Professional Documents
Culture Documents
and starting
2 Introduction
Electric motors are deservedly the most
popular prime movers for industry and
commerce. Compared with other sources of
mechanical power, they're inexpensive,
compact, reliable and versatile. As a result of
Introduction
this popularity, millions of motors are installed
each year and, except for the very tiniest, every
one needs a starter. The manufacture of these
starters is the basis on which the control gear
industry was built, and motor starters are still
at the core of almost every control gear
supplier's business.
Scope
This supplement has been written to provide
engineers, designers and users of motor starters with
a brief overview of current techniques to assist in their
understanding, and to help them in the design of
equipment. It by no means covers all aspects of
motor starting but, nevertheless, it deals with the vast
majority of applications likely to be encountered in
industry and commerce. For those requiring further
information, a short list of sources is included at the
end of the supplement.
The magnetic field rotates once during each complete cycle of the
supply current. Motor speed is, therefore, directly related to the
supply frequency (f in cycles per second or Hz), and the number of
pole pairs (p) which the motor uses. The motor's so-called
synchronous speed is given by:
Ns (in revolutions per minute) = 60f / p
The majority of motors in use are four-pole machines (2 pairs), which
have synchronous speeds of 1500 rpm at 50Hz and 1800 rpm at 60Hz.
4 Slip In practice, an induction motor can never run at its
synchronous speed, since it can only generate torque if
there is an induced current in the rotor conductors. This
can only be the case if there is relative movement
Slip
between the rotor and the rotating magnetic field. The
rotor must, therefore, rotate slightly more slowly than the
field which rotates at synchronous speed. This is why
the motor is described as asynchronous.
Motor construction
A three-phase asynchronous motor comprises two main
components, the stator and the rotor.
Motor
As its name suggests, the stator is the stationary part of the motor, and
consists of a strong casing (usually manufactured from cast-iron or alloy)
into which is fixed a ring of laminated silicon steel sections. The
construction
laminations are slotted so as to accommodate the stator windings which
create the rotating magnetic field. Each of the main windings, of which
there are three in a three-phase motor, comprises a number of coils. The
magnetic coupling of the windings is arranged to give the required
number of pole pairs (and thus synchronous speed) of the motor.
The rotor is the rotating part of the motor which drives the machine to
which it is coupled. It is similar to the stator, but is made up of a greater
number of laminated sections. Together, these form a cylinder which is
keyed to the motor shaft. There are two principle types of rotor - squirrel
cage and wound.
Motor
5
construction
Squirrel cage rotors are, by far, the most common. They have straight
conductors set into slots around the periphery of the rotor. These
conductors are connected together by rings at each end of the rotor, so
that their arrangement somewhat resembles a circular squirrel cage, from
which the assembly gets its name. A popular variation is the double-
cage, which has two concentric cages and offers a higher starting torque
than single-cage versions. No external electrical connections can be
made to any type of squirrel cage rotor.
Wound rotors have windings similar to those used in the stator. One end
of each winding is connected to a common (star) point, and the other
ends are connected to slip rings. External connections to the rotor
windings are made via these slip rings, allowing additional resistance to
be added to the rotor circuit during starting. This enables the motor's
starting current and torque to be controlled.
Controlling speed
Controlling
controlling the speed of an torque. With inverter drives,
induction motor. Voltage increases standard 50Hz motors can be
raise speed somewhat, but this operated successfully over at least
effect is limited by magnetic the range of supply frequencies
speed
saturation in the windings. from 5 to 50Hz with only a slight
Conversely, voltage reductions loss of operating torque. If
decrease speed but, again, the operated continuously at
range of control is very limited, and frequencies of 25Hz or less, the
torque is adversely affected. cooling provided by the motor's
built-in fan is likely to be
Today, the most popular method of insufficient, and additional forced
speed control is the use of a cooling should be considered.
variable frequency (inverter) drive.
