Inverse Dynamics

D. Gordon E. Robertson, PhD, FCSB

School of Human Kinetics
University of Ottawa

Inverse Dynamics
(definition)

The process of deriving the kinetics (i.e.,

forces and moments of force) necessary to
produce the kinematics (observed motion) of
bodies with known inertial properties (i.e.,
mass and moment of inertia).
Typically the process is used to compute
internal forces and moments when external
forces are known and there are no closed
kinematic chains (e.g., batting, shoveling).

Two-dimensional Derivation

The following slides outline the derivation of

the equations for determining net forces and
moments of force for the two-dimensional
case.
The three-dimensional case follows the same
procedure.

Inverse Dynamics
Kinematic Chains, Segment & Assumptions

First, divide body into kinematic chains

Next, divide chains into segments
Assume that each segment is a rigid body
Assume that each joint is rotationally frictionless

Space Diagram

Segments

Ordering of Segments

Start with the terminal segment of a kinematic

chain
The ground reaction forces of the terminal
segment must be known (i.e., measured) or zero
(i.e., free-ended)
If not, start at the other end of the chain (i.e., topdown versus bottom-up)
If external forces are unknown, measure them,
otherwise, you cannot proceed

Free-body Diagram

Make a free-body diagram (FBD) of the

terminal segment
Rules:

Add all known forces that directly influence the

free-body
Wherever free-body contacts the environment or
another body add unknown force and moment
Simplify unknown forces when possible (i.e., does
a force have a known direction, can force be
assumed to be zero, is surface frictionless?)

1.

Draw free-body diagram

of terminal segment

2.

Add weight vector

to free-body
diagram at centre
of gravity
weight
centre of gravity
(xfoot, yfoot)

3.

If ground contact
add ground
reaction force at
centre of pressure

Fground

weight
centrecentre
of gravity
of pressure
(xfoot, (x
yfoot) , y
ground
ground)

4.

Add all muscle

forces at their
points of
application
(insertions)

force from
triceps surae
force from
tibialis anterior
Fground

weight
centrecentre
of gravity
of pressure
(xfoot, (x
yfoot) , y
ground
ground)

5.

force from
triceps surae bone-onforce
from
bone
forces
tibialis anterior

Add bone-on-bone
and ligament forces
and the frictional
joint moment of
ligament
force

Fground

force

weight
centrecentre
of gravity
of pressure
(xfoot, (x
yfoot) , y
ground
ground)

Equations are Indeterminate

Too many Unknowns, Too few Equations

In two dimensions there are three equations of

motion. In three dimensions there are six
equations.
But there are more unknown forces (two or
more muscles per joint, several ligaments, skin,
joint capsule, bone-on-bone or cartilage forces,
etc.) then there are equations.
Thus, equations of motion are indeterminate and
cannot be solved.

Solution:
Reduce number of unknowns to
three (2D) or six (3D)

The solution is to reduce the number of

unknowns to three (or six for 3D)
These are called the net force (Fx, Fy) and the
net moment of force (Mz) for 2D
or (Fx, Fy, Fz) and (Mx, My, Mz) for 3D

5a.

Consider a single
muscle force (F)

force from
triceps surae bone-onforce
from
bone
forces
tibialis anterior

ligament
force

Fground

weight
centrecentre
of gravity
of pressure
(xfoot, (x
yfoot) , y
ground
ground)

5b.

Move muscle force

to joint centre
(F*)

force from
triceps surae bone-onfrom
bone
forces
F* force
tibialis anterior

ligament
force

Fground

weight
centrecentre
of gravity
of pressure
(xfoot, (x
yfoot) , y
ground
ground)

5c.

Add balancing
force (F*)

force from
triceps surae bone-onfrom
bone
forces
F* force
tibialis anterior
ligament
force

Fground

weight
F
*
centrecentre
of gravity
of pressure
(xfoot, (x
yfoot) , y
ground
ground)

5d.

Force couple
(F, F*) is equal to
free moment of
force (MFk)

force from
triceps surae bone-onfrom
bone
forces
F* force
tibialis anterior
ligament
force

Fground

= MF k

weight
F
*
centrecentre
of gravity
of pressure
(xfoot, (x
yfoot) , y
ground
ground)

5e.

Replace couple
with free moment
(MF k)

force from
triceps surae bone-onfrom
bone
forces
F* force
tibialis anterior
ligament
force

MFF k Fground
= MF k

weight
F
*
centrecentre
of gravity
of pressure
(xfoot, (x
yfoot) , y
ground
ground)

5.

Show all forces

again

force from
triceps surae bone-onforce
from
bone
forces
tibialis anterior
Fground

ligament
force

weight
centrecentre
of gravity
of pressure
(xfoot, (x
yfoot) , y
ground
ground)

6.

Replace muscle
forces with
equivalent joint
forces and free
moments

force from
force and
moment from
triceps surae
bone-ontriceps
surae
force
from
bone
forces
tibialis anterior
Fground

ligament
force

weight
force and
moment
from
centre
of
gravity
centre
of pressure
tibialis
anterior

(xfoot, (x
yfoot) , y
ground
ground)

7.

Add all ankle

forces and
moments to obtain
net ankle force and
moment of force

Mankle k

Fankle

Fground

8.

Show complete
free-body diagram

Mankle k

Fankle

(xankle, yankle)

mfoot g j

Fground

centre of pressure
(xground, yground)

9.

Show position
vectors (rankle ,
rground)

Mankle k

Fankle

(xankle, yankle)
rground
rankle

mfoot g j

Fground

centre of pressure
(xground, yground)

Three Equations of Motion for the

Foot
Fx = max:
Fx(ankle) + Fx(ground) = max (foot)

Fy = may:
Fy (ankle) + Fy (ground) mg = may (foot)

Mz= I :
Mz (ankle) + [rankle Fankle] z
+ [rground Fground] z = Ifoot (foot)

Moment of Force as Cross Product

the moment of a force (M) is defined as the

cross-product (x) of a position vector (r) and
its force (F). I.e., M = r x F
Mz = [ r F ]z = rx Fy ry Fx
rankle = (xankle xfoot , yankle yfoot)

[ ... ]z means take the scalar portion in the zdirection

Equations of Motion for Foot

Solve for the Unknowns
Fx = max:
Fx(ankle) = max(foot) Fx(ground)
Fy = may:
Fy(ankle) = may(foot) Fy(ground) + mg
Mz = I :
Mz(ankle) = Ifoot (foot) [rankle Fankle] z
[rground Fground] z
Note, moment of inertia (Ifoot) is about the centre of the
gravity of the foot, not the proximal or distal end)

Apply Newtons Third Law to Leg:

Reaction = Action

Net force and moment of force at proximal end

of ankle causes reaction force and moment of
force at distal end of the leg (shank)
Reactions are opposite in direction to actions
I.e., reaction force = action force
reaction moment = action moment

10.

Mknee k

Draw free-body
diagram of leg
using net forces
and moments of
force

Fankle
Mankle k

Fknee

Equations of Motion for Leg

Fx = max:
Fx(knee) Fx(ankle) = max(leg)
Fy = may:
Fy(knee) Fy(ankle) mg = may(leg)
Mz = I a :
Mz(knee) + [rknee Fknee]z Mz(ankle)
+ [rankle Fankle]z = Ileg (leg)

Equations of Motion for Thigh

Fx = max:
Fx(hip) Fx(knee) = max(thigh)
Fy = may:
Fy(hip) Fy(knee) mg = may(thigh)
Mz = I a :
Mz(hip) + [rhip Fhip]z Mz(knee)
+ [rknee Fknee]z = Ithigh (thigh)

Interpretation

Mathematical concepts not anatomical kinetics

These forces and moments are mathematical

constructs NOT actual forces and moments.
The actual forces inside joints and the
moments across joints are higher because of
the cocontractions of antagonists.
Furthermore, there is no certain method to
apportion the net forces and moments to the
individual anatomical structures.

Computerize the Process

Examples:
2D: Biomech MAS, Ariel PAS, Hu-m-an
3D: Visual3D, Polygon, KinTools, KinTrak,
Kwon3D, Simi