Full Text of - Wind Tunnels and Their Instrumentation

09/09/2015
Fulltextof"Windtunnelsandtheirinstrumentation"
Seeotherformats
NASA
TT
F3U6
c.l
S.M.GorlinandI.I.SIezinger
WINDTUNNELS
ANDTHEIR
INSTRUMENTATION
LOANCOPY:RETURN^
AFVVL(WUL21
KIRTLANDAFBrNMtg^
g30
https://archive.org/stream/nasa_techdoc_19670012052/19670012052_djvu.txt
1/1563
09/09/2015
trII>
Oa3
03."*
TRANSLATEDFROMRUSSIAN
\I
PublishedfortheNationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration,U.S.A.
andtheNationalScienceFoundation,Washington,D.C.
bytheIsraelProgramforScientificTranslations
TECHLIBRARYKAFB,NM
D0t>QQ51
S.M,GORLINand1.1.SLEZINGER
2/1563
09/09/2015
WINDTUNNELS
AND
THEIRINSTRUMENTATION
(Aeromekhanicheskieizmerenia.Metodyipribory)
Izdatel'stvo"Nauka"
Moskva1964
TranslatedfromRussian
IsraelProgramforScientificTranslations
Jerusalem1966
NASATTP346
TT6651026
PublishedPursuanttoanAgreementwith
THEU.S.NATIONALAERONAUTICSANDSPACEADMINISTRATION
and
THENATIONALSCIENCEFOUNDATION,WASHINGTON,D.C.
3/1563
09/09/2015
Copyright1966
IsraelProgramforScientificTranslationsLtd.
IPSTCat.No.1680
TranslatedbyP.Boltiansky,E.E.
EditedbyIPSTStaff
PrintedinJerusalembyS.Monson
Binding:WienerBinderyLtd..Jerusalem
Price:$9.00
Availablefromthe
U.S.DEPARTMENTOFCOMMERCE
ClearinghouseforFederalScientificandTechnicalInformation
Springfield,Va.22151
Xn/13/4.5
TABLEOFCONTENTS
FOREWORDV
4/1563
09/09/2015
INTRODUCTION1
ChapterI.THEDESIGNOFMODELSFORAERODYNAMICEXPERIMENTS,.3
1,Criteriaofsimilarity3
2.Coordinateaxes.Aerodynamiccoefficients8
Chaptern.WINDTUNNELSANDINSTALLATIONS13
3.Operatingprinciplesofwindtunnels13
4.Subsonicwindtunnels.Opencircuittunnels24
5.Transonictunnels48
6.Supersonicwindtunnels63
7.Hypersonicwindtunnels86
8.Windtunnelsfortestingaircraftengines115
ChapterIII.WINDTUNNELDESIGNCALCULATIONS122
9.Designofsubsonictunnels122
10.Gasdynamicsofsupersonictunnels142
ChapterIV.MEASUREMENTOFFLOWPARAMETERSINWINDTUNNELS.156
11.Pressuremeasurement160
12.ThemeasurementoftheMachnumberandflowvelocity..173
5/1563
09/09/2015
13.Themeasurementofflowdirection195
14.Measurementoftemperatureinflow207
15.Measurementofdensity:humiditycorrections219
16.Boundarylayermeasurements223
n.Instrumentsformappingdistributions232
18.Visualandopticalmethodsofflowdistributions....239
ChapterV.INSTRUMENTSANDAPPARATUSFORPRESSUREMEASUREMENT.255
19.Liquidcolumnmanometers257
20.Mechanicalmanometers270
21.Electricalpressuretransducersandmicromanometers...281
22.Equipmentformeasuringpresautedistribution.Multiple
manometers294
23.Transmissionlaginmanometricsystems310
24.Manometricinstrumentsfordeterminingdimensionless
characteristics314
ChapterVI.WINDTUNNELBALANCES
25.Windtunnelbalanceslocatedoutsidethemodel
6/1563
09/09/2015
26.Designexamplesofwindtunnelbalances
27.Balanceelementsofwindtunnelbalances.
28.Windtunnelbalanceslocatedinsidethemodel
29.Theerrorsofwindtunnelbalances.Calibration
ChapterVII.TECHNIQUESANDMETHODSOFAERODYNAMIC
MEASUREMENTS
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
326
328
357
362
379
425
438
Adjustmentofwindtunnels438
7/1563
09/09/2015
Techniquesandmethodsofbalancemeasurements...445
Determinationofpressureandvelocitydistributions...451
Thetestingofpropellers458
Testingofbladecascades476
Testingoffans490
Experimentaldeterminationoflocalresistances....496
Testingofwindturbines503
Testingofejectors508
Determiningrotationalderivatives510
ChapterVIII.PROCESSINGTHERESULTSOFWINDTUNNELTESTS...527
40.Interferencebetweentunnelandmodel527
41.Interferencebetweenmodelandsupports547
42.Accuracyandreproducibilityoftests555
ChapterIX.AUTOMATICDATARECORDINGANDPROCESSINGOF
WINDTUNNELMEASUREMENTS564
43.Methodsofautomaticallyprocessingmeasureddata...564
44.Digitalconversionofmeasuredvalues.Digital
8/1563
09/09/2015
conversionofangles569
45.Processingthemeasureddataoncomputers586
IV
FOREWORD
Aerodynamicmeasuringtechniquesandtheoreticalaerohydrodynamics
havedevelopedtogether.Theconnectionisseenvividlyintheworksof
N.E.JoukowskiandS.A.Chaplygin,whoestablishedthebasisofmodern
aerodynamictheory,andfoundedtheaerodynamicslaboratoriesofthe
SovietUnion.
Althoughtherelationshipbetweentheoryandexperinaenthaschangedas
aerodynamicsdeveloped,therehasalwaysbeenapaucityofexperimental
datafromwhichtodevelopthetheory.
Someofthemeasuringtechniquesandinstrumentsdescribedinthis
bookarementionedinthewellknownbooksofA.K.Martinov,
"Eksperinaental'nayaaerodinamika"(ExperimentalAerodynamics)(1950),
S.G.Popov,"Nekotoryezadachieksperimental'noiaeromekhaniki"(Some
ProblemsinExperimentalAeromechanics)(1952),andN.A.Zaks,
"Osnovyeksperimental'noiaerodinamiki"(TheBasisofExperimental
Aerodynamics)(1957).Inthesetextbooksforadvancedstudentsmeasuring
techniquesandinstrumentsarenecessarilydescribedonlybrieflyandin
passing.R.C.PankhurstandD.W.Holderdiscussawiderangeof
experimentalproblemsintheirtextbook"WindTunnelTechnique"(1952),
butthetreatmentisgeneralandsometimessuperficial.Sincethe
9/1563
09/09/2015
publicationoftheseworksthetechnologyofaerodynamicshasadvanced
greatly.
Wetryinthisbooktotreatsystematicallycertainmoderntechniquesof
aerodynamicmeasurement,formerlydescribedonlyinperiodicals.We
havemadewideuseofexperienceintheUSSRandabroad,selecting
materialtoenablereaderswithaknowledgeoftheoreticalaerodynamics
tobecomefamiliarwithexperimentalpracticeandwiththeinstruments
andapparatususedinpractice.
Thebookisintendedmainlyforexperimentalresearchworkersin
aerodynamicsandforthoseusingtheirresultsandalsoforstudentsof
fluiddynamics.Wethinkthatengineersandtechniciansdesigningand
constructingaerodynamicinstallations,anddevelopingmeasuringequipment,
willalsofindthebookuseful.
ChaptersI,II,III,VII,andVIIIwerewrittenbyS,M.Gorlinand
ChaptersIV,V,VI,IXandSections7and34byI.I.Slezinger.
S.M.G.
I.I.S.
INTRODUCTION
Thedevelopmentoffluidmechanicsinvolvesobservationandstudyof
thephysicalphenomenawhichformthebasisofthetheory.Experimental
aerodynamicsservetochecktheexistingtheory,andalsoitsextension.
Ontheotherhand,theoreticaldevelopmentsstronglyinfluenceexperimental
techniques,installationsandmeasuringequipnaent.
10/1563
09/09/2015
Sinceaircraftfirstappearedaerodynanmicshavebeendirectedtowardthe
studyofincreasinglylargeflightspeeds.Therehasbeenacorresponding
developmentofequipmentandtechniquesforexperimentalresearchandfor
measurement.Thetypeofinstallationandthetechniquescurrentlyused
dependontheflightspeedinthefiveranges:
1.Lowsubsonicspeeds[Incompressibleflow].
2.Highsubsonicspeeds[Subsoniccompressibleflow].
3.Transonicspeeds.
4.Supersonicspeeds.
5.Hypersonicspeeds.
Experimentalaerodynamicsareatlowspeedsarebasedonthe
fundamentalworkofN.E.Joukowski,L,Prandtl,andotherleading
scientists.Thisspeedrangeisstillimportantforresearchinindustrial
aerodynamics,surfacevehicles,andthetakeoffandlanding
characteristicsofaircraft.Therearelowspeedwindtunnels,of
comparativelylowpower,inalmosteveryuniversityandinstituteof
advancedlearning.Forsimulatingnaturalconditionsinthetestingof
aircraft,largeaerodynamicslaboratoriesofscientificresearchinstitutes
possesslowspeedwindtunnelswhosepowersextendtotensandeven
hundredsofmegawatts.Thetechniquesformeasuringforces,pressures,
andspeeds,andforvisualobservationoftheflowaroundbodiesatlow
speeds,arewidelyusedinresearchathigherspeeds,andhavemerited
extensivetreatmentinthisbook.
Thestudyofflightathighsubsonicspeeds,whichfirstbecameimportant
about1930,demandsconsiderablymorepowerandcomplicatedequipment,
becauseasspeedincreases,thecompressibilityoftheairbecomesas
importantasitsviscosity.Variabledensitywindtunnelsaretherefore
11/1563
09/09/2015
usedwhichmusthaveautomaticinstrumentationandcontrolandpermit
measurementsofawiderangeofparameters.Theopticaltechniques
developedforthisspeedrangeareevenmoreimportantatstillhigher
speeds.
Wehavepaidspecialattentiontotransonictechniquesbecauseofthe
acousticeffectsofaircraftflyingatspeedsnearthevelocityofsound.
Importanttechniquesaredescribedformeasuringparametersand
calculatingeffectswhichcannotbeneglectedinexperimentsinthisspeed
range.Wealsodescribethedesignofinstrumentationfortransonic
installations.
niiiiiiiIN
Evenmoreinvolvedaresupersonicwindtunnels,wherethepowermay
reachtens,andevenhundreds,ofmegawatts.Measuringtechniques,
developedforuseatlowerspeeds,canstill,withcare,beused,but
opticaltechniquesbecomemoreimportant,andsupplementarytechniques
mustbeintroduced.Theinstallationsarefarmoreexpensive;a
considerablepartofthebookisdevotedtotheuseofautomaticmeasuring
anddataprocessingtechniqueswhichthusbecomeeconomical.
Hypersonicspeeds,onlylatelybeingstudied,involvehightemperatures
andphysicochemicalprocessesingases.Theydemandanewapproach
towindtunneldesign;techniquesandinstrumentationarebeingevolved
rapidly,andtheirfulldescriptionwouldjustifyaseparatevolume.Here
wehavemerelyreviewedthisaspectofthesubjectinordertoacquaint
readerswiththetrends.
Withineachofthefivespeedrangesitisimpossibletoseparatesharply
12/1563
09/09/2015
measuringtechniquesanduseofequipmentfrominstallationdesign.We
havethereforeallotedindividualchapterstothedescriptionofaerodynamic
researchinstallations,tothemeasurementofthevariousflowparameters,
towindtunnelbalances,etc.Wehopethatthismethodofpresentationwill
permitthereadertostudyeachproblemindetail,whileavoidingthe
repetitionwhichwouldinevitablyfollowfromadivisionofthematerialby
speedrange.Anexceptionhasbeenmadeinthechapteronhypersonic
speeds,whichcombinesabriefdescriptionofexperimentalinstallationsanc
commonmeasuringtechniques.
ChapterI
THEDESIGNOFMODELSFORAERODYNAMIC
EXPERIMENTS
1.CRITERIAOFSIMILARITY
Itisverydifficulttoreproduceflightconditionsexactlyinaerodynamic
experiments,whetherthebodyismovingthroughastationarygasorthe
gaspastastationarybody.Modelsarethereforecommonlyusedinwind
tunnelsoflimiteddimensions,topredictthebehaviorofprototypesin
flight.
Theaccuracyofpredictionsfromtestsonmodelsdependsonthe
fidelitywithwhichflowaroundthemodelorinachanneloflimitedsize
reproducestheflowaroundthefullscalebodyorinthefullscalechannel,
i.e.,itdependsonthefulfilmentof"criteriaofsimilarity."
AsL.I.SedovIIIhaspointedout,scalingdownwillbesucessfulifwe
areabletosubstituteforthephenomenawhichinterestus,closelyanalogous
phenomenaonanotherscale.Scalenaodeltestingisthusbasedonstudying
physicallysimilarphenomena.Geometricsimilarity*isfundamentalto
13/1563
09/09/2015
aerodynamicexperimentation.Thecoefficientofgeometricsimilarity,i.e.,
thegeometricscalefactorofthemodel,istheratioofthedimensionsof
themodeltothedimensionsofthe(geometricallysimilar)naturalobject.
Mechanicalorphysicalsimilarityimpliesthatweshouldbeabletocalculate
physicaleffectsfromobservationsonadifferentscale.However,certain
conditionsmustbefulfilledifthissimilarityistobeachieved.
Wedefinetwosystemsasbeingsimilartoeachotherifallthephysical
characteristicsatcorrespondingpoints**inthetwosystemshavethesame
relationship.Therelationshipbetweenmasses,velocities,viscosities,
andotherparametersintwosuchsystemscanbederivedbyconsidering
theconditionsandrelationshipswithineachsystematanyinstant.
Fortheflowofviscous,incompressiblefluidssuchconsiderations/2/
showthatatcorrespondingpointswithinthesystemsmechanical
similaritydemandsthat
^__!.Pt__Pi
Twobodiesare"geometricallysimilar"iftheratioofallcorrespondinglineardimensionsisuniform.
Bycorrespondingpointsofsimilarsystemsweunderstandpointswhicharesimilarlyplacedgeometrically
inrelationtogeometricallysimilarbodieswithinthetwosystems.
Here/isarepresentativetime,Iarepresentativelength,pthedensity,
Vthecoefficientofkinematicviscosity,Zthebodyforce[gravity,
centrifugalforce,etc.;Zhasthedimensionsofacceleration],Visthe
velocity,pthepressure;thesubscripts1and2refertothefirstand
secondsystem,respectively.
Thefirstoftheserelationshipsistheconditionforkinematicsimilarity.
14/1563
09/09/2015
Theotheresqaressionsdefinetheconditionsofdynamicalsimilarity,i,e.,
thesimilarityofforcesarisingduringmotion.
Toensuresimilaritywhenstudyingrotationalm.otionofliquidsor
bodies(theflowofliquidaroundarotatingpropellor,orthevelocity
fluctuationsinawake)the[dimensionless]coefficientJ~mustbethe
samêforbothmodelandprototype!Inpractice,forcyclicphenom.ena,
weuseStrouhal'scriterionthat
4=Sh,
beconstant,nbeingthefrequencyandVthefreestreamvelocityofthe
flow.Forexample,whencomparingperformanceandefficienciesof
propellerswemaintainconstancyoftheadvanceratio
Herericisthenunaberofrevolutionsofthescrew;theadvanceratio,
relatingtheflightspeedtothecircumferentialvelocityofthebladetips,
isaformoftheStrouhalnumber,whichensuressimilarityofthesystems.
Forsteadyflowofviscous,incompressibleliquidstwoconditionsof
similarityapply.BoththeFroudenumber
andtheReynoldsnumber
gi,gt,^'^'
15/1563
09/09/2015
mustbethesameforthetwosystems.
Thus,inaviscous,connpressibleliquidundertheactionoftheforceof
gravityonly,twosystemswhichhavethesameReynoldsandFroudenumbers
aresimilar.Wheneverwemention"similarity"phenomena,weconsider
geometricallysimilarbodies,similarlyorientedwithrespecttotheflow.
Whentherearenobodyforcesthecriteriaofsimiilarityaregreatly
simplified;twoflowswillthenbesim.ilariftheReynoldsnumbersarethe
same.Theaerodynamicforcesonabodydependinthiscaseonlyonthe
Reynoldsnumberandtheorientationofthebodytotheflow.
Whenallowanceismadeforinertia,viscosity,compressibility,and
thermalconductivity*,theconditionsforthemechanicalsimilarityof
motioninfluids,ofgeometricallysimilar,similarlyplacedsolidbodies,
aremorecomplicated.Itisthennecessarytomaintainequalityofthe
Neglectingbuoyancyandradiantheattransfer.
followingdimensionlessparametersinthetwosystems:
Re=.M=y==.Pr.
=1yrand'y
HereMistheMachnumber,whichrelatesflightspeedtothevelocity
ofsounda=V^xgRT",.PristhePrandtlnunaber;CisSutherland'sconstant
(whichhasthedimensionsoftem.perature,andforairisabout113C)**;
16/1563
09/09/2015
Xisthecoefficientofthermalconductivity;nistheratioofthespecific
heatCpatconstantpressuretothespecificheatcatconstantvolume;T\,is
theabsolutetemperatureatthesurfaceofthebody;andTistheabsolute
temperatureofthegas.
Insom.ecasesT\mT,andtheparameterTi/Tmaybeignored.Itis
oftenpermissibletoignoreC/T,whichexpressestheinfluenceofthe
temperatureontheviscosityandthermalconductivity^.Thus,in
studyingmotionthroughgasesofequalcompressibilityandatomicity,
andforwhichthevaluesofjândPrarethereforethesame,similaritywillbe
ensurediftheReynoldsandMachnumbersarethesameinbothgases.
Thesetwomagnitudesarethemostimportantsimilaritycriteriain
aerodynamics.
Foranideal,incompressiblefluid,thecriterionofsimilarityforthe
pressuresatcorrespondingpointsisexpressedby
Pt_Pi
PjV?P.V1"
ItthusfollowsthattheratioofthereactionsRiand/?jofthefluidon
geometricallysimilar(andsimilarlyoriented)bodiesis
^2f2'ih
whereNwisNewton's[dimensionless]nunaber.
Newton'snumberdefinesthesimilarityinthiscase.
Thusinanideal,incompressiblefluid,thehydrodynamicforcesona
bodyareproportionaltothesquareoftherelativevelocity(SquareLaw).
17/1563
09/09/2015
ThecriterionC/Tisimportantwhenthegaseshavedifferentnutt^bersofatomspermolecule.For
gasesofthesameatomicitiesthevaluesofandPrwillbethesame.
Sutherland'sCriterioncanbewritten
1,C
I_>!_"'"273.1^/T
^~,,CV273.1'
"n_
whereXoand|iocorrespondtoT=273.1.
tThismaybedonebyusingthecriterion
1+
whichdoesnotcontainthedimensionalconstantC.
18/1563
09/09/2015
Thislawisexactonlywhenthefluiddisplaysidealbehaviorduringthe
experiment.
ForviscousflowofafluidatsufficientlyhighReynoldsnumberthis
lawisagoodapproximation.Atverylowvelocities,correspondingto
smallvaluesofRe,theinfluenceoftheviscousforcesincreases.When
inertiaforcesbecomenegligibleincomparisonwiththeviscousdrag,the
forceonabodyisproportionaltothevelocity,tothelineardixnensionsof
thebody,andtothecoefficientofviscosity(StokesLaw).Atveryhigh
Reynoldsnumbersviscosityeffectsdecreasewhilecompressibilityeffects
increase.Astheflowvelocityincreases,theforcesduetotheelasticity
ofthegas,whichdependonitspressure,becomecomparablewiththe
forcesoffriction,inertiaetc.Thiscausesnotonlyaquantitativechangein
theaerodynamiccharacteristicsofthebody(e.g.,drag),butalsointhe
natureoftheflowaroundthebody.Inparticular,asMapproachesunity,
theflowbecomeslocallysupersonicinseveralregionsaroundthebody;
thiscausesshockwavesanddissipationofenergy.Thepressuredistribution
overthebodyandthemomentsduetotheappliedforceswillchange,andthe
dragwillincreasesharply.Itmay,therefore,bebesttoacceptvariations
oftheReynoldsnumberinexperiments,toavoidchangesintheMachnumber
Attainmentoffullsimilarityi.e.,similarityofallparameters,may
inpracticebeimpossible.Ifwechoosethesamemediumforthetwo
systems(e.g.,waterorair)atthesametemperatureandpressure,then
forequalityofFr,Re,andMwemusthavepi=p2,v,=vj,,andî=^2;so
thatV,=V,and/,=4,i.e.,itisimpossibletoobtainsimilarmotionsinthe
samemediumfortwobodiesofdifferentsizes.Althoughinprincipleitis
possibletoachievesimilarityusingtwodifferentliquids,itisinpractice
difficulttoselectsatisfactoryvaluesofvanda.
Forthesereasonsitispossibletoobtainonlypartialsimilarityinmost
aerodynamicexperiments,andwemustselectthosecriteriaonwhichthe
phenomenaofinterestmoststronglydepend.
19/1563
09/09/2015
Inpractice,geometricsimilarityisfullymaintainedonlywhentesting
fullscaleprototypesunderfieldconditions,orwhenafullscalemodelis
muchsmallerthanthetestsectionofthewindtunnel.Inmostcasesthe
fullscaleprototypeismuchlargerthanthetunnel,andtestsmustbe
madeonareducedscale,atwhichitisdifficulttoreproducefaithfullythe
shapeofsmallprojectionsandthesurfacefinishoftheprototype.This
unavoidablyintroducesinaccuracy,especiallyathightestvelocities.
Dimensionaltolerancesinscalemodelproductionarethereforesometimes
tenthsorhundredthsofmillimeters.Often,wemodelonlythemain
elementsofaprototype:duringcomparativewingteststheaileronsand
flapsarenotmodelled.
Incurrentpracticetheorientationofbodiesinspacecanbereproduced
withsufficientlyhighaccuracy(0.1to0.2).TheReynoldsnumberisan
adequatecriterionofsimilarityatlowvelocities.AtMachnumbersabove
0.3or0.4(dependingontheshapeofthebodyanditsorientationinthefluid)
compressibilitybecomesincreasinglyimportant,andtheMachnumbermust
bereproducedinthemodeltest.Aerodynamiccharacteristicswillstill,
however,beconsiderablyinfluencedbyviscosity,andforaccuracyinsuch
testsitisnecessarytoreproducebothReynoldsandMachnumbers.
Whencompressibilityeffectspredominate(e.g.,inajetairplaneor
rocket)itissufficienttoconsideronlytheMachnumber.Inthesame
mediumatequaltemperatures,similaritythenrequiresonlythat
V,=K,.
TheReynoldsnumbercanbereproducedinasmallscalemodelby
increasingthevelocityininverseproportiontothegeometricscalefactor,
orbyincreasingthedensityofthetestmediumininverseproportiontothe
productVI*.Itistechnicallydifficulttoincreasethevelocity,sincethe
powerrequiredisproportionaltol^^.Evenwhenadequatepoweris
20/1563
09/09/2015
available,itmustberememberedthatasthevelocityincreases,
compressibilityeffectsbecomeincreasinglyimportant,sothatby
maintainingtheReynoldsnumberconstantwemaycausechangesintheMach
number.ItisthereforecommonpracticetoreproducetheReynoldsnumber
byincreasingthedensity,usingvariabledensitywindtunnels,theflow
velocitybeingsufficienttopermitsimultaneousreproductionoftheMach
number.
ReproductionoftheMachnumberrequiresreproductionoftheratioofthe
flowvelocitytothevelocityofsound.Sincethevelocityofsoundis
a=Y*gRTitcanbealteredbyvaryingeitherTortheproductkR.
Theuseofothergasesinsteadofair/3/(e.g.,Freon,whichhasalower
valueofkR,andrequiresmuchlesspowerforagivenM)istechnically
difficult.
Inthisdiscussionofsimilaritycriteriawehaveassumedthatotherthings
beingequalthesamevelocitiesinihetwosystemscorrespondedtoequal
forces.However,thereareusuallyvelocityfluctuationssuperimposedonthe
meanvelocitiesinawindtunnel.Theeffectofthesefluctuationsontheflow
andontheforcesactingonthemodel,isinmanywaysanalogoustothe
effectofincreasingtheReynoldsnumber.Theratioofther.m.s.
fluctuatingvelocitytothemeanvelocityoftheundisturbedflowisthe
turbulenceleveleoftheundisturbedflow.Itisnecessarytoreproducethe
valueofEascloselyaspossibleinthemodel,sincethereisnopractical
wayofcalculatingitseffectontheaerodynamiccharacteristics.Infew
windtunnelsarethevaluesofeaslowasinnature.Windtunnelsinwhich
eexceeds0.5to1%areunsuitableforphysicalaerodynamicresearch**and
forthesepurposesitisusualtobuildspeciallowturbulencetunnels.
Whenstudyingtheflowofrarifiedgases,animportantcriterionof
similarityistheKnudsennumberJ,whichistheratioofthemolecular
meanfreepathZ,toarepresentativelengthofthebodyorthethicknessof
theboundarylayer.Molecularmotionisimportanttoadecreasingextent
21/1563
09/09/2015
/4/infreemoleculeflowandslipflow,andcanbeignoredgenerallyin
gasdynamics(Figure1.1).