These vary both the voltage and
frequency of the supply to the
6
Starting current
If a stationary squirrel cage motor With conventional contactor-based
is connected directly to the supply, starters, however, there is a
Starting
it will typically draw a starting problem - reduced starting current
current of 5 to 8 times its normal means reduced starting torque
full-load current (FLC). For smaller which may, in some applications,
motors, this is often acceptable, be unacceptable. This limitation is
current
but for large machines, or where examined in more detail in later
supply capacity is limited, some sections which describe particular
means of reducing the starting starter types. It is worth noting,
current becomes necessary. This however, that inverters, which
is usually done by reducing the control both supply frequency and
voltage applied to the motor during voltage, allow starting currents of
starting. Most of the starters 1.5 x FLC or less, while still
described in the remainder of this providing high starting torque.
publication have been developed When using soft starters, starting
specifically to limit motor starting currents are generally between 2
current. and 5 x FLC.
Summary
Three-phase asynchronous induction motors are the most
commonly used type in industry. Their speed is largely determined
by supply frequency, with voltage variations having comparatively
little effect. Connected directly to the supply, these motors have
typical starting currents of 5 to 8 x FLC. Often, starting currents
need to be reduced, and various forms of starter have been
developed to make this possible.
Starters 7
1/L1
3/L2
5/L3
Starters
connected directly to the three-
phase mains supply. The motor -Q1
starts and accelerates in a way
1 2
3 4
5 6
determined by its own
characteristics. Typically, the peak -KM1
1 2
3 4
5 6
starting current is between 5 and 8
times normal full-load current, and
-F1
the peak starting torque is between
U 2
V 4
W 6
0.5 and 1.5 times the motor?s
nominal operating torque.
M
Overloads designed to 3
BS EN 60947-4-1 are based on a
starting current of 7.2 times normal Direct-on-line
full-load current. starter diagram
Motor
Torque
current
7
2.5
6 Ins
tan
tan
5 eo 2 e
us r qu
m To
o or
ot
to
4 M
rc
1.5
ur
re
3
nt
1
2
0.5 q ue
Tor
1 Load
Speed Speed
Starters
and the supply capacity is high, so
that the starting current surge
does not adversely affect other
equipment using the same supply
DOL starters are not suitable when:
• the equipment driven by the motor
is fitted with a gearbox or some
other device which will soften the • the peak starting current would
mechanical shock produced by result in a serious voltage drop on
the high starting torque the supply system
• a high starting torque is needed - • the equipment being driven cannot
for example, the equipment starts tolerate the effects of very high
against its full mechanical load. peak torque loadings
• the safety or comfort of those
using the equipment may be
compromised by sudden starting
as, for example, with escalators
When the limitations of DOL and lifts
starting are not acceptable, it is
necessary to use alternative
starting techniques which reduce
the peak starting current and,
therefore, the peak starting torque.
The normal approach is to arrange
for the motor to be started at
reduced voltages, and a number of
methods have been developed for
doing this.
Torque
Star-delta starters 9
2.5
This type of starter may only be used where access is
possible to both ends of all three stator windings. In 2 )
ct
addition, the windings must be rated to withstand the
i re
(d
Tor lt a
1.5 q u e i n de
full supply voltage when delta-connected. With star-
delta starting, the 1
peak starting r
current sta e
current is typically 7
0.5 Tor q u e in
d tor
qu
Lo a
between 1.5 and Speed
6 Curre
2.6 times the nt 0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1
in
de
lt a
normal full-load 5 co
nn
current, and the ec Star-delta starting torque/speed
4 characteristics
tio
peak starting n
(d
3 ire
torque is between ct)
Current in Star-delta starting
0.2 and 0.5 times 2 star c
onn
ect current/speed
the motor's ion
1 characteristics
nominal operating Speed
torque. 0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1
On starting, the supply is first The run-up time with the windings
Star-delta
applied to the motor with its stator star-connected is controlled by a
windings star-connected. As the timer which, typically, can be
motor accelerates, its speed adjusted from 0 to 30 seconds.
stabilises when its developed This timer is adjusted during
starters
torque become equal to its load commissioning to ensure that the
torque. This usually happens at star-delta changeover occurs, as
about 75% - 80% of nominal closely as possible, at the point of
speed. The star contactor is then torque equilibrium. The transition
de-energised, and the delta time from star to delta is also
contactor energised to delta- important, and a special timer is
connect the stator windings. Each normally used to ensure that there
Star-delta starter
winding is now is a period of between 30ms and
fed with the full 50ms between the opening of the
1/L1
3/L2
5/L3
4
6
4
6
4
6
U1 2
V1 4
W1 6
M1 -F2
3
2
4
6
W2
U2
V2
10 Star-delta starters are particularly suited to machines
which do not present a high load torque at start-up, or
which normally start off-load. It is also important to
Star-delta
note that, during the star-to-delta transition, a high
transient current is generated. If a magnetic short-
circuit protective device is to be used in the starter,
this transient must be taken into account in the
starters
selection of the device, in order to prevent nuisance
tripping.
