Capacitance and Inductance

Engineering Circuit Analysis: International Student Version, Tenth Edition
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Chapter6.CAPACITANCE AND
INDUCTANCE
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THELEARNINGGOALSFORTHISCHAPTERARE:
Knowhowtousecircuitmodelsforinductorsand
capacitorstocalculatevoltage,current,andpower
Beabletocalculatestoredenergyforcapacitorsand
inductors
Understandtheconceptsofcontinuityofcurrentforan
inductorandcontinuityofvoltageforacapacitor
Beabletocalculatevoltagesandcurrentsforcapacitors
andinductorsinelectriccircuitswithdcsources
Knowhowtocombinecapacitorsandinductorsinseries
andparallel
AirportScannersTobesearchedornottobesearchedisneverthe
question.Airtravelersdemandsecurityintheskiesandtoday's
technologymakesitpossiblewithjusta15to30secondbodyscan
insteadofanintrusivepatdownthatcantaketwotofourminutes.Over
99%ofairlinepassengersinmajorairportsacrossthenationchooseto
usebodyscannerswhenfacedwiththeoption.Scannerscanspotplastic
andceramicweaponsandexplosivesthatevademetaldetectorsandcould
eventuallyreplacemetaldetectorsatthenation's2,000airport
checkpoints.
Mosttravelerssaytheywelcomeanymeasurethatenhancessafety,evenif
itmeansgivingupsomeprivacy.Today'snewbodyscannersdependon
millimeterwavetechnologyorbackscatterxraytechnology.Thefirst
producesanimagethatresemblesafuzzyphotonegativetheseconda
chalketching.Millimeterwavetechnologyemits10,000timeslessradio
frequencythanacellphone.Backscattertechnologyuseshighenergyx
raysasitmovesthroughclothingandothermaterials.Inbothcases,
imagesusedforsecurityarenotretainedbutdestroyedimmediately.
Thischapterintroducestwonewcircuitelements:capacitorsand
inductorsthatstoreenergyinelectricandmagneticfields.Voltageand
currentrelationshipsforthesecomponentsdonotfollowOhm'slawbut
insteadconnectvoltagesandcurrentstotheirderivativesandintegrals.
Capacitorsandinductorsarecentraltothestudyofalternatingcurrent
circuits.Theyarealsokeycomponentsinmakingbodyscannerswork.
Thecircuitdesignsbehindeffectivefullbodyscannershelpmake
everyonesaferintheskies.Whatafeeling.
Capacitors
Acapacitorisacircuitelementthatconsistsoftwoconductingsurfaces
separatedbyanonconducting,ordielectric,material.Asimplified
capacitoranditselectricalsymbolareshowninFig.6.1.
Therearemanydifferentkindsofcapacitors,andtheyarecategorizedby
thetypeofdielectricmaterialusedbetweentheconductingplates.
Althoughanygoodinsulatorcanserveasadielectric,eachtypehas
characteristicsthatmakeitmoresuitableforparticularapplications.
Forgeneralapplicationsinelectroniccircuits(e.g.,couplingbetween
stagesofamplification),thedielectricmaterialmaybepaperimpregnated
withoilorwax,mylar,polystyrene,mica,glass,orceramic.
Ceramicdielectriccapacitorsconstructedofbariumtitanateshavealarge
capacitancetovolumeratiobecauseoftheirhighdielectricconstant.
Mica,glass,andceramicdielectriccapacitorswilloperatesatisfactorilyat
highfrequencies.
Aluminumelectrolyticcapacitors,whichconsistofapairofaluminum
platesseparatedbyamoistenedboraxpasteelectrolyte,canprovidehigh
valuesofcapacitanceinsmallvolumes.Theyaretypicallyusedfor
filtering,bypassing,andcoupling,andinpowersuppliesandmotor
startingapplications.Tantalumelectrolyticcapacitorshavelowerlosses
andmorestablecharacteristicsthanthoseofaluminumelectrolytic
capacitors.Fig.6.2showsavarietyoftypicaldiscretecapacitors.
Inadditiontothesecapacitors,whichwedeliberatelyinsertinanetwork
forspecificapplications,straycapacitanceispresentanytimethereisa
differenceinpotentialbetweentwoconductingmaterialsseparatedbya
dielectric.Becausethisstraycapacitancecancauseunwantedcoupling
betweencircuits,extremecaremustbeexercisedinthelayoutof
electronicsystemsonprintedcircuitboards.
Figure6.1.Acapacitoranditselectricalsymbol.
[hint]
Notetheuseofthepassivesignconvention.
Figure6.2.Sometypicalcapacitors.(CourtesyofMark
NelmsandJoAnnLoden)
Capacitanceismeasuredincoulombspervoltorfarads.Theunitfarad
(F)isnamedafterMichaelFaraday,afamousEnglishphysicist.
Capacitorsmaybefixedorvariableandtypicallyrangefromthousandsof
microfarads(F)toafewpicofarads(pF).
Capacitortechnology,initiallydrivenbythemoderninterestinelectric
vehicles,israpidlychanging,however.Forexample,thecapacitoronthe
leftinthephotographinFig.6.3isadoublelayercapacitor,whichis
ratedat2.5Vand100F.Analuminumelectrolyticcapacitor,ratedat25
Vand68,000F,isshownontherightinthisphotograph.The
2
electrolyticcapacitorcanstore0.5*6.810 *25 =21.25joules(J).

2
Thedoublelayercapacitorcanstore0.5*100*2.5 =312.5J.Let's
connecttenofthe100Fcapacitorsinseriesforanequivalent25V
capacitor.Theenergystoredinthisequivalentcapacitoris3125J.We
wouldneedtoconnect147electrolyticcapacitorsinparalleltostorethat
muchenergy.
Figure6.3.A100Fdoublelayercapacitoranda68,000F
electrolyticcapacitor.(CourtesyofMarkNelmsandJoAnn
Loden)
Itisinterestingtocalculatethedimensionsofasimpleequivalent
capacitorconsistingoftwoparallelplateseachofareaA,separatedbya
distancedasshowninFig.6.1.Welearnedinbasicphysicsthatthe
capacitanceoftwoparallelplatesofareaA,separatedbydistanced,is
whereo,thepermitivityoffreespace,is8.8510
12
F/m.Ifweassume
theplatesareseparatedbyadistanceinairofthethicknessofonesheet
4
ofoilimpregnatedpaper,whichisabout1.01610 m,then
andsince1squaremileisequalto2.5910 squaremeters,theareais
whichistheareaofamediumsizedcity!Itwouldnowseemthatthe
doublelayercapacitorinthephotographismuchmoreimpressivethanit
originallyappeared.Thiscapacitorisactuallyconstructedusingahigh
surfaceareamaterialsuchaspowderedcarbonwhichisadheredtoa
metalfoil.Thereareliterallymillionsofpiecesofcarbonemployedto
obtaintherequiredsurfacearea.
SupposenowthatasourceisconnectedtothecapacitorshowninFig.6.1
thenpositivechargeswillbetransferredtooneplateandnegativecharges
totheother.Thechargeonthecapacitorisproportionaltothevoltage
acrossitsuchthat
Equation6.1.
whereCistheproportionalityfactorknownasthecapacitanceofthe
elementinfarads.
Thechargedifferentialbetweentheplatescreatesanelectricfieldthat
storesenergy.Becauseofthepresenceofthedielectric,theconduction
currentthatflowsinthewiresthatconnectthecapacitortotheremainder
ofthecircuitcannotflowinternallybetweentheplates.However,via
electromagneticfieldtheoryitcanbeshownthatthisconductioncurrent
isequaltothedisplacementcurrentthatflowsbetweentheplatesofthe
capacitorandispresentanytimethatanelectricfieldorvoltagevaries
withtime.
Ourprimaryinterestisinthecurrentvoltageterminalcharacteristicsof
thecapacitor.Sincethecurrentis
thenforacapacitor
whichforconstantcapacitanceis
Equation6.2.
