizes.
The use of centrifugal gravity concentrators has made the concentration of slimes by ecofriendly
methods. Knelson ,Falcon and MGS concentrators have a good prospect as slime processors.
1] Knelson concentrators have replaced strake washing in gold mill unit operations at Hutti.
2] Mozley Multi Gravity Separator-MGS a cylindrical table is used in slime recovery of heavy

metallic ore minerals of lead, tungsten, tin. Using MGS for carbonaceous lead concentrates of
Rampura-Agucha, Rajpura-Dariba reduced the levels of lighter carbonaceous and siliceous
gangue minerals.
3] Similarly, acid grade fluorspar was obtained with fluorite flotation concentrates of Dungarpur
by cycloning and MGS of cyclone underflow.
7

Magnetic concentration

Improvements in materials science, yielding high intensity and gradient permanent

magnets, resulted in use of magnetic separation for slime processing and pre-concentration.
1] Perm-roll drum/belt separators are used as pre-concentration device in case of iron ores.
2] Recently, spraying magnetic collectors that specifically adsorb to a particular mineral phase
followed by dry magnetic separation is practiced for removal of siliceous matter from coal and
lime stone fines.
3] Use of Hi-Force separator for removing ferruginous impurities from silica sand and EMD
plants are common,

4] Use of WHIMS/HGMS and Pulsating SLON-HGMS in iron ore and beach sand industry is
common.
5] Superconducting cryogenic HGMS is used to remove magnetic impurities from clay, talc bypassing expensive hydrometallurgical routes.
8

Flotation

The advances in flotation are to increase in efficiency and to reduce costs. The work
centers on the equipment type, size, the reagent chemistry and use of combination process.

1] The use of large capacity [> 500 m3] HG cells with atomized spray froth wash facility is
reported to reduce the capital and operating costs by ~ 15% besides improving the grade and
recovery by ~2% in the case of base metal ore flotation plants.
2] The use of flotation columns during cleanings have not only reduced space, number of cells,
but improved concentrate grades and minimized tails loss, by slime recovery. The combination
of HG cells in recovery section and Columns in cleaners are in vogue in flotation plants of
metallic ores, industrial minerals
3] Several custom built amphoteric collectors are used in flotation of alkaline earth salt mineral
flotation eg barite and rock phosphate. These collectors together with specific sol depressants

selectively float very fine grained alkaline earth salt minerals yielding high grade concentrates
with high recoveries.
9

Combination processes

A combination processes involving flotation with sizing, gravity, magnetic separation,

selective dispersion- flocculation, hydro/pyro processing are discussed.

1] Split flotation tests using mechanical cells for sands and columns for slimes are sometimes
practiced in flotation of precious metal bearing sulphidic dumps to concentrate precious metal
bearing sulphide concentrates.
2] Carbonaceous lead flotation concentrates are subjected to MGS to improve the grade
rejecting lighter carbon coated entrapped/ collected gangue. Similarly, Sulphide bearing
tungsten ore mineral gravity concentrates are subjected to flotation to remove the gangue.
3] The magnetic iron ore concentrates are subjected to reverse flotation to reduce the siliceous
gangue as in case KIOCL, and in China.

4]The Tilden iron ore concentrator is a typical case of selective dispersion of gangue,
flocculation of iron ore slimes and inverse flotation of iron ore minerals, by selectively floating
the gangue.
5]The LPF process of oxidized copper ore comprising of H2SO4 leaching, cementation on
Fe/precipitation as sulphides using H2S/Na2S, followed by floatation with thiol collectors.
6] The segregation chloride-reduction roast, grinding followed by flotation process for copper
silicates in Africa are an example of combination process.

7] Reduction roasting and WLIMS to reduce iron from ferruginous manganese and chrome ores
is another case.
8]Calcination, hydration, attrition, screening and air classification for carbonate type
phosphorites has already been discussed.
10

Ancillary developments

The ancillary developments are very important as they are cost effective revolutionary
and evolutionary developments.

1]The dewatering costs are reduced by using High rate high density thickeners,
ceramic/pressure filters followed by solar driers significantly reducing the dewatering costs
besides enhancing the water reclamation.
2] Similarly the advent of solvent extraction/ resin-in-pulp technology, lean copper ores can be
subjected to HPRG followed by dump/heap leaching [conventional and non-conventional bioprocess] with suitable lechants followed by liquor concentration enrichment by solvent
extraction/Carbon-in-pulp. These methods have revolutionized the base and precious metal
extraction, treating large quantity of lean ores at reasonable quick rate with minimum cost.
3] The benefit of automated process and plant control has already been discussed and is a most
sought after development. The advent of information technology, and shrunken world without

barriers, have eased the operator training, technology transfer and discussing the problems and
obtaining sustainable practiced solutions.
4]Collaborative efforts by the academic, research, industrial, governmental organizations of the
mineral field is the recent trend for fulfilling sustainable eco-friendly, socio-economic growth.
Conclusions
The problems of the mineral processing industry are mentioned. Some of the advances
made are discussed briefly. Problems posed by the minerals have answers in them. Collaborative
sustained efforts by the academic, research, industrial, governmental and consumer industries

related to the mineral field is the need of hour for fulfilling sustainable eco-friendly, socioeconomic growth.
Acknowledgement
The authors are thankful to Shri C S Gundewar, CGIBM, Nagpur and Shri Mohan Ram
SO[OD] and Head Ore Dressing Division, IBM, Nagpur for the permission to present the work.
References

SME Mineral processing Hand Book, Edited by N.L.Weiss, Society of Mining

Engineers, of AIMMPE Inc., New York, USA, 1985.
2 SRS Shastri, KS Raju, BK Rao and GV Rao. Mineral resources and Beneficiation plant
practices in India, Indian Institute of Mineral Engineers, Bhubaneswar, India,2000
3 A Guptha and DS Yan An Introduction to Mineral Processing Design and Operation
Elsevier, NSW, Australia, 2006