Othercharacteristicsofthegasorbody,whichmayplayanimportant
partinthemotion,willeachinvolvenewcriteriaandsimilarityconditions.
Forinstance,inthestudyofavibratingwinginagasstream,dynamic
similaritydependsonthedimensionlessparametersfVÎE;G/Eandwi/pP
whereEisYoung'smodulus,Gtheshearmodulus,andm,themassofthe
wing.
Inexperimentalworkourproblemistoselectthosesimilaritycriteria
whichmost'influencethetestresults.ImperfectsimilaritywillleadtO'
*Itsliouldberememberedtharthecoefficientofdynamicviscosity(iismdependentofdensity,andthere
foreofpressure.Thecoefficientofkinematicviscosityv=|t/pdependsondensity,andthusonpressure.
**Investigationsofthestructureoftheboundarylayer,thepositionofthetransitionpointfromlaminarto
turbulantflow,etc.
errorswhichmustbeevaluatedwhenmakingpredictionsofprototype
behaviorfromresultsoftestsonmodels.Thisisaparticularcaseofthe
basicproblemofaerodynamics,i.e.,todeterminethecriteriaand
similarityconditionsrelevanttoparticularaerodynamiccharacteristics;
methods,instruments,andtechnologyofallaeromechanicalmeasurements
dependonthesolutionofthisproblem.
FIGURE1.1,Flowregimesinfluids.
22/1563
09/09/2015
2.COORDINATKAXKS.AERODYNAMICCOEFFICIENTS
Inexperimentalaerodynanaicsandaircraftdesignweuse(asspecified
inCOST107541)oneofthefollowingcoordinatesystems:velocity,fixed,or
semifixed.Allthesearerighthandsystems,inwhichpositiverotation
aboutanyaxisappearsclockwisetoanobserverplacedattheorigin.
Allthesesystemsofcoordinateshaveacommonoriginatthecenter
ofgravityoftheaircraft.Inthevelocitysystemofcoordinates
Oxyz(Figure1.2)the.:axisispositiveinthedirectionofflight.The
yaxisliesintheplaneofsymm.etryofthebody;itsdirectionisparallel
totheliftontheaircraft,beingpositiveupwards.Thezaxisisnormalto
theOxyplane,andispositivetostarboard(towardtherightwhenlooking
forward).
ThefixedsystemofcoordinatesOx\yxZ\correspondstothegeometricaxes
oftheaircraft;thex,axisisdirectedforwardparalleltothehorizontal
centerlineorthewingchordwhichdeterminestheangleofattack.The
semifixedsystemofcoordinatescoincideswiththevelocitysystemwhen
thereisnosideslipordrift(p=0).
Whentheangleofsideslipchanges,thesemifixedsystemrotateswiththe
bodyaroundthev"axis.Thevelocitysystemofcoordinatesdiffersfromthe
thesemifixedsystembytheangleofattack.Theangleofattack
thusdefinestheorientationofi'.iebodywithrespecttothesemifixedaxes.
laiifIII
Inwindtunneltestsoffixedmodels,thefreestreamvelocityis
opposedtothevelocityoffreeflight;toavoidhavingnegativedragforces
23/1563
09/09/2015
wesometimesuseaflowcoordinatesysteminwhichwereplacethe'xaxis
ofthevelocitysystembyanaxisOQintheoppositedirection.The
directionsofpositiverotationsintheflowsystemofcoordinatesarethe
sameasinthevelocitysystem.IntheliteraturetheOQaxisisoften
denotedbyOxforsimplicity;thereadershouldbeawareofthis.
X
FIGURE1.2.Velocityandfixedsystemsofcoordinates
Inwindtunneltestsinwhichtheanglesofattackandsideslipboth
varyitisusualtoapplynottheflowsystemofcoordinatesbutamodified
semifixedsysteminwhichthepositivedirectionofthexaxisisreversed.
Whenthereisnosideslip(p=0)thissemifixed"tunnel"systemcoincides
withtheflowsystem,butwhenthesideslipanglechangesthesemifixed
systemfollowsthemodel,rotatingaboutOybytheanglep.Inwindtunnels
theprimarymeasurementsoffoicesandmomentsareusuallymadeinthe
socalled"weightsystemofcoordinates"(ChapterVI),whiletheresultsare
expressedintheflowor"tunnel"systems.Thisisveryimportantwhen
determiningmomentcoefficients.Thesignsofmomentsandanglesof
rotationofthecontrolsurfacesareshowninFigure1.3foravelocity
systemofcoordinates.
Thetotalaerodynamicforcewhichactsonabodymovinginafluidis
proportionaltothedensity,thesquareofthevelocity,andthesquareof
thelineardimensions:R=CRpV^P.Theconstantofproportionalitychdepends
ontheshapeofthebody,itsorientationintheflow,andtheconditionsof
similarity;itiscalledthecoefficientoftotalaerodynamicforce.
InexperimentalaerodynamicsweoftenusearepresentativeareaS
24/1563
09/09/2015
(forinstance,thewingaret.ofanaircraft,orthecrosssectionofabody)
ratherthanP;andthevelocityheadpVôftheflowinsteadofpVV2Thetotal
aerodynamicforcesisthen
R=ckP~S,(1.1)
wherecîsthecoefficientoftotalaerodynamicforce.
Apositivemoment
Htendstomovethe
righthand(starboard)
ApositivemomentH^
tendstomovethe
starboardwing
downwards
FIGURE1.3.Signsofanglesandmomentsinthevelocitysystemofcoordinates
ThemomentM=RLduetothetotalaerodynam.icforceistakenabouta
specifiedpoint,usuallythecenterofgravityofthebody;itcanbeexpressed
expressedas
25/1563
09/09/2015
y2
Mmjtfi^SL,
(1.2)
wheremîsthecoefficientoftotalaerodynamicmoment.
Theprojectionsofthetotalaerodynamicforceonthevelocityaxesare:
Thelift(cisthecoefficientoflift)
(1.3)
Theforceparalleltothedirectionofflight(Cxisthecoefficientof
chordwiseforceforvelocityaxes)
c.cP5
(1.4)
26/1563
09/09/2015
Thesideforce(c,isthecoefficientofsideforce)
(1.5)
Thecomiponentsofthemoments,duetothetotalaerodynamicforce,with
respecttothecoordinateaxesare:
Theheelingmoment(m.isthecoefficientofheel)
M^=m^pKSL
(1.6)
27/1563
09/09/2015
Theyawingmoment(mîsthecoefficientofyaw)
V'
yW=mp=SL,
(1.7)
Thepitchingmoment(mîsthecoefficientofpitching)
M,=m,?~SL.(1.8)
IntheflowsystemofcoordinatesweusetheconceptofdragQ=X,
positiveinthedirectionoftheundisturbedflow;correspondingly,the
coefficientofdragisCxThepositivedirectionsoftheforces
YandZcoinciderespectivelywiththepositivedirectionsoftheyandzaxes.
InthefixedsystemofcoordinatesOx\y\Z\thetotalaerodynamicforceR
hasthefollowingcomponents:
Tangentialforce
X,=c^,9~S,(1.9)
28/1563
09/09/2015
ordrag
Normalforce
andtransverseforce
Q,=X,=c,,P^5;(1.10)
yi^c,i?~s,(1.11)
2,=tp^5.(1.12)
Thesymbolsforthecomponentsofthetotalmomentandtheircoefficients
arethesameintheflowandfixedsystems,thesubscript"l"denotingthe
fixedsystem.Wecandeterminethesignsofthemomentsbythefollowing
rule:theoriginofcoordinatesisatthecenterofgravityofthemodel.To
anobserverplacedatthedistantendofanaxis,apositivemomentwilltend
toturnthemodelaboutthataxisinacounterclockwisedirection.
Adetaileddescriptionofthecoordinatessystemsusedinexperimental
aerodynamics,andtheformulafortransformationfromonesystemto
anotherwillbefoundin/5/and/6/.
29/1563
09/09/2015
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.Sedov,L.I.Metodypodobiyairazmernostivmekhanike(Similarity
MethodsandDimensionsinMechanics).GTTI.1957.
2.Kochin,N.E.,I.A.Kibel'andN.V.Roze.Teoreticheskaya
gidromekhanika(TheoreticalHydromechanics),Gostekhizdat,1948.
3.Pankhurst,R,C.andD.W.Hoider.WindTunnelTechnique.
Pitman,London.1952.[Russiantranslation,1955.]
4.Tsien,H,S.Aerodinamikarazrezhennykhgazov(Aerodynamicsof
RarifiedGases).Reviewof"GasDynamics",IL.1950.
IllillllllllllllllilllllllIII
Martynov.A.K.Eksperimental'nayaaerodinamika(Experimental
Aerodynamics).Oborongiz.1958.
Zaks,N.A.Osnovyeksperimental'noiaerodinamiki(Fundamentals
ofExperimentalAerodynamics).Oborongiz.1953.
[Pankhurst,R.C.DimensionalAnalysisandScaleFactors.
30/1563
09/09/2015
InstituteofPhysicsandthePhysicalSociety,London.1964.
(EspeciallyChapterVII)].
12
ChapterII
WINDTUNNELSANDINSTALLATIONS
3.OPERATINGPRINCIPLESOFWINDTUNNELS
Theeffectsofaironabodymovinginitcanbestudiedbyimpartingtothe
bodyavelocityinrelationtothestationaryair,orimpartingtotheaira
velocityinrelationtoastationarybody.
Mostproblemsofexperimentalaerodynamicsareconnectedwiththestudy
ofmotionofabodyinrelationtoastationaryfluid(directproblem).
However,wecanreversetheproblemandstudythemotionofafluid
inrelationtoastationarybody(inverseproblem).Whentheconditions
ofmotionreversalarestrictlymaintained,andalleffectsare
excludedwhichareduetothewindtunnelboundaries,whichare
commensurablewiththebodyinvestigated,fullagreementofthelawsof
fluidflowaroundabodyisobtainedbetweenthedirectandtheinverse
problem.
Nowadays,directinvestigationswithcomplexequipmentandspecial
measuringtechniquesareundertakenindifferenttypesofflightand
airfieldtestsofflyingmachines(airplanes,rockets,etc.)andtheir
models,andfortestingseparateelementsofthesemachines.
31/1563
09/09/2015
Airfieldandflighttestsmakeitpossibletomaintainfulldynamic
similarity,buttheirmaindrawbackisthatinadditiontothehighcost
andcomplications,researchonmanytypesofmachines,thestudyofthe
interactionofseparateelements(e,g.,ofwingandtail,orpropeller
andfuselage),testingundersimilaroperatingconditions,etc.present
difficultproblems,sometimesimpossibletosolve.Therefore,aerodynamic
fullscaletestssupplementandcompletethetestsmadeinwindtunnels.
Aerodynamicmeasurementsarealsopossibleonawhirlingarm
(Figure2.1),wherethetestedbodymovestogetherwiththerotating
armofthemachine.However,thebodyisinthiscasemovinginair
agitatedbythearmofthemachine.Thisaffectsbothinmagnitudeand
indirectiontheflowvelocityrelativetothemodel.Thus,intestson
thewhirlingarm,similarconditionsarenotobtained,andthismethodis
onlyusedinspecialproblems,e.g.,forfindingtheheelingand
yawingmomentsactingonanairplane,whichareduetothecontinuous
rotationaboutaverticalaxis.
Themainmethodofresearch,whichdeterminesthesuccessof
aerodynamicsasascienceanditswideapplicationinmanyfieldsof
technology,isthetestinginwindtunnels.Thewindtunnelisaphysical
instrument,whichmakesitpossibletoobtaininoneofitselements,
i.e.,inthetestsectionwherethebodyundertestisplaced,uniform
13
IIIIIIIIH
32/1563
09/09/2015
rectilinearsteadyairflowatagivenvelocity.Asimplewindtunnelfor
lowsubsonicspeeds(lowspeedtunnel)isshowninFigure2,2.
FIGURE2.1.Whirlingarm.
Airfromtheoutsideisdrawninbyafanattheendofthetunnel.The
airentersfirstanozzlewhosecrosssectiongraduallydecreasesinthe
flowdirection.Theflowvelocityisthusincreased.Afterattainingits
maximumvelocityinthenarrowestsectionofthenozzle,theairenters
thetestsection,whosecrosssectionisconstant.Thetestsectioncontains
v^
'i
33/1563
09/09/2015
^H
;ff1~Tti
"trvILD
"/
34/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE2.2.Simplewindtunnel.
thebodytobetestedaroundwhichtheairflowsuniformlyatconstant
velocity.Behindthetestsectionthereisthediffuser,whosegradually
increasingcrosssectionpermitsagradualreductionoftheflowvelocity.
14
Thefanisinstalledattheendofthediffuser.Theflowvelocityintho
tunnelischangedbyadjustingtherotationalspeedofthefan.
ThetunnelshowninFigure2.2operatesontheopencircuitprinciple
withclosedtestsection.Inthistunneltheflowaroundthemodelis
confinedbetweensolidwalls.Ifinsuchatunnelweincreasethediffuser
length,providingareturnduct,andconnectittothenozzle,we
obtainaclosedcircuitwindtunnelwithclosedtestsectioninwhich
theaircirculatescontinuouslyinaclosedcycle.Ifweremovethewalls
35/1563
09/09/2015
ofthetestsection,weobtainaclosedcircuittunnelwithopentestsection,
inwhichtheairalsocirculatesinaclosedcycle.
Ifintheopencircuittunnel(Figure2.2)weremovethewallsofthetest
section,thelatterhastobesurroundedbyahermeticallysealedchamber
(Eiffelchamber)inordertoobtaincorrectairflowthroughthetunnel.
Designrequirementsforwindtunnels
Alreadyinventedattheendofthe19thcentury,windtunnelsarenowadays
widelyusedindevelopedcountries.Thedimensionsofexistingtunnelsvary
overawiderangefromtunnelswithtestsectionswhosecrosssectional
areasareafewcm^,totunnelswhichenablemodernbomberstobetestedin
fullscalesize.Thepower,necessarytooperatesuchatunnel,mayattain
hundredsofthousandsofkw.However,despitethegreatvarietyoftypes,
dimensions,anddesignsofwindtunnels,theirprincipalcharacteristics
arethesame;anddifferencesaredueonlytothespecificrequirements
whichagivenwindtunnelmustfulfil.
Themainrequirementofawindtunnelisthepossibilityofobtaininga
translationaluniformrectilinearairflow.Thefulfillmentofthis
requirementisverydifficult.Toafirstapproximationlinearityandflow
uniformityareprovidedbythegeometryofthetunnelwallsandbyinternal
constructionalelements.*
Figure2.3showsthevelocitydistributioninthetestsection.Ascan
beseen,overalargepartofthecrosssectionthevelocityisuniform
andrectilinear,formingalarge"core"inwhichthetestedbodycanbe
placed.Outsidethiscorethevelocitydecreasestozeroattheboundaries
orwalls.Thecoreshouldbeaslargeaspossible.
Thevelocitydistributionshouldnotvarygreatlyoverthelengthofthe
36/1563
09/09/2015
testsection,inwhichthestaticpressureshouldbeconstant;otherwise,
thewingofanairplanewouldbetestedunderdifferentconditionsthanthe
tail.Theflowvelocityinthetestsection**shouldnotdeviatefromthe
*Specialattentionshouldbepaidtotheshapeofthenozzle,testsection,anddiffuser.Thelinear
dimensionsoftransonictunnelsshouldbeaccuratetowithini1/20QtolAOOO,whilethestraightnessofthe
tunnelaxisandtheMadeanglesofthefan,shouldbeexacttowithini0.25"to40,5.
Insupersonicwindtunnelsthecontourcoordinatesofthenozzlesarepracticallyaccuratetowithin
0,05mm.Especiallyinthecaseofahighspeedtunnel,theinnerwailsmustbenotonlysmooth(the
permissibleroughnessisi0,01to0.3mm),butalsosufficientlystrongandelastictowithstand
damagebybrokenpartsofthemodelanditssupportsinthetestsectionandattheleadingedgesofthe
bladesofhighspeedfansandcompressors.Forthisreason,inclosedcircuithighspeedtunnels,
provisionmustbemadeforsystematicdustremoval,
*Theflowconditionsinotherpartsofthetunnelareimportantonlyinasmuchastheyaffecttheflow
conditionsinthetestsectionandtheoperationofthefan.
15
meanvaluebymorethan0,5to0,75%,whiletheflowdirectioninthe
horizontalorverticalplaneshouldnotdeviatefromtheaxialdirection
bymorethan0.25.
FIGURE2.3.Velocitydistributioninthetestsectionofawindtunnel.
Usuallythestaticpressurevarieslinearlyalongthetestsectioninlow
37/1563
09/09/2015
speedtunnels(V~lOOm/sec);withopentestsections*5j=0.01m~^(wherep
isthedifferencebetweenthestaticpressureoftheflowingmediumand
atmosphericpressure,dividedbythevelocityhead).
Nolessimportant,butmoredifficultisthenaaintenanceoflowinitial
turbulenceinthetestsectionofthetunnel.Theairflowinthetunnelis
alwaysturbulenttoacertaindegree.Ahighlevelofturbulenceorvorti
cityaffectsthetestresults,duetochangesintheflowpattern,caused
byprematuretransitionfromlaminartoturbulentflowintheboundary
layeraroundthetestedbody.Strongturbulencealsocausesthetransition
regiontobedisplacedforwardalongthebody,changesthefrictional
resistance,etc.Thus,anincreaseinturbulenceistoacertaindegree
analogoustoanincreaseoftheReynoldsnumber.
Theinfluenceofinitialturbulenceinthetunneldependsonthetest
conditions.Inairatrest,undernoxnaalconditionsoffreeflightor
naotionofabody,turbulenceissmallandcanevenbeignored.To
determinetheinfluenceoftheReynoldsnumber,turbulenceinthetest
sectionshouldbereducedasfaraspossible.Theturbulencelevelis
where
"/i7
Vdiistherootmeansquareofthevelocityand
38/1563
09/09/2015
;isatimeintervalduringwhichalargenumberofvelocityfluctuations
occur.Thevalueeisgivenin%.Sinceconventionaltunnelsaremost
frequentlyequippedwithmeasuringinstrunaentsgivingaveragedvelocities,
theturbulencelevelm.ustbetakenintoaccountwhenanalyzingand
interpretingthetestresults.
Forindirectevaluationoftheturbulencelevelinawindtunnelweuse
theresultsofmeasuringthedragofasphere.Suchtestsinwindtunnels
havingdifferentturbulencelevels,givedifferentvaluesofdrag.Figure2.4
showstheresultsofsuchtests.
Intunnelswithclosedtestsections,stepsarealsotakentoreducethepressuregradient(seebelow).
16
FIGURE2,4.Dragofasphere,obtainedbytestsindifferenttunnels.
KnowingtheturbulencelevelwecanplotthediagraminFigure2.4
asafunctionalrelationshipe%=f(Recr)whereRecristheReynoldsnumber
forwhichc^,is0.3=!".InFigure2.5,thecurvee%=flRecrUsverysmooth
andagreeswellwiththeresultsofvariousexperiments.Tofindthe
turbulencelevelinanewlybuilttunnel,thedragofasphereshouldbe
determinedatdifferentflowvelocities(orofspheresofdifferentdiameter
ataconstantvelocity)andtherelationshipsc,=/(Re)plotted.
DeterminingfromthisdiagramtheReynoldsnumberatwhich
Cx=0.3,wefindfromFigure2.5thevalueofe%.Accordingtoflight
tests,thecriticalReynoldsnumberforasphereunderatmospheric
39/1563
09/09/2015
turbulenceconditionsis385,000.
InproperlydesignedwindtunnelsthecriticalReynoldsnumberfor
aspheredoesnotexceed360,000375,000(s=0.2to0.3%).Thecritical
Reynoldsnumbercanalsobedeterminedfrom,thepressuredifference
betweenthefrontalstagnationpointandthepointofflowseparationfromthe
sphere.ItwasshownexperimentallythatthevalueCx=0.3corresponds
toaratioof1.22betweenthispressuredifferenceandthevelocityheadin
theundisturbedflow.
Animportantrequirementforwindtunnelsistheabsenceofflowvelocity
fluctuations,whicharemainlycausedbytheperiodicalsheddingof
vorticesfrompoorlystreamlinedelem.entsofthetunnel,(fans,fairings,
protrudingparts,etc.),andbythepoorstreamliningofthetunnelingeneral,
especiallyinthenozzle(intunnelswithopentestsections),diffuser,and
AtC;c=0.3thereisanabruptchangeinc^=/(Re.e):thispresentsamoreaccuratedeterminationof
Ro<,f=/(e).
17
andcorners.Asarule,suchfluctuationsdonotcauseconsiderable
changesintheaerodynamiccharacteristicsofthetestbody,butlengthen
thetimerequiredformeasuringtheaerodynamicforces,andcause
damagetothetunnel.
40/1563
09/09/2015
Differentdesigns
41/1563
09/09/2015
Flightconditions
"h.^
42/1563
09/09/2015
e>^
>,
*1.
ReW
cr
FIGURE2,5.DependenceofRej.forasphereonturbulenceintunnels.
Velocityfluctuationscanbeeliminatedbyproperstreamliningofthe
43/1563
09/09/2015
tunnelandinstallingspecialdevicesforbreakingupvortices(outletsin
thediffuser,etc.).
Requirementsofwindtunnelinstruments
Windtunneltestinstrumentscanbedividedinto3maingroups.
Thefirstgroupcomprisesinstrumentsformeasuringtheflow
parametersoftheairvelocity,density,temperature,andhumidity.
Thesecondgroupcomprisesinstrumentstodeterminetheaerodynamic
forcesonthetestmodels.Thethirdgroupconsistsofinstrumentsfor
determiningthepatternofairflowaroundmodels.
Instrumentsanddevicesforcontrollingandmonitoringtheoperation
ofthetunnelitselfandoftheauxiliaryinstallations,arenotdiscussedhere.
Themainrequirementsofwindtunnelinstrumentationsareasfollows:
1.Stabilityintheperiodbetweeninstrumentcalibrationsandtest
checks;thesystematic(instrument)errorsmustbeconstant.
2.Minimumflowperturbationbyinstrumentsbothneartheinstrument
andnearthetestobject.
3.Smallrandomerrorsofmeasurement.
Tofulfillthislastrequirementitisessential,beforemakingany
measurementsinthetunnel,todeterminecarefully,withtheaidoftheerror
theory,theaccuracyanticipatedinthetests.TheerrorAFinafunctionf
ofanumberofargumentsa?,respectivelysubjecttorandomerrorsAx,
44/1563
09/09/2015
(i.e.,theerrorofindirectmeasurement)canbeexpressedintermsof
thepartialderivativesofthefunctionsIII
^F^/'Z{t^^^)\
takingtherandomerrors/SXiastheerrorsinasinglemeasurement,as
determinedbystaticcalibrationoftheinstrument.Althoughnodefinite
conclusioncanbedrawninthiswayontheaccuracyofthewholeexperiment,
whichisaffectedbythedynamiccharacteristicsoftheinstrumentsandby
otherfactors,themethoddoespermitevaluationoftheeffectsofthe
variouserrorsonthetotalerrorAF,andprovidesanadequatebasisfor
selectingmeasuringinstrumentsandequipment.Forinstance,four
instrumentsareusedinwindtunnelinvestigationsofpropellerefficiency,
viz.ofwindtunnelbalanceformeasuringthethrustPandthetorqueM,
atachometertomeasuretherotationalspeedoofthepropeller,and
amanometertomeasuretheflowvelocityoftheair.
Ifthetestresultsaretobeusedforpredictingtoanaccuracyof1%,
theflightspeedofanaircraftequippedwiththispropeller,andifwe
assumethatalltheerrorsireofarandomnatureandarisefromthe
determinationofthepropellerefficiency,thelatterhastobedetermined
witharandomerrorofnotmorethan3%,sincetheflightspeedVis
proportionaltothecuberootofthepropellerefficiency
.=ir
45/1563
09/09/2015
75A^.l
Eachofthefourinstrumentsystemsusedindeterminingtheefficiency
mustthereforehavearandomerrorconsiderablysmallerthan3%.It
canbeshownthattherelativeerroroftheefficiencymeasurementis
sothatifeachoftheinstrumentshasthesameaccuracy,thelimit
ofthepermissiblerandomerrorforeachofthemcanbefoundfromthe
expression
3%=V"4i2,
whence
A=4%.
However,theflightspeedoftheaircraftisafunctionnotonlyofthepropeller
efficiencybutalsoofthedragcoefficientCxoftheairframeandthepowerN
oftheengine.Ifwesupposethateachoftheseissubjecttothesamerandom
errorastheefficiency,thelatterwillhavetobemeasuredtoanaccuracy
ofY3%.Hence,thepermissiblerandomerrorineachofthefour
1/3
measuringsystemsusedtodeterminemagnitudeofriis~%.In
46/1563
09/09/2015
aerodynamicresearchtheaccuracyofstandardinstrumentsisthuslikely
tobeinadequate.
19
Theaccuracyofexperimentsdependsnotonlyontheaccuracyofthe
instrumentsbutalsoonthedegreetowhichsimilarityconditionsare
maintainedintheexperiment,theexactnessofboundarylayercorrections,
theallowancemadefortheinterferencebetweenthemodelandits
supports,etc.
Typesofwindtunneltests
Testsinwindtunnelscanbedividedintothefollowingkinds:
1.Investigatingtheeffectsoftheshapeofthemodelonitsaerodynamic
characteristicsasfunctionsofthefreestreamvelocityandtheattitudeof
themodel.Suchexperimentsare,asarule,carriedoutintwostages;
theeffectofvariousshapesisfirstinvestigatedataconstantflowvelocity
(usuallyinalowspeedtunnel),and,havingselectedtheoptimumshape,
furthertestsarecarriedoutatdifferentflowvelocitiesinahighspeed*
tunnel.
2.Testingofgasturbines,com.pressors,propellers,fans,etc.
3.Testingthecharacteristicsofaircraftengines(pistonengines,turbo
jets,ramjets,etc.).
47/1563
09/09/2015
4.Investigationsofflightdynamics.
5.Investigationsoftheeffectsofaerodynam.icforcesontheelastic
characteristicsofstructuresofflyingmachines(forinstance,thestudyof
wingflutter).
6.Physicaltestingconcernedwiththeflowofairunderdifferent
conditions.Studiesoftheboundarylayerandofsupersonicflow,etc.
7.Methodologicalresearchinvolvingwindtunnelsasphysical
instruments,thedevelopmentoftestmethods,andtheprocessingofderived
data.
Althoughthetechniquesusedinalltheseinvestigationshavemuchin
common,itisnecessaryasaruletobuildwindtunnelswithfacilities
specificallydesignedforalim.itedrangeofinvestigations.
Thishasledtothecreationofthem.anytypesanddesignsofmodern
windtunnels.
Theeffectofexperimentalconditionsinwindtunnels
Applicationoftheresultsofwindtunnelteststobodiesmovingunder
actualflowconditionsispossibleonlyifexperimentalandactualconditions
arecompletelysimilar.However,eventhen(similarityconditionswillbe
discussedbelow)theresultsoftestsinanywindtunnelrequirecorrections
specifictotheexperimentalconditionsoftestingaparticularmodelina
givenwindtunnel.
Thesecorrectionsarechieflyconcernedwiththefollowingparameters
oftheexperiment:
48/1563
09/09/2015
Highandlowspeedtunnelsrequiremodelsofdifferentstrengthsanddesigns.
20
1.Effectofflowquality.Thisistheeffectofnonuniformitiesof
velocitydistributionandofflowdirectionintheemptytunnel,i.e.,whenits
testsectioncontainsnomodelandisdevoidofobstructionstotheflow.
Afterdeterminingthecharacteristicsofthetunnel,wecanIntroducea
correctionforthenonuniformityofflowvelocity,usingforprocessingthe
experimentalresultsthearithmeticmeanvelocityatthepointwherethe
modelhasitsmaximumspan.Flowinclinationssnaallerthan0.25can
beneglectedsincetherelevantcorrectionwillbeonly1to1.5%ofthe
measuredvalue.However,ifthetotalflowinclinationinthetunnelisas
highas1,thecorrectionfortheinclinationmusttakeintoaccountthe
factthatasarule,windtunnelbalancesmeasurethecomponentsof
theaerodynamicforcesindirectionsparallelandperpendiculartothe
constructionalaxisofthetunnel,whilethecomponentstobemeasured
areparallelandperpendiculartotheflowdirection.
IAxisofdrag
FIGURE2.6,Effectofflowinclinationonforcecoefficients.
49/1563
09/09/2015
Figure2.6showstheinfluenceoftheangleofflowinclinationionthe
magnitudeofthecoefficientsofliftc,andofdragcôfthemodel.Sincec
issmallwemaywrite
whereaismeasuredinradians.Formodernairfoils,whichhave
smalldrag,acîssmall(oftheorder2to3%ofthevalueofc');the
magnitudeofacîscomparablewiththatofcj^.Forinstance,the
correctioninCjwhen1=1andc=0.25(correspondingtoanangleof
attackofabout2)isapproximately0.0045,whereasthetruemagnitude
ofcjundertheseconditionsis0.015.
2.Theeffectofthemodelsupportsandstruts.Thecomponentsusedto
supportthenaodelobstructtheflow,andcauseageneralchangeinvelocity
andpressuredistributionsaroundthem;this,inturn,affectsthemagnitude
oftheaerodyhamicforcesactingonthemodel.Thesupportsalsocause
interferencewithnearbycomponentsofthemodel.Furthermore,the
aerodynamicforcesactingonthesupportsarepartiallytransmittedto
thewindtunnelbalanceusedformeasuringtheaerodynamicforcesacting
21
onthemodel.Alltheseeffectsmustbetakenintoaccountandeliminated
50/1563
09/09/2015
from,thetestresults.Methodsforeliminatingtheeffectsonthesupports,
andderivingtestresultsreferringtothe"clean"modelaredescribedbelow
(ChapterVIH).
3.Walleffects.Underactualconditionsoftestsinwindtunnelstheflow
boundarieshaveanimportantinfluenceontheexperimentalresults.In
general,thiseffectconsistsinthatthemodelissurroundedbyairmoving
atadifferentvelocitythanthatinatunnelofinfinitedimensionsorinfree
space,whilethestreamlinesnearthemodelaredistorted.
FIGURE2.7.Walleffectsinaclosedtestsectionofawindtunnel.Thesolid
linesshowthestreamlinescorrespondingtoinfiniteflow;thebrokenlinesre
presentthetunnelwallswhichconstraintheflow.
Figure2.7showsflowaroundanairfoilinatunnelwithclosedtest
section.Itcanbeseenthattheupperandlowerwallsofthetestsection
constrainthestreamlinesnearthemodel;thisaffectsinparticularthe
liftoftheairfoil.Inaddition,theflowvelocityatthemodelisgreater
thanthevelocityupstream.Sincethemassflowrateisconstantthrough
outthetestsection,thischangeinvelocityatthemodelleadstoa
changeinthestaticpressure.Thiscannotbeavoidedinpractice,since
thewallsofthetestsectioncannotbeshapedstrictlytoconformtothe
streamlinesinaninfinitemediumformodelstestedatvariousanglesof
attack.Walleffectinatunnelwithopentestsectionwilldifferfromthose
inatunnelwithclosedtestsection.
Themostimportantfactordeterminingwalleffectsisthemagnitude
ofthevelocityinthetestsection.Atvelocitiesapproachingthespeedof
sound,thenatureofthewalleffectschangessharply.Duetothe
51/1563
09/09/2015
complexityofthephenomenarelatedtoboundedflowaroundmodelsinwind
tunnels,thecorrectionofthetestresultsconsistsinallowingseparatelyfor
eachkindofinterference.
Flowblockage.Thedegreeofblockage,aswellasitseffect,
dependontheangleofattackandonthefreestreamvelocity.At
lowflowvelocitiestheblockageeffectissmall,butitbecomesconsiderable
22
atlargesubsonicvelocities,whensupersonicregionsofflowandshocks
appearinthevicinityofthemodel.
Inlowspeedtunnels,thepermissibledegreeofblockagebythemodeland
itssupportsis5to6%.Intransonictunnelstheperm.issibledegreeof
blockageisonly2to3%.
Figure2.8illustratestheblockageeffectinatunnelatlargesubsonic
velocities.ThedatahavebeencalculatedassumingM=1atthemodel
anditssupports,althoughthevelocityoftheundisturbedflowis
considerablylessthanthespeedofsound.Figure2.8showsthatthe
permissibledimensionsofthemodelandsupports(theircrosssectional
areaF)rapidlydecreasewithincreasingfreestreamvelocity;atM=0.9
fisonlyabout1%ofthecrosssectionalarea
ofthetestsection/2/.Additionaleffectsare
duetotheincreasingthicknessoftheboundary
layer,sothatitisverydifficulttocorrect
adequatelytheresultsoftestsmadeatnear
sonicflowvelocities.
52/1563
09/09/2015
Inadditiontoflowblockagebythemodel,the
blockageeffectofwakesinclosedsectionwind
tunnelsisalsoimportant.Becauseofpressure
lossesintheflowaroundamodelthetotal
pressureinthewakeissmallerthanthetotal
pressureoutsideit,whilethestaticpressures
inandoutsidethewakearepracticallythesame:
thus,byBernoulli'sLaw,thevelocityheadand
thevelocityinthewakewillbelessthanoutside
thewake.Becausethemassflowrateremains
constant,thewakecausesalocalincreasein
velocitynearthemodel.
Wakesappearinthetestsectionnotonly
downstreamofthemodel,butalsodownstream
ofstructuraltunnelelementssituatedupstream
ofthetestsection.Suchelementsincludeair
coolers,supports,vanes,etc.
Staticpressuregradient.Because
ofthevelocityincreasenearthemodel,thestaticpressureintheflow
decreasesandahorizontalbuoyancyforceappears,givingrisetospurious
draginmeasurementswithwindtunnelbalancesorwithmanometersused
formeasuringthestaticpressuredistributiononthesurfaceofthemodel*.
K,however,theformdragisdeterminedbymeasuringthetotalpressures
upstreamanddownstreamofthemodel,thestaticpressuregradientin
thetestsectionhasnoeffect.
Anaxialstaticpressuregradientcanalsobecausedbyanincreasein
boundarj?layerthicknessalongthewallsofthetestsectionsorthenozzles
sincethiscausesareductionintheeffectivecrosssectionofthetunnel;
theresultingvelocityincreaseintheflowcoreleadstoadecreaseinstatic
pressure.Thiseffectcanbegreatlyreducedbygraduallyincreasingthe
53/1563
09/09/2015
crosssectionofthetunnelbyamountscalculatedtocompensateforthe
gradualincreaseinboundarylayerthickness.Forthispurposethetest
sectionisslightlyconical(divergingatanangleof0.5to0.75).
whenthestaticpressureincreasestowardthediffuser,thehorizontalbuoyancyforcewillreducethe
valueofthedragasmeasuredbythewindtunnel.
1.0
FreestreamMachnumberatwhich
localsupersonicflowoccurs.
FIGURE2.8.Theinfluenceofthe
blockageeffectinthetestsectionon
theonsetofsupersonicflow,f,isthe
crossscciionalareaofthelestsection;
Fisthecrosssectionalareaofthe
modelandsupports.
23
Lifteffect.Lifteffectisduetotheconstraintstoflowaround
aliftproducingairfoil,causedbytheboundarylayer.Theresulting
increaseinvelocity,andthusinlift,isapparenteveninmodelswhose
dimensionsareverysmallinrelationtothoseofthetunnel.Theeffect
disappearscompletelyforairfoilsofzerolift.
54/1563
09/09/2015
Itisnecessarytoreducethedimensionsofmodelsinwindtunnels
operatedatnearsonicvelocitiesinordertoavoidlocalvelocityincreases
andshocks.Thisreductioninsizecausesacorrespondingreduction
inthecorrectionsforthelifteffect.
Energyratioandeconomicaldesignofwindtunnels
TheenergyratioofawindtunnelwasdefinedbyJoukowskiastheratio
ofthepoweravailableinthetestsectiontotheinstalledpowerN.The
poweravailableismeasuredintermsoftherateofflowofkineticenergy
inthetestsection,andis
wherepisthedensityandVtheflowvelocityoftheairinthetestsection
whosecrosssectionalareaisF.Theenergyratioisthus
TheenergyratioXmayattainavalueof4ormoreinawelldesigned
tunnel,sincepartofthekineticenergyoftheairinthetestsectionis
derivedinthenozzlefrom,thepotentialenergyofpressure.
However,theeconomicaldesignofwindtunnelsisnotmerelyamatter
ofmaximizing?,;theinstallationmustbedesignedasawholetoprovide
uniformflowthroughthetestsection,easeoftestingwiththehighest
possiblemassflowrateandcarefulmaintenanceofthesimilarity
conditions.
4.SUBSONICWINDTUNNELS.
OPENCIRCUITTUNNELS
55/1563
09/09/2015
Inthistypeofwindtunneltheairisejectedtoatmosphereafterpassage
throughthetunnel.Thevelocitydistributioninopencircuitwindtunnels
(Figure2.2)isuniformtowithin3to5%,whiletheflowinclinationmaybe
aslowas23.ThecriticalReynoldsnunaberforasphereisabout
200,000insuchtunnels;thiscorrespondstoaturbulencelevelof
about1.5%.
Thevelocitydistributionandflowinclinationinopencircuittunnels
canbeimproved,andtheturbulencelevelreduced,byusingatwo
stagenozzleandbyinstallingspecialstraighteninggrids(honeycombs)*.
Theabsenceofwakefromrecirculatedairinanopencircuitwindtunnelenablesaverylowinitial
turbulencelevelbeobtainedinspeciallyconstructedlowturbulencetunnelsofthistype.
24
Figure2.9showsschematicallythelayoutoftheTsAGITl;2tunnel/3/,built
in1926.Thetunnelhastwooctagonalclosedtestsectionswhosewidths
are3and6m,andinwhichmaximumflowvelocitiesof75and30m/sec
respectivelyareobtainedwitha600h.p.fan.
Inopencircuittunnelswithclosedtestsectionsthepressureislowerthan
inthesurroundingm.edium.Thismakesitmoredifficulttocarryouttests,
andintroducesinaccuraciesintothedeterminationoftheforcesactingon
themodel,sinceatmosphericairleaksthroughtheglandswherethemodel
supportspassthroughthewallsofthetestsection.Forthesereasons.
^////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////W^^
56/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE2.9.TheTsAGITl;2tunnel.
tunnelswithopentestsectionscameintouse;suchtunnelsare
surroundedbysocalledEiffelchambers(Figure2.10).Insuchachamber,
whichisusuallysufficientlylargetoprovideworkingspaceforpersonnel
andtestequipment,thepressureisequalizedtothatoftheflow.Althoughthe
totalpressurelossesinthetestsectionofsuchachamberareabout20%
higherthanthoseinclosedtestsections,tunnelswithEiffelchambersare
successfullyused.
Eiffelchambe
'//////y///////////////////////////////////////////^
FIGURE2,10.WindtunnelwithEiffelchamber.
TheEiffelchambersurroundingtheopentestsectionpermitstestsof
largermodelsandreducesthewalleffectsincomparisonwithaclosed
testsection,butwhenanEiffelchamberisprovided,opencircuittunnels
haveanonuniformvelocitydistributionandarelativelylargepower
consumption(lowenergyratio).
Thesitingofthetunnelinthetunnelhouse,especiallyitsheightabove
57/1563
09/09/2015
thefloorandthedistanceoftheairintakefromthewall,aswellasabsence
ofobstaclestoflow,suchasroofpillars,allaffectthequalityoftheflowin
thetestsection.
25
Ifthetunnelhousecrosssectionislargecomparedwiththecross
sectionofthetunnel(e.g.,atunnelhousewidthofabout5or6times
thetunneldiameter),thevelocitydistributioninthetunnelwillbe
satisfactory.Airshouldnotbedrawndirectlyfromatmosphereinto
anopencircuittunnel,sincethisleadstoinstabilityandnonuniformity
offlowinthetestsection.
TheTsAGITl;2tunnel(Figure2.9)isofatype,intermediatebetween
theopencircuitandtheclosedcircuittype,whichismostwidelyused.
AcharacteristicfeatureoftheTl;2tunnelisthefactthatthetunnel
houseformsareversediffuser,sothattheflowvelocityinthistunnelis
uniformtov/ithin1%;theenergyratiois3.5,whenahoneycombisprovided.
CornerNo.3
ti
CornerNo.4
FIGURE2.11.TsAGIT5tunnel(v^^^=60m/sec).
58/1563
09/09/2015
ClosedCircuitTunnels
Inthistypeoftunnelagraduallywideningdiffuserleadstheairback
intothenozzle,sothattheaircontinuallyrecirculatesinaclosedloop.
Typicalclosedcircuittunnelswithopenandclosedtestsectionsare
showninFigures2.11and2.12.
Figure2.13showsthetestsectionofaclosedcircuitfullsizetunnel
(NASA,U.S.A.).Themainelementsofsuchtunnelsare:nozzle,test
Coldairfrom
atmosphere
Testsection
l!'2.7Tn,
Contrarotating
fans
1JNI7000h.p.
Warmair
vent
59/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE2.12.PVLtunnel.
1680
26
FIGURE2.13.TestsectionoflargeNASAtunnel.DimensionsISnr9.1m;
V=53m/sec;A'=8000h.p.
section,diffuser,fan,cornerswithvanes,returnduct,andsettling
chamberwithstraighteners.
Theseelementsareessentialnotonlyinlowspeedtunnels,butalsoin
tunnelsforlargesubsonicandsupersonicvelocities.Theiruseinsub
sonicwindtunnelswillbediscussedbelow.Thefurtherdiscussionof
transonicorsupersonictunnelswilldealspecificallywiththosecharacteris
ticfeatureswhicharisefromthepresenceofsonicandsupersonicflow
incertainregionsincertainregionsofthetunnels.
Nozzle
Theprincipalfunctionofthenozzleistheaccelerationofthelowspeed
airenteringitfromthesettlingchambertothevelocityrequiredinthetest
60/1563
09/09/2015
section.Inaddition,becauseofitsgraduallydecreasingcrosssection,
thenozzlereducesthevelocitynonuniformiity.Theshapeanddimensions
ofthenozzledeterminenotonlythemagnitudeofthevelocity,butalso
itsuniformity,andaffecttheenergylossinthenozzlemainlydueto
frictionatthewalls.The'selossesareexpressedasafractionofthe
velocityheadorofthetotalheadp+pîndesigncalculations,wherep
isthestaticpressureandVtheflowvelocityinthetestsection.
Theworkingprincipleofthenozzleisasfollows:
SupposethattheairmoveswithvelocityViatonepointofthecross
sectionI,atthenozzleinlet,andwithvelocityVi+AViatanotherpointof
thiscrosssection.Thepressurecanbeconsideredconstantatallpoints
ofthiscrosssectionwheretheflowvelocitiesareconsiderablylessthanthe
speedofsoundatwhichpressureperturbationsarepropagated.Letthe
velocitiesattwopointsofacrosssectionIIinthetestsectionbeV2and
V2+AV2.NeglectingthesquaresofthesmallquantitiesAViandAV2we
obtainfromBernoulli'sequationforthetwostreamlines,weobtain
27
V,AV,=V2AV8orAV,=AV2^.
4!/',
61/1563
09/09/2015
Kthefrrctionalvelocityvariationatthenozzleinletisai=^r^,andthat
inthetestsectionisa^=y^,wemaywrite
AV.^
=iK
_Ji_
Oj,
wheren=^=pîsthenozzlecontractionratio.Thus,thevelocity
variationsinthetestsectionaren^timeslessthanthevelocityvariations
atthenozzleinlet.
yrii^,
FIGURE2.14.Velocityequalizationin
62/1563
09/09/2015
anozzle.
Thereductionofvelocityvariationsinthenozzleleadsalsotoa
reducedturbulenceinthetestsection.Figure2.15showstheresultsof
Flowdirection
0.W
i?i?
0.05
Nozzle^
63/1563
09/09/2015
_\
i^60mwo
Distancefromhoneycombatnozzleinlet
Meshsizeofhoneycomb
FIGURE2.15.Variationofthecomponentsofthevelocityfluctuationalong
anozzle.
28
measurementsofther.m.s.longitudinalcomponent{Vu'^)andtransverse
64/1563
09/09/2015
component[Vv''')ofthevelocityfluctuationexpressedasfractionsofthe
velocityVoupstreamofthenozzleandplottedasfunctionsofthedistancefrom
thenozzleinlet.Thecontractionrationofthisnozzlewas10:1,andthe
airhadfirsttopassthroughahoneycombandagauzescreen.Figure2.16
showsthecriticalReynoldsnumberforasphereasafunctionofthe
contractionration(asmeasuredbyHorner)/4/.
Recr10'
65/1563
09/09/2015
66/1563
09/09/2015
67/1563
09/09/2015
Z68
FIGURE2.16.Effectofnozzlecontractiontatio
onthecriticalReynoldsnumberforasphere.
Itcanbeseenthatwithincreasingcontractionratioofthenozzle,
thecriticalReynoldsnumberincreases;thisprovesthereductionin
turbulence.Ahighcontractionratioreducesthetunnelpower
requirementsconsiderably,sinceitpermitslowvelocitiesalmost
throughoutthetunnel,causingsmallenergylosses.Inmoderntunnels
thecontractionratiovariesbetween4and25,dependingonthetypeof
tunnel.
Thenozzlecontractionratioisdetermined,indesigningthetunnel,
fromtherequiredvelocityinthetestsectionandfromconstructional
consideration.Toavoidunnecessarylosses,thedesignedvelocityofthe
airenteringthenozzleisheldwithinthelimitsof1to25m/secinlow
speedtunnels(maximumflowvelocity,100to150m/sec)and20to50m/sec
intunnelsforlargesubsonicspeeds(maximumflowvelocity250to300m/sec).
Foratestsectionofgivensize,anyincreaseinnozzlecontractionratio
necessitatesaconsiderableincreaseofallothertunneldimensionswhich
complicatesconstructionandaddstothecost.
68/1563
09/09/2015
Thenozzleprofileisdesignedtoprovideuniformvelocitydistribution
attheoutlet.Thevelocityvariationalongthewallsmustbesuchthat
noboundarylayerseparationoccurs,althoughthisisinevitableunderreal
conditionsofgasflow.Fromthispointofviewalongernozzleistobe
preferred.However,averylongnozzlenotonlycausesalargeincrease
intheboundarylayerthickness,butisalsoinadmissiblebecauseofthe
designconsiderationsmentionedabove.Itisstandardpracticebased
onoperatingexperiencetomakethenozzlelengthequaltoabout1.5
to2.5timesthediameter.
Attheoutletofthenozzlethereisusuallyastraightcylindricalsection
0.1to0,2nozzleinletdiameterslong,toprovideagradualtransitionfrom
thenozzletothetestsection.
29
Thenozzleprofileisusuallydesignedtofollowthecurve(dueto
Vitoshinskii)
/^[^mm
iz^la')'
69/1563
09/09/2015
3iVa)'
whereristheradiusofthenozzlecrosssectionatadistancezalongthe
axisfromtheinlet,andtheinletandoutletradiiaredenotedby/;and
rorespectively(whenz=~!=r=rfj).ThevaluesofrjandTqaregiven,
y3
andaisusuallytaken,asir^.
Sincethesettlingchamberisoftenofsquareorrectangularcross
section,andthenozzleoutletsection(testsectioninlet)isanellipse,
transitionpiecesareprovidedbetweentheminordertoensurestream
lineflow.Ifthesettlingchamberisrectangularandthenozzleisof
elipticalsectionitissufficienttohav3eightsuchpiecesforeachquarter
oftheellipse.Theshapeofthenozzle
wallsthusobtainedisusuallycorrected
fortheeffectofboundarylayerthickening*.
Frequently,thenozzlesarenotaxi
symmetric.Eitherthetwoverticalwalls
areplaneandtheupperandlowerwalls
curved,orallfourwallsmaybecurved,
asshowninFigure2.17.Thisshapeis
dictatedbyproductionconsiderations,
FIGURE2.17.NozzlewithfourcurvedsinceItisdifficulttomanufacturealarge
"^''^(axisymmetrical)nozzlewithahigh
degreeofaccuracy,andalsobecauseofthe
70/1563
09/09/2015
generallayoutofthetunnel.Thesideratioofthenozzleisgovernedby
theintendedfunctionofthetunnel.If,forinstance,thetunnelisintended
fortestingairfoilsatsmallanglesofattack,itisbesttohaveawidetest
sectionandthustoremovethecentralcrosssectionoftheairfoil,whichisthe
sectionmostfrequentlytested,fromthetunnelwallswhichmightotherwise
affecttheexperiment.Inwindtunnelsfortestingmodelsofcomplete
aircraft,thetestsectionshouldbewiderthanitsheight(usually
1.5timesasmuch),soastopermittestingaircraftoflargewingspan
inatunnelofgivencrosssectionalarea,thusimprovingtheconditions
ofsimilarity.
Intunnelsforlargesubsonicvelocities,thenozzleoutletismadesquare
orround,tofacilitatethreedimensionalstudies.
Iftestsatlargeanglesofattackareintended,themodelshouldbe
installedatsomedistancefromtheupperandlowerwallsofthetestsection.
Insuchcasestheheightofthenozzleismuchlargerthanthewidth,side
ratiosof3:1beingconnmon.
Beforebuildinglargeandexpensivewindtunnels,modelsofthetunnels
aretestedfornozzleoutletflowquality,sothatthedesignmaybe
corrected.
Particularlyinsupersonictunnels,sinceaquitesmallchangeintheeffectivecrosssectionofthenozzle
(duetoboundarylayerthickening)causesaconsiderablechangeinvelocity.Forinstance,a1%
reductioninthenozzlecrosssectionnearthethroatwillcauseavelocityincreaseof9%atM=1.
30
Testsection
71/1563
09/09/2015
Thetestsectionhasthesamecrosssectionasthenozzleoutlet,and
maybeeitheropenorclosed.
Anopentestsectionhasthegreatadvantageofprovidingfreeraccess
totestmodelsandInstruments.Opentestsectiontunnelsaresometimes
subjecttoseverelowfrequencyflowpulsationwhichcanendangerthe
tunnelstructure;theyarisefromeddiesatthenozzleoutletandatthe.
freejetboundaries.Pulsationscanbedampedoutbyprovidingthediffuser
inletwithseveralrowsofvents,andbymountingtriangularorparabolic
tabs,bentoutwardfromtheflowaxisatanangleof20(Figure2.18),
FIGURE2.18.
nozzleoutlet.
Opentestsectionwithtabsatthe
attheperipheryofthenozzleoutlet.Sometimes"knives"[spoilers]are
installedforthispurposearoundtheedgeofthenozzle,projecting
slightlyintothejet.Inspiteofthesedrawbacks,mostmodernwindtunnels
forflowvelocitiesbelow100to150m/sechaveopentestsections.Thisis
especiallytrueforlargetunnels,forwhichtheeaseofmountingand
adjustingmodelsisofdecisiveimportanceinchoosingthetypeoftest
section.
Athighermaximumflowvelocitiesinthetunneltherequiredfanpower
maybereducedbyenclosingthetestsection.Thelengthoftheclosed
72/1563
09/09/2015
sectionisdesignedtopermittestsofdifferenttypesofmodels.Fortunnels
31
designedfortestingmodelsofwings,aircraft,etc.,a1.5to2diameterslongtest
sectionissufficient.Intunnelsintendedfortestingelongatedbodies,suchas
rocketsandhullsofsubmarinesandships,thelengthofthetestsectionis
2to4diameters.Tomaintainaconstantaxialflowvelocity,thecross
sectionalareaofaclosedtestsectionshouldgraduallyincreaseintheflow
directiontocompensateforthethickeningoftheboundarylayer.Despite
thedependenceofthisphenomenononthevelocity,pressureand
temperature,whichallvaryinspaceandtime,inpractice,aconstant
taperofthetestsectionissufficient.Forinstance,incirculartestsections
/5/thetapershouldbebetween0.1and0.25forlargeReynoldsnumber
(Re=lO''to10^)andbetween0.25and0.5forsmallReynoldsnumbers
(Re=10^to10).Thestaticpressurecanbemaintainedconstantthroughout
verylongtestsectionsbyprovidingventstoatmosphere.Suchatest
section,whoselengthequals5diameters,isusedinthewindtunnel
oftheHanaburgShipbuildingInstitute.
Someexperimentsrequireexceptionally
longtestsections.Inparticular,a
specialwindtunnelforstudyinglowspeed
risingaircurrents(5to15cm./sec)has
aconicaltestsectionsome10diameters
long(Figure2.19).Thetestsectionis
equippedwithafanforboundarylayer
removal.
73/1563
09/09/2015
Tunnelfan
Fanfor
removal
ofboundary
layer
Diffuser
Slots
throughwhich
theboundary
layerhdrawn\^^
Thediffuserofthetunnelisa
graduallywideningductdownstreamofthe
testsectionandservingforthemore
efficientconversionofthekineticenergy
oftheairintopressureenergy.Inclosed
circuittunnelsadiffuserisalsonecessary
74/1563
09/09/2015
topreventexcessivefriction(andlarge
powerrequirements)duetohighflow
velocitieswhichwouldalsocausepoor
flowqualityinthetestsectionandrender
impossiblethereliablem.easurementsof
aerodynamicforces.Theperform.ance
ofadiffuser,i.e.,itscapabilityof
convertingthekineticenergyintopressure
energy,ismainlyinfluencedbythe
magnitudeanddistributionofthevelocity
atitsinlet,itsdivergenceangle,andthe
expansionratio.
Thetotalpressurelossesinthe
diffuser(Figure2.20)areconveniently
expressedasfractionsofthevelocityheadatitsoutletandinlet,wheretheflow
parametersarerespectivelyVj,p^j,andpod^'^^Kts,pts,andpotj.respectively.
^/MttHv"^
FIGURE2.19.
testsection.
Tunnelwithverylong
32
75/1563
09/09/2015
Thus:
v.
^P=l^dPod"2=^"015Pod>
wheret,îstheresistancecoefficientofthediffuser,andisrelatedtothe
totalpressurerecoverycoefficientvjofthediffuserbytheexpression/6/:
(a)IS
=Vd=l
where),=isthereferenceMachnumberinthediffuseroutletandv.
istheratioofspecificheats.
r.
76/1563
09/09/2015
V
ts
/ts
PoA
FIGURE2.20.Adiffuser.
TheresistancecoefficientdgreatlydependsontheReynoldsnumberat
thediffuserinlet,especiallywhenReislessthanlo'(Figure2.21).
0.18
0.16
\^'
,,1
(includingexhs
losses)
77/1563
09/09/2015
0.1't
0.12
"\
78/1563
09/09/2015
^'7.2
1
27
0.10
o\
N.
79/1563
09/09/2015
0.08
~N._
'^V^
2468
Re//?*
FIGURE2.21.Variationofresistance
coefficientofadiffuseratlowReynolds
numbers.
33
80/1563
09/09/2015
Theresistancecoefficientofthediffuserisvirtuallyconstantabove
Re=lO'^(Figure2.22).IthasbeenshownexperimentallythattheMach
numberofthediffuserinlethaslittleinfluenceatsubsonicflowvelocities.
fieW
FIGURE2.22.Variationofresistanceofaconical
diffuserwithReynoldsnumber.
Thecoefficient^jdependsonthediffuserdivergenceandontheexpansion
ratioinit.Theoptimumdivergenceangleatwhichaisminimum,isabout6
Atsmallerdivergenceanglestîncreasesbecauseoftheconsequent
increaseinthediffuserlength.Atdivergenceanglesabove8,lossesincrease
duetononuniformvelocitydistributionacrossthediffuser.
m
0.96
0.92
81/1563
09/09/2015
a=5'
^^
.r_
82/1563
09/09/2015
0.2
O.i
0.6
0.8^1.0
FIGURE2.23.Influenceofdivergenceangleofa
conicaldiffuserontotalpressurerecoverycoefficient.
Figure2.23showstheinfluenceofthedivergenceangleonthetotalpressure
recoverycoefficientofthediffuser111.
Inpracticet,îsfrequentlydeterminedinasimplermanner.
Experimentalevidenceshowsthattheexpression
hA'~^1'
isasatisfactoryapproximationofthelossesinadiffuser.
83/1563
09/09/2015
Forconventionaldiffuserswithdivergenceanglesbelow10,atwhichno
flowseparationoccursatthediffuserwalls,Hf^^^=0.15to0.20.Whenthe
airfromthediffuserisdischargedintoalargechamber,additionallosses
havetobetakenintoaccountindeterminingthetotalpressurerecovery
34
III
coefficient.Theselossesareduetothefinitevelocityoftheairleaving
thediffuser,whosekineticenergyisnotrecovered,sincethestatic
pressureatthediffuseroutletisequaltothetotalpressureinthe
chamber.Theselossesareusuallycalledexhaustlosses.Atthediffuser
outlet
^d
Po,{l^^t''
wherep^,podandXârethestaticpressure,totalpressure,andMachnumber
atthediffuseroutlet.However,p^=p^,wherepîsthepressureinthechamber.
84/1563
09/09/2015
Hence
exhPai
Takingintoaccountexhaustlosses,thetotalpressurerecoverycoefficient
ofthediffuseris
Thelengthofthediffuserisdetermined,ontheonehand,byits
divergenceangle,andontheother,bytheoveralldimensionsofthetunnel
andthetunnelhouse.
Actually,thewholereturncircuitofthetunnelbetweentestsection
andsettlingchamberformsadiffuserwithsmallcylindricalportionsin
thezoneswherethefanisinstalledandatthecornerswhicharedifficult
toconstructintaperingform.Inpracticetheterm"diffuser"isapplied
tothefirstpartofthecircuitsituatedbetweenthetestsectionandthefirst
corner(Figure2.11).Betweenthefirstandsecondcornersthereisusually
ashortcylindricalportion.Theportionbetweenthesecondandthird
corners(the"returnduct")is,withtheexceptionofthefannaounting,also
adiffuserwithaslightlylargerdivergenceangle(8to10)thanthatofthe
diffuserafterthetestsection.Inatunnelwithanopentestsectionthe
dimensionsofthediffuserinletareselectedtoenablethediffuserto
collectmostoftheaireniergingfromthenozzleinadivergingstream.*
Thehalfwidthandhalfheightofthediffuserinletshouldthereforeexceed
thecorrespondingdimensionsofthenozzleexitbyanamountkl,wherek
isthetangentoftheanglebetweenthefreejetboundaryandthetestsection
axis,and(isthedistancebetweenthenozzleoutletandthediffuserinlet
85/1563
09/09/2015
/8/.ThemeasurementsbyG.N.Abramovichsuggestthatk=0.045.
Faninstallation
Itisnecessarytosupplyenergytoreplacelossesandmaintaintheair
flowinawindtunnel.Inclosedcircuittunnelsthisisprovidedbymeans
offansorblowers;subsonictunnelsusuallyemploysingleortwostage
fans.
Thepowerrequiredbythefanisafunctionofthefanhead,whichis
calculatedfrom,theaerodynamicdesigndataforthetunnel,byconsidering
Thefittingofacollartotheinletofthediffuser(Figure2.11)reducesthestaticpressuregradientin
thetestsection.
35
thehydrauliclossesastheairpassesthroughit.Thedetailswillbe
explainedbelow.
Themaximumangularvelocityandthediameterofthefanarelimited
bythefantipspeed,whichmustnotexceed180to200m/sec.
Anetof25to50m.mmeshismountedupstreamofthefantoprotect
itfromimechanicaldamage,bytrappinganycomponentswhichmay
accidentallybreakloosefromthemodeloritssupportsinthetestsection.
Straighteningvanesareinstalledbehindthefanimpellertoreduce
86/1563
09/09/2015
turbulence.Inatwostagefananintermediateflowstraightener,placed
betweentheimpellersofthefirstandthesecondstage,createsthe
necessaryflowconditionsattheinlettothesecondstage.
Generally,theflowvelocityisadjustedbyalteringthefanspeed,the
fanmotorbeingprovidedwithcontinuouslyvariablespeedcontrol.
Themultistagecompressorsoftransonicandsupersonictunnels
usuallyhavefixedairstraighteningvanesfittedwithafeatheringmechanism,
eitheronthevanesthemselvesoronflapsattachedtothem,forcontrolling
thedeliveryandcompressionratioofthecompressortosuitdifferent
operatingconditions(valuesofReandM)ofthetunnel.TheARA(Great
Britain)tunnelcompressorisshowninFigure2.24.
Compressor
blades
Intermediate
guidevanes
Inletguide
vanes
Outlet
straightening
87/1563
09/09/2015
Adjustable
flaps
FIGURE2.24.TwostagecompressorfortheARA(GreatBritain)tunnel.
Inlargehighspeedtunnels,designedforoperationoveralargerange
ofMachnumbers,itissometimesmoresuitabletoregulatetheflow
velocityinthetestsectionbyswitchingoffsomestagesofthecompressor,
ortouseseparatecompressorspartofwhichcanbebypassed.Sucha
system,isused,forinstance,intheAEDCsupersonictunnel(U.S.A.),which
hasapowerconsumptionof216,000h.p.,thetestsectionMachnumberbeing
variablefrom1.4to3.5bydeenergisingsomeofthecompressors.In
severaltunnelsthevelocityiscontrolledbyfeatheringthefanorcompressor
bladesatconstantspeed.However,thecomplicationsofsuchadesignare
hardlyjustified.
36
Thecharacteristicsofthefandependstronglyontheclearancebetweenthe
bladetipsandthetunnelwall,whichshouldbeassmallaspossible.There
issomedangerofbreakingtheblades,andtheclearanceshouldbebetween
30and40mmwhenthefandiameterexceeds5m,althougha20or30mm
clearanceissuitableforfanshavingdiametersof2to5m,and5to15mm
forsmallerfans.Attheseclearancesthefanefficiencywillnotdecrease
morethan1or2%.Toavoiddestructivevibrations,thefannaustbe
88/1563
09/09/2015
balancedstaticallytoanaccuracybetterthan5or10gramspermeter
diameter,andthebladeanglesmustbesetwithatolerancenotexceeding
0.25.
Corners
Inclosedcircuittunnelstheairwhichemergesfromthetestsection
mustbereturnedtothenozzle,i.e.,mustcirculatethrough360.The
turnismadeinfourcorners,eachof90,
Theshapeofthereturncorners,and
especiallyofthefourth(Figure2.26)
shouldnotcauseunevenorturbulent
flow.Roundedcornersareaerodynamic
allybetterthansharprightangles.Itis,
however,structurallyeasiertomake
cornersofsmallcurvature.
Theresistancecoefficientofcorners
andthus,theflowuniformity,dependon
theratiosRlWandR/H,whereRisthe
radiusofcurvature,Wthewidth,andH
theheightofthecorner.Thehigher
theseratios(uptocertainlimits),the
smallerthelosses.Figure2.25shows
theresistancecoefficientôfcorners
asafunctionofRIH:
HPo
89/1563
09/09/2015
1.0
0.S
c=^
HereApoisthetotalpressurelossin
thecornerandpV^/2isthevelocityhead
attheinlet.Lowflowvelocitiesare
conducivetosmallenergylossesatthe
corners,andshouldbeadheredtowhen
everpossible.
Thewindtunneldesignwillgenerally
permitanincreaseinR/HhyincreasingR,
90/1563
09/09/2015
butthereislittlefreedominselecting
W/Nwhosevalueisintimatelyrelatedtothe
testsectiondimensions.Theeffectivevalue
ofW/Hcanbeincreasedbyreducing//;
acascadeofturningvanesisinstalled
atthecornertodividethecornerintoasetofsmallercorners.
Thevanesusedinwindtunnelsareeitherairfoilsectionsorthinsheet
steelbafflesbentintoarcsofcircles.Airfoilsectionsaccommodate
0.6
OA
0.2
FIGURE2.25.Variationofresistance
coefficientwithladiusofbend.
37
internalbracesinsidethemwhosesurfacescanbeusedtocoolthe
91/1563
09/09/2015
air.
Figure2.26showscornervaneeandbendsfortheA6MGUclosed
circuitwindtunnelwhichhasaratedflowvelocityoflOOm/sec.To
reduceturbulencethenumberofvanesinthefourthcornerislarger,
andtheirchordlengthislessthaninothercorners.
Inordertoadjusttheflowdirectiondownstream,vaneswithadjustable
flapsaresometimesfittedatthecorners.(inparticularthefourth),the
axesoftheflapsbeingperpendiculartothevanechords.Inlargetunnels
theseflapsalsoprovidestructuralsupportforthevanes,itbeingdifficult
tomanufactureandmountvanesofverylargespan.Theeffectofcorner
vanesisillustratedinFigures2.27and2.28.Whenvanesofairfoil
sectionarefitted,thevelocitydistributionbecomesapproximatelyuniform
atadistanceof1to1.5widthsfromthecorner,whereaswithoutvanes
thevelocitydistributionisstillnonuniformatadistanceofabout4widths
downstream.
Settlingchambers
Thesettlingchamberservestostraightenandsmooththeflowdown
streamofthefourthcorner;itisnormally1.5to2widthslong.Ahoneycomb
FIGURE2.26.Vanesfittedtothecornersofawindtunnel.
andgauzeantiturbulencescreensarefittedattheinletforstraightening
theflow.
92/1563
09/09/2015
38
Ahoneycombconsistsofagridwithcellsof0.5to2nam*wallthickness,
thethicknessofthehoneycombbeingsome5to10timesthemeancell
width.Thehoneycom.bstraightenstheflowbybreakinguplargeeddies,
andalsoreducesthespreadoflongitudinalvelocities.Atthesametime,
thehoneycombitselfcausesacertainturbulenceduetothewakeformed
bythecellwalls.Insettlingcham.bers,therefore,wherethehoneyconab
istheonlyfitting,theoveralllengthofthechambernaustbeincreased
sothatthisturbulencedecaysbeforethenozzleinlet.
#.
t.o
0.75
0.5
0.25
93/1563
09/09/2015
4*^
\^m
y/bo
94/1563
09/09/2015
1.0
0.75
0.5
0.25
=v
95/1563
09/09/2015
Â
1.5,
rrrn
FIGURE2.27.Velocityheaddistribution
downstreamofacornerfittedwithguidevanes.
FIGURE2.28.Velocityheaddistribution
downstreamofacornerwithoutguidevanes.
4=o.i.
96/1563
09/09/2015
Inrecentyearsithasbecomecommonpracticetoinstallawirenet
behindthehoneycomb,inordertodampenturbulenceandtoincreasethe
uniformityofthevelocitydistribution.Suchascreenmustbemadeof
smallgagewireandbeoffinenaesh.Figure2.29showstheeffectof
screenshavingdifferentresistancecoefficients,ontheevennessofthe
flow/9/.
=/?/'noscreen^
97/1563
09/09/2015
0.20.40.90.31.0020.40.60.B00.20.40.6OSO0.20.40.600.20.40.60,20.40.6
FIGURE2.29.Thesmoothingeffectofscreenshavingdifferentresistancecoefficients.
Themeancellwidthisnormallybetween1%and2%ofthemeanwidthofthesettlingchamber.
39
98/1563
09/09/2015
Thesmoothingactionofscreensisbasedonthefactthatlossesare
proportionaltothesquareofthevelocity[sothattherelativevelocity
reductionofthefastermovingparticlesismuchgreater].Theory
suggeststhatavelocityperturbationAV,upstreamofthescreenwill
produceacorrespondingperturbationAV^downstream,where
41/2=1^^^^,,andt,istheresistancecoefficientofthescreen.When
t,=2theperturbationdownstreamshouldbezero.Tunnele3q)eriments
amplyconfirmthisprediction.
Ascreen,fittedoverthewholecrosssectionofthetunnel,actsas
adistributed[nonlinear]hydraulicresistance,andcompletelysmooths
outflowirregularities.
Tominimizetheturbulencecausedbythescreen,itisnecessary
touseanetmadefromwireofverylightgage,andtoinstallitatthe
sectionofminimumvelocity.TheReynoldsnumberwiththusbelow
ht
[Re=^=50jandturbulencearisingfromthescreenwillbesosligl
thatitwilldecaycompletely,upstreamofthetestsection.The
principalfunctionofsettlingchamberscreensis,however,toreducethefree
streamturbulenceinthetestsection.Theyservetoreduceboththeintensity
oftheinitialturbulenceinthetestsection,andthescaleofturbulenceL
definedbytheformula/10/
99/1563
09/09/2015
I=liBAf,
wheres.=,/|isthecalculatedvalueandethe
turbulencelevelwhenascreenofaperturesizeMisinposition,Xeff
isthedistancedownstreamtothepointwhereturbulenceiseffectively
dam.pedout;e,istheturbulencelevelwithoutascreen,andAis&
dimensionlessconstant.ExperimentsbyDryden/ll/suggestthat
theconstantAhasavalueof0.206.Thescaleofturbulenceattheplane
ofthehoneycomborscreenisequaltothesizeofitsapertures.The
neteffectoftheintensityandthescaleofturbulenceisgivenbyTaylor's
conaplexparameter
whereDisatjrpicaldim.ensionofthetestbody(forinstancethediam.eter
ofasphere).Testresultsofthereductionintheturbulencelevel,
causedbytheinstallationofascreen,agreewithcalculationsofthe
correspondingdecreaseinthenaagnitudeoftheparameterT.
Figure2.30showsthedependenceoftheratiooftheturbulencelevel
inthetestsectiontothefreestreamturbulencelevelgoonthedistance
Xeffneededtoreduceturbulencetonegligibleproportions.Ascanbeseen,
theturbulenceissubstantiallyreducedatadistanceofonly5000aperture
sizesdownstreamofthescreen.Thescreenselectedshouldhavean
aperturesizebetween2and5mmandaresistancecoefficientt.between1.8
100/1563
09/09/2015
40
and2.2,andshouldbeinstalledasfaraspossiblefromthetestsection.
Inselectingscreensthefollowingexpression/12/obtainedfrom
testsofscreensatReynoldsnumbersbetween500and2000maybeused:
c=(,_7)+(i=zy.
wheret,istheresistancecoefficientofthescreenand
/=,f,_r.
Fidenotingtheprojectedareaofthescreenwires.
0.8
0.6
101/1563
09/09/2015
a*
\^
^''~^^
102/1563
09/09/2015
eo
^;.
FIGURE2.30.Influenceofscreenlocationonturbulenceintestsection.
/.
;.;
0.5
103/1563
09/09/2015
200
600
800
Re
FIGURE2,.31.InfluenceofReynoldsnumberon[hydraulic]resistanceofscreen.
AtReynoldsnumbersbelow500,acorrectionmustbemadewhereby
41
thecoefficientfbeingdeterminedfromFigure2.31.TheReynoldsnumber
atthescreenshouldbecalculatedfromthefreestreamvelocityandthe
104/1563
09/09/2015
meanwirediameter.
Variabledensitywindtunnels
Variabledensitywindtunnelswereoriginallydevelopedasameansfor
increasingtheReynoldsnumberwithoutincreasingeitherthetunnel
dimensionsorthepowerrequired.Latersuchtunnelswerebuiltalsofor
largevelocities.
Comparingtheformulasforthepowerrequired
andfortheReynoldsnumberinthetestsection
wesee,thatiftheReynoldsnumberisincreasedbyraisingtheflowvelocity,
thepowerrequiredwillincreaseasthecubeofthevelocity;iftheReynolds
numberisincreasedbyincreasingthelineardimensions,thepower
requiredwillincreaseasthesquareofthelineardimensions,butwhenthe
Reynoldsnumberisincreasedbyraisingthedensity,thepowerrequired
willbedirectlyproportionaltothedensityofair.Theexpressionsfor
N,Re,andM=~r=^showthatatthesamevaluesofReandMthepower
V>pif
requiredisinverselyproportionaltothestaticpressurepinthetest
section:
Raisingthetunnelpressurecomplicatesitsdesignandaddstothedifficulty
ofexperimentalworkbecauseoftheneedforremotemeasurementsand
monitoring.However,thisiscompensatedbyincreasedaccuracyandlower
powerrequirements.
105/1563
09/09/2015
Theearliestvariabledensitytunnelsoperatedatcomparativelyhigh
pressures;thecontractionratiosofthenozzlesweresmall,sothatthe
velocitydistributionwasverynonuniform.Later,tun'nelswithinitial
pressureof4to8atmandhighnozzlecontractionratioswereincreasingly
used.Figure2.32showsavariabledensitytunnelattheCaliforniaInstitute
ofTechnology**.
Thistunnelfeaturesadecompressionspherecontainingthetestrig.
Entrytothetunneltoalteroradjustthemodelisthroughairlockswhich
isolatethedecompressionspherefromtherestthetunnel,whosepressure
neednotbereleased.
Thepropertiesandtemperatureofthemediumareassumedconstant.
Thetunnelhasnowbeenmodernized.Itspowerhasbeenincreasedfrom12,000h.p.to40,000h.p.
atM=1.8.[SeeMilUkan.C.B,HighSpeedTestingintheSouthernCaliforniaCooperativeWind
Tunnel.AeromechanicalConference,London1947,p.137.Roy.Aero.S.1948.]Thetunnel
isequippedwith3testsections,forsubsonic,transonicandsupersonicvelocities.
42
Variabledensitywindtunnelscanbeoperatedatpressureseitherabove
orbelowatmospheric.Themaximumfreestreamvelocitycanthusbe
obtainedinthetunnelforanygivenpower.Thisfacilityisusefulwhen
Adjustable
guidevanes
Twin16blade
106/1563
09/09/2015
impellers
E>
Variablespeed
motors
FIGURE2.32,CaliforniaInstituteofTechnologyvariabledensitywindtunnel(pQ.2to4atm,
M=0.7to1.3;dimensionsoftestsection2.59x3.66m^.
onlycom.pressibiUtyeffectsarebeingstudied,althoughtheReynoldsnumber
decreaseswiththedensity.Variabledensitytunnelsareparticularlyuseful
whentestingthecombinedinfluenceofReynoldsaiidMachnumberson
aerodynamiccharacteristics.Figure2.33showsanothervariabledensity
tunnel(U.S.A.)
Speciallowspeedtunnels
Certainaerodynamicproblemsdemandspecialwindtunnelsadaptedto
particularkindsoftests.Suchtunnelsincludeairspintunnels,freeflight
tunnels,lowturbulencetunnels,windgusttunnels,verticalflowtunnels,
tunnelsforcooledandhumidifiedmedia,radiatortype,andothertunnels.
Allthesetunnelshavemuchincommonwithstandardwindtunnels,
butdifferfromthemconsiderablyindesign,equipment,andtesting
107/1563
09/09/2015
techniques.
Airspintunnels
Airspintunnelsweredevelopedtoassistinsolvingproblennsofnon
steadymotionofaircraft,andespeciallyofspin.Theyarealsoused
fortestsofhelicopters,parachutes,bodiesofsmallresistance,etc.
43
Settling
chamber
Compressor
Motor
/room
Test
section'
with*
108/1563
09/09/2015
model
FIGURE2.33.NASAvariabledensitytunnel.
(N^11,OOOh.p.;M=0.97;Di,,=3.66m;;>=0.176atm)
Airspintunnelsareinstalledverticallywiththeairflowingupwardsas
showninFigure2.34.Oneofthelargestairspintunnelsisthevertical
NASAtunnelwhichhasadodecagonaltestsection6.1metersacross,
andaratedflowvelocityof30m/secata
powerof400h.p.Figure2.35showsthe
testsectionofthistunnel.
Cli/""êcfe?ô\Freeflightphotographsinthetest
sectionofthistunnelpermitthespin
characteristicsofthemodeltobeinvesti
gated.Inthenozzleanddiffuser,and
aroundthetestsection,netsareinstalled
forcatchingthemodelwhentheflowis
stopped.
Freeflighttunnels
Modelsforfreeflighttestingintunnels
must,likethemodelsforairspintunnels,
havemassandrigiditycharacteristics
similartothoseofthefullscaleaircraft.
Themodelisusuallyprovidedwithalight
weightelectricalmotordrivingasmall
109/1563
09/09/2015
propeller.Thecontrolsurfacesofthe
model(rudderandailerons)areadjusted
byelectromagneticallyoperatedremotecontrols.
Figure2.36showsschematicallyalargefreeflighttunnelofNASA.
Theoctagonalclosedtestsectionhasaninscribedcirclediameterof
366mthemaximumflowvelocityis27.5m/sec,andthepowerrequired
FIGURE2.34.Airspintunnelatthe
Monticellilaboratory(Italy),
N=150h.p.,v=25m/sec.
44
is600h.p.ToadjusttheReynoldsnumber,whichconsiderablyaffects
thecharacteristicsofflightstability,thetunnelishousedinasteelsphere
of18.3mdiameter,whichcanbeeitherevacuated,orpressurizedto4atm.
FIGURE2.35.TestsectionoftheverticalNASAtunnel.
Atthebeginningofthetestthemodelisinstalledstationaryonthe
110/1563
09/09/2015
horizontalfloorofthetestsection.
Theflowvelocityisthenincreased,
andattheappropriateinstantthe
elevatorsareoperatedsothatthemodel
risesfrom,thefloor.Freeflighttests
arebegunwhenthemodelhasrisen
almosttotheaxisofthetunnel,photo
graphsundervariousflightconditions
beingtakenwithamoviecamera
fromwhichthecharacteristicsofthe
motionofthemodelcanbedetermined.
Lowturbulencewindtunnels
FIGURE2.36.NASAFteeflighttunnel
Oistheaxisofrotationofthetunnel.
Aturbulencelevel,approximating
theturbulenceofthefreeatmosphere,
canbeobtainedbyusinganozzlehaving
averyhighcontractionratio,whichmay
exceed25:1.Inthelongsettlingchamberupstreamofthenozzleofsuch
atunnel,perforatedsheetturbulencescreensarecom.monlyfitted.Low
111/1563
09/09/2015
turbulencetunnelsusuallyhavesquattestsections(theheightmaybeonly
halfofthewidth)toaccommodatewings.Thechordofthemodelairfoil
sectionissometimesequaltoitsspan,oreven2or3tim.esasmuch,in
ordertoincreasetheReynoldsnumber*;thesidesoftheairfoilmaybe
*IncertainlowturbulencetiinnelstheReynoldsnuinbermaybeincreasedbyreducingthefreestream
pressure.
45
mountedontheverticalsidewallsofthetunnel,sothattheflowatthe
centerlineofthemodelcloselyapproximatestheflowaroundawingof
infinitespan.Lowturbulencetunnelsareusedmainlyforstudyingthe
boundarylayerstructureoftheairflowaroundvariouslyshapedbodiesand
forinvestigatingtheinfluenceofturbulenceandthestateofthesurfacesof
bodiesontheiraerodynamiccharacteristics.
^'^'^^^''^^^^^^^'
FIGURE2.37.A.V.A.lowturbulentwindtunnel
Figure2.37showsschematicallythelowturbulenceA.V.A.openciruit
112/1563
09/09/2015
windtunnelGottingen,(Germany).
Airfromthelargeroominwhichthetunnelishousedisdrawnthrough
aconicalclothfilter.Ahoneycombisfittedattheentranceofthesettling
chamber,andaseriesofwiregauzescreensinsidethesettlingchamber.
Thenozzlecontractionratiois27:1.Thediameterofthetestsectionis
3m,butflatsidewalls1.5metersapartcanalsobeinstalled.The
maximumflowvelocityislOOm/secataratedpowerof1000ICW.
FIGURE2.38.NASAlowturbulencevariabledensitytunnel.
Figure2.38showsaplanelowturbulencevariabledensitytunnelof
theNASA*.Thetestsectionmeasures0.91mX2.29m;[3'X7i'];
themaximumvelocityis150m./secatamaximumfanpowerof2000h.p.
andoperatingpressuresuptolOatm.Screensarefittedtoreduce
turbulenceinthetestsection,andtheboundarylayerisextractedfrom
thewallsofthetestsection,theairbeingreinjectedintothediffuser.
Specialcornersarealsoprovided.
*[vonDoenhoff,A.E.andL.H.Abbot.TheLangleyTwoDimensionalLowTurbulencePressureTunnel.
N.A.C.A.TechnicalNote1283.1947.]
46
113/1563
09/09/2015
Thermalandaltitudetunnels
Anumberofspecialtunnelshavebeenbuiltforthestudyofcooling,
heatexchange,heattransferfromairtowaterandoil,wingicing,and
theoperationaleffectsofhighaltitudesandlowtemperaturesonthe
componentsoffinstabilizedballisticmissilesandtheirinstruments.
ThewindtunnelshowninFigure2.39isintendedforthestudyoficing
(NASA.Cleveland,U.S.A.).Ithasaclosedtestsectionmeasuring2.74m
by1.83m.Themaximumflowvelocityis180m/sec,andtheminimum
temperatureis55C.Thepoweris4,160h.p.Thereturnductofthe
tunnelisalsousedfortestingpropellers,etc.Acoolerisinstalled
betweenthethirdandfourthcorners,andwaterspraynozzlesarelocated
inthesettlingchamber.
FIGURE2.39.Tunnelforstudyingicing(NASA).
AlargechamberhasbeenbuiltbyVickersArmstrongLtd.(U.K.)for
testingaircraftcomponentsandequipmentunderdifferenttemperatureand
altitudeconditions.Thechamberisactuallyaclosedcircuittunnel.Withfour
returnducts,each2.05mindiameter.Thetestsectioniscircular,with
adiameterof7.6mandalengthof15.2m.Themaximumliowvelocity
inthetunnelis31m/sec.Therefrigerationplant,toprovideaircooling
downto65C,consistsoffour150h.p.twostageammoniacompressors.
Thecoolantismethylalcohol,whichcirculatesinsidethecopperguide
vanesofthe16tunnelelbows.Coolingfrom+15Cto65Crequires
about300hours.
114/1563
09/09/2015
Altitudeconditionsforpressureeffectstudiesareobtainedwiththe
aidofa140h.p.twostagevacuumpumpsothatvariousratesofascent
andaltitudesoflevelflightcanbesimulated.
AtanairtemperatureofeO'C,ascentconditionstoaheightof
18,000m(pressure,56m.mHg)canbesimulatedwithaclimbingrateof
300m/min.Specialreleasevalvespermitthesimulationofadescent
from15,000mtogroundlevelin160seconds.Thetunnelpermitsvarious
kindsofaerodynanaictests:studyofcoldstartingofenginesandcontrol
ofturbinestarters,wearoftheslipringbrushesofgenerators,high
altitudebehaviorofaircraftandguidedmissilesandtheircontrolsurfaces,
andinvestigationofelectronicequipmentofradarinstallations,radio
probes,hermeticallysealedcabins,etc.
47
Inwindtunneltestsofradiosondes,theuseofinfraredandultraviolet
radiationmakesitpossibletosimulatesolarradiationandtomaintain
insidetheprobesatemperatureof+40"'C,despiteambienttunnelair
temperaturesof60C.
/F=
Fromsmokegenerator
115/1563
09/09/2015
Honeycomb
FIGURE2.40.Smokejetwindtunnel.
Smokejettunnelsareusedforvisualizingthepatternandcharacteristics
offlowaroundbodiesatsmallvelocities.Theprincipleofsuchatunnelis
showninFigure2.40.
5.TRANSONICTUNNELS
IntransonictunnelsthetestsectionMachnumberrangesfrom0.85
to1.4.Testsintransonictunnelsmaybeofshortorlongduration.In
continuousoperationtunnelsthepressuredifferenceiscreatedbyafan
oracompressor,whichisratedforcontinuousoperationoveranextended
period.
Inintermittentoperationtunnels,flowiscausedbythepressure
differencebetweenthesettlingchamberandthediffuseroutlet,a
compressedairorvacuumchamberbeingused.Theairishighly
compressedbeforeeachtestanddischargedthroughareductionvalveto
thesettlingchamberandthencethroughthetestsectiontotheatmosphere.
Invacuumchambertunnelsthe"high"pressureistheatnaospheric
pressureatwhichairisdrawnthroughthetunnelbyvirtueofthelower
pressureinthevacuumchamber.
Thetestdurationinintermittentoperationtunnelsusuallydependsonthe
116/1563
09/09/2015
reserveofcompressedairoronthevolumeofthevacuumchamber,and
variesbetween1and5minutes.
ForM<1theshapeofthetunnelmaybealmostthesameasfor
conventionalsubsonictunnels.BecausetheflowbecomesunstableatM=1,
facilitiesforstudiesatthesevelocitiesshouldbeprovided.
48
IIIIIHII
I^lIII
Asthefreestreamvelocityincreases,acriticalvalueisreachedat
whichthelocalvelocityatcertainpointsonthesurfaceofthetestmodel
becomessonic,althoughtheflowissubsoniceverywhereelse.TheMach
numbercorrespondingtothiscriticalfreestreamivelocityisdenotedby
Mcrjitsvaluedependsontheshapeofthemodel;forairfoilsandstream
linedfuselagesitvariesbetween0.8and0.85.Whenthefreestream
velocityapproachesthevelocityofsoundthewholemodel,except,perhaps,
averysmallareabeneaththelowersurfaceofathinairfoil(Figure2.41),
[^y
117/1563
09/09/2015
Localvelocityapproaching
thespeedofsound
Sound
wavesWake
AtM>fliStheshocksmoveto
Formationofashockontheji,gmailingedgeoftheairfoil
uppersurfaceoftheairfoil^<*highlyturbulent
withoutflowseparationM>;M<7fig^
c^fu,u,m=/\m</
Formationofashockonthelower...f,j.u^^
If,.f....Atsupersonicflowadetached
surfaceoftheairfoil.Beginning.,
cc\,V.I,.Jt^1shockappears
offlowseparationbehindtheshock
/M>;
''^'/X
118/1563
09/09/2015
J,M^/\m.,Y
M>/\M<;\\MW
Shock"^Detachedshock^
FIGURE4.21.VariationwithincreasingMachnumberoftheposition
ofshocksonairfoil.
isinaregionofsupersonicflow.Atsuchvelocities,shockswillpropagate
fromthemodelinthetestsectiontowardthetunnelwalls,reachingthem
assoonasthefreestreamvelocitybecomessonic.Furtherincreaseof
flowvelocityinthetunnelisimpossible,irrespectiveofupstreampressure;
thetunnelbecomeschoked.Furtherpressureincreasewillonlycause
theshockstobedisplacedtowardthetrailingedgeofthemodel,becom
ingobliqueanddistorted;finally,furthershockswillappear(from
thesupportsofthemodeltothewallsofthetunneletc.).Chokingisalso
likelytooccurinanemptytunnelwhenthevelocityinaparticularcross
sectionbecomessonic,attheoutletofthetestsectionbecauseofboundary
layerthickening,orbecauseofthewake.Whenthetunnelischoked,
differentpartsofthemodelanditssupportsareundercompletelydifferent
flowconditions.Partofthemodelisinasubsonicregion,andpartina
supersonicregion.Thelackofmethodsfortakingintoaccountthedifferent
flowpatternsmakesitpracticallyimpossibletoprocesstheresultsof
measurements,andtunnelchokingshouldthereforebeprevented.
Animportantfactorintunnelchokingistheextenttowhichflowis
im.pededbj*themodelanditssupports.Reductioninthedimensionsofthe
model(andcorrespondinglyofthesupports)ispossibleonlytoalimited
119/1563
09/09/2015
extent.Evenifthemodelismadefromhighqualitysteel(withanultimate
strengthof120to130kg/mm^),rigidityrequirementsleadtoaminimum
blockageof1.5to2%,ortakingthesupportsintoaccount,between2.5
and3%,evenifthesupportsareofthearrowtype.
49
Therefore,endeavorshavebeenmadetoworkoutmethodsformodel
testsattransonicvelocitiesinconditionswheretunnelchokingisprevented.
Onemethodistoincreaseconsiderablytheflowareaofthetestsectionorthe
dimensionsofthetestmodel,sothatblockagebythemodelwillbeless
than1%,However,anenlargementofthetestsectionnecessitatesmore
power;thus,forinstance,fortestinganaircraftmodelhavingawing
spanof1.5to1.6m,thediameterofthetestsectionwouldhavetobeat
least4.5mandtherequiredpowertoobtainsonicflowinsuchatunnel
wouldbe50,000kw.
Anothermethodofeliminatingtunnelchokingistoprovideanopen
testsection.Chokingisfarlesspronouncedinsuchtunnels,andthe
correctionsforitseffectaremuchsmallerthanintunnelswithclosed
testsections.Thismethodwasusedinseveralhighspeedtunnelsof
earlydesign,butwasabandonedlaterbecauseofthelargepower
requirements,andthedifficultiesinobtainingasatisfactoryvelocity
distribution.Allhighspeedtunnelshaveatpresentclosedtestsections.
Thebestmethodtopreventchokingistoprovideatestsectionwith
perforatedwalls.Asteadyflow,increasinginvelocityfromrestto
supersonicspeed,canbeobtainedinaLavalnozzlewhichconsistsofa
converging(inlet)part,athroatthenarrowestsectionofthenozzle,
wherethefreestreamvelocityisequaltothelocalvelocityofsound,
120/1563
09/09/2015
i.e.,tothecriticalvelocity*andadivergingpartinwhichthevelocity
continuestoincrease.However,aLavalnozzleisnottheonlydevice
forobtainingsupersonicflowvelocities.Supersonicflowcanalsobe
obtainedinacylindricalduct/13/,ifweremovefrom,itpartofthe
medium.
Supersonicwindtunnelsgenerallyhavedivergentnozzlesprovidedwith
extractionsectionswherepartofthemediuntiisexhaustedfromthetest
sections.Bypassingthemedium,evenwhenaconventionalratherthana
Lavalnozzleisused,permitsvelocitiescloseto,orevenslightlyin
excessof,thespeedofsoundtobeobtainedinthetestsectioninthe
presenceofamodel.Thebypassconsistsofopeningsorslots(Figure2.42)
inthewallsofthetestsection,throughwhichthemediumfrom,thenozzle
canexpand,sothatsonicflowispreservedthroughoutalmosttheentire
lengthofthetestsectionprovidedthatthepressuredropissufficient.The
bypassedmediummayreenterthetunnelattheendofthetestsection,and
ismixedwiththeremainderflowingintothediffuser.However,thevelocity
distributioninthetestsectionisimprovedbyforcedextractionthrough
thewallsofthetestsection.
Incertaintunnels,airisextractedfromthetestsectionandreinjected
intothediffusertorestorethetotalpressureintheboundarylayer.This
isdoneintheabovementionedNASAlowturbulencetunnel(Figure2.38).
Numeroustestshaveshownthatinterferencebetweenmodelandtunnelin
theregionoftransonicflowcanbereducedintestsectionswithperforated
orslottedwalls.
Figure2.43showscomparativemeasurementsoftheresistance
coefficientofasystemofwingsandfuselage,obtainedinfreeflight(rocket
tests)andinatransonictunneloftheLangleyLaboratory(NASA,U.S.A.)
Thecriticalvelocity,whichdependsonthecharacteristicsofthegasanditsstagnationtemperatureTo,is
121/1563
09/09/2015
50
withaslottedtestsectionmeasuring2.44mX2.44m..Itisseenthatthe
slotsinthetestsectionpermitreliablemeasurementsintransonictunnels.
Testsection
Bodyofrevolution
FIGURE2.42.Testsectionwithslottedwalls.
Theratiooftheareaoftheopeningstothetotalareaofthewalls
(degreeofperforation)dependsontheMachnumberinthetestsection.
Cj;
Freeflight
122/1563
09/09/2015
OJ
Windtunnel
0.2
0.1
/^
123/1563
09/09/2015
0.6a.7as031.0ua
M
FIGURE2.43.Comparativevaluesofthe
resistanceofasystemofwingsandfuselage
obtainedinfreeflightandinatransonic
tunnelwithslottedtestsectionwalls.
Figure2.44showsthisdependence.Theuseofperforatedwallisfeasible
uptoM=1.3to1.5.Suchwalls,andtheforcedextractionofair,also
permitabetterutilizationofthetestsection.Longermodels,canbetested.
51
sincetheshockwavesarenotreflectedfromtheperforatedwallstoward
themodel,ashappenswhenthewallsaresolid(Figure2.45).
I20
124/1563
09/09/2015
125/1563
09/09/2015
ID
1.2
1.6
126/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE2.44.VariationwithMachnumberoftheoptimum
degreeofperforation.
Theextractionofairfromthetestsectionmakesitpossiblenotonly
toobtaintransonicvelocities,andtoreducetheinterferencebetweentunnel
andmodel;butalsotoreducethelossesinthediffuser,sincethe
boundarylayeratthediffuserinletwillbethinner.
Diffusersintransonictunnels
Thediffuserplaysaveryimportantroleintransonictunnelswhen
theMachnumberexceedsunitysinceitisthennecessarytoreduce,
withnainimumenergyloss,theflowvelocitydownstreamofthetestsection
tosubsonicbeforecontractiontakesplaceagaininthenozzle(ofclosed
circuittunnels)orreleasetoatmosphere(inopencircuittunnels).The
simplestmethodofreducingtheflowvelocityinthediffuseristopermit
normalshockstooccurinthediffuser.Thequalityofadiffuserisvery
oftencharacterizedbyitsisentropicefficiencyrij.
^d=
1M?
127/1563
09/09/2015
whereMjistheMachnumtberatthediffuserinlet,andpiandpârethe
pressuresattheinletandoutletofthediffuser.Thefulllinein
Figure2.46showsthedependenceofthediffuserefficiencyridon
theMachnumber;therelationshipwasobtainedusingthestandard
equationsfornormalshocks.Suchvaluesofridareimpossibleinpractice
becauseofthepressurelossesduetotheinteractionbetweenshockand
boundarylayeratthewall.Thesamefigureshowsexperimentalvalues
oftheefficiencyofsuchdiffusers.Despitetheconsiderablescatterofthe
experimentalpoints,weseeclearlythatthelossesinanormalshock
diffuserarestillveryhigh.Neverthelesssuchlowdivergencediffusers
(from.3to5)areusedinmosttransonicwindtunnels.
52
Inmoderntransoniccontinuousoperationtunnelsthetestsectionmaybe
aslargeas5mX5m,Veryoftenthestaticpressurecanbevariedin
suchtunnels:underpressureisusedforoperatingathighMachnumbers.
KIGURE2.45.Reflectionofshocksfromthewallsof
128/1563
09/09/2015
\sindtunaelswithsolidandperforatedtestsectionwalls.
andhighpressureforobtaininglargeReynoldsnumbers.Mostly,thetest
sectionisrectangular(withthewidthlargerthantheheight);lessoften
itissquareorround.
1.0r
7d
OS
06
OJ
129/1563
09/09/2015
r\"
rn
\
>.
Normalshockwith
subsequentlossfree
velocityreduction
130/1563
09/09/2015
;(
Experimental
\
\
O
>
">
131/1563
09/09/2015
"^
132/1563
09/09/2015
133/1563
09/09/2015
1.0
10
J.0
*.o
5J0
FIGURE2,46.VariationwithMachnumberofisentropic
diffuserefficiency.
53
Figures2.47to2.49showconventionalmoderntransonictunnelsfor
134/1563
09/09/2015
continuousoperation.
FIGURE2.47.Testsectionoftransonictunnel(ARAGreatBritain).1Adjustable
nozzle;2perforatedtestsectionwalls;3observationwindows;4model
carriage;5pipesforairextractionthroughtestsectionwalls.
Figure2.47showsthe2.74mX2.44mtestsectionoftheARAtunnel
(GreatBritain).VelocitiesuptoM1.3canbeobtainedinthistunnel
inwhichthepressurecanbevariedbetween0.8and1.2atm.The
ReynoldsnumberforatestatM=1onamodelof1.1mwingspanis
6X10^.Thetunnelisequippedwithanadjustablenozzleandatestsection
withperforatedwalls.A13,750h.p.elevenstageaxialcompressor
extractsairthroughtheperforatedwallsatarateofupto8500m^/min,
thuseffectivelyreducinginteractionbetweenmodelandboundarylayer
andpreventingchokingofthetunnel.Themodelinthetestsectionofthe
tunnelisinstalledonatelescopicsupportmountedonacarriageatthe
diffuserinlet,sothatitcaneasilybewithdrawnfromthetunnelfor
calibrationadjustment.
Thecarriagesupportsawindtunnelbalanceandacradleforadjustment
oftheangleofattack.Thetunnelisequippedwithaiadiationaircooler
54
whichmaintainsthetunnelairtemperaturebelow50C.Anabsorption
typedryerreducesthewatercontenttoalevelof1gofwaterperkilogram,
ofair,whichisequivalenttoarelativehumidityof10%at50C.Theair
135/1563
09/09/2015
isimpelledthroughthetunnelbytwotandemmounted20bladefanswith
animpellerdiameterof6.5m,drivenatamaximumspeedof485r,p.m.
bya25,000h.p.motor.Theguidevanesbeforethefirstfanstageand
betweenthestages,haveflaps(25%ofthechord)whichduringtunnel
operationcanberotatedtoanglesbetween10and20fromthenormal
position,tosupplementvelocityregulationbyfanspeedadjustment.
Thetestresultsareprocessedinanelectroniccomputer.
FIGURE2.48.Testsectionofatransonictunnel(NASA)withslottedwalls.
Thedimensionsofthetestsectionflowareaare4.28mX4.28m.M<1.2.
Figure2.48showsatestsectionwithslottedwallsinaNASAtransonic
tunnel,whileFigure2.49showstheHLLtransonictunnel(Netherlands).
Moderntransonic(andsupersonic)tunnelsareequippedwithsliding
testbedsforeasywithdrawalofthemodel(Figure2.50),television
monitoringofmodelandtunnel,automatictestequipment,andremotely
controlledtunnelfacilities.Thepowersrequiredareverylarge,anda
singledriveunitmaybedesignedtoserveseveraltunnels.Forinstance,
intheMoffettFieldLaboratory(NASA)the216,000h.p.driveserves
3tunnels(Figure2.51).
Intermittentoperationtransonictunnels
AtypicaltunnelofthistypeisshowninFigure2.52.Highpressure
airisdischargedfromasystemofgasbottles=''throughamanifoldintothe
settlingchamberofthetunnel.Afterpassingthroughthesettlingchamber,
136/1563
09/09/2015
thetestsection,andthediffuser,theairisexhaustedtoatmosphere.
*Insometunnelsasinglegasreservoirisusedinsteadofanumberofbottles.Forinstance,intheAEDC
gasdynamicslaboratory(U.S.A.)theE1unitoperatesfromagasreservoir220mlongand0.9min
diameter,whichcanholdabout50tonsofairatapressureof283kg/cm^.
55
56
FIGURE2.50..SlidingtestbedoftheCalifornia
InstituteofTechnologywindtunnel(M=1.8);
testsectiondimensions:"2.6nix3.4m).
FIGURE2.51.Generalviewofatripletunnel(MoffettField).
The216,000h.p.drive(withbooster)serves3tunnels;test
section:3.35mX3.35m,M=0.07to1.5;testsection(2):
2.13mX2.74m,M=1.4to2.7;testsection(3):2.13m'x
X2.74m,M=2.4to3.
57
137/1563
09/09/2015
ToobtainvelocitiesuptoM=1.4inthetestsectionofsuchatunnel,
itssettlingchamberpressuremustbebetween1.5and1.7atm.To
extendthedurationoftunneloperationthereservoirpressureshouldbe
muchhigher.Abutterflycontrolvalveisinstalledbetweenthereservoirs
andthesettlingchamber;itisoperatedbyapressureregulatortomaintain
constantpressureinthesettlingchamber,sothattestscanbeperformied
atconstantReynoldsnumbers.Thedesignedoperatingdurationofthe
tunneldependsonthemeasuringfacilitiesavailableandonthekindoftest
undertaken.Ifanautomaticwindtunnelbalanceisused,aminimum,of
15to30secondswillberequiredforequilibriumconditionstobeattained
beforeeachobservation.Severalreadingscouldbemadewithinthis
intervalwithastraingagebalance,butahighspeedattitudecradlewould
berequired.
Compressor
Dryer
Motor
Exhaustduct
withsilencer
138/1563
09/09/2015
ReductionvalveHeaterNozzlewithAdjustable
flexiblediffuser
walls
FIGURE2.52.Intermittentoperationwindtunnelsuppliedwithcompressedairfrombottles.
Thedesignmassflowthroughthetestsectiondependsonthedimensions
ofthelatter,theflowvelocity,andtheflowdeceleration,andcanbe
calculatedfromtheformulaformassflowratethroughunitarea
=MobPo[
2+(xl)M"j
12(.I)
139/1563
09/09/2015
Figure2.53showshowtheoperatingduration/(expressedasafraction
oftheoperatingdurationatM=1)ofareservoirtypetunneldependsonM.
Figure2.54showshowthereservoircapacityforunitoperatingduration
atM=1dependsonthepressurewhentheflowareaofthetestsectionis
1m^.Theseresultshavebeenconfirmedbyexperiments,andcanbeused
tocalculatethenumberandcapacityofthecompressedairbottlesneeded
forintermittentoperationtunnels.Asthediagramshov/s,there.quired
reservoirvolunaedecreasessharplyasreservoirpressureincreases.
However,experienceintheconstructionanduseofreservoirpowered
intermittentoperationtunnelshasshownthatthepressureinthebottles
shouldnotexceed20atm,sincetheweightofthebottlescannot
besubstantiallyreducedfurther,whiletheratedpowerofthecompressor
mustbeincreased.Inaddition,highpressurescomplicatedesignand
1680
58
operationoftheequipment.Itisthereforeusualtooperatethistypeof
windtunnelatamaximumpressureinthebottleof8to20atm.
r
1.5
140/1563
09/09/2015
0.5
/^\
141/1563
09/09/2015
45
M
FIGURE2.53.Machnumberdependenceof
operatingdurationofwindtunnelssupplied
withcompressedairfromstoragebottles.
SOI
25
142/1563
09/09/2015
143/1563
09/09/2015
p.ata
FIGURE2.54.Pressuredependenceof
thereservoirvolumeatM=1,/1sec,
flowareaoftestsection=1m^.
Intermittentoperationinducedflowwindtunnels
Transonicintermittentoperationtunnelsmayalsofunctionontheindueed
flowprinciple.Insuchtunnels,highpressureairissuppliedto
ejectorsinstalledatthetestsectionoutlet.Theairflowsathighvelocity
throughannularoraxialslotsinthewallsoftheejector,sothatitentrains
lowpressuretunnelairandinducesairflowthroughthetestsectionto
atmosphere.Incomparisonwithcontinuousoperationtunnels,induced
flowtunnelshavetheadvantage,sharedbyreservoirtypetunnels,of
greatsimplicityofdesign.Theirdrawbacksarelowefficiencyincomparison
withcontinuousoperationtunnels,andthenecessitytoregulatethepressure
attheejectorinletortoadjusttheflowareaoftheinletslotoftheejector
asthereservoirpressuredecreases.
Inducedflowtunnelsmayalsohavesemiclosedcircuits,inwhichthe
surplusairisremovedthroughoutletslotsinthereturnduct
(Figure2.55).Suchtunnelsaremoreeconomical,sincepartoftheairis
recirculated;thedurationoftheiroperationis30to50%longerthanthat
144/1563
09/09/2015
ofOrdinaryinducedflowtunnels.
Jetengineexhaustissometimesusedtoinducetransonicflow.
Figure2.56showsatunnelpoweredbytheexhaustsofthreejetengines.
Afeatureofthistunnelistheuseofpartofthehotair,whichiscirculated
throughthetunneltoheatthecoldatmosphericair.Thecrosssectional
areaofthetestsectionis0.23m^,andamaximumvelocityofM=1,2
canbeobtained.
59
Illlllllllllllllllllllllllllllll
Highpressureair
FIGURE2.55.NPLinducedflowtransonictunnel;M=to1.8;testsectiondimensions:
0.23mX0.077m.
f//~\
145/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE2,56.Inducedflowtransonictunneloperatedbyjetengineexhaust.
Whensufficientreservesofairareavailableatonlyalinnitedpressure
itisbettertosupplyairtothesettlingchamber,andtheremaindertoan
ejectorusuallyplacedimmediatelydownstreamofthetestsection.
Inthiscasetherequiredtestsectionvelocitycanbeobtainedata
considerablylowersettlingchamberpressure.Theoperatingduration
ofinducedflowtunnelsisproportionaltotheinductioncoefficient,i.e.,
totheratiooftheexhaustairflowratetotheairinjectionrate.
Figures2,57and2.58showthedependenceoftheinductioncoefficient
ontherelativeflowareasofslotandtestsection,andontheratioof
totalpressuresofinjectedandindiicedairforvariousnumbers.
AscanbeseenfromFigure2.57theinductioncoefficientdecreases
sharplywithincreasingMachnumber;forthisreasonintermittent
operationinducedflowtunnels,ofthetypeshowninFigure2.55,areless
widelyusedthantunnelsinwhichtheejectorsserveonlytoreduce
thepressureatthetestsectionoutlet.Incertaininducedflowtunnels,
steamisusedinsteadofcompressedair.
60
146/1563
09/09/2015
2.5
2
7
Jl
147/1563
09/09/2015
Sn
^/l
148/1563
09/09/2015
x^
7/
//
149/1563
09/09/2015
//
150/1563
09/09/2015
y,
/l
T~l
151/1563
09/09/2015
^^
4^
"^
i:^
c^
152/1563
09/09/2015
:=^
o
.2iS
153/1563
09/09/2015
<<3
SiSi
ca
!S"
CS
154/1563
09/09/2015
^rtl
.1
oc:
tN,tC**^=
^^<oes^Vi*:>
155/1563
09/09/2015
jiEpaonpuTJO3jnss3Jdiîox
JtBpa3D9fuiJO3jnss3jdibiox
U)i^
'CD
156/1563
09/09/2015
157/1563
09/09/2015
158/1563
09/09/2015
intestsection
0.1080.90.
'//
159/1563
09/09/2015
ffl
160/1563
09/09/2015
number
0.50.6
161/1563
09/09/2015
?)i
x:
.5"^
162/1563
09/09/2015
'h
s
II
2I
163/1563
09/09/2015
/,
164/1563
09/09/2015
~"
165/1563
09/09/2015
S"^^'
93^JUOpoatUTJTV
3:bjMoijjtp]snBqx3
(O5^tô
Slau3TDIJj300UOTSDnpuI
s
o
teE
166/1563
09/09/2015
61
Vacuumpoweredtunnels
Anintermittentoperationvacuumpoweredwindtunnelisshownin
Figure2.59.Atmosphericairisdrawnthroughthedryer,settling
chamber,nozzle,testsection,anddiffuserintothevacuumreservoir
(usuallyasphere),fromwhichairiseitherevacuatedbeforehand,or
continuouslyexhaustedtoatmospherebymeansofavacuumpump.The
pressuredropinthesetunnelsmaybevariedwithinverywidelim.itsby
changingthepressureintheevacuatedreservoir.
Dryer
Motot
Vacuumpump
FIGURE2.59.Anintermittentoperation,vacuumpoweredwindtunnel.
167/1563
09/09/2015
Figure2.60showsthepressuredependenceofthecapacityrequired
oftheevacuatedreservoirfor1secondoperationofatunnelwithatest
section1mîncrosssectionalareaatM=1,Itcanbeseenthateven
ataverylowreservoirpressure,thevolumerequiredfortheconditions
statedexceeds250m^persecondofoperation.
woISO
mmHg
FIGURE2.60.Requiredreservoircapacityas
functionofthepressuresinit,forM=1,
operationduration,/sec,flowareaofizn
sectionis1m.
15
t_
f
1.0
as
168/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE2.61.Machnumber
dependenceoftheoperating
durationofavacuumpowered
tunnelCinitialreservoirpres
sureis100mmHg).
Figure2.61showstheMachnumberdependenceoftheratioofthe
operatingdurationofavacuumpoweredtunneltotheoperating
durationatM=1.Theveryhighreservoircapacitiesrequired
considerablyrestricttheuseofsuchtunnels.
62
Theneedtodrytheatmosphericairdrawnthroughthetunnelisa
seriousprobleminintermittentoperationvacuumpoweredtunnels.If
thetunnelisoperatedataratedmoisturecontentofjO.1gwaterperkg
ofair,thedesignedsurfaceareaofthedryeramountstoabout400m^
persquaremeteroftestsectionflowarea.
6.SUPERSONICWINDTUNNELS
Supersonicwindtunnelsarebyconvention,tunnelswithoperational
Machnumbersabove1.4or1.5.Liketransonictunnelsthesetunnels
mayeitherbeforcontinuousorforintermittentoperation,andare
designedandequippedaccordingly.However,theaerodynamicprofile
ofsupersonictunnels,fromsettlingchambertodiffuser,isindependent
169/1563
09/09/2015
ofoperatingmethodandtypeofdrive.Ingeneral,thetestsectionof
supersonictunnelsisrectangulartofacilitatesopticalstudiesandsimplify
tunneldesign.
Nozzle
Moderndesignmethodspermituniformstraightaxialsupersonicflow
tobeobtainedatthenozzleoutletandtestsectioninlet.Thedesigned
nozzleprofilecanusuallyberealized.Thetolerancesfortheinternal
surfaceofsupersonicnozzlesarequitefine(aslittleas0.01to0.05mm
withapolishedsurface).Existingproductionmethodspermitsuchtolerances
tobeachievedeveninthemanufactureofnozzlesofconsiderabledimensions.
180
\M
170/1563
09/09/2015
jTftjJi'OJ:
?ft.oAi)4oaôcvfJU>
Li>
prrrF+**''*'*+TVVT*^*^+y4rP
171/1563
09/09/2015
*\A=2.00(1stcorrection)
"MÎ.SO(2ndcorrection)
+M=/.5Z7(3rdcorrection)
primarycalculation
^^r''fr^r4r^t,
20
25
3035^0tS
Distancefromnozzleinlet,cm.
FIGURE2.62.Velocitydistributioninnozzles.
Designtechniquesaresometimesinadequatetoensureasufficiently
Uniformflowovertheentiretestsection,andinpracticenozzlesrequire
experimental"tuning."
172/1563
09/09/2015
63
Figure2.62showsthevelocitydistributioninatestsectionbeforeand
aftertuningofthenozzle/2/.Forlargesupersonictunnelsthedesign
ischeckedandadjustedonmodels.Inmodernwelltunedtunnelswecan
obtainatestsectionvelocitydistributionuniformtowithinlessthan1%.
Inserts
FIGURE2.63.Interchangeablenozzle("insert')ofasupersonicwindtunnel.
TheMachnumberinrectangulartestsectionsofsupersonictunnels
canbevariedbyfittinginterchangeablenozzles("inserts".Figure2,63)
orbyusingadjustablenozzles(Figure2.64),inwhichthelowerandupper
FIGURE2.64.Adjustablenozzleofasupersonictunnel(M<4)NASA(Pasadena).
wallsformingthenozzleprofilecanbedeformedatwill.Interchangeable
nozzlesforverylargetunnelsaremountedoncarriagesweighingseveral
tonsandslidingonrails.Suchadesignnecessitatesalargetunnelhouse,
andspecialdevicesforconnectingthenozzletothesettlingchamberand
173/1563
09/09/2015
testsection.Itisforthesereasonsthatinrecentyearsmanysupersonic
64
tunnelshavebeenequippedwithadjustablenozzles,inwhichtheprofile
neededisobtainedthroughelasticdeformationoftunnelfloorandroof.
Therearemanydesignsofadjustablenozzlesdifferinginthedegree
towhichtheflexiblewallcanbemadetoapproximatetherequirednozzle
profile.Theperfectiondependsmainlyonthenumberofadjustingjacks
usedtodeterminetheprofile(Figure2.64).Moderntunnelsmayhave
asmanyas25to30jackingpoints.Inthesupersonicwindtunnelofthe
Lewislaboratory,whichhasatestsectionmeasuring3.05nnXS.05m,the
adjustablenozzlehas27jacksandMachnumbersrangingfrom2to3.5
canbeobtained.
AlthoughatthesameMachnumber,rigidinterchangeablenozzles
produceabettervelocitydistributionthanthecorrespondingadjustable
nozzles,thelatterarebeingincreasinglyused,sincewithcarefuldesign
theydoproduceasufficientlyuniformvelocitydistributionwhiletheiruse
considerablyreducesthecostoftestsandincreasesthetestingcapacity
ofthetunnel.
PlanenozzlesareonlyadequateuptoM=7.Beyondthistheircritical
crosssectionbecomesverysmall,sothattheyaredifficulttomanufacture,
andtheslotissubjecttoappreciablethermaldeformation,withresulting
deteriorationintheflowuniformity.Axisymmetricorthreedimensional
nozzlesshouldthereforebeusedathighMachnumbers.Itiscommon
practicetousenozzleswhoseshapescanbeautomaticallyadjustedby
remotecontrolduringtunneloperation,sothattheMachnumbercanbe
174/1563
09/09/2015
variedswiftly.Thisisespeciallyimportantintestsoffixedmodelsat
differentflowvelocitiesinintermittentoperationtunnels,andrecentdesigns
permitadjustmentforsmallMachnumberchangestobecompletedina
fewseconds.Thisisachievedwithaprogrammingm.echanismatthe
controlpanel,consisting,forexample,ofaseriesoftemplatesreproducing
thenozzleprofile,appropriatetoeachMachnumber,veryaccuratelytoa
smallscale.Pushbuttonselectionofatemplatecausesdepressionofa
seriesofspringloadedcordinaterods,equalinnumbertothejacking
points.Aselsynsystemoperateseachjacksothatitfollowsthemovements
ofitscordinaterod,therebysettingupthedesiredtunnelprofile.
Recentdesignsemploydigitalcontrolofthenozzleprofile,usingeither
punchedcardsortapesonwhichthenozzleprofilesforvariousMach
numbersareprogrammed.
Whentheprogramcardisinserted,thecontroldeviceautomatically
movestheadjustingjacksintotheappropriatepositions.
Asimplersystemofnozzlecontrolisusedincertaintunnelstopermit
Machnumberchangesof0.05to0.10,e.g.,fromM=1.5toM=1.6.
Suchachangecanbeachievedwithoutseriouslyimpairingthequalityof
flowinthetestsectionbyadjustingthethroatsectionandsuitably
deformingnearbypartsofthenozzle.
Inthedesignofadjustablenozzlescarefulattentionmustbepaidtothe
rigidityoftheadjustablewalls,andtohermeticalsealingbetweenthewalls
andthehousingofthenozzle("nozzlebox").
Ktheadjustablewallisnotsufficientlyrigid,itwill"flap"andthe
distortionofthenozzleprofilewillimpairtheflowinthetestsection.
Hermeticalsealingofthespacebehindtheflexiblewallofthenozzleis
veryimportanttopreventlargeloadsonthewallwhenthetunnelis
starteduporwhenoperatingconditionsarechanged;thepositionofthe
175/1563
09/09/2015
65
shockmaychangesorapidlythatthepressuresinsideandoutsidethewall
donothavetimetobecomeequalized.Indesigningsupersonictunnels
specialattentionmustalsobepaidtotheconnectionbetweenthenozzleand
thetestsection.Theslightestprojectionsgiverisenotonlytononuniform
velocitydistributions,butalsotoseriousinclinationsoftheflowinthe
testsection.Forexample,a1.5mmprojectionattheinlettoa
lOOOmmXlOOOmmtestsectionoperatingatMachnumbersbetween1,5
and3willcauseaflowinclinationofupto3.
Theoptimumresultsintermsofuniform,supersonicflowwithathin
boundarylayermaybeobtainedbyusingporousnozzlewalls,sothat
boundarylayerthickeningcanbeabatedbycontrollingtheflowthrough
thewalls,andamoreuniformpressuredistributionobtainedatthetest
sectioninlet.
Porousnozzlewallsareusedinhighvacuumsupersonictunnelswhere
theboundarylayerwouldotherwiseoccupyaconsiderablepartofthetest
section.
Testsection
Closedtestsectionsaregenerallyusedinsupersonictunnels,largely
becauseoftheconsiderablygreaterpowerneededfortunnelswithopen
testsections(Figure2.65).Thetestsectionis,asarule,notmorethan
1.5to2widthsinlength,andsometimesanevenshortertestsectionis
adequate.Thisisbecauseverysmallmodelsareusedinsupersonictunnels.
176/1563
09/09/2015
Opentestsection
(d^SOOm)
Ventedtestsection
(d=30DMH)
Closedtestsection
(d^Mm)
FIGURE2,65,Dependenceofthepowerofsupersonic
tunnelsonthetypeoftestsection.
apracticeenforcedbytheneedtoplacethemodelinthetestsectioninsuch
awaythattheshockfromitsnosewillnotbereflectedfromthetunnelwalls
ontoeitherthetailitselforthewakeimmediatelydownstream.Thetest
sectionofamodernhighspeedtunnelisacomplicatedstructureequipped
withavarietyofmechanismsanddevices.Itsinnersurfacemustbe
polishedandtheliners,framesofopticalglassports,etc.,mustbemade
ofstampedpartspolishedflushwiththetunnelwalls.Figures2.66to2.68
showtestsectionsofdifferentsupersonicwindtunnels.
177/1563
09/09/2015
66
67
FITURE2.67.TestsectionoftheFFAsupersonicvacuum
poweredtunnel(Stockholm).Testsectiondimensions
0.9mX1.15m;M=1to2.5;Vacuumreservoirvolume=
9,000m;Operatingduration30sec.
FIGURE2.68.ExternalviewofthetestsectionoftheFFAsupersonictunnel.
68
Diffuserforsupersonictunnels
178/1563
09/09/2015
Efficientdecelerationfromsupersonicvelocitiesisaverydifficult
problemnotonlyinwindtunnelsbutinotherfieldsofaerodynamics.
Decelerationbymeansofanormalshockmightbeacceptablefor
testsectionvelocitiesuptoM=1.3or1.4,buttheenergylosses
becomeexcessiveatlargevelocities,andanadjustablediffuserwith
aseriesofobliqueshocksisthenoftenused.
AtinletMachnumbersgreaterthan1,standardsubsonicdiffusers
aresubjecttolargeenergylosses,whichexceedthelossesdueto
decelerationtosubsonicvelocitiesbymeansofnormalshocks.Figure2.69
illustratestheeffectivenessofflowdecelerationinstandarddiffusersof
variousangles/17/.Pressurelossesareleastforsmalldivergenceangles,
buteventhentheystillexceedthelossesinnormalshocks.Withfurther
increaseininletMachnumberthepressurelossesinastandarddiffuser
risesharply:thepressureratioexceeds100atM=6(Figure2,70).
zoo
WD
80
60
W
ZO
w
d
179/1563
09/09/2015
6
z
;
er/
~F)
180/1563
09/09/2015
11
Planediffus
Normalshock
11
181/1563
09/09/2015
(theoretical)
Conical
182/1563
09/09/2015
r
/
183/1563
09/09/2015
184/1563
09/09/2015
185/1563
09/09/2015
1012
FIGURE2.69.TheinfluenceofMachnumberand
divergenceangleontheeffectivenessofflowdecelera
tionbyshocks.
HGURE2.70,Machnumberdependenceof
pressuresindiffuserwithoutcontraction.
Thediffusersusedinsupersonictunnelsarethereforefittedwith
eitherfixedoradjustablethroats/18/.Inaconvergingductwithsupersonic
flow,anearlynormalshockwillforminthenarrowestsection,down
streamofwhichthevelocitywillbesubsonic.Thevelocitycanthen
befurtherreducedinasubsonicdiffuser.Thismethodofdecelerating
asupersonicflowconsiderablyreducesthelossesinthediffuser,as
canbeseen,forexample,inFigure2.71.Intheadjustablediffuser
(Figure2.72)supersonicflowcanbeobtainedthroughoutthetest
186/1563
09/09/2015
69
sectionbywideningthediffuserthroatduringstartupsoastoensurethat
theshocktravelsthefulllengthofthetestsectionandisswallowedbythe
diffuserastheinletMachnumberisgraduallyincreased.Afterstartup.
Normalshock
(theoretical)
FIGURE2.71.TheMachnumberdependence
ofpressuresindiffuserwithfixedcontraction
ratio.Experimentalpointsrefertodivergence
anglesbetweenSand20'atRa=3.0x10.
thethroatareaisreducedsothattheshockisstabilizedatthediffuser
throat;ahighpressurerecoverycoefficientcanbeobtainedinthisway.
Adjust
able
super
sonic
diffuser.
187/1563
09/09/2015
5iicSS;f
FIGURE2.72,Testsectionoftunnelwithadjustablesupersonicdiffuser,M=4.5to8.5;
testsectiondimensionsO.b'Smx0.53m,(CaliforniaInstituteofTechnology).
70
Figure2.73showstheMachnumberdependenceoftheratioofthroatarea
toinletareaofthediffuser,forstartupandforoperationofthetunnel.
1.2
U
O
DA
>
a:
188/1563
09/09/2015
189/1563
09/09/2015
21
190/1563
09/09/2015
FIGUre2.73.Machnumberdependenceof
relativethroatarea,requiredforstartup(1)and
191/1563
09/09/2015
operation(2).
AtM=6,theratioofinlettooutlettotalpressureis100fordiffusers
withoutcontraction,35foradiffuserwithfixedcontractionratio,and15
foranadjustablediffuser.
FIGURE2.74,Variationsofisentropicefficiencywith
Machnumberinadiffuseremployingvariousalternative
meansofflowdeceleration.1diffuserthroatwith
maximumrelativecontractionandsubsequentcomplete
(lossfree)decelerationofsubsonicflow;2experi
mentalresultsfordiffuserwithcontraction;3experi
mentalresultsfordiffuserwithwedge.
71
AtM=3thecorrespondingpressureratiosare5to6,3.5,and2.5.
Thus,adjustablediffusersarepreferableevenatsmallsupersonic
velocities.
However,abettermethodofdeceleratingsupersonicflowinthe
diffuserisbymeansofseveralobliqueshocks.Ithasbeenshownboth
theoreticallyandexperinaentallythatthismethodismoreefficientthan
theuseofasinglenormalshock.Decelerationbyobliqueshocksis
successfullyemployedattheinlettojetengines,inwhichtheflowvelocity
192/1563
09/09/2015
mustbesubsonicalthoughtheflightspeedissupersonic.
Thesameprincipleisusedforsupersonicdiffusersinwindtunnels,
andconsistsoffittingawedgeintoanordinarydiffuser.Figure2.74shows
thevaluesoftheisentropicefficiencyofadiffuserinwhichdeceleration
fromsupersonictosubsonicvelocitieswascarriedoutindifferentways
/14/.Thiswasdonemostefficientlybymeansofobliqueshocks.The
diffuserwedgeisalsosometimesusedasabaseforthemodel,whichin
thiscaseisinstalledonatelescopicsupportconnectedtothewedge.
Reductiongear
Electricmotor
y////////////////y///////y^
zazzzzzzzzzzzizzi'
'./'?'/.'////''r
ltZ^CjTp<j
193/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE2.75.Variationofdiffusergeometry,usingrigidadjustablewaitsections.
Thedesignofasupersonicdiffusercanbefurtherimprovedby
extractingtheboundarylayerthroughthewallsofthediffuser,soasto
preventchokingofthediffuserthroat,withconsequenttransferofthe
shocktothetestsection.Abettereffectisobtainediftheboundarylayer
isextractedthroughthewallsofbothtestsectionanddiffuser.
Boundarylayerextractioninthetestsectionnotonlyassiststhe
developmentofsupersonicflowandreducestheinterferencebetween
modelandtunnel,butitalsoconsiderablyreducestheboundarylayer
thicknessatthediffuserinlet.
Incertainsupersonictunnels(usuallyforintermittentoperation),the
necessarypressuredropisobtainedbyejectorsinstalledimmediately
upstreamanddownstreamofthediffuser.VelocitiesuptoM=10are
72
possibleinsuchtunnelswithoutanyfurtherdevicesinthediffuseriftwo
ejectorsareinstalled.Insuchadiffusershocksform,asarule,behind
thesecondejector,wherethesupersonicvelocityisnotlarge.
Despitemanytheoreticalandexperimentalstudies,thereremainsa
paucityofdesigndataandmethodsondiffusersforhighspeedtunnels;
thepowerconsumptionofsupersonictunnelscouldbereducedbyamore
194/1563
09/09/2015
rationaldesignofdiffusersinwhichthemainoperatinglossesofthetunnel
occur.
Thedesignofasupersonicdiffuserisconsiderablysimplerthanthatof
anadjustablenozzle,sincetheaerodynamicrequirementsfordiffusersare
lesssevere.
Itissimplerinpracticetodesigndiffuserswithadjustablewallsthan
withadjustablewedges,sothatthelatestdesignsofsupersonictunnelsfavor
theprinciplesofdiffuserregulationbyalteringthegeometryofsuccessive
diffusercrosssectionsinthemannerillustratedinFigure2.75.The
positionofthewallsectionsofsuchadiffuserisusuallyadjustedbyremote
control.Electricmotors,installedoutsidethetunnelandremotelycontrolled,
adjustthewallsectionsthroughhingedleadscrews.Thepositionsofthe
wallsectionsandthegeometryoftheadjustablediffuseraredetermined
withtheaidoflimitswitches,whichdeenergisetheelectricm.otorswhen
theprogrammedpositionoftheleadscrews,appropriatetopresetoperating
conditions,hasbeenreached.
Thehermeticsealingofthejointsbetweenthewallsectionsofthe
diffuserandtheverticalwallsofthetunnelisveryimportantwhenthe
supplyofairislimited.Unlessthejointsareproperlysealedleakswill
occur,andhighsettlingchamberpressureswillberequiredtoobtainthe
designedsupersonicvelocitiesinthetestsection.
Airdryingandpreheating
Accelerationofthemoistairenteringawindtunnelcausesareduction
initstenaperatureandpressure,andmayleadtosaturation,
supersaturation,andcondensationofwatervapor.Figure2.76showsthe
Machnumbersatwhichsaturationoccursinthetestsection,plottedasa
functionoftherelativehum.idityatthetunnelinlet/14/.
195/1563
09/09/2015
Condensationdoesnotalwaystakeplaceimmediatelyaftersaturation
occurs,butonlywhenasupersaturatedconditionisreached,generally
correspondingtoastrongadiabaticsupercooling,andtoalargedifference
betweenthedewpointandthetrueairtemperature.Condensationofwater
vaporsoccurssuddenlyasashockaccompaniedbyliberationofthelatent
heatofvaporization.Theconsequentchangeinthebehaviorofthemedium
affectsthetestcharacteristicsofthemodel.
Insupersonictunnels,condensation,whichveryoftentakesplacenear
thenozzlethroat,impairstheflowuniformityandreducesthetestsection
Machnumberincomparisonwiththecalculatedvaluefordryair.In
subsonictunnelscondensationbegins,asarule,inregionsoflargelocal
velocitiesnearthemodelandveryoften,condensationandcompression
shocksareformedtogetheraroundthemodel,changingtheflowpattern.
73
Figure2.77givestheresultsoftestsoftheMachnumberdistribution
alongthehalfsectionofathicksymmetricalairfoilinatunnelat
afreestreamMachnumberof0.72andwitharelativehumidity
r=61%/19/.Theshocksshowninthediagramchangedtheirposition,
andoneofthemdisappeared,whentherelativehumiditydecreased,
demonstratingthepronouncedeffectofcondensationontheaerodynamic
characteristicsoftheairfoil.Theaiminmodernsupersonictunnelsis
thereforetopreventnaoisturecondensationandlimittheabsolutehumidity.
196/1563
09/09/2015
<
'
197/1563
09/09/2015
"?
0'
^11
198/1563
09/09/2015
52
o
'
199/1563
09/09/2015
'^
s.
a.
Nj
200/1563
09/09/2015
t,C^50
QJ
N
s
,3ir
201/1563
09/09/2015
i^/
'<i
202/1563
09/09/2015
s:
203/1563
09/09/2015
nJ
204/1563
09/09/2015
to
itO60
Relativehumidityatinlet,%
80
FIGURE2.76.DependenceofMachnumberatwhichsaturationoccursonrelativehumidity
attunnelinlet,p'isthepartialpressureofwatervapor;pîsthesaturationwatervapor
pressure;/gisthedrybulbtemperatureattheInlet.
therebyreducingthemaximumamountofheatthatcanbeliberatedduring
condensation.Ifthequantityofwatervaporintheairislimitedto
0.5gramsperkilogram*ofvaporairmixture,theeffectsofcondensation
becomenegligiblebelowM=4.
Sincethesaturationvaporpressureincreaseswithtemperature,
condensationcanbepreventedbyheatingtheairsothatitsrelative
humidityisreduced.Althoughthisprocessdoesnotremovemioistiire,
andleavestheabsolutehumidityunchanged,itdoesreducetheeffects
ofcondensation,shoulditstilloccur,byvirtueoftheincreasedheat
contentofair.Increaseofthestagnationtemperatureisparticularly
necessarytopreventcondensationathighMachnumbers(M>4)ofother
205/1563
09/09/2015
gasesintheair.Incontinuousoperationtunnels,however,thestagnation
Currentpracticeistoreducetheinlethumidityevenfurtherdownto0.1gramswatervaporperkilogram
ofairvapormixtureinordertoensureuniformairflowattheoutletofsupersonictunnels.
74
temperaturecanonlybeincreasedtoalimitedextent,sincealthoughthe
increasecanbeachievedveryeasilybyreducingthecooling,nogreat
increaseispermissibleinthetemperaturesofthemodelandinstruments;
inparticular,dangerousoverheatingofthecompressorbearingsmight
occur,sincetheambientairtemperaturereaches200to350Cintheir
vicinity,evenwithoutairheating.Airheatingisthereforeonlyusedin
intermittentoperationtunnels,theairpassingthroughheaters(seebelow)
asitentersthesettlingchamber.
Halfsectionairfoil
10
0.5
206/1563
09/09/2015
207/1563
09/09/2015
208/1563
09/09/2015
209/1563
09/09/2015
rr.
'S
210/1563
09/09/2015
?7n
/50\too
/\X,MM
CondensationCompression
shock
shock
Airlock
bulkheads
211/1563
09/09/2015
>^^^^=^
tilDehumidifierfan
Desiccant
IEIectrl
richeater
l^wwvvv^
212/1563
09/09/2015
Mjpw*)'niii.
FIGUl^2.77.Machnumberdistributionalong
halfsectionofanairfoilinthepresenceofa
condensationshock.
FIGUl^2.78.Windtunneldehumidifier.Thedash
anddotlinesandarrowsshowthecircuitusedfordry
ingthetunnelair,andthebrokenlines,thecircuit
fordesiccantregeneration.
Incontinuousoperationsupersonicclosedcircuittunnels,condensation
ispreventedbyslightlyincreasingthetemperatureoftheair,fromwhich
muchofthemoisturehasbeenremovedbyabsorption.Theinletairis
forcedbythedehumidifierfantopassatlowvelocity*overlayersofa
desiccant,usuallysilicageloralumina(AI2O3).Thedesiccantisafterwards
regeneratedbypassinghotairthroughthedehumidifier(Figure2.78),This
methodofdryingisnecessarilyslow,andtoavoidreprocessingalltheair
inthetunnelaftereachadjustmentorinstrumentcalibrationinthetest
section,thelatterisoftenisolatedbymeansofbulkheads.
Thecompressedairusedinintermittentoperationhighpressure
tunnels,suppliedfromreservoirs,isdriedbothbyabsorptionandby
refrigerationcondensationofthemoisture.Heatexchangers(usuallythe
refrigerantisammonia)areinstalledbetweentheaircompressorsandthe
reservoirstocooltheairtobetween20and25C,sufficienttoremove
themoistui'e.Thisismoreeffectivethandryingwithdesiccants.The
multistagecompressorsusuallyemployedforfillingthereservoirshould
213/1563
09/09/2015
haveinterandaftercoolersfittedwithwaterseparatingcolumnsand
draincockssothatmuchofthemoistureisremovedduringcompressionof
theair.
Theairvelocityinthedryermustnotexceed0.5to1.6m/sec.
75
Dryingtheairinvacuumpoweredintermittentoperationisvery
difficult,sincetheentireairdrawninthroughthetunnelineachtest
mustfirstpassthroughabsorptiontypedryers.Thisisonereasonwhy
suchtunnelshavecomparativelysmalltestsectionswhichrequireonly
smallmassflowratesandhence,smalldryers.Atunnelofthistypewith
atestsectionmeasuring1.8mX1.8mwouldrequireadryerhavinga
surfaceareaofabout1700m^,theweightofdesiccant(aluminagel)being
410,000kg.Withsuchadryerthetunnelcouldbeoperatedthreetimes
perhourfor20sec.Thedimensionsandweightofthedryercanbe
reducedbycollectingtheuseddriedairinaspecialreservoir.How
ever,thecapacityofthelatterwouldnotbemuchlessthanthevolume
ofthevacuumreservoir,amountingtoabout200mpersquarenaeterof
testsectionflowareainatunneloperatingatM=1for1sec,(assuming
thedryairreservoirtobeatatmosphericmeasure).
Itisnolessdifficulttodrytheairintunnelsfortestingjetengines,
wherecleandryairmustbesuppliedtotheengineinverylargequantities.
Thedryersneededarelargeandrathercomplicatedindesign.Thus,
forinstance,thedryinginstallationofacontinuousoperationtunnelfor
testingjetengines(seebelow)is25mhigh,anditsdesiccantchargeof
1200tonscanabsorbupto1500kg/minofmoisture.Theinstallationis
equippedwithheatersandfansforregenerationofthealuminagel.
214/1563
09/09/2015
Tunnelaircoolingsystems
TheairtemperatureInclosedcircuitwindtunnelsrisescontinuously
becauseoftheheatgeneratedbythefan.Theprocesscannotbeallowed
tocontinueindefinitely,becauseitincreasesthedifficultiesinaerodynamic
measurementleadingtothermaldistortionofthemodelandinterference
withthenormaloperationofthemotorandfan.Thisisespecially
importantinhypersonicwindtunnels,wherethecom.pressionratiosare
large,andwherethetemperatureinthelastcom.pressorstagesmayrise
tobetween350and370C.Attestsectionvelocitiesof100to150m/sec
therateofstagnationtemperatureincreaseisaboutlC/min,sothatforced
coolingoftheairisnecessarytopreventdifferencesof3or40Cbetween
thetemperaturesatthebeginningandendofatest.
Asthevelocityincreases,thehigherpowersrequirednecessitate
installationofthedriveoutsidethetunnel.Theaircanbecooledin
liquidfilledheatexchangers,orbythecontinuouswithdrawalofafraction
ofthehotair,anditsreplacementbycoolair.*(Figures2,79and2.12)
Liquidfilledhoneycombortubularcoolersaremostwidelyused,being
installedacrossawholesectionofthereturnduct.Waterismost
commonlyemployedascoolant,thoughlessfrequentlyasalinesolution
isused.Insometunnelsthecoolantcirculatesthroughthecornervanes
orthroughcoolingjacketsliningthetunnelwalls.Thelattermethodis
morecomplicatedandlesseasytooperate.Thetotalamountofheat
tobeextractedbytheheatexchangeriscalculatedfromtheshaftpower
Thismethodisalsousedtoreplacetheaircontaminatedbythecombustionproductsofenginesbeing
testedinspecialtunnels.
215/1563
09/09/2015
76
ofthefanorcompressor,buttheheatcontentofthetunnelshelland
heattransferthroughthewallsshouldbeneglected,becausetheinside
andoutsideofthetunnelareusuallycoatedwithseverallayersofoil
boundornitrocellulosepaint,whichhasnegligibleheatconductivity.
Thus,forinstance,inaspecialtestatatunnelstagnationtemperature
of+60C,andanambientairtemperatureof+10C,theexternal
tenriperatureofthetunnelshellwasfoundtobe+20C.Thetemperature
riseduringanexperimentshouldpreferablynotexceed10to20''C.
155m
FIGURE2.79.AircoolingsystemoftheONERAtunnel(M=0.95,=100,000h.p.).
Aerodynamically,themostsuitableheatexchangersarehoneycomb
radiatorsoftheaircrafttype(inanunaberoftunnelstheseserve
simultaneouslyasflowstraighteninghoneycombs)ortubularradiators.
Theinstallationofradiatorsinvolvesadditionalpressurelosses,which
however,compriseonlyanegligiblefraction(2%to5%)ofthetotallosses.
Inmoderntunnelstheaircoolingsystemisacomplicatedinstallation,
becausealargeflowrateofcoolingwaterisneeded;thus,forinstance,in
theabovementionedARAtransonictunnel(seepage54)whichrequires
25,000kwtooperateatM=1.6inits2.74mX2.44mtestsection,the
radiatorinstallationmeasures9mXllm.andrequires27môfwaterper
minute.Thesystemmaintainstheairtemperaturebelow30C.
216/1563
09/09/2015
Amodernsupersonictunnelforcontinuousoperationnecessarily
incorporatesthefollowingcomponents:adjustableinletnozzle,supersonic
diffuser,cooler,airdryinginstallation,heater*,andvariablespeed
electricmotorsdriving(usually)multistagecompressors.
Figure2.80showsacontinuousoperationsupersonictunnel.
Drivesforcontinuousoperationsupersonictunnels
Theproperchoiceofdrivesforsupersonictunnelsisbasedonthe
aerodynamicdesigncalculationsofthetunnel,whichdeterminethelosses
inthetunnelcircuitandtherequiredratioofthepressuresbeforeand
afterthecompressorinordertoobtainthedesiredrangeofMachnum.bers
inthetestsection.
AheaterisnecessarywhentheMachnumberexceedsabout4or5,
77
8.,S^K=5
9.B
217/1563
09/09/2015
aJ,2W
II
Q.I
as
I<^
218/1563
09/09/2015
<
1)
.K
n)
219/1563
09/09/2015
<u
nl
a
3
(U
Ii
SSiI
220/1563
09/09/2015
52IA
DO'^
Ii
78
Supersonicvelocitiesinaclosedcircuittunnelwithclosedtestsection
demandpressureratiosbeyondthecapabilitiesofnormalfans,andmulti
stagecompressorsarethereforeused.TheAEDCsupersonictunnel(U.S.A.)
isequippedwithfourtandemaxialflowcompressors,threehavingtwo
stages,andthefourthhavingsixstages,toatotalpowerof216,000h.p.
Suchanarrangementofthecompressorsprovidesforflexibilityand
effectiveoperationofthecompressor
plantoverawiderangeofcompression
ratiosandairflowrates,thelatter
changingwithtestsectionMachnumber
from37,000m^/minatM=1.4to
20,000mVminatM=3.5.This
compressorisarathercomplicated
engineeringstructurewitharotor
weighing5000tons.Theratedshaft
endthrustis1100tons,whilethe
temperatureinthefinalcompression
221/1563
09/09/2015
stagesis350to370C.Thecentrifugal
forceonthebladesis800tons.Sucha
machinerequiresspecialstartingand
"brakingsystems.Thistunnelhastwo
asynchronous25,000kvstartingmotors,
whichbringthecompressoruptothe
synchronousspeedofthetwomain
83,000kwmotors,andarethen
switchedout.Aftertherequiredout
putof166,000h.p.,hasbeenreached
thestartingmotorsmaybeswitched
inagaintoincreasethetotalpower
ofthetunnelto216,000h.p.Startup
FIGURE2.81.Multistagecompressorofthesuper,,,,.,
,,,.,,,...u^.ofmotorsandtunnelrequiresabout
sonictunneloftheNASAAmesResearchCenter,^
MoffettField,California.Rotordiameter=6.6m;1minutes.Figure2.81showsthe
delivery=90tons/min;compressionratio=3.5;CompressoroftheNASASupersonic
/I=720rpm;N=216,000h.p.tunnel.
Intermittentoperationsupersonictunnels
Suchtunnelsmaybeoperatedbypressure,vacuum,orbyacombination
ofthetwo.Pressurepoweredtunnelshavehighinletpressuresandexhaust
222/1563
09/09/2015
toatmosphere,whereastheinletpressureofvacuum.poweredtunnelsis
atmosphericandtheexhaustisbelowatmospheric.Incombinationvacuum
pressuretunnels,theinletpressureisabove,andtheoutletbelow,
atmospheric.Intermittentoperationtunnelsdonotrequirecoolers;they
areveryoftenequippedwithejectorsfittedjustdownstreamofthetest
section.Highspeedinstrumentationandcontrolsystemsareessential,and
thisisparticularlytrueoftherapidactionvalve,normallyoperatedfrom
thepressureregulatorinthesettlingchamber.
Pressurepoweredtunnels.Preheatingoftheairsuppliedto
pressurepoweredtunnelsworkingatMachnumbersupto3.5or4is
unnecessaryiftheairisdriedbeforestorageinthereservoir.Reservoir
pressurefortunnelsoperatingatMachnumbersupto4doesnotusually
exceed8to10atm.;intunnelsforhighervelocitiesthereservoirpressure
79
maybeasmuchas100or200atmijalthoughthesettlingchamberpressure
isonly30or40atni.Largewindtunnelsare,asarule,suppliedwithair
throughmanifoldsfrombatteriesofstandardindustrialgascylinders,which
arerechargedbypowerful(upto500m^/min)compressors.Compressors
designedformetallurgicalindustrieslendthem.selveswelltothistypeof
continuousduty;highrpressurecompressorsareneeded,however,forthe
chargingofhighpressurereservoirs.Figure2.82showstheflowsheetof
aconnpressorplantforchargingacylinderstorageunit.Inbothtransonic
andsupersonictunnelsitisveryimportanttomaintainpoandToconstantat
thetunnelinlet(settlingchamber).Currenttypesofpressureregulators,
actingthroughspecialcontrolvalves,permitstabilizationofsettling
chamberpressuretoanaccuracyofabout10mmHg;thisensuresadequate
constancyofReynoldsnumberandminimumexpenditureofairtoestablish
223/1563
09/09/2015
therequiredconditionsinthetestsection.
Rapidactionvalve
ShShutoffvalve
ZThrottlevalve
aNonreturnvalve
FIGURE2.82.Flowsheetofaircompressorplant.
Itisimportanttomaintainthestagnationtemperatureofsmallvolume
highpressurereservoirsconstant;astheairinthetanksisusedupthe
pressuredropmaybeaccompaniedbyarapidloweringofthetemperature
tothepointwheretheairbecomessupercooledandevenliquified.Heat
storagehasrecentlygainedfavorasameanstoovercomethisproblem:
metaltubesofhighthermalcapacityreleasetheirstoredheattotheair
andreduceitscoolingratetoabout0.5''C/sec.Thisisnotnecessarywhen
lowpressurehighvolunaereservoirsareused,sincethetemperature
dropisthennegligible.Thus,whencylindersof5000m.^volumewith
pressuresof8tolOatmareusedforawindtunnelwitha0.3mX0.4m
testsection,thesettlingchambertemperaturefallsattherateofonly
0.1C/sec,sothatexperimentslasting100to150secondscanbeperformed
withoutadditionalairheating.
80
224/1563
09/09/2015
Theoperatingdurationofapressurepoweredtunneldependsonthe
dimensionsofthetestsection,theflowvelocity/andthereserveofair.
Mosttunnelsofthistype,usedformodeltesting,canoperateforperiods
rangingbetween1/2or1minuteand3or4minutes.
Largerpressuredrops,andoftenlongeroperatingdurations,can
beachievedinpressurepoweredtunnelsbyinjectingairatthediffuser
inlet,permittingareductionintheratedsettlingchamberpressure.
Supersonicvacuunapoweredinterm.ittentoperation
tunnels.TheprincipleofthistypeoftunnelsisshowninFigure2.59;
nozzle,testsection,anddiffuseraresimilartothoseinothertypesof
supersonicwindtunnel,andadryerisusuallyinstalledbeforethesettling
chamber.
FIGURE2.83.Vacuumpoweredsupersonicwindtunnel.
Thetestsectionislim.itedinsizebythecomplicationsintroducedby
theairdryerandbytheverylargecapacityrequiredoftheevacuated
reservoir.TheReynoldsnumberrangeisalsorestricted,incontrastto
pressurepoweredtunnelsinwhichtheReynoldsnumberoftheejsperiment
canberaisedbyincreasingthepressure(density)inthe^settlingchamber
andtestsection.Thepressureinthetestsectionofvacuum.powered
tunnelsisnecessarilylow,andtheReynoldsnumbercanthereforeonly
beincreasedbyenlargingthetestsection.Thisisadistinctdisadvantage.
Figure2.83showstheNOL,(U.S.A.)vacuumpoweredtunnelinstallation,
225/1563
09/09/2015
inwhichthreewindtunnelshavingtestsectionsmeasuringupto0.4mX0.4m,
areoperatedatMachnumbersupto6.5fromasinglesphericalevacuated
reservoir.
reservoir.Thevacuumpumpsaredrivenbymotorsof300h.p.totaloutput.
Theprincipleofacombinationvacuumpressuretimnelisillustrated
inFigure2.84.Theflowthroughthe0.28mX0.25mtestsectioniscreated
bycompressedairfroman11m^,50atmreservoir.Aftertraversing
thetestsectionandthesupersonicdiffusertheairiscollectedina340m
reservoiratabout0.01ata,sothatpressureratiosof5000arepossible.
Usingairastheworkingfluid,testsectionvelocitiescorrespondingto
M=7canbeattained,butlargerMachnumbersarepossiblebyusing
gaseshavingsmallervelocitiesofsound;M=11ispossiblewithxenon,
andM=17withkrypton.Theairisheatedto425Cbeforereachingthe
testsectioninwhichitstem.peraturedecreasesto180C.Without
supersonicdiffuserthetunnelcanbeoperatedforupto25seconds;if
asupersonicdiffuserandaradiatorareinstalledattheinletofthe
evacuatedreservoir,theoperatingdurationincreasesto1or1.5minutes.
/~>^
L^
'/
226/1563
09/09/2015
v_>
FIGUEffi2.84.Principleofthecombinationvacuumpressure,intermittent
operationsupersonictunnel.1Highpressurestoragetank;2airheater;
3rapidactionvalve;4testsection;5adjustablesupersonicdiffuser;
6cooler:7evacuatedreservoir.
ToobtainMachnumbersabove15or20bothhightemperaturesand
largepressuredropsarerequired.Thetechnicaldifficultiesofsolving
theseproblems,usingairastheworkingfluid,aresogreatthatthe
operationofconventionalwindtunnelsiscurrentlylimitedtoM=10
or12.
Selectionoftypeofsupersonictunnel
Ifnolimitationsareimposedonthenaaximum.instantaneouspower
availableforoperatingthewindtunnel,continuousoperationisthebest
227/1563
09/09/2015
solution,despiteitsmuchhighercapitalcostincomparisonwith
intermittentoperation.Thetotalpowerrequiredforacontinuous
operationsupersonictunnel(includingthedryers,coolers,etc.)at
M=3.5isnolessthan12,000to15,000h.p.persquaremeteroftest
sectionflowarea.
Continuousoperationtunnelshavingtestsectionflowareaslessthan
0.5to0.6mâreoflimitedusefulnessbecauseofthedifficultiesinaccurate
scalingandthereducedReynoldsnum.bersofthetests.Ifnonaorethan
5000or10,000kwisavailableapressurepoweredintermittentoperation
tunnel,usingcompressedairat6to10atm,ispreferable.Asingle
82
^^"^
228/1563
09/09/2015
<
"
4000kwcompressorcharginga4000to5000m?batteryofcylinders
canprovideonestartupevery2or3hoursforatunnelhavinga0.4to
0.5m^testsectionandoperatingatM=4.
Althoughintermittentoperationtunnelsrequirefarlessinstalledpower
(Figure2.85)thancontinuousoperationtunnels/20/,theircapitalcost
hastendedtoincreaseaslargertestsections
havebecomenecessarytomeetthe
requirementsofevenlargermodelsand
evenlowerReynoldsnumbers,addingto
thecomplexityandsizeoftheinstallation.
Itisbecomingstandardpractice,however,
tocompensatefortheincreasedsizeofthe
229/1563
09/09/2015
testsectionbyreducingtheoperating
durationinsuchtunnelsto30or40seconds
orless,andtousehighspeedautomatictest
equipmenttomeasureforcesandpressures
overaconsiderablerangeofmodelattitudes
duringthebrieftestperiodavailable.The
costadvantageofintermittentoperation
tunnelsisthusmaintained,andevenarapid
changeinmodelattitudedoesnotaffectthe
measurements,sincethetranslationalvelocityofapointontheperiphery
ofthemodelisstillonlyabout1partin10,000ofthefreestreamvelocity.
Usingstraingagetransducersandhighspeedselfbalancingpotentiometer
recorders,forcesandpressurescanbemeasuredwithinfractionsofa
second.
Iftheavailablepowerislessthan1000or1500kwitisbettertobuild
anintermittentoperationpressurepoweredtunnelwithhighpressurere
servoirs.Atunnelwitha0.4to0.5vc?testsectionforM=4requiresthree
orfour250kwhighpressurecompressorsdischargingintoa200to250m^
batteryof200atmgascylinders.
IftheavailablepowerisonlylOOkworless,avacuumipoweredtunnelis
moresuitable,theonlydifficultiesbeingtheconstructionofthespherical
vacuumtankandofthedryer.
Notablecostadvantagesoveracontinuousoperationtunnelarepossible
whenagroupofintermittentoperationtunnelscanbeservedbyacentral
compressorplant,especiallysinceitisfairlyeasytomodernizeexisting
tunnelsiftheircompressorplantsneednotbeenlarged.
230/1563
09/09/2015
rt5
M
FIGURE2.85.Powerrequirementsofcon
tinuousandintermittentoperationtun
nelsatequalReynoldsnumbers.1ratio
ofinstalledpowersofcontinuousoperation
andvacuumpoweredtunnels;2ratioof
installedpowersofcontinuousoperation
andpressurepoweredtunnels.
Lowdensitywindtunnels
Windtunnelsforlargeflowvelocitiesandlowgasdensitiesare
increasinglybeingusedforinvestigationsofhighspeedrarifiedgas
flow.Problemsoftheforcesactingonhighspeedrocketsatlarge
altitudes,andoftheheatexchangebetweenthemandthesurrounding
medium,areparticularlyimportant.Lowdensitywindtunnelshave
specificfeatures,andinvolvetestmethodswhichtakeaccountoftheflow
propertiesofrarifiedgasesatpressuresoftheorderofafewmmHg
(absolute)orless.Consequentuponareductioninpressureorincrease
83
inaltitude,themimberofmoleculesperunitvolumeofagasdecreases
231/1563
09/09/2015
andthedistancenaeanfreepaththeaveragedistancetravelledbyan
individualmoleculebeforecollidingwithanotherincreases.Forinstance,
ataheightof120km,themeanfreepathisabout0.3m;forbodieswhose
Withoutbo
Withbound
\
lind
ary
arylayerextraction
layerextraction
232/1563
09/09/2015
233/1563
09/09/2015
&
^^t2
oc
>a
234/1563
09/09/2015
>
235/1563
09/09/2015
'
236/1563
09/09/2015
r'
237/1563
09/09/2015
fj^
238/1563
09/09/2015
'
239/1563
09/09/2015
240/1563
09/09/2015
2032152AWI.650.550.8W1.8152.'/203.2
Radialdistancefromflowaxis,(mm)
FIGURE2.86.Nozzleexitvelocitydistributionofa
lowdensityhighspeedtunnel.
dimensionsarecomparabletothis,theatmospherecannotbeconsidered
asacontinuousmediunn..
Rarifiedgasescanbeinvestigatedundernaturalconditionsintheupper
layersoftheatmosphereandinspecialinstallations,suchas"altitude"
chambers,intowhichamodelisprojected.However,supersonicwind
tunnelsadaptedforlowpressureoperationprovidemuchbetterexperimental
conditions/21/.
Therearetwomaindifficultiesindesigninglowdensitytunnels,
241/1563
09/09/2015
namely,achievingtherequiredlowpressureandasufficientlyuniform
velocitydistributioninthetestsectionofthetunnel.Anoildiffusionpump
andabackingpumparenecessarytoobtaintherequiredhighvacuum
(10"*to10'^mmHg).Althoughtheboundarylayercanbeextractedto
obviateanonuniformvelocitydistributioninthetestsection,itisnot
goodpracticetoattempttoevacuatethetunnelthroughporouswalls;itis
farbettertouseatunnelwhoselargedimensionsmakeallowanceforthe
thickeningoftheboundarylayer,therequiredrangeofuniformvelocities
beingobtainedinthecentralflowcore.
Figure2.86showsthenozzleexitvelocitydistributionsinanaxi
symmetricalwindtunnel(HyamsLaboratory,(NASA)U.S.A.)operatedat
astaticpressureof115mHgwithandwithoutboundarylayerextraction.
Thenozzleexitdiameterofthistunnelis50.8mm[2inches].
Figure2.87showsthistunnelschematically.Thegasissuppliedto
thereceiverofthetunnelfromcylindersviaathrottlevalve.Fromthe
receiverthegasflowsintoanozzletowhichthe(Eiffeltype)testsection
isconnected.Beyondthisisaplenumtank,continuouslyevacuatedby
fouroildiffusionpumpsconnectedinparallelanddischargingtobacking
pumpsexhaustingtoatmosphere.Thegasinletrateintothesystemcan
84
beadjustedtoobtaintherequiredpressureandMachnumber;Mach
numbersupto2.75canbeobtainedbyusinginterchangeablenozzles.The
totalpressureinthereceiverandthestaticpressureinthetestsectionare
measuredbyMcLeodgages.
242/1563
09/09/2015
ackingpumps
Nozzlewith
porouswalls
Working
medium
FIGURE2.87.Supersoniclowdensitytunnel.
Boundarylayergrowthatlowpressurescausesaconsiderablereduction
inMachnumberincomparisonwiththeMachnumbersobtainedforgiven
pressureratiosathigherpressures.Itisthereforenecessarytocontrol
ineachtestboththepressureratioandthemagnitudesofthepressures
themselves.Thehigherthestaticpressureinhelium.andnitrogenfilled
windtunnels,theclosertheMachnurnberapproachesitscalculatedvalve.
Thedistributionofstaticandtotalpressuresacrossatestsectionis
showninFigure2.88.Lowdensitytunnelsareequippedwithspecial
microbalancesfordeterminingdrag.
Lowdensitywindtunnelsdemandspecialcareinthechoiceofthe
equipmentformeasuringthegasparametersandforvisualizingtheflow.
McLeod,Pirani,andothertypesofvacuumgagesareusedformeasuring
thepressure.TheflowpatternatpressuresbelowafewmmHgcannot
bestudiedwithstandardopticaltechniques,usingToplerinstruments
orinterferometers.Instead,theflowpatternisvisualizedandthepositions
ofshocksestablishedbyusingeithertheafterglowofnitrogenwhichhas
beenionizedbypassagethroughagridconnectedtoana.c.supply,orwith
243/1563
09/09/2015
theaidofamonochromator.Thelatterisusedinconjunctionwitha
sourceofultravioletradiation(forinstanceaXenonpulselamp)andspecial
photographicplates*.
Theabsorptionofultravioletradiationbyoxygenisafunctionofthedensityoftheoxygen.Theintensity
ofradiationtransmittedthrougharegionoflowdensitywillbehigherthanthatofradiationtransmitted
througharegionofhighdensity,andtheflowpatterncanbejudgedfromtheshadowsthusformed.
85
Thedesign,construction,andoperationoflowdensitywindtunnels
demandspecialtechniques,andmanyunusualfeaturesareinvolvedin
boththeirconstructionandtheirinstrumentation.Thehighvacuumtechnology
700'
BOO
500
\30D
244/1563
09/09/2015
100
wo
"^
^'
245/1563
09/09/2015
^/
*"^
5.0810.1515.2J/mz85.'i
Radialdistancefromcenterlineoftestsection,mm
FIGURE2.88.Variationintotalandstatic
pressureacrossanitrogenfilledtestsection.
1totalpressure;2staticpressure.
andexactphysicalm.easurementsareverydem.anding,bothatsuchtunnels
arecomparativelyfewinnumber,andexperimentaltechniquesarestillin
processofdevelopm.ent.
246/1563
09/09/2015
7.HYPERSONICWINDTUNNELS
Inthesupersonicwindtunnelsdescribedintheprecedingsections,velocities
uptoM=4or4.5couldbeobtained.Thisrangeofvelocitiesissufficient
fortestsofsupersonicaircraftandballisticmissiles.However,therapid
expansionofrockettechnologyinrecentyearshasmadeitnecessaryto
studyphenomenaofflightthroughtheearth'satmosphereatvelocities
greaterthanlOkm/sec,i.e.,20orm.oretimesthevelocityofsound.
Entirelynewphysicalphenomenaarisewhenvehiclesmoveatsuch
hypersonicvelocitiesthroughagas,causedbytheriseintemperature
ofthegaslayerclosetothesurfaceofthevehicle.Forinstance,ata
flightvelocityof6km^/secinthestratospherethecompressionofthegas
intheshockprecedingthenoseofthevehicle,andfrictionintheboundary
layer,causeatemperatureriseoftheorderof10,000K.Attemperatures
above1500to2000K,thedissociationofthegasescomposingtheairand
theexcitationofmolecularvibrationsincreasinglychangethephysicaland
chemicalcharacteristicsoftheair.
86
Aftertheonsetofgasdissociationtheaircannolongerbeconsidered
asaperfectgas,forwhichtheequationofstatepv=RTholdstrueandthe
ratiojcofthespecificheatsisconstant.Typicalchangesintheproperties
ofairareshowninFigure2.89,wheretheratiopvjRT(whichcanbe
consideredasthedegreeofdissociation)isshownasafunctionofvelocity
fortheconditionsbehindnormalandobliqueshocksatsealevelandat
75kmaltitude.Thevalueofxatavelocityof7km/secandataltitudesof
247/1563
09/09/2015
30to60kmdecreases/22/from1.4to1.13.
Obliqueshock
6.0
K,km/sec
FIGURE2.89.Changeofairpropertiesbehindnormaland
obliqueshocksatanaltitudeof75kmandatsealevel.
Ionizationofthecomponentsoftheatmospherebecom.esincreasingly
pronouncedattemperaturesabove2000to3000K,correspondingtoflight
velocitiesabove6km./sec,andlargenumbersofpositivelyandnegatively
chargedparticlesappear.Newgasspecies,suchasNO,arealsoformed
bychemicalreactions.
Thepresenceofionizedparticlesmakesthegasconductive,sothatat
speedsclosetothegravitationalescapevelocity,electromagneticforces
mightbecomeconsiderableatleastintheboundarylayer.Theinteraction
oftheflowoftheconductingnaediumwithamagneticfield,whichisthe
subjectofanewbranchofhydrodynamicsmagnetohydrodynamics
affectstheforcesactingduringflight,andinfluencestheheattransferin
theboundarylayer.Thedegreeofdissociationand,therefore,the
temperatureofairatvelocitiesabove2.5to3km/sec,dependsonthe
pressure:thelowerthepressure,thehigherthedegreeofdissociation,
andthehigherthedivergencefromperfectgasconditions.Figure2.90
showsthestagnationtemperatureasafunctionofflightvelocityofabody,
calculatedfordifferentconditionsofcompression/26/.Forisentropic
248/1563
09/09/2015
compressionatconstantratioofspecificheats,thevariationoftemperature
withvelocityisshownincurve1,whichisplottedfromtheequation
7"o=
87
10000
6000
mo
2000
~"7;'
249/1563
09/09/2015
Hh<
Ji^^
p'^r
2i
a)Height30.5km
6
V.km/sec
Atvelocitiesgreaterthan1500m/secthecurveforisentropiccompression
oftherealgasdivergesconsiderablyfromthecurvefory,=\A(curve2).
Curve3illustratesthetemperature
increaseacrossthenoseshockinfront
ofathermallyinsulatedbodyfromwhich
thereisnoradiation.Com.pressioninthe
noseshockisfollowedbyisentropic
compressionatthestagnationpointofthe
250/1563
09/09/2015
body.Becauseoftheshock,thetotal
pressureislessthanwithisentropic
compression,whilethedegreeof
dissociationishigherandthetemperature
isloweratagivenheatcontentofthegas.
Curve4showsthetemperatureonthe
surfaceofaflatplatehavingaperfectly
sharpleadingedgewhenthereisnoheat
exchangeandthecoefficientoftemperature
recoveryisunity.Inthiscasethepressure
atthesurfaceoftheplateequalsthe
surroundingpressureandthetemperature
ismuchlower[thanwithisentropic
conapression].Weseethatwhendis
sociationoccursthestagnationtemperature
dependsstronglyonthepressure,andthus
onthealtitude.Thefirstinflexionpointof
curve4,correspondingtoavelocityof
about3km/sec,istheresultofthe
dissociationofoxygen,whichisconapleted
beforethenextinflexionpoint(4.5to
6km/sec),whichiscausedbythe
dissociationofnitrogen.
Theseconsiderationsareimportant
inthedesignofwindtunnels.Toprovide
thenecessaryconditionsinthetestsection
thegasm.ustexpandisentropicallyfrom
restinthesettlingcham.bertofullflow
inthetestsection.Thus,forinstance,
ifthedensityandtemperatureinthetest
sectionaretocorrespondtoflightat
4.5km/secataltitudesof30and60km.,
thestagnationtemperatureshouldbe
251/1563
09/09/2015
about7500and6500K.andthetotal
mo
1/
N.
252/1563
09/09/2015
1/^
'/<
b)Height61km
6
V,km/sec
FIGURE2.90.Variationofstagnation
253/1563
09/09/2015
temperaturewithconditionsofcompres
sionataltitudesof30.6kmand61km.
1isemtoîccompressionofair*=1.4;
2isentropiccompressionofrealgas;
3temperatureatstagnationpointofa
bluntnosebody;4temperatureon
thesurfaceofaplate.
pressures10*and10âtmrespectively.
Thechangesinthepropertiesofthe
gasmakeitdifficulttosimulatetheflowaroundbodiesathypersonic
velocities.InaerodynamicsofsteadyflowatvelocitiesaboveM=7or8,
sim.ilarityisachievedbyreproducingtheReynoldsandMachnumbers,
correspondingtonaturalconditions(similiarityforxismaintained
automaticallyifthetestsaremadeinair).Inhypersonictestsnew
similaritycriteriahavetobeintroducedbecausetheratioofspecific
heatsandotherpropertiesoftheairchangeathightemperatures.
Inadditiontomeasuringforcesandpressuredistributions,itbecomes
necessarytostudytheheatexchangebetweenthemediumandthebody,
sothattherelevantprocessinthemodelm.ustbeexactlysimilartothe
naturalphenomena.Specialinstallationsandexperimentaltechniques
areusedfortheinvestigationofheatexchangeintheboundarylayer.
Inmanycasesreliableresultscanbeachievedbytestingatthenatural
254/1563
09/09/2015
valuesofstagnationtemperatureandtotalpressure,whilecarefully
maintainingthethermodynamicequilibrium.
However,itisinpracticeimpossibletoachievefullsimilarityofall
theconditionsinthelaboratory,sothatintheinstallationsdescribedbelow
fullsimilarityconditionsareobservedonlyforthephenomenamoststrongly
affectingtheparametersofimmediateinterest,theinfluenceofeach
separatepararaeterbeingstudiedinturn.Thus,heattransferdepends
stronglyontheflowregimeintheboundarylayer,whosetransitionfrom
laminartoturbulentflowdependsontheReynoldsnumber;hence,inheat
transferstudiesathypersonicvelocitiesawiderangeofReynolds
numbersmustbeobtainable.Thisispossibleinwindtunnels,where
hypersonicvelocitiesareachievedbyisentropicexpansionofthegas
inaLavalnozzle,atcomparativelysmallMachnumberschangesby
adjustmentofthenozzledivergence(ortheareaofthetunnel).Thus,
foratestsectionvelocityof4.5km/sec(correspondingtoM~15atan
altitudeof60km)a32foldincreaseofthedivergenceangleofthenozzle
willincreasethe60kmaltitudeReynoldsnumberbyafactorof10;
theMachnumberwillbereducedonlytoabout1/2ofitspreviousvalue,
whilethechangeinflowvelocityisonly4%becausethetotalheatcontent
oftheairisverylargeincomparisonwithitsstaticheatcontent.
Newtypesofwindtunnelshavebeendevelopedduringthepasttenyears
forhightemperaturehypersonictests.Theseinclude:
1)hypersonicwindtunnelswithairheaters;
2)installationswithadiabaticcompression;
3)shocktubesofvarioustypes;
4)electricplasmawindtunnels;
5)installationsforfreeflightofthemodel(ballisticranges).
255/1563
09/09/2015
Ofthesedevicesonlytheinstallationsofthefirsttypearecapableof
providingsteadyflowlastingsecondsorminutes.Alltheothersenable
hightemperaturehighspeedflowtobeobtainedonlyforperiodsofmicro
ormilliseconds.
Windtunnelswithairheaters
ItisimpossibletoobtainMachnumbersgreaterthan4or4.5instandard
supersonicwindtunnelsatnormalstagnationtemperaturessincecooling
oftheairduringexpansioncausesliquefactionatthenozzleoutlet.The
Machnumbercanonlybefurtherincreasedbyusingagas,suchashelium,
whichhasalowerboilingpointthanair,orbyheatingtheairbeforeit
reachesthenozzleoutlet.Theminimumstagnationtemperaturesto
preventcondensationofairareshowninFigure2.91.
89
3000
mo
woo
256/1563
09/09/2015
II
IS
Machnumbersof20or30canbeobtainedinheliumfilledwindtunnels
withoutexternalgasheating.WhereassimilarityasregardsMachand
Reynoldsnumberscanbeachievedinhelium
filledtunnels,thefactthatheliumisa
monatomicgasprecludesitsuseinthestudy
ofphenomenaassociatedwiththeproperties
ofairathightemperatures.Afurtherdraw
backofheliumfilledtunnelsistheneedfor
perfectlypurehelium,sincethelargeamount
oflatentheat,releasedduringcondensationof
impurities,considerablyimpairstheflow
uniformity.
Machnumbersgreaterthan4.5canbe
obtainedinintermittentoperationpressure
poweredtunnelsfittedwithheatersupstream
ofthesettlingchamber.Bythesemeans,
257/1563
09/09/2015
MachnumbersuptoM=10canbeobtained.
ItisdifficulttoobtainMachnumbersabove
5or5.5incontinuousoperationtunnels,
sincethehighstagnationtemperatures
greatlyimpairtheoperatingconditions
andreducethemechanicalstrengthofthecomponents,especiallyofthe
compressor.AnexampleofsuchatunnelisthehypersonictunneloftheRAE.
Ithasa1.2mXl,2mtestsectionoperatedatvelocitiesuptoM=5and
stagnationtemperaturesupto130C,using88,000h.p.compressors.
Thetotalpressureinthetestsectionofpressurepoweredwindtunnels
mustbekeptveryhigh(upto350atm)lesttheReynoldsnumberbecome
toolow.Theaircanbeheatedby:
1)combustionoffuel
2)useofstorageheaters
3)useofcontinuouslyoperatingelectricheaters
4)useofelectricplasmaheaters.
Fuelcombustioncanbeeasilyarrangedbyinstallingajetengineatthe
settlingchamberinletofacontinuousoperationtunneltoprovide
simultaneouslyheatandmechanicalenergy.Thedrawbackofthis
arrangementisthatthejetenginecombustionproductshavephysical
propertiesquitedifferentfromthoseofair.
FIGURE2.91.Stagnationtempera
turerequiredtopreventcondensa
tionofairinawindtunnel.
258/1563
09/09/2015
TABLE1
ThOz
3240
Zr02+5%CaO
2550
MgO
2880
AljOj
Meltingpoint,'K
2200
Maximumpermissibletemperature
259/1563
09/09/2015
instillair,'K
2700
2500
2400
1400
Density,g/cm'
9.7
6.4
3.65
4.0
260/1563
09/09/2015
Specificheatat1300.K,
Kcal/kg'Ki....
0.04
0.09
0.17
0.16
Thermalstorageunitsinhotairtunnelsaremadefromspecial
refractorymaterialsheatedbycombustionofafuelorbymeansof
electricresistanceheaters.Hydrocarbonfuelscanbeusedtoprovide
tem.peraturesupto2400K,or,ifburnedinpureoxygen,upto3000K.
261/1563
09/09/2015
1680
90
Whentherefractoryhasreacheditsmaximumperm.issibletemperature
(thevaluesofwhichforvariousrefractorymaterialsareshowninTable1)
airisledfromcylindersthroughthethernaalstorageunitintothesettling
chamber,whenceitflowsthroughthenozzleandtestsectionofthetunnel
intheusualway.Thetemperature7"o,attainedbytheairafterithas
absorbedheatfromthethermalstorageunit,dependsonthetemperature,
dimensions,andheattransfercoefficientoftheunit.
Asectionthroughthethermalstorageairheater,usedinawindtunnel
attheBrooklynPolytechnicInstitute(U.S.A.),isshowninFigure2.92.The
airpassesthrougha600mmdiametertubemadeofrefractory
materialandchargedtoadepth
of1.8ra.with9.5mmdiameter
zirconiaballs.Thetubeissurrounded
byapressurechamberwhichispre
heatedbypassinganelectriccurrent
throughheatingrodscontainingsilicon
carbide.Thisstorageheaterwillheat
4.4kg/secofairat40atm,toISOO^K.
Itismorecommontoheattheair
enteringthesettlingchannberbypassing
itoverelectricresistanceheaters
switchedinthroughouttheoperating
262/1563
09/09/2015
periodofthetunnel.Metallicor
graphiteresistorsareinstalledforthis
purposeinatubeupstream,ofthe
settlingchamber,sothattheairmust
passovertheirheatedsurfaces.Much
troublehasbeenexperiencedwithmetal
failureandinsulatorbreakdownatthese
highoperatingtemperaturesand
pressures,andlowvoltagesystemsare
nowfavored.Table2showsthe
characteristicsoftheairheatersused
inseveralU.S.windtunnels;itisseen
thattheperformanceoflowvoltage
systemsissuperiorintermsofheat
flowrateperunitsurfaceareaandvolume
ofheatingelement.Graphite,whose
meltingpointisabove4000KatlOOatm,
isthebestmaterialfortheheating
elements,butspecialcoatingsmustbeusedtopreventrapidoxidationand
crumblingofitssurface.Figure2.94shows,asanexampleofahypersonic
heatedwindtunnel,theAEDCtunnelintheU.S.A.Ithasatestsection
dianneterof1270mm,inwhichvelocitiescorrespondingtoM=7canbe
reachedatstagnationtem^peraturesof600Kandtotalpressuresof30atm.
Themostvulnerablepartofahightemperaturewindtunnelisthenozzle
inlet,whichundergoeslargestressesathightemperatures.Heattransfer
from,thenozzlewallscanbeimprovedbymakingthemthinandbycooling
themexternallywithhighspeedairorwater;nevertheless,thethroattends
toburnoutveryquickly,andisusuallymadeofexchangeableinserts.
FIGURE2.92.Thermalstorageairheater.
263/1563
09/09/2015
1airinlet;2refractoryballs;3
operatingmechanism;4valvetostart
windtunnel;5nozzle;6ceramictube;
1thermalinsulation;8thermocouple;
9highpressurechamber;10heating
elements.
91
H
c
O
c
(N
264/1563
09/09/2015
CO
"a)
lU
CI
265/1563
09/09/2015
o
o
CO
<D
M
rt
CO
266/1563
09/09/2015
>
lO
267/1563
09/09/2015
lO
lo'
CN
iJ
C4
268/1563
09/09/2015
to
269/1563
09/09/2015
lO
CO
CM
270/1563
09/09/2015
>^
"ta
T5*
271/1563
09/09/2015
lo
Jo
(N
"ttt
CjD
2>
272/1563
09/09/2015
>N
273/1563
09/09/2015
t^J
CO
CN
0)
274/1563
09/09/2015
DO
275/1563
09/09/2015
X3
bO
276/1563
09/09/2015
S
o
277/1563
09/09/2015
CO
x:
lO
CJ
278/1563
09/09/2015
(U
_aj
0)
~.
279/1563
09/09/2015
QJ
o]
>
<U
0)
280/1563
09/09/2015
!U
:c:
DO
281/1563
09/09/2015
>>
o
>
.2
_>>
282/1563
09/09/2015
Ci.
"S
QJ
CL
nj
283/1563
09/09/2015
^Ml
ss>
=aE
02HX
Eoc
Î
92
284/1563
09/09/2015
Manydifficultiesareexperiencedintheconstructionofthermalstorage
unitsandelectricheatersratedforoperatingtemperaturesintheregion
of1000Katpowersofhundredsofmegawatts.Figure2.91showsthat
Enlargedcross
sectionAA
ofgraphitetod
FIGURE2.93.Electricheaterwithgraphiteresistorelement.
1insulators;2busbars;3graphiieheatingelement;4
irisulation;5nozzle;6thermocouples:7radiation
pyrometerfittings,
thistemperatureisonlysufficienttopreventliquefactionofairatvelocities
uptoM=10;simulationofthefarlargervelocitiesofspacecraftreentering
theearth'satmosphererequiresmuchhighertemperaturesoftheorderof
4000to8000K.
Modernengineeringhassolvedtheseproblemsbytheuseinwind
tunnelsofelectricarcheaters(plasmagenerators),andbyshocktubes.
Theelectricarc(plasm.a)windtunnelistheonlytypeinwhichhigh
temperaturehypersonicflowcanberealisedforextendedperiods.The
plasmagenerator(Figure2.95)consistsofacylindricalchamberalong
whoseaxisacylindricalcathodeeithersolidorhollow,andatubularor
conicalanodeforminganozzle,areinstalled.
285/1563
09/09/2015
Theworkingmedium,generallyair,isledintothechambertangentially
throughopeningsinthewalls.Anarcformsbetweentheelectrodeswhen
ahighpotentialdifferenceisappliedacrossthem,andthisisstabilizedby
theturbulentflowofthegas,electrodeerosionbeingabatedbyrotationof
thearcabouttheelectrodes.Thedischargeismaintainedbythermal
ionizationinthedischargeductandbyemissionfromtheelectrodes.The
ionizedgasinthedischargeductiscalledplasma.Thegasstreamcools
theoutsideoftheplasmajet,sothatthereislessionizationandreduced
conductivityatitssurface.Theelectriccurrentbecomesconcentratedin
thecentralhotregionoftheplasma,increasingitstemperatureand
conductivity,and,atthesametimeitspressure.Undertheinfluenceof
theelectronaagneticforceandofthispressuretheplasmaIsejectedfrom
thenozzleasajet.
93
94
Amoreuniformflowisobtainedifthejetisledinitiallyintoasettling
chamberwhereflowfluctuationsaredampedout.Thegasthenpasses
intoasecondnozzle.(P'igure2.96),inwhichitexpandsandisaccelerated
toahighspeed.
286/1563
09/09/2015
Gas
Water^
*1
Ârc
Waterf
,J
Gas
287/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE2.95.Principleoftheelectricarcheater
(plasmauon).aviiihgiaphueelecuodes,bviith
metalelectrodes.
Themodelundertestisplacedinthefreejetorinthetestsectionat
theendofthenozzle.Theshockinfrontofthemodelreionizesthegas,
whichhadcooledduringtheexpansioninthenozzle,transformingitagain
intoaplasmaandreheatingitapproximatelytoitsformertemperature.
GasCooling
I1water
IIII
Vacuumchamber
hanger
umpump
*{Cooling
288/1563
09/09/2015
water
FIGURE2.96.Windtunnelwithelectricarcheater.
95
Thegasissometimesacceleratedinthetestsectionbyevacuatingthe
latter,thegasbeingcooledinaheatexchangerbeforepassingtothe
vacuumpump.
Temperaturesof6000to10,000Kcanbeobtainedwithplasm.a
generators,themainoperationaldifficultiesbeingrapidnozzleerosionand
burningawayoftheelectrodes,whichlimitstheperiodforwhichthe
installationcanbecontinuouslyoperatedandcontaminatesthejetwith
combustionproducts.Thecontaminantsthemselvesmayabradeorcorrode
them.odel.
Theelectrodesaremadeofgraphite,copper,steel,ortungsten.
Graphitecanwithstandveryhightemperaturesforbriefperiods.However,
atveryhighpowers,particlestendtobecomedetachedfromthegraphite
mass,contaminatingtheplasma.Theflowvelocitycanbeincreