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McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB1 3ER, UK
Department of Archaeology and Conservation, Cardiff University, Colum Drive, Cardiff CF10 3EU, UK
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 19 February 2012
Received in revised form
7 May 2012
Accepted 10 May 2012
This paper presents results of contextual, technological, use-wear and residue analyses of body ornaments from two Late Mesolithic burials recently excavated at the site of Vlasac in the Danube Gorges of
the central Balkans. Common to both burials are ornaments made from modied and unmodied carp
(Cyprinidae sp.) pharyngeal teeth along with Cyclope neritea marine gastropods. Experimental and low
and high magnication use-wear approaches have been employed in reconstructing the way these
ornaments were made and used. The precise contextual distribution of these ornaments has been
recorded for the rst time. The two examined burials exhibit a number of similarities, particularly in the
way ornaments were placed in relation to the body. Both burials are also contemporaneous, dated to the
mid-7th millennium BC. Implications of these ndings for Mesolithic foragers corporeal symbolism,
group identity and regional and long-distance acquisition networks are briey examined.
2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Body decoration
The Danube Gorges
Vlasac
Mesolithic
Cyprinidae teeth
Cyclope neritea
1. Introduction
In the eld of studies dedicated to body ornamentation, in more
recent years a number of authors have utilized low and high
magnication use-wear analyses along with other scientic
approaches in order to discern patterns of acquisition,
manufacturing, wear and subsequent use and deposition/discard of
ornaments in diverse past contexts (e.g. lvarez Fernndez, 2006;
Bonnardin, 2007, 2009; Kuhn and Stiner, 2007; Rigaud, 2011;
Vanhaeren and dErrico, 2001, 2005; Taborin, 1993; White, 1993,
1995, 1999; Wright and Garrard, 2009). These analytical procedures
disclosed minuscule details of particular practices related to body
ornamentation and provided an opportunity to discuss complex
symbolic associations that such items might have carried or evoked
as much for those who wore them as for the onlookers. In this
paper we focus on the case study of Mesolithic communities found
in the Danube Gorges of the north-central Balkans, where one nds
both an absolutely unique type of locally devised body decoration
as well as certain types of exotic, marine gastropods, shared both
in space and time with very distant communities of southern
3451
Finally, there is clear evidence for the use of this site in the course of
the regional Early/Middle Neolithic (z6000/5950e5500 cal. BC).
During the Early/Middle Neolithic phase, the rst pottery appears at
Vlasac (Bori
c, 2011; Bori
c et al., 2008, Appendix).
Late Mesolithic domestic features, such as at least ve trapezoidal dwellings and 27 rectangular stone-lined hearths as well as
burials were found at the site (Bori
c, 2007b; Radovanovic, 1996;
Srejovi
c and Letica, 1978). The total number of formal burials at
Vlasac excavated in 1970e1971 comprises 87 graves, containing
either 119 individuals (Nemeskri, 1978) or 164 individuals
(Roksandic, 1999, 2000). Another 17 formally interred primary and
secondary burials were excavated in 2006e2008, while the
minimum number of individuals (MNI) for this recently acquired
assemblage is 16 (Stefanovi
c, unpublished data). There are 30
additional contexts associated with disarticulated human bones.
Among the buried individuals from both excavation phases at the
site are adults, children and neonates, all buried mostly as extended
supine inhumations, although some semi-exed and one seated
burial in a lotus position were also found (Bori
c, 2006, 2007b, 2011;
Bori
c and Stefanovi
c, 2004; Radovanovi
c, 1996; Srejovi
c and Letica,
1978, 53e82).
A large number of domesticated dogs were found in Late Mesolithic contexts. Subsistence was based on hunting (predominantly red
deer Cervus elaphus) and shing (carp [Cyprinidae sp.] species, catsh
Siluris glanis and sturgeon, including beluga Huso huso). Numerous
carp specimens were recovered both in the course of old
(NISP 6782: Bknyi, 1978) and new excavations at the site
(NISP 6566: Dimitrijevic and Zivaljevi
c, unpublished data, excluding
ornaments from carp pharyngeal teeth presented in this paper). Apart
from their subsistence use, the importance of carp related to
the acquisition of pharyngeal teeth for ornaments (see below).