Primary
by connecting a resistance bank in series with the
motor windings. Once the motor has run up and its
speed has stabilised, the resistance bank is shorted
out, and the motor becomes direct-connected. This
resistance
changeover is normally controlled by an adjustable
timer within the starter. Unlike star-delta starters,
primary resistance starters do not require access to
both ends of the stator windings.
starters
Values of starting current and torque are determined
by the values of the resistors used. Typically, however,
the peak starting current will be around 4.5 times
nominal full-load current, and peak starting torque will
be around 0.75 times nominal operating torque.
Primary resistance starting
current/speed characteristics
11
1L1
3L2
5L3
Torque
-Q1 1 2 7
3 4
5 6
6 Cu
rr en
to
-KM1 n2
nd
5 .s
te
p
1 2
3 4
5 6
wi
Cur th
r ent o
ut
4 on
-F1 1s
re
t. s
sis
tep
ta
wi
nc
2
4
6
3 th
e(
re
si s
d ir
ta
e
nc
e
2
R1
R3
R5
1
3
5
-KM11
RU
RV
R6
1
2
Speed
R2
R4
R6
M
3
Torque
sistance (d
Primary resistance starters are 2 t re i
ou
re
th
ct)
wi
especially suitable for applications, st
ep
To d.
1.5 r qu n
such as ventilator fans, where the e on 2
Primary
load torque increases with speed. resistance
ith
1 pw
A possible disadvantage is the high .s
te
To r 1 st
q u e on
peak current at the instant of
starting, but this can be reduced by 0.5
ue
Load Torq
resistance
increasing the resistor values. Care Speed
must be taken, however, since this 0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1
also reduces starting torque.
Primary resistance
starting torque/speed
starters
characteristics
Current
12 Auto-transformer starters 7
Cur
6 ren
In auto-transformer starters, the motor is started tw
it h
ou
ta
at reduced voltage which is supplied from an 5 uto
-tr
an
s
auto-transformer. The starting sequence has Cu r r e n t
fo
4 on 1
2 sd
n
rm
t. st
ep
er
three stages.
(d
ire
3 Current o
c t)
n 1st . ste
p
During the first stage, the auto-transformer is star- 2
connected, and the line contactor is closed. This
starts the motor with a reduced voltage, the value of 1
Speed
which depends upon the ratio selected for the
Auto-transformer
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1
transformer. Auto-transformers are normally
provided with taps to allow the best ratio to be Auto-transformer starting current/speed
chosen during commissioning. characteristics
starters
In the second stage, the star connection is opened,
1/L1
3/L2
5/L3
and the auto-transformer acts as an inductor
connected in series with the motor. This transition -Q1
is normally timed to occur when the motor speed
1 2
3 4
5 6
has stabilised at the end of the run-up period. The -F1
third stage then follows almost immediately, and
4
6
involves shunting the transformer completely, so
that the motor is direct-connected to the supply.
1
3
5
3
5
The starting current and torque are reduced as a -KM3 -KM2
2
U1 2
V1 2
W1 2
function of the reduced starting and run-up voltages
(Usupply/Ustarting) 2. Typical values for peak starting -T1
current are 1.7 to 4 times nominal full-load current
U3
and, for peak starting torque, 0.5 to 0.85 times V3
nominal operating torque. W3
W
U
6 W2
2 U2
4 V2
1.5
Tor p
q ue o ste
1 n 2 n d.