Eq.(6.2)canberewrittenas
Nowintegratingthisexpressionfromt=tosometimetandassuming
()=0yields
Equation6.3.
where(t)indicatesthetimedependenceofthevoltage.Eq.(6.3)canbe
expressedastwointegrals,sothat
Equation6.4.
where(t0)isthevoltageduetothechargethataccumulatesonthe
capacitorfromtimet=totimet=t0.
Theenergystoredinthecapacitorcanbederivedfromthepowerthatis
deliveredtotheelement.Thispowerisgivenbytheexpression
Equation6.5.
andhencetheenergystoredintheelectricfieldis
Equation6.6.
since(t=)=0.Theexpressionfortheenergycanalsobewritten
usingEq.(6.1)as
Equation6.7.
Eqs.(6.6)and(6.7)representtheenergystoredbythecapacitor,which,in
turn,isequaltotheworkdonebythesourcetochargethecapacitor.
Nowlet'sconsiderthecaseofadcvoltageappliedacrossacapacitor.
FromEq.(6.2),weseethatthecurrentflowingthroughthecapacitoris
directlyproportionaltothetimerateofchangeofthevoltageacrossthe
capacitor.Adcvoltagedoesnotvarywithtime,sothecurrentflowing
throughthecapacitoriszero.Wecansaythatacapacitoris"anopen
circuittodc"or"blocksdc."Capacitorsareoftenutilizedtoremoveor
filteroutanunwanteddcvoltage.Inanalyzingacircuitcontainingdc
voltagesourcesandcapacitors,wecanreplacethecapacitorswithanopen
circuitandcalculatevoltagesandcurrentsinthecircuitusingourmany
analysistools.
Notethatthepowerabsorbedbyacapacitor,givenbyEq.(6.5),isdirectly
proportionaltothetimerateofchangeofthevoltageacrossthecapacitor.
Whatifwehadaninstantaneouschangeinthecapacitorvoltage?This
wouldcorrespondtod/dt=andinfinitepower.InChapter1,weruled
outthepossibilityofanysourcesofinfinitepower.Sinceweonlyhave
finitepowersources,thevoltageacrossacapacitorcannotchange
instantaneously.Thiswillbeaparticularlyhelpfulideainthenextchapter
whenweencountercircuitscontainingswitches.Thisideaof"continuity
ofvoltage"foracapacitortellsusthatthevoltageacrossthecapacitorjust
afteraswitchmovesisthesameasthevoltageacrossthecapacitorjust
beforethatswitchmoves.
Thepolarityofthevoltageacrossacapacitorbeingchargedisshownin
Fig.6.1b.Intheidealcase,thecapacitorwillholdthechargeforan
indefiniteperiodoftime,ifthesourceisremoved.Ifatsomelatertimean
energyabsorbingdevice(e.g.,aflashbulb)isconnectedacrossthe
capacitor,adischargecurrentwillflowfromthecapacitorand,therefore,
thecapacitorwillsupplyitsstoredenergytothedevice.
Example6.1.EXAMPLE6.1
Ifthechargeaccumulatedontwoparallelconductorschargedto12Vis
600pC,whatisthecapacitanceoftheparallelconductors?
SOLUTION
UsingEq.(6.1),wefindthat
Thevoltageacrossa5FcapacitorhasthewaveformshowninFig.6.4a.
Determinethecurrentwaveform.
SOLUTION
Notethat
Figure6.4.Voltageandcurrentwaveformsfora5F
capacitor.
UsingEq.(6.2),wefindthat
and
Therefore,thecurrentwaveformisasshowninFig.6.4bandi(t)=0fort
>8ms.
Determinetheenergystoredintheelectricfieldofthecapacitorin
Example6.2att=6ms.
SOLUTION
UsingEq.(6.6),wehave
Att=6ms,
LearningAssessment
E6.1A10Fcapacitorhasanaccumulatedchargeof500
nC.Determinethevoltageacrossthecapacitor.
ANSWER:0.05V.
Thecurrentinaninitiallyuncharged4FcapacitorisshowninFig.6.5a.
Letusderivethewaveformsforthevoltage,power,andenergyand
computetheenergystoredintheelectricfieldofthecapacitoratt=2ms.
SOLUTION
Theequationsforthecurrentwaveforminthespecifictimeintervalsare
Since(0)=0,theequationfor(t)inthetimeinterval0t2msis
andhence,
Figure6.5.WaveformsusedinExample6.4.
Inthetimeinterval2mst4ms,
ThewaveformforthevoltageisshowninFig.6.5b.
Sincethepowerisp(t)=(t)i(t),theexpressionforthepowerinthetime
3
interval0t2msisp(t)=8t .Inthetimeinterval2mst4ms,the
equationforthepoweris
ThepowerwaveformisshowninFig.6.5c.Notethatduringthetime
interval0t2ms,thecapacitorisabsorbingenergyandduringthe
interval2mst4ms,itisdeliveringenergy.
Theenergyisgivenbytheexpression
Inthetimeinterval0t2ms,
Hence,
Inthetimeinterval2t4ms,
Fromthisexpressionwefindthatw(2ms)=32pJandw(4ms)=0.The
energywaveformisshowninFig.6.5d.
LearningAssessments
E6.2Thevoltageacrossa2FcapacitorisshowninFig.
E6.2.Determinethewaveformforthecapacitorcurrent.
FigureE6.2.FigureE6.2
ANSWER:
E6.3Computetheenergystoredintheelectricfieldofthe
capacitorinLearningAssessmentE6.2att=2ms.
ANSWER:w=144J.
E6.4Thevoltageacrossa5FcapacitorisshowninFig.
E6.4.Findthewaveformforthecurrentinthecapacitor.How
muchenergyisstoredinthecapacitoratt=4ms.
ANSWER:250J.
E6.5Thewaveformforthecurrentina1nFcapacitorisFig.
E6.5.Ifthecapacitorhasaninitialvoltageof5V,determine
thewaveformforthecapacitorvoltage.Howmuchenergyis
storedinthecapacitoratt=6ms?
ANSWER:312.5nJ.
Inductors
Aninductorisacircuitelementthatconsistsofaconductingwireusually
intheformofacoil.Twotypicalinductorsandtheirelectricalsymbolare
showninFig.6.6.Inductorsaretypicallycategorizedbythetypeofcore
onwhichtheyarewound.Forexample,thecorematerialmaybeairor
anynonmagneticmaterial,iron,orferrite.Inductorsmadewithairor
nonmagneticmaterialsarewidelyusedinradio,television,andfilter
circuits.Ironcoreinductorsareusedinelectricalpowersuppliesand
filters.Ferritecoreinductorsarewidelyusedinhighfrequency
applications.Notethatincontrasttothemagneticcorethatconfinesthe
flux,asshowninFig.6.6b,thefluxlinesfornonmagneticinductors
extendbeyondtheinductoritself,asillustratedinFig.6.6a.Likestray
capacitance,strayinductancecanresultfromanyelementcarrying
currentsurroundedbyfluxlinkages.Fig.6.7showsavarietyoftypical
inductors.
Fromahistoricalstandpoint,developmentsthatledtothemathematical
modelweemploytorepresenttheinductorareasfollows.Itwasfirst
shownthatacurrentcarryingconductorwouldproduceamagneticfield.
Itwaslaterfoundthatthemagneticfieldandthecurrentthatproducedit
werelinearlyrelated.Finally,itwasshownthatachangingmagneticfield
producedavoltagethatwasproportionaltothetimerateofchangeofthe
currentthatproducedthemagneticfieldthatis,
Equation6.8.
TheconstantofproportionalityLiscalledtheinductanceandismeasured
intheunithenry,namedaftertheAmericaninventorJosephHenry,who
discoveredtherelationship.AsseeninEq.(6.8),1henry(H)is
dimensionallyequalto1voltsecondperampere.