3. Ornaments in burials
3.1. Burial H2
Articulated, extended supine inhumation Burial H2 was found
under a thin layer of beach pebble in front of the eroded section of
Fig. 1. The Danube Gorges with the location of principal Late Upper Palaeolithic/Epipalaeolithic and EarlyeLate Mesolithic sites.
3452
E. Cristiani, D. Boric / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 3450e3469
Fig. 2. Site plan of Vlasac showing areas excavated from 2006 to 2009 with the distribution of burial and pit features.
3453
a healed fracture was found at the anterior part of the distal end of
the left humerus. While most of the postcranial bones exhibit
gracile features, there are strong muscle attachments on the
posterior side of the lower limbs as well as a visible deformation of
ulnar diaphysis (Stefanovi
c, unpublished data).
Associated with the body were 642 perforated, unperforated
and fragmented carp teeth found over, around and underneath the
body (Table 1; Figs. 3 and 5a). Judging by the frequency of teeth
found securely beneath the body of the deceased, it is likely that
most of the teeth were in fact associated with the back rather than
the front of the body (see discussion below). The highest frequency
of carp teeth ornaments are encountered beneath and around the
pelvis of the deceased, followed by her thighs and torso. Less
numerous, 32 C. neritea were found scattered beneath the upper
part of the back of the deceased (6), in the burial ll of the torso
region (6), and, most interestingly, underneath the proximal part of
the femora, undisturbed as a closely-knit line of beads with
a horizontal orientation, perpendicular to the body axis (15); only 1
C. neritea was found in the area of the lower legs (see Fig. 3). All
C. neritea ornaments had their at, ventral and unmodied sides
facing down.
Fig. 3. Burial H2 from Vlasac with marked distribution of carp and Cyclope neritea ornaments found in situ upon exposing the burial.
3454
Table 1
Spatial groupings of carp teeth and Cyclope neritea ornaments found in Burials H2
and H297 (see Figs. 3 and 4).
Perforated
carp teetha
Burial H2
x.4
x.5
x.6
x.10
x.14
x.15
x.16
x.19
x.20
x.21
x.22
x.23
x.24
x.25
x.26
x.27
x.28
x.29
x.30
x.31
x.32
x.33
x.34
x.35
x.36
x.37
x.38
x.39
x.40
x.41
x.42
x.45
x.46
x.47
x.48
x.49
x.50
x.51
x.52
x.54
x.55
x.56
x.57
x.59
x.60
x.62
x.64
x.65
x.67
x.68
Burial ll
Burial ll e pelvis
& legs
Trench 1/2006
Wet sieving
Totals
Burial H297
x.1
x.2
x.3
x.4
x.5
x.6
x.7
Burial ll
Totals
a
b
Unperforated
carp teetha
3
Fragmentary
carp teethb
Cyclope
neritea
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
10
1
4
2
3
3
4
2
9
1
3
1
2
1
1
3
2
1
1
1
5
1
1
1
2
3
22
3
1
3
2
5
1
7
1
1
2
2
2
1
11
2
3
27
26
44
1
1
1
11
27
2
1
1
100
7
2
56
2
1
16
1
4
1
4
25
3
7
16
1
1
6
4
9
18
11
13
2
5
4
3
43
310
255
2
77
24
1
1
32
40
61
58
35
252
2
9
24
92
7
7
134
19
294
1
3
19
43
33
22
18
16
155
32
12
5
3
22
The burial has directly been dated, after the correction for the
reservoir effect (cf. Cook et al., 2002), in the range of 6775 to
6470 cal. BC at 95 per cent probability (OxA-16541: 8228 40 BP;
corrected 7788 60 BP) (Bori
c et al., 2008). Stable isotope
valuesdd13C 18.2 and d15N 16.3dsuggest that the diet of this
individual was largely based on sh, similar to dietary isotopic
signatures of many other 7th millennium BC burials from this and
other sites in the region (Bonsall et al., 1997; Bori
c and Miracle,
2004).