Tor
q ue o 1st. step
n
0.5
Load Torque
Auto-transformer starting
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1 torque/speed characteristics
Electronic soft starters 13
Electronic
eliminates sudden changes in The detailed design of soft starters
voltage which could produce peaks varies from manufacturer to
in both starting current and torque. manufacturer, but a representative
unit is the Telemecanique Altistart 46.
soft starters
The steadily increasing supply This is fitted with a six-thyristor
voltage for the motor during power-switching bridge which
starting is produced by a thyristor allows complete control over the
bridge which, in each phase, has starting and stopping of a three-
two thyristors connected back-to- phase squirrel-cage motor. It
back. By varying the firing angle of provides:
Electronic
“soft starter”
current/speed
2.5 M
and 3
torque/speed
2 characteristics
Note: = firing angle of
thymistors
TdC
TdA TdB 1
• control of the acceleration and Electronic
TN “soft starter”
TC
deceleration ramps of the motor in
2
TA TB
such a way as to keep within all
3 required limits on current and torque
IN
Electronic
acceleration ramp, the contactor being controlled by a
contact provided for this purpose. This will avoid
thyristor heating and losses which occur during normal
running. Even with the starter bypassed, however, the
protective devices of units rated at 18.5kW/415V and
soft starters
above remain operational, thus protecting both the
starter and the motor. For smaller units, a separate
thermal overload is required. Other features which can
be provided by soft starters include controlled
deceleration, and braking to a complete stop.
Rotor resistance starters 15
Rotor resistance
is started with a resistance bank connected in series
with the rotor windings (NOT the stator windings, as in
primary resistance starters).
starters
The starter is designed so that, at start-up, there is
maximum resistance in the rotor circuit. Various
sections of the resistance bank are then shorted out
progressively until, during normal running, no
resistance remains and the rotor windings are simply
star-connected.
Rotor resistance
Current
starting
current/speed 7
Rotor resistance starter characteristics
6 Cu
rre
nt
on
3rd
1/L1
3/L2
5/L3
.s
5 te
p
(n
o
-Q1 Curr
re
4 ent
sis
on
2
to
2n
d.
rs,
s tep
d ir
1
3 (s
ec
om
t)
e
-KM1 re
sis
to
1 2
3 4
5 6
2 rs
Current )
o n 1st.
ste p
-F1 ( a ll r
1 e sis
tors
)
2
4
6
Speed
W
U
M
3
Rotor resistance
Torque starting
M
K
A2
B2 torque/speed
C2
2.5 characteristics
1
3
5
qu
Tor e on 2 rque wi
-R2A
-R2B
-KM12
R2C
n To
tho
2
4
6
d.
2
ut r
ste
esiso
p(
so
A1
me
rs)
B1
re s
C1 1.5 Torq
ue
isto
1
3
5
on
1 st
rs)
. st
ep
-KM11 ( al
-R1A
-R1B
-R1C
l re
1 sis
2
4
6
to
rs
)
0.5
Speed
Rotor
current. A starting torque of twice loads which need to be started on-
normal full-load current, therefore, load, but where the peak current
produces a starting torque which is taken from the supply must be
resistance
twice the nominal operating torque. limited. Further, the values of the
This is much better than a DOL resistances and the number of
starter, where 6 x full-load current stages can be calculated so as to
produces only 1.5 x nominal torque match the motor characteristics to
starters
during starting. Slip-ring motors those of the application.
Summary
The principle objective of all methods of motor starting is to match
the torque characteristics to those of the mechanical load, while
ensuring that the peak current requirements do not exceed the
capacity of the supply. Many starting methods are available, each
of which has slightly different characteristics. The following table
summarises the main characteristics for the most popular forms
of starter.
Selecting a starter 17
• The power for the machine • Check that the supply line will not
installation will normally be introduce unacceptable voltage
supplied by the Regional Electricity drops when the peak current is
Selecting
Company, and the user will need taken. If this is a problem, the
to comply with any local choice lies between installing
regulations. The Regional larger cables or selecting a
Electricity Company will normally starting method other than DOL.
a starter
limit DOL starting to a maximum
motor rating. If the motor is below
the DOL starting limit, determine • If the above conditions are all
the peak starting current which satisfied, DOL starting will provide
it would draw if started an economical solution, provided
direct-on-line. that the mechanical load can
handle the peak starting torque
produced.
• Check that this peak starting
current is within the capacity of
the supply. • If any of the conditions are not
satisfied, use the table to choose
an alternative method of starting.
• The installation will normally be fed Be particularly careful to ensure
from a stepdown power that the starting torque produced
transformer. Check that the peak by the method of starting chosen
starting current will not initiate a is adequate for the application.
circuit breaker trip on the high-
voltage (primary) side of the
transformer.
18 Speed regulation of
asynchronous motors
Speed
This situation changed dramatically with the
introduction of frequency inverters which allow the
running speeds of standard motors to be accurately
regulation of
controlled over a wide range. Inverter technology is so
successful that AC inverter drives are now being
adopted for many applications where, in the past, only
DC machines, with their inherent ease of speed
control, would have been suitable.
asynchronous
While various methods of speed control are possible,
which use only conventional components such as
motors
contactors and resistors, these methods are fast
becoming obsolete as they are replaced by inverter
systems. This supplement will, therefore, deal
principally with speed control by inverter.
The frequency inverter drive 19
Speed
This type of drive is intended mainly for use with three-phase squirrel
cage motors. It operates by using a technique called pulse-width
modulation (PWM) to synthesise a sinusoidal waveform, the frequency
regulation of
of which can be varied, that is used to supply the motor. By varying the
frequency of the supply to the motor, the stepless motor speed
variation is possible over a wide range. Since the synthesised supply
waveform is very close to sinusoidal, smooth motor rotation is achieved
even at low speeds.
asynchronous
motors
Inverter drive operation
The AC supply (single or three phase) to the inverter is rectified by a
full-wave diode bridge, and is used to charge the main reservoir capacitors.
This provides the system with a high-voltage DC source which is then
switched by the output power bridge to produce a pulse train made up
of precisely controlled long and short pulses. The train of pulses
produces a sinusoidal current in the motor, the voltage and frequency
of which can be accurately controlled. By retaining the correct
voltage/frequency ratio in the supply to the motor, its torque can be
maintained over a wide speed range.
Reservoir
capacitor W
V M
U 3
Slip-ring motors
Inverter drive
capabilities allow their use with all types of load,
including those requiring very high torques. For
applications where overhauling loads may be
applications
encountered (hoists, mechanical handling, etc.) drives
are available for four-quadrant operation. These can
control both forward and reverse (hoist and lower)
operations, and they often include a braking facility.
Variable-voltage controllers
An alternative to inverter drives, these units offer
another method of achieving motor speed control
electronically. As they are much less versatile than
frequency inverters, however, they are now declining in
popularity.
controllers
the square of the supply voltage. This type of drive
operates by regulating the voltage such that the torque
produced just balances the load torque at the speed
required. The motor supply voltage is usually
controlled by varying the firing angle of a pair of back-
to-back thyristors in each phase of the supply.
Summary
The availability of inverter drives has made
variable speed operation for asynchronous
motors increasingly popular. While other
methods of speed control are available, none
offers the versatility and performance of
frequency inverters.
24
Starters by design
This supplement has dealt with the general principles
of motor starting, and it is intended as an aid to
choosing the best starting technique for a particular
Starters by
application. With the starter type decided, the next
step is either to select an off-the-shelf starter, if it is a
simple standard type or, for more complex
applications, to design a suitable starter.
design
Design guidelines for popular starter types are readily
found in the literature available from control gear
suppliers, but designers are also encouraged to talk to
their suppliers. Products and methods are constantly
evolving and, perhaps even more important, new
standards and regulations are imposing new duties
and responsibilities on designers. There is no better
way to keep up-to-date than to talk to an expert
supplier which has a strong focus in the control gear
market.
25
Further information
Further
In this short supplement, is has not been possible to
information
do more than discuss briefly the most popular
methods of starting and motor speed control. Further
information is, however, readily available.
Telemecanique, a brand of the Schneider group, offers
two invaluable publications which are particularly
relevant.
Telemecanique
University of Warwick Science Park
Sir William Lyons Road
Coventry CV4 7EZ
Tel: (01203) 416255
Schneider Limited University of Warwick Science Park Sir William Lyons Road Coventry CV4 7EZ
Tel: 01203 416255 Fax: 01203 690209
Internet address: http://www.schneider.co.uk
GSUK 0244 MAR 98