Followingthedevelopmentofthemathematicalequationsforthe
capacitor,wefindthattheexpressionforthecurrentinaninductoris
Equation6.9.
Figure6.6.Twoinductorsandtheirelectricalsymbol
Figure6.7.Sometypicalinductors.(CourtesyofMark
NelmsandJoAnnLoden)
whichcanalsobewrittenas
Equation6.10.
Thepowerdeliveredtotheinductorcanbeusedtoderivetheenergy
storedintheelement.Thispowerisequalto
p(t)=(t)i(t)
Equation6.11.
Therefore,theenergystoredinthemagneticfieldis
FollowingthedevelopmentofEq.(6.6),weobtain
Equation6.12.
Nowlet'sconsiderthecaseofadccurrentflowingthroughaninductor.
FromEq.(6.8),weseethatthevoltageacrosstheinductorisdirectly
proportionaltothetimerateofchangeofthecurrentflowingthroughthe
inductor.Adccurrentdoesnotvarywithtime,sothevoltageacrossthe
inductoriszero.Wecansaythataninductoris"ashortcircuittodc."In
analyzingacircuitcontainingdcsourcesandinductors,wecanreplace
anyinductorswithshortcircuitsandcalculatevoltagesandcurrentsin
thecircuitusingourmanyanalysistools.
NotefromEq.(6.11)thataninstantaneouschangeininductorcurrent
wouldrequireinfinitepower.Sincewedon'thaveanyinfinitepower
sources,thecurrentflowingthroughaninductorcannotchange
instantaneously.Thiswillbeaparticularlyhelpfulideainthenextchapter
whenweencountercircuitscontainingswitches.Thisideaof"continuity
ofcurrent"foraninductortellsusthatthecurrentflowingthroughan
inductorjustafteraswitchmovesisthesameasthecurrentflowing
throughaninductorjustbeforethatswitchmoves.
FindthetotalenergystoredinthecircuitofFig.6.8a.
Figure6.8.CircuitsusedinExample6.5.
SOLUTION
Thiscircuithasonlydcsources.Basedonourearlierdiscussionsabout
capacitorsandinductorsandconstantsources,wecanreplacethe
capacitorswithopencircuitsandtheinductorswithshortcircuits.The
resultingcircuitisshowninFig.6.8b.
Thisresistivecircuitcannowbesolvedusinganyofthetechniqueswe
havelearnedinearlierchapters.IfweapplyKCLatnodeA,weget
ApplyingKVLaroundtheoutsideofthecircuityields
SolvingtheseequationsyieldsIL1=1.2AandIL2=1.8A.Thevoltages
VC1andVC2canbecalculatedfromthecurrents:
Thetotalenergystoredinthecircuitisthesumoftheenergystoredinthe
twoinductorsandtwocapacitors:
Thetotalstoredenergyis13.46mJ.
Theinductor,liketheresistorandcapacitor,isapassiveelement.The
polarityofthevoltageacrosstheinductorisshowninFig.6.6.
Practicalinductorstypicallyrangefromafewmicrohenrystotensof
henrys.Fromacircuitdesignstandpointitisimportanttonotethat
inductorscannotbeeasilyfabricatedonanintegratedcircuitchip,and
thereforechipdesignstypicallyemployonlyactiveelectronicdevices,
resistors,andcapacitorsthatcanbeeasilyfabricatedinmicrocircuitform.
Thecurrentina10mHinductorhasthewaveformshowninFig.6.9a.
Determinethevoltagewaveform.
SOLUTION
UsingEq.(6.8)andnotingthat
and
Figure6.9.Currentandvoltagewaveformsfora10mH
inductor.
wefindthat
and
and(t)=0fort>4ms.Therefore,thevoltagewaveformisshowninFig.
6.9b.
Thecurrentina2mHinductoris
Determinethevoltageacrosstheinductorandtheenergystoredinthe
inductor.
SOLUTION
FromEq.(6.8),wehave
andfromEq.(6.12),
Thevoltageacrossa200mHinductorisgivenbytheexpression
Letusderivethewaveformsforthecurrent,energy,andpower.
SOLUTION
ThewaveformforthevoltageisshowninFig.6.10a.Thecurrentis
derivedfromEq.(6.10)as
AplotofthecurrentwaveformisshowninFig.6.10b.
Thepowerisgivenbytheexpression
TheequationforthepowerisplottedinFig.6.10c.
Theexpressionfortheenergyis
ThisequationisplottedinFig.6.10d.
Figure6.10.WaveformsusedinExample6.8.
LearningAssessments
E6.6Thecurrentina5mHinductorhasthewaveformshown
inFig.E6.6.Computethewaveformfortheinductorvoltage.
ANSWER:
E6.7Computetheenergystoredinthemagneticfieldofthe
inductorinLearningAssesmentE6.6att=1.5ms.
ANSWER:W=562.5nJ.
E6.8Thecurrentina2HinductorisshowninFig.E6.8.Find
thewaveformfortheinductorvoltage.Howmuchenergyis
storedintheinductoratt=3ms?
ANSWER:25J.
E6.9Thevoltageacrossa0.1HinductorisshowninFig.
E6.9.Computethewaveformforthecurrentintheinductorif
i(0)=0.1A.Howmuchenergyisstoredintheinductoratt=
7ms?
ANSWER:1.125mJ.
E6.10Findtheenergystoredinthecapacitorandinductorin
Fig.E6.10.
ANSWER:0.72J,0.5J.
CAPACITORANDINDUCTORSPECIFICATIONSTherearea
coupleofimportantparametersthatareusedtospecifycapacitorsand
inductors.Inthecaseofcapacitors,thecapacitancevalue,working
voltage,andtoleranceareissuesthatmustbeconsideredintheir
application.StandardcapacitorvaluesrangefromafewpFtoabout50
mF.Capacitorslargerthan1Fareavailablebutwillnotbediscussedhere.
Table6.1isalistofstandardcapacitorvalues,whicharetypicallygivenin
picofaradsormicrofarads.Althoughbothsmallerandlargerratingsare
available,thestandardworkingvoltage,ordcvoltagerating,istypically
between6.3Vand500V.Manufacturersspecifythisworkingvoltage
sinceitiscriticaltokeeptheappliedvoltagebelowthebreakdownpoint
ofthedielectric.Toleranceisanadjuncttothecapacitancevalueandis
usuallylistedasapercentageofthenominalvalue.Standardtolerance
valuesare5%,10%,and20%.Occasionally,tolerancesforsingle
digitpFcapacitorsarelistedinpF.Forexample,5pF0.25pF.
Table6.1.Standardcapacitorvalues
pF
pF
pF
pF
10
100
1000
0.010
0.10
1.0
10
100
12
120
1200
0.012
0.12
1.2
12
120
1.5
15
150
1500
0.015
0.15
1.5
15
150
18
180
1800
0.018
0.18
1.8
18
180
20
200
2000
0.020
0.20
2.0
20
200
22
220
2200
0.022
0.22
2.2
22
220
27
270
2700
0.027
0.27
2.7
27
270
33
330
3300
0.033
0.33
3.3
33
330
39
390
3900
0.039
0.39
3.9
39
390
47
470
4700
0.047
0.47
4.7
47
470
51
510
5100
0.051
0.51
5.1
51
510
56
560
5600
0.056
0.56
5.6
56
560
68
680
6800
0.068
0.68
6.8
68
680
82
820
8200
0.082
0.82
8.2
82
820
Thetwoprincipalinductorspecificationsareinductanceandresistance.
Standardcommercialinductancesrangefromabout1nHtoaround100
mH.Largerinductancescan,ofcourse,becustombuiltforaprice.Table
6.2liststhestandardinductorvalues.Thecurrentratingforinductors
typicallyextendsfromafewdozenmA'stoabout1A.Tolerancesare
typically5%or10%ofthespecifiedvalue.
Table6.2.Standardinductorvalues
nH
nH
nH
mH
mH
mH
10
100
1.0
10
100
1.0
10
100
1.2
12
120
1.2
12
120
1.2
12
1.5
15
150
1.5
15
150
1.5
15
1.8
18
180
1.8
18
180
1.8
18
20
200
2.0
20
200
2.0
20
2.2
22
220
2.2
22
220
2.2
22
2.7
27
270
2.7
27
270
2.7
27
33
330
3.3
33
330
3.3
33
39
390
3.9
39
390
3.9
39
47
470
4.7
47
470
4.7
47
51
510
5.1
51
510
5.1
51
56
560
5.6
56
560
5.6
56
68
680
6.8
68
680
6.8
68
82
820
8.2
82
820
8.2
82
AsindicatedinChapter2,wirewoundresistorsaresimplycoilsofwire,
andthereforeitisonlylogicalthatinductorswillhavesomeresistance.
Themajordifferencebetweenwirewoundresistorsandinductorsisthe
wirematerial.HighresistancematerialssuchasNichromeareusedin
resistors,andlowresistancecopperisusedininductors.Theresistanceof
thecopperwireisdependentonthelengthanddiameterofthewire.
Table6.3liststheAmericanWireGauge(AWG)standardwirediameters
andtheresultingresistanceperfootforcopperwire.
Table6.3.Resistanceperfootofsolidcopperwire
AWGNo.
Diameter(in.)
m/ft
12
0.0808
1.59
14
0.0641
2.54
16
0.0508
4.06
18
0.0400
6.50
20
0.0320
10.4
22
0.0253
16.5
24
0.0201
26.2
26
0.0159
41.6
28
0.0126
66.2
30
0.0100
105
32
0.0080
167
34
0.0063
267
36
0.0049
428
38
0.0039
684
40
0.0031
1094
Wewishtofindthepossiblerangeofcapacitancevaluesfora51mF
capacitorthathasatoleranceof20%.
SOLUTION
Theminimumcapacitorvalueis0.8C=40.8mF,andthemaximum
capacitorvalueis1.2C=61.2mF.
ThecapacitorinFig.6.11aisa100nFcapacitorwithatoleranceof20%.
IfthevoltagewaveformisasshowninFig.6.11b,letusgraphthecurrent
waveformfortheminimumandmaximumcapacitorvalues.
SOLUTION
Themaximumcapacitorvalueis1.2C=120nF,andtheminimum
capacitorvalueis0.8C=80nF.Themaximumandminimumcapacitor
currents,obtainedfromtheequation
areshowninFig.6.11c.
Figure6.11.CircuitandgraphsusedinExample6.10.
TheinductorinFig.6.12aisa100Hinductorwithatoleranceof10%.If
thecurrentwaveformisasshowninFig.6.12b,letusgraphthevoltage
waveformfortheminimumandmaximuminductorvalues.
SOLUTION
Themaximuminductorvalueis1.1L=110H,andtheminimuminductor
valueis0.9L=90H.Themaximumandminimuminductorvoltages,
obtainedfromtheequation
areshowninFig.6.12c.
Figure6.12.CircuitandgraphsusedinExample6.11.
Capacitor and Inductor Combinations
SERIESCAPACITORSIfanumberofcapacitorsareconnectedin
series,theirequivalentcapacitancecanbecalculatedusingKVL.Consider
thecircuitshowninFig.6.13a.Forthiscircuit
Equation6.13.
but
Equation6.14.
Figure6.13.EquivalentcircuitforNseriesconnected
capacitors.
Therefore,Eq.(6.13)canbewrittenasfollowsusingEq.(6.14):
Equation6.15.
Equation6.16.
where
and
Equation6.17.
[hint]
Capacitorsinseriescombinelikeresistorsinparallel.
Thus,thecircuitinFig.6.13bisequivalenttothatinFig.6.13aunderthe
conditionsstatedpreviously.
Itisalsoimportanttonotethatsincethesamecurrentflowsineachofthe
seriescapacitors,eachcapacitorgainsthesamechargeinthesametime
period.Thevoltageacrosseachcapacitorwilldependonthischargeand
thecapacitanceoftheelement.
Determinetheequivalentcapacitanceandtheinitialvoltageforthecircuit
showninFig.6.14.
Notethatthesecapacitorsmusthavebeenchargedbeforetheywere
connectedinseriesorelsethechargeofeachwouldbeequalandthe
voltageswouldbeinthesamedirection.
SOLUTION
Theequivalentcapacitanceis
whereallcapacitancevaluesareinmicrofarads.
Therefore,CS=1Fand,asseenfromthefigure,(t0)=3V.Notethat
thetotalenergystoredinthecircuitis
However,theenergyrecoverableattheterminalsis
Figure6.14.Circuitcontainingmultiplecapacitorswith
initialvoltages.
Twopreviouslyunchargedcapacitorsareconnectedinseriesandthen
chargedwitha12Vsource.Onecapacitoris30Fandtheotheris
unknown.Ifthevoltageacrossthe30Fcapacitoris8V,findthe
capacitanceoftheunknowncapacitor.
SOLUTION
Thechargeonthe30Fcapacitoris
Sincethesamecurrentflowsineachoftheseriescapacitors,each
capacitorgainsthesamechargeinthesametimeperiod:
PARALLELCAPACITORSTodeterminetheequivalentcapacitanceof
Ncapacitorsconnectedinparallel,weemployKCL.Ascanbeseenfrom
Fig.6.15a,
Equation6.18.
Equation6.19.
where
[hint]
Capacitorsinparallelcombinelikeresistorsinseries.
Equation6.20.
Figure6.15.EquivalentcircuitforNcapacitorsconnected
inparallel.
DeterminetheequivalentcapacitanceatterminalsABofthecircuit
showninFig.6.16.
SOLUTION
Figure6.16.Circuitcontainingmultiplecapacitorsin
parallel.
LearningAssessments
E6.11Twoinitiallyunchargedcapacitorsareconnectedas
showninFig.E6.11.Afteraperiodoftime,thevoltage
reachesthevalueshown.DeterminethevalueofC1.
ANSWER:C1=4F.
E6.12Computetheequivalentcapacitanceofthenetworkin
Fig.E6.12.
ANSWER:Ceq=1.5F.
E6.13DetermineCTinFig.E6.13.
ANSWER:1.667F.
SERIESINDUCTORSIfNinductorsareconnectedinseries,the
equivalentinductanceofthecombinationcanbedeterminedasfollows.
ReferringtoFig.6.17aandusingKVL,weseethat
Equation6.21.
andtherefore,
Equation6.22.
Equation6.23.
where
[hint]
Inductorsinseriescombinelikeresistorsinseries.
Equation6.24.
Therefore,underthisconditionthenetworkinFig.6.17bisequivalentto
thatinFig.6.17a.
Figure6.17.EquivalentcircuitforNseriesconnected
inductors.
FindtheequivalentinductanceofthecircuitshowninFig.6.18.
SOLUTION
TheequivalentinductanceofthecircuitshowninFig.6.18is
Figure6.18.Circuitcontainingmultipleinductors.
PARALLELINDUCTORSConsiderthecircuitshowninFig.6.19a,
whichcontainsNparallelinductors.UsingKCL,wecanwrite
Equation6.25.
However,
Equation6.26.
SubstitutingthisexpressionintoEq.(6.25)yields
Equation6.27.
Equation6.28.
where
Equation6.29.
[hint]
Inductorsinparallelcombinelikeresistorsinparallel.
andi(t0)isequaltothecurrentinLpatt=t0.Thus,thecircuitinFig.
6.19bisequivalenttothatinFig.6.19aundertheconditionsstated
previously.
Figure6.19.EquivalentcircuitsforNinductorsconnected
inparallel.
Determinetheequivalentinductanceandtheinitialcurrentforthecircuit
showninFig.6.20.
Theequivalentinductanceis
SOLUTION
whereallinductancevaluesareinmillihenrys:
andtheinitialcurrentisi(t0)=1A.
Figure6.20.Circuitcontainingmultipleinductorswith
initialcurrents.
Thepreviousmaterialindicatesthatcapacitorscombinelike
conductances,whereasinductancescombinelikeresistances.
LearningAssessments
E6.14Determinetheequivalentinductanceofthenetworkin
Fig.E6.14ifallinductorsare6mH.
ANSWER:9.429mH.
E6.15FindLTinFig.E6.15.
ANSWER:5mH.
CHIPCAPACITORSInChapter2,webrieflydiscussedtheresistors
thatareusedinmodernelectronicmanufacturing.Anexampleofthese
surfacemountdeviceswasshowninFig.2.41,togetherwithsometypical
chipcapacitors.Aswewillindicateinthematerialthatfollows,modern
electronicsemploysprimarilyresistorsandcapacitorsandavoidstheuse
ofinductorswhenpossible.
Surfacemountedchipcapacitorsaccountforthemajorityofcapacitors
usedinelectronicsassemblytoday.Thesecapacitorshavealargerangeof
sizes,fromassmallas10milsonasideupto250milsonaside.All
ceramicchipcapacitorsconsistofaceramicdielectriclayerbetweenmetal
plates.Thepropertiesoftheceramicandmetallayersdeterminethetype
ofcapacitor,itscapacitance,andreliability.Acutawayviewofastandard
chipcapacitorisshowninFig.6.21.Theinnermetalelectrodesare
alternatelyconnectedtotheopposingsidesofthechipwheremetal
terminatorsareadded.Theseterminatorsnotonlymakeconnectionto
theinnerelectrodes,butalsoprovideasolderbaseforattachingthese
chipstoprintedcircuitboards.Thenumberofalternatinglayers,the
spacingbetweenthem,alongwiththedielectricconstantoftheceramic
material,willdeterminethecapacitancevalue.
Figure6.21.Crosssectionofamultilayerceramicchip
capacitor.
Weindicatedearlierthatresistorsarenormallymanufacturedinstandard
sizeswithspecificpowerratings.Chipcapacitorsarealsomanufacturedin
thismanner,andTable6.4providesapartiallistingofthesedevices.
ThestandardsizesofchipcapacitorsareshowninTable6.4.
Table6.4.Ceramicchipcapacitorstandardsizes
SizeCode
Size(Mils)
PowerRating(Watts)
0201
2010
1/20
0402
4020
1/16
0603
6030
1/10
0805
8050
1206
12060
2010
200100
2512
250120
CHIPINDUCTORSAchipinductorconsistsofaminiatureceramic
substratewitheitherawirewrappedarounditorathinfilmdeposited
andpatternedtoformacoil.Theycanbeencapsulatedormoldedwitha
materialtoprotectthewirefromtheelementsorleftunprotected.Chip
inductorsaresuppliedinavarietyoftypesandvalues,withthreetypical
configurationsthatconformtothestandard"chip"packagewidely
utilizedintheprintedcircuitboard(PCB)industry.
Thefirsttypeistheprecisionchipinductorwherecopperisdeposited
ontotheceramicandpatternedtoformacoil,asshowninFig.6.22.
Figure6.22.Precisionchipinductorcrosssection.
Figure6.23.Ferritechipinductorcrosssection
Thesecondtypeisaferritechipinductor,whichusesaseriesofcoil
patternsstackedbetweenferritelayerstoformamultiplayercoilas
showninFig.6.23.
Thethirdtypeisawirewoundopenframeinwhichawireiswound
aroundaceramicsubstratetoformtheinductorcoil.Thecompleted
structureisshowninFig.6.24.
Eachoftheseconfigurationsdisplaysdifferentcharacteristics,withthe
wirewoundtypeprovidingthehighestinductancevalues(10nH4.7
uH)andreasonabletolerances(12%).Theferritechipinductorgivesa
widerangeofvalues(47nH33uH)buthastolerancesinthe5%range.
Theprecisionchipinductorhaslowinductancevalues(1100nH)but
verygoodtolerances(+/0.1nH).
Figure6.24.Wirewoundchipinductorcrosssection
RC Operational Amplifier Circuits

TwoveryimportantRCopampcircuitsarethedifferentiatorandthe
integrator.Thesecircuitsarederivedfromthecircuitforaninvertingop
ampbyreplacingtheresistorsR1andR2,respectively,byacapacitor.
Consider,forexample,thecircuitshowninFig.6.25a.Thecircuit
equationsare
However,=0andi=0.Therefore,
[hint]
Thepropertiesoftheidealopamparev+=vandi+=i=0.
Equation6.30.
Figure6.25.Differentiatorandintegratoroperational
amplifiercircuits.
Thus,theoutputoftheopampcircuitisproportionaltothederivativeof
theinput.
ThecircuitequationsfortheopampconfigurationinFig.6.25bare
butsince=0andi=0,theequationreducesto
or
Equation6.31.
Ifthecapacitorisinitiallydischarged,theno(0)=0hence,
Equation6.32.
Thus,theoutputvoltageoftheopampcircuitisproportionaltothe
integraloftheinputvoltage.
ThewaveforminFig.6.26aisappliedattheinputofthedifferentiator
circuitshowninFig.6.25a.IfR2=1kandC1=2F,determinethe
waveformattheoutputoftheopamp.
SOLUTION
UsingEq.(6.30),wefindthattheopampoutputis
d1(t)/dt=(2)10 for0t<5ms,andtherefore,
d1(t)/dt=(2)10 for5t<10ms,andtherefore,
Hence,theoutputwaveformofthedifferentiatorisshowninFig.6.26b.
Figure6.26.Inputandoutputwaveformsfora
differentiatorcircuit.
IftheintegratorshowninFig.6.25bhastheparametersR1=5kandC2
=0.2F,determinethewaveformattheopampoutputiftheinput
waveformisgivenasinFig.6.27aandthecapacitorisinitiallydischarged.
SOLUTION
Theintegratoroutputisgivenbytheexpression
whichwiththegivencircuitparametersis
Intheinterval0t<0.1s,1(t)=20mV.Hence,
Att=0.1s,0(t)=2V.Intheintervalfrom0.1to0.2s,theintegrator
producesapositiveslopeoutputof20tfrom0(0.1)=2Vto0(0.2)=
0V.Thiswaveformfromt=0tot=0.2sisrepeatedintheintervalt=
0.2tot=0.4s,andtherefore,theoutputwaveformisshowninFig.6.27b.
Figure6.27.Inputandoutputwaveformsforanintegrator
circuit.
LearningAssessments
E6.16ThewaveforminFig.E6.16isappliedtotheinput
terminalsoftheopampdifferentiatorcircuit.Determinethe
differentiatoroutputwaveformiftheopampcircuit
parametersareC1=2FandR2=2.
ANSWER:
Application Examples
Example6.19.APPLICATIONEXAMPLE6.19
Inintegratedcircuits,wirescarryinghighspeedsignalsarecloselyspaced
asshownbythemicrographinFig.6.28.Asaresult,asignalonone
conductorcan"mysteriously"appearonadifferentconductor.This
phenomenoniscalledcrosstalk.Letusexaminethisconditionand
proposesomemethodsforreducingit.
Figure6.28.SEMImage(TomWay/GingerConly.Courtesy
ofInternationalBusinessMachinesCorporation.
Unauthorizedusenotpermitted.)
SOLUTION
Theoriginofcrosstalkiscapacitance.Inparticular,itisundesired
capacitance,oftencalledparasiticcapacitance,thatexistsbetweenwires
thatarecloselyspaced.ThesimplemodelinFig.6.29canbeusedto
investigatecrosstalkbetweentwolongparallelwires.Asignalisapplied
towire1.CapacitancesC1andC2aretheparasiticcapacitancesofthe
conductorswithrespecttoground,whileC12isthecapacitancebetween
theconductors.Recallthatweintroducedthecapacitorastwoclosely
spacedconductingplates.Ifwestretchthoseplatesintothinwires,
certainlythegeometryoftheconductorswouldchangeandthusthe
amountofcapacitance.However,weshouldstillexpectsomecapacitance
betweenthewires.
Figure6.29.Asimplemodelforinvestigatingcrosstalk.
Inordertoquantifythelevelofcrosstalk,wewanttoknowhowmuchof
thevoltageonwire1appearsonwire2.Anodalanalysisatwire2yields
Solvingfordv2(t)/dt,wefindthat
Integratingbothsidesofthisequationyields
Notethatitisasimplecapacitanceratiothatdetermineshoweffectively
1(t)is"coupled"intowire2.Clearly,ensuringthatC12ismuchlessthan
C2isthekeytocontrollingcrosstalk.Howisthisdone?First,wecanmake
C12assmallaspossiblebyincreasingthespacingbetweenwires.Second,
wecanincreaseC2byputtingitclosertothegroundwiring.
Unfortunately,thefirstoptiontakesupmorerealestate,andthesecond
oneslowsdownthevoltagesignalsinwire1.Atthispoint,weseemto
haveatypicalengineeringtradeoff:toimproveonecriterion,thatis,
decreasedcrosstalk,wemustsacrificeanother,spaceorspeed.Oneway
toaddressthespaceissuewouldbetoinsertagroundconnectionbetween
thesignalcarryingwiresasshowninFig.6.30.However,anyadvantage
achievedwithgroundedwiresmustbetradedoffagainsttheincreasein
space,sinceinsertinggroundedwiresbetweenadjacentconductorswould
nearlydoublethewidthconsumedwithoutthem.
Figure6.30.Useofagroundwireinthecrosstalkmodel.
RedrawingthecircuitinFig.6.31immediatelyindicatesthatwires1and2
arenowelectricallyisolatedandthereshouldbenocrosstalkwhatsoever
asituationthatishighlyunlikely.Thus,wearepromptedtoaskthe
question,"Isourmodelaccurateenoughtomodelcrosstalk?"Amore
accuratemodelforthecrosstalkreductionschemeisshowninFig.6.32
wherethecapacitancebetweensignalwires1and2isnolongerignored.
Onceagain,wewilldeterminetheamountofcrosstalkbyexaminingthe
ratio2(t)/1(t).Employingnodalanalysisatwire2inthecircuitinFig.
6.33yields
Figure6.31.Electricalisolationusingagroundwirein
crosstalkmodel.
Solvingford2(t)/dt,weobtain
Integratingbothsidesofthisequationyields
Notethatthisresultisverysimilartoourearlierresultwiththeaddition
oftheC2Gterm.Twobenefitsinthissituationreducecrosstalk.First,C12
issmallerbecauseaddingthegroundwiremoveswires1and2farther
apart.Second,C2Gmakesthedenominatorofthecrosstalkequation
bigger.IfweassumethatC2G=C2andthatC12hasbeenhalvedbythe
extraspacing,wecanexpectthecrosstalktobereducedbyafactorof
roughly4.
Figure6.32.Amoreaccuratecrosstalkmodel.
Figure6.33.Aredrawnversionofthemoreaccurate
crosstalkmodel.
Example6.20.APPLICATIONEXAMPLE6.20
Anexcellentexampleofcapacitoroperationisthememoryinsidea
personalcomputer.Thismemory,calleddynamicrandomaccessmemory
(DRAM),containsasmanyas4billiondatastoragesitescalledcells(circa
2007).Expectthisnumbertoroughlydoubleevery2yearsforthenext
decadeortwo.Letusexamineinsomedetailtheoperationofasingle
DRAMcell.
SOLUTION
Fig.6.34ashowsasimplemodelforaDRAMcell.Dataarestoredonthe
cellcapacitorintrue/false(or1/0)format,wherealargecapacitorvoltage
representsatrueconditionanda
Figure6.34.Asimplecircuitmodelshowing(a)theDRAM
memorycell,(b)theeffectofchargeleakagefromthecell
capacitor,and(c)cellconditionsatthebeginningofaread
operation.
lowvoltagerepresentsafalsecondition.Theswitchclosestoallowaccess
fromtheprocessortotheDRAMcell.CurrentsourceIleakisan
unintentional,orparasitic,currentthatmodelschargeleakagefromthe
capacitor.Anotherparasiticmodelelementisthecapacitance,Cout,the
capacitanceofthewiringconnectedtotheoutputsideofthecell.Both
IleakandCouthaveenormousimpactsonDRAMperformanceanddesign.
Considerstoringatrueconditioninthecell.Ahighvoltageof3.0Vis
appliedatnodeI/Oandtheswitchisclosed,causingthevoltageonCcellto
quicklyriseto3.0V.Weopentheswitchandthedataarestored.During
thestoreoperationthecharge,energy,andnumberofelectrons,n,used
are
Oncedataarewritten,theswitchopensandthecapacitorbeginsto
dischargethroughIleak.AmeasureofDRAMqualityisthetimerequired
forthedatavoltagetodropbyhalf,from3.0Vto1.5V.Letuscallthis
timetH.Forthecapacitor,weknow
where,fromFig.6.34b,icell(t)=Ileak.Performingtheintegralyields
Weknowthatatt=0,cell=3V.Thus,K=3andthecellvoltageis
Equation6.33.
Substitutingt=tHandcell(tH)=1.5VintoEq.(6.33)andsolvingfortH
yieldstH=15ms.Thus,thecelldataaregoneinonlyafewmilliseconds!
Thesolutionisrewritingthedatabeforeitcandisappear.Thistechnique,
calledrefresh,isamustforallDRAMusingthisonetransistorcell.
ToseetheeffectofCout,considerreadingafullycharged(cell=3.0V)
truecondition.TheI/Olineisusuallyprechargedtohalfthedatavoltage.
Inthisexample,thatwouldbe1.5VasseeninFig.6.34c.(Toisolatethe
effectofCout,wehaveremovedIleak.)Next,theswitchisclosed.What
happensnextisbestviewedasaconservationofcharge.Justbeforethe
switchcloses,thetotalstoredchargeinthecircuitis
Whentheswitchcloses,thecapacitorvoltagesarethesame(letuscallit
Vo)andthetotalchargeisunchanged:
and
Thus,thechangeinvoltageatVI/Oduringthereadoperationisonly0.15
V.Averysensitiveamplifierisrequiredtoquicklydetectsuchasmall
change.InDRAMs,theseamplifiersarecalledsenseamps.Howcancell
changeinstantaneouslywhentheswitchcloses?Itcannot.Inanactual
DRAMcell,atransistor,whichhasasmallequivalentresistance,actsas
theswitch.TheresultingRCtimeconstantisverysmall,indicatingavery
fastcircuit.Recallthatwearenotanalyzingthecell'sspeedonlythefinal
voltagevalue,Vo.Aslongasthepowerlostintheswitchissmall
comparedtothecapacitorenergy,wecanbecomfortableinneglectingthe
switchresistance.Bytheway,ifafalsecondition(zerovolts)wereread
fromthecell,thenVowoulddropfromitsprechargedvalueof1.5Vto
1.35Vanegativechangeof0.15V.Thissymmetricvoltagechangeisthe
reasonforprechargingtheI/Onodetohalfthedatavoltage.Reviewthe
effectsofIleakandCout.Youwillfindthateliminatingthemwouldgreatly
simplifytherefreshrequirementandimprovethevoltageswingatnode
I/Owhenreadingdata.DRAMdesignersearnaverygoodlivingtryingto
dojustthat.
Design Examples
Example6.21.DESIGNEXAMPLE6.21
Wehaveallundoubtedlyexperiencedalossofelectricalpowerinour
officeorourhome.Whenthishappens,evenforasecond,wetypically
findthatwehavetoresetallofourdigitalalarmclocks.Let'sassumethat
suchaclock'sinternaldigitalhardwarerequiresacurrentof1mAata
typicalvoltagelevelof3.0V,butthehardwarewillfunctionproperly
downto2.4V.Undertheseassumptions,wewishtodesignacircuitthat
will"hold"thevoltagelevelforashortduration,forexample,1second.
SOLUTION
Weknowthatthevoltageacrossacapacitorcannotchange
instantaneously,andhenceitsuseappearstobeviableinthissituation.
Thus,wemodelthisproblemusingthecircuitinFig.6.35wherethe
capacitorisemployedtoholdthevoltageandthe1mAsourcerepresents
the1mAload.
Asthecircuitindicates,whenthepowerfails,thecapacitormustprovide
allthepowerforthedigitalhardware.Theload,representedbythe
currentsource,willdischargethecapacitorlinearlyinaccordancewith
theexpression
Figure6.35.Asimplemodelforapoweroutageride
throughcircuit.
After1second,(t)shouldbeatleast2.4V,thatis,theminimum
functioningvoltage,andhence
SolvingthisequationforCyields
Thus,fromthestandardcapacitorvaluesinTable6.1,connectingthree
560Fcapacitorsinparallelproduces1680F.Althoughthree560F
capacitorsinparallelwillsatisfythedesignrequirements,thissolution
mayrequiremorespacethanisavailable.Analternatesolutioninvolves
theuseof"doublelayercapacitors"orwhatareknownasSupercaps.A
WebsearchofthistopicwillindicatethatacompanybythenameofElna
America,Inc.isamajorsupplierofdoublelayercapacitors.An
investigationoftheirproductlistingindicatesthattheirDCKseriesof
smallcoinshapedsupercapsisapossiblealternativeinthissituation.In
particular,theDCK3R3224supercapisa220mFcapacitorratedat3.3V
withadiameterof7mm,orabout1/4inch,andathicknessof2.1mm.
Sinceonlyoneoftheseitemsisrequired,thisisaverycompactsolution
fromaspacestandpoint.However,thereisyetanotherfactorof
importanceandthatiscost.Tominimizecost,wemayneedtolookforyet
anotheralternatesolution.
Example6.22.DESIGNEXAMPLE6.22
Letusdesignanopampcircuitinwhichtherelationshipbetweenthe
outputvoltageandtwoinputsis
SOLUTION
Inordertosatisfytheoutputvoltageequation,wemustaddtwoinputs,
oneofwhichmustbeintegrated.Thus,thedesignequationcallsforan
integratorandasummerasshowninFig.6.36.
Usingtheknownequationsforboththeintegratorandsummer,wecan
expresstheoutputvoltageas
Figure6.36.Opampcircuitwithintegratorandsummer.
Ifwenowcomparethisequationtoourdesignrequirement,wefindthat
thefollowingequalitiesmusthold:
Notethatwehavefivevariablesandtwoconstraintequations.Thus,we
havesomeflexibilityinourchoiceofcomponents.First,weselectC=2
F,avaluethatisneitherlargenorsmall.IfwearbitrarilyselectR4=20
k,thenR3mustbe10kandfurthermore
IfourthirdchoiceisR1=100k,thenR2=20k.Ifweemploystandard
opampswithsupplyvoltagesofapproximately10V,thenallcurrents
willbelessthan1mA,whicharereasonablevalues.
SUMMARY
Theimportant(dual)relationshipsforcapacitorsandinductorsare
asfollows:
Thepassivesignconventionisusedwithcapacitorsandinductors.
Indcsteadystate,acapacitorlookslikeanopencircuitandan
inductorlookslikeashortcircuit.
Thevoltageacrossacapacitorandthecurrentflowingthroughan
inductorcannotchangeinstantaneously.
Leakageresistanceispresentinpracticalcapacitors.
Whencapacitorsareinterconnected,theirequivalentcapacitanceis
determinedasfollows:capacitorsinseriescombinelikeresistorsin
parallel,andcapacitorsinparallelcombinelikeresistorsinseries.
Wheninductorsareinterconnected,theirequivalentinductanceis
determinedasfollows:inductorsinseriescombinelikeresistorsin
series,andinductorsinparallelcombinelikeresistorsinparallel.
RCoperationalamplifiercircuitscanbeusedtodifferentiateor
integrateanelectricalsignal.
PROBLEMS
6.1Anuncharged100Fcapacitorischargedbyaconstantcurrent
of1mA.Findthevoltageacrossthecapacitorafter4s.
6.2A12Fcapacitorhasanaccumulatedchargeof480C.
Determinethevoltageacrossthecapacitor.
6.3Acapacitorhasanaccumulatedchargeof600Cwith5V
acrossit.Whatisthevalueofcapacitance?
6.4A25Fcapacitorinitiallychargedto10Vischargedbya
constantcurrentof2.5A.Findthevoltageacrossthecapacitor
after2min.
2
6.5Theenergythatisstoredina25Fcapacitorisw(t)=12sin
377t.Findthecurrentinthecapacitor.
6.6Acapacitorischargedbyaconstantcurrentof2mAandresults
inavoltageincreaseof12Vina10sinterval.Whatisthevalueof
thecapacitance?
6.7Thecurrentina100FcapacitorisshowninFig.P6.7.
Determinethewaveformforthevoltageacrossthecapacitorifitis
initiallyuncharged.
FigureP6.7.FigureP6.7
6.8Thevoltageacrossa12FcapacitorisshowninFig.P6.8.
Determinethewaveformforthecurrentinthecapacitor.
Determinethewaveformforthecurrentinthecapacitor.
6.10Derivethewaveformforthecurrentina60Fcapacitorin
thevoltageacrossthecapacitorasshowninFig.P6.10.
6.11Ifthevoltagewaveformacrossa100Fcapacitorisshownin
Fig.P6.11,determinethewaveformforthecurrent.
6.12Thevoltagewaveformacrossa90Fcapacitorisshownin
Fig.P6.12.Derivethewaveformforthecurrent.
Determinethecurrentwaveform.
6.15Thevoltageacrossa1Fcapacitorisgivenbythewaveformin
Fig.P6.15.Findthewaveformforthecurrentinthecapacitor.
6.16Thevoltageacrossa1Fcapacitorisgivenbythewaveformin
Fig.P6.16.Computethecurrentwaveform.
6.18Thevoltageacrossa10Fcapacitorisgivenbythewaveform
inFig.P6.18.Plotthewaveformforthecapacitorcurrent.
6.19Thewaveformforthecurrentina26Fcapacitorisshownin
Fig.P6.19.Determinethewaveformforthecapacitorvoltage.
6.20Thewaveformforthecurrentina50Finitiallyuncharged
capacitorisshowninFig.P6.20.Determinethewaveformforthe
capacitor'svoltage.
6.22Thecurrentinaninductorchangesfrom0to50mAin2ms
andinducesavoltageof50mV.Whatisthevalueoftheinductor?
6.23Thecurrentina100mHinductorisi(t)=2sin377tA.Find
(a)thevoltageacrosstheinductorand(b)theexpressionforthe
energystoredintheelement.
6.24Ifthecurrenti(t)=2.0tflowsthrougha4Hinductor,findthe
energystoredatt=3s
6.25Thecurrentina25mHinductorisgivenbytheexpressions
Find(a)thevoltageacrosstheinductorand(b)theexpressionfor
theenergystoredinit.
6.26Thecurrentina25mHinductorisgivenbytheexpressions
Find(a)thevoltageacrosstheinductorand(b)theexpressionfor
theenergystoredinitafter1s.
6.27Thevoltageacrossa4Hinductorisgivenbythewaveform
showninFig.P6.27.Findthewaveformforthecurrentinthe
inductor.
6.28Thevoltageacrossa4Hinductorisgivenbythewaveform
showninFig.P6.28.Findthewaveformforthecurrentinthe
inductor.(t)=0,t<0.
6.31Ifthecurrentina50mHinductorisgivenbythewaveformin
Fig.P6.31,computethewaveformfortheinductorvoltage.
6.32Thecurrentina150mHinductorisshowninFig.P6.32.
Determinethewaveformfortheinductorvoltage.
6.34Thecurrentina10mHinductorisshowninFig.P6.34.
Determinethewaveformforthevoltageacrosstheinductor
6.35Thecurrentina50mHinductorisgiveninFig.P6.35.Find
theinductorvoltage.
6.36Thecurrentina70mHinductorisshowninFig.P6.36.Find
thevoltageacrosstheinductor.
6.38Thecurrentina4mHinductorisgivenbythewaveformin
Fig.P6.38.Plotthevoltageacrosstheinductor.
6.39Findthepossiblecapacitancerangeofthefollowing
capacitors.
1. 0.068Fwithatoleranceof10%.
2. 120pFwithatoleranceof20%.
3. 39Fwithatoleranceof20%.
6.40Findthepossibleinductancerangeofthefollowinginductors.
1. 50mHwithatoleranceof10%.
2. 8nHwithatoleranceof5%.
3. 63Hwithatoleranceof10%.
6.41ThecapacitorinFig.P6.41(a)is53nFwithatoleranceof10%.
GiventhevoltagewaveforminFig.6.41(b),findthecurrenti(t)for
theminimumandmaximumcapacitorvalues.
6.42TheinductorinFig.P6.42ais4.7Hwithatoleranceof20%.
GiventhecurrentwaveforminFig.6.42b,graphthevoltage(t)for
theminimumandmaximuminductorvalues.
6.43IfthetotalenergystoredinthecircuitinFig.P6.43is80mJ,
whatisthevalueofL?
6.44FindthevalueofCiftheenergystoredinthecapacitorinFig.
P6.44equalstheenergystoredintheinductor.
6.46Calculatetheenergystoredintheinductorinthecircuit
showninFig.P6.46.
6.47Calculatetheenergystoredinboththeinductorandthe
capacitorshowninFig.P6.47.
6.48Givenfour4mHinductors,determinethemaximumand
minimumvaluesofinductancethatcanbeobtainedby
interconnectingtheinductorsinseries/parallelcombinations.
6.49FindthetotalcapacitanceCTofthenetworkshowninFig.
P6.49below.
6.50FindthetotalcapacitanceCTofthenetworkinFig.P6.50.
6.51FindCTinthenetworkshowninFig.P6.51.
6.52FindCTinthecircuitinFig.P6.52.
6.54FindCTinthenetworkinFig.P6.54.
6.55DetermineCTinthecircuitinFig.P6.55ifallcapacitorsinthe
networkare8F.
6.56FindCTinthecircuitinFig.P6.56ifallcapacitorsare6F.
6.58IfthetotalcapacitanceofthenetworkinFig.P6.58is15F,
findthevalueofCT.
6.59InthenetworkinFig.6.59,ifCT=4F,findthevalueofC.
6.60FindthevalueofCinFig.6.60.
6.61IfCeq=4FinthecircuitinFig.P6.61,calculateC.
6.62FindthetotalcapacitanceCTshowninthenetworkinFig.
P6.62.
1. theswitchisopenand
2. theswitchisclosed.
6.64SelectthevalueofCtoproducethedesiredtotalcapacitance
ofCT=10FinthecircuitinFig.P6.64.
6.65SelectthevalueofCtoproducethedesiredtotalcapacitance
ofCT=1FinthecircuitinFig.P6.65.
6.66Thetwocapacitorswerechargedandthenconnectedas
showninFig.P6.66.Determine(a)theequivalentcapacitance,(b)
theinitialvoltageattheterminals,and(c)thetotalenergystoredin
thenetwork.
6.67ThetwocapacitorsshowninFig.P6.67havebeenconnected
forsometimeandhavereachedtheirpresentvalues.FindVo.
6.68ThethreecapacitorsshowninFig.P6.68havebeenconnected
forsometimeandhavereachedtheirpresentvalues.Find(a)V1and
(b)V2.
6.69DeterminetheinductanceatterminalsABinthenetworkin
Fig.P6.69.
6.71FindLTinthecircuitinFig.P6.71
6.76Ifthetotalinductance,LT,inthenetworkinFig.P6.76is5
H,findthevalueofL.
6.78FindLTinthenetworkinFig.P6.78(a)withtheswitchopen
and(b)withtheswitchclosed.Allinductorsare12mH.
6.80FindthevalueofLinthenetworkinFig.P6.80sothatthe
totalinductanceLTwillbe2.25mH.
6.81A20mHinductoranda12mHinductorareconnectedin
serieswitha1Acurrentsource.Find(a)theequivalentinductance
and(b)thetotalenergystored.
6.82IfthecapacitorsshowninFig.P6.82havebeenconnectedfor
sometimeandhavereachedtheirpresentvalues,determine(a)the
voltageV0and(b)thetotalenergystoredinthecapacitors.
6.83IfthecapacitorsinthecircuitinFig.P6.83havebeen
connectedforsometimeandhavereachedtheirpresentvalues,
calculate(a)thevoltageV1and(b)thetotalenergystoredinthe
capacitors.
sometimeandthevoltagehasreacheditspresentvalue,determine
(a)thevoltagesV1andV2and(b)thetotalenergystoredinthe
capacitors.
sometimeandthevoltagehasreacheditspresentvalue,find(a)the
voltagesV1andV2and(b)thetotalenergystoredinthecapacitors.
6.86IfthecapacitorsinthecircuitinFig.P6.86havebeen
connectedforsometimeandhavereachedtheirpresentvalues,(a)
calculatethevoltagesV1andV2and(b)determinethetotalenergy
storedinthecapacitors.
6.87ForthenetworkinFig.P6.87below,s1(t)=80cos324tVand
s2(t)=40cos324tV.
Find0(t).
6.89TheinputtothenetworkshowninFig.P6.89aisshownin
Fig.P6.89b.Derivethewaveformfortheoutputvoltage0(t)if0
(0)=0.
6.90ProvethatthecircuitshowninFig.P6.90actslikea
differentiatorwithanoutputvoltageof
6.91SketchtheoutputvoltageofthenetworkinFig.P6.91aifthe
inputisgivenbythewaveforminFig.6.91b.
6.93GiventhenetworkinFig.P6.93,
1. Determinetheequationfortheclosedloopgain
2. Sketchthemagnitudeoftheclosedloopgainasafunctionof
frequencyifR1=1k,R2=10k,andC=2F.
6.94Anintegratorisrequiredthathasthefollowingperformance:
wherethecapacitorvaluesmustbegreaterthan10nFandthe
resistorvaluesmustbegreaterthan10k.
1. If20vsuppliesareused,whatarethemaximumand
minimumvaluesofo?
2. SupposeS=1V.Whatistherateofchangeofo?
TYPICAL PROBLEMS FOUND ON THE FE

EXAM
6PFE1Giventhreecapacitorswithvalues2F,4F,and6F,
canthecapacitorsbeinterconnectedsothatthecombinationisan
equivalent3Fcapacitor?
1. Yes.Thecapacitorsshouldbeconnectedasshown.
4. No.Anequivalentcapacitanceof3Fisnotpossiblewiththe
givencapacitors.
6PFE2ThecurrentpulseshowninFig.6PFE2isappliedtoa1
Fcapacitor.Whatistheenergystoredintheelectricfieldofthe
capacitor?
Figure6PFE2.Figure6PFE2
6PFE3ThetwocapacitorsshowninFig.6FE3havebeen
connectedforsometimeandhavereachedtheirpresentvalues.
DeterminetheunknowncapacitoCx.
1. 20F
2. 30F
3. 10F
4. 90F
6PFE4WhatistheequivalentinductanceofthenetworkinFig.
6PFE4?
1. 9.5mH
2. 2.5mH
3. 6.5mH
4. 3.5mH
6PFE5ThecurrentsourceinthecircuitinFig.6PFE5hasthe
followingoperatingcharacteristics:
Whatisthevoltageacrossthe10mHinductorexpressedasa
functionoftime?
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