3.2. Burial H297
Child burial H297 (Feature 28) was found in the lower levels of
a burial concentration in Trench 3/2006 (Fig. 2) in the course of
2007 eld season. Different from most other burials found in this
burial zone (see Bori
c, 2010; Bori
c et al., 2008, 2009), this individual
was placed in extended supine position with NEeSW orientation at
the edge of the burial concentration and was not overlapped by
later interments. A stone slab was found atop the lower portion of
the legs, below the knees (Fig. 4), identical to the way the stone
block was placed over the legs of individual H2. Another similarity
with the previously described burial of woman H2 was the association of child H297 with 701 perforated, unperforated and fragmented carp teeth ornaments (Table 1; Figs. 4, 5b and 7) and 22
C. neritea shells. These ornaments were found primarily around and
beneath the whole postcranial skeleton and the majority of
C. neritea (12) were found again in a similar position as in Burial H2,
i.e. as a line of beads below the proximal half of the femora of this
individual with the at, ventral side of the shell facing down; ve
beads were found underneath the torso of the deceased, two below
the lower legs of the deceased and for three beads it was not
possible to ascertain the exact position as these were found by
sieving excavated ll from the burial.
Based on dental eruption timing the child was around 1 year old.
Meningeal reaction is visible on parietal and occipital bones, and it
might have been the cause of the childs death (Stefanovic,
unpublished data).
While no direct radiometric evidence is available for this individual, it can indirectly be dated on the basis of near-by directly
AMS dated Burial H136 (OxA-18865: 8231 36 BP; corrected for
the reservoir effect 7791 58 BP: 6774 to 6472 cal. BC at 95 per cent
condence, Boric et al., 2008) and a terminus ante quem date from
the layer beneath H297 (OxA-24809: 7943 40 BP: 7034 to
c et al., unpublished
6692 cal. BC at 95 per cent condence, Bori
data). These dates suggest that Burial H297 and H2 were broadly
contemporaneous, and that both can be dated to z6700e6500 BC.
No other previously excavated burials in the Danube Gorges
contained so many carp teeth used as ornaments (for 1970e1971
excavations at Vlasac the maximum reported number of carp
teeth found in Burial 42b is 294: Bori
c, 2003: Appendix 6; at Schela
Cladovei the maximum reported number was 338 specimens for
Burial M38: Boroneant, 1990, 2001), which may relate to varying
qualities of recovery techniques applied in the course of earlier
rescue excavations in the region.
4. Material
Pharyngeal teeth are opposing teeth that occur in patches along
the brachial arches (Edwards, 1929; Wheeler and Jones, 1989). They
are constituted of an enamel globular body, which is attached to the
pharyngeal bone through an elongated bony neck (Fig. 6). The
maximum length of carp is 110 cm, but it is commonly around
30 cm. The maximum reported weight is 40 kg (Kottelat and
Freyhof, 2007). The common carp is native to Europe and Asia.
Balon (1995) suggests that common carp evolved in the Caspian Sea
3455
Fig. 4. Burial H297from Vlasac with marked distribution of carp and Cyclope neritea ornaments found in situ upon exposing the burial.
Fig. 5. Spatial frequencies of carp teeth and Cyclope neritea ornaments by four main body zones in Burials (a) H2 and (b) H297.
3456
Fig. 6. (a, b, d) Anatomy of carp head bones, pharyngeal bone and teeth shown on a modern carp specimen; (c) close-up of a modern carp pharyngeal tooth (10).
(b) an upper convex surface (maculated side of the shell or the side
where the internal spirals and the apex are visible) (Fig. 13b). The
color of the base may vary from beige/ivory to brown, while on the
convex surface the pigmentation varies among specimens from
yellow/orange to red and dark gray (Fig. 13a in the Web version).
Table 1 provides information about the number of perforated,
unperforated and fragmentary carp teeth and C. neritea ornaments
examined in this study as well as the information on the frequency
of specimens by x.nd numbers, which provide three-dimensional
coordinates for each nd or a group of nds marked on Figs. 2
and 3.
5. Methods
Our methodology is based on the integration of technological,
use-wear and residue analyses, aided by experimental data.
Osseous and shell ornaments have been microscopically examined
at magnication ranging from 10 to 165 using a stereoscopic
microscope Leica 205C with LED lighting and at magnication from
50 to 1000 using an incident light metallographic microscope
Leica DM4000M with polarizing lters and bright and dark eld.
The analytical criteria for the technological interpretation of
Vlasac ornaments were established by reference to several publications on the use of shell and osseous beads found in prehistoric
funerary contexts (e.g. Bonnardin, 2007, 2009; dErrico and
Vanhaeren, 2002; Vanhaeren and dErrico, 2001, 2003, 2005).
Furthermore, observations made on archaeological specimens were
compared to experimental replicas made on modern specimens of
carp teeth and C. neritea marine shells. Taphonomic considerations
related to C. neritea shell preservation have been carried out on the
basis of the works of Driscoll and Weltin (1973), Claassen (1998)
3457
Fig. 7. Selected (a) unmodied and (b) perforated ornaments from carp teeth found in Burial H297 (x.7) at Vlasac.
using both boiled and fresh carp showed that teeth are easily
extracted from the jaw when the bones were still fresh or soon after
boiling. It is, thus, likely that the procurement of the teeth for the
production of ornaments was done during the butchery phase and
not afterwards. The extraction of carp teeth from the jawbone
created different patterns of breakage: while in a number of
instances the complete neck with a part of jawbone was extracted,
in other instances a jagged fracture was created on the neck. The
latter instances might have necessitated a further technological
modication on carp teeth in order to create a hole, which would
facilitate easier fastening of ornaments. From burial H2, there are
87 perforated carp teeth ornaments that exhibit this type of fracture while only 22 perforations were made on those specimens
which have no fracture on the neck; similarly, in burial H297, 130
carp teeth with perforations have the fracture on the root and only
35 teeth with perforations come from specimens which have no
fracture on the neck. The numbers of perforated carp teeth are
complemented by almost equal numbers of non-perforated carp
3458
Fig. 8. Technological traits of carp teeth ornament modication: (a) proles of a modied carp tooth; (b) modern carp pharyngeal bone and teeth with dotted lines indicating the
area of breakage; (c) typical fracture on the neck of a perforated tooth from Burial H2; (d) appearance of the neck of an unmodied tooth from Burial H297; (e) perforated tooth from
Burial H297; (f) front detail of the perforation with sawing marks (50); (g) side detail of the perforation (50).
3459
has been suggested for few carp teeth ornaments found at the site
of Holenstein-Stadel in southern Germany (Rigaud, 2011).
6.2. C. neritea ornaments
Fig. 9. Distribution of use-wear traces and residue patterns on carp teeth ornaments:
(a) pattern of distribution of use-wear traces and striations on perforated teeth; (b)
pattern of distribution of use-wear traces and striations on unmodied teeth; (c)
pattern of distribution of residues (both ochre and leather/tendon tissues) on perforated teeth; (d) pattern of distribution of residues (both ochre and leather/tendon
tissues) on unmodied teeth.
3460
Fig. 10. Typical use-wear traces on carp teeth ornaments: (a) developed rounding on the fracture edge of a perforated tooth ornament (20); (b) rounding and deformation inside
the perforation hole (40); (c) rounding on the neck of a perforated tooth (30); (d) rounding inside the fracture edge of a perforated tooth (40); (e) micro-striations located on
the side of a perforated tooth (100). Note the transversal orientation with respect to the main axis of the ornament; (f) rounding on the back part of the neck edge (40).
3461
Fig. 11. Red ochre residues and use-wear traces on carp ornaments: (a) red ochre concretion on the frontal side of the neck of an unmodied tooth from Burial H297 (40); (b) red
ochre residues (shown by the black arrows) and suspension striations on the upper part of the hole of a perforated tooth from Burial H297 (100); (c) red ochre residue on the
frontal side of the neck (shown by the black arrow) associated with transversal striations (100); (d) transversal striations (shown by the black arrows) on the frontal part of the
neck on an unmodied tooth (40); (e) ochre residues with transversal striations located on the back side of an unmodied tooth (60); (f) ochre residues with transversal
orientation on the lateral part of the neck of an unmodied tooth (50).
and trousers, both with embroidered ornaments, and with the line
of C. neritea beads possibly laced at the edge of the upper portion
of the garment, reaching down to the back of the thighs; (ii)
a cloak placed on the deceased in the same way as it would have
been worn in life. In either case, the distribution of ornaments in
burials in relation to various body zones, i.e. the fact that the string
of C. neritea is in roughly the same position on both burials,
suggests that both the adult and child might have had customtted garments/cloaks.
The question related to the previous observations is whether
such garments or cloaks were worn by the deceased as (i)
everyday, (ii) ceremonial, i.e. reserved for special/ceremonial/rite
3462
Fig. 12. Residues on carp ornaments and experimental comparison: (a) residue identied on an unmodied carp tooth from Burial H2 (50); (b) experimental residue of leather
(200); (c) residue identied on the front side of the neck of an unmodied carp tooth (500); (d) experimental residue of tendon colored with ochre (200); (e) residue identied
on an unmodied tooth from H2 (500); (f) Close up of an experimental leather ber (500).
3463
Fig. 13. (a) Modern specimens of C. neritea marine gastropods from the mouth of the River Po to the Adriatic Sea; (b) proles of a modern C. neritea shell; (c) experimental replicas
of C. neritea beads modied through pressure.
3464
Fig. 14. All Cyclope neritea beads found in Burials H2 and H297, Vlasac. Framed specimens found as strings of beads underneath the proximal half of the femora in both burials.
3465
Fig. 15. Technological traces of pressure technique on Cyclope neritea beads from H297 and experimental comparison: (a) close-up of the irregular proles of walls on an
archaeological C. neritea bead characterized by a notched outline (40); (b) prole of the whorl edges of a modern C. neritea shell modied by pressure towards the inside (the black
arrows show the points where pressure was applied) (50); (c) aspect of the apex of an archaeological C. neritea bead (the black arrow shows the traces of the apex removal
operation) (50); (d) close-up of micro-chipping produced on a modern shell after the removal of the apex through a pressure applied towards the outside of the shell (40); (e)
negatives of technological removal of the apex of the C. neritea (50); (f) micro-chipping produced on an experimental C. neritea shell for removing the apex through pressure
applied towards the outside of the shell (50).
3466
Fig. 16. Use-wear traces distribution pattern on Cyclope neritea beads from Burials H2 and H297: (a) rounding on the whorl edge on a C. neritea bead from H297 (30); (b) close-up
of the prominent part of the shell close to the lip showing developed rounding on a C. neritea bead from H297 (40); (c) at facet observed on the apex of a C. neritea bead from
Burial H2 (50); (d) rounding located on the lip on a C. neritea bead from H297 (30); (e) rounding developed on the inside surface of the lip of a C. neritea bead from H297 (30).
3467
Sea along the Danube is w500 km, the shortest route to the southern
Adriatic Sea is w400 km, and to the northern Aegean Sea w500 km).
Moreover, currently, Vlasac is the only site in southeast Europe, and
one among few sites in southern Europe, where we are able to
document with certainty the use of C. neritea ornaments in burials.
8. Conclusions
Fig. 17. Reconstruction of the patterning of carp teeth and Cyclope neritea ornaments
on Burials H2 (above) and H297 (below).
3468
Acknowledgments
The research presented here and paper writing took place in the
course of the Hunt Fellowship of the Wenner Gren Foundation (DB
for 2010) and a Wenner Gren post-doctoral fellowship (EC for 2011).
The authors are grateful to the Foundation for their generous
research funding. The eld project at the site of Vlasac from 2006 to
2009 was supported by the British Academy (SG-42170 and LRG45589), McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University
of Cambridge and Leverhulme Trust funded Programme Changing
Beliefs of the Human Body: Comparative Social Perspective, based
at the Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge. We are
grateful to Ana Beln Marin-Arroyo, Ignacio Clemente Conte, Marco
Peresani, Krish Seetah and four anonymous reviewers for their
constructive comments on earlier versions of this paper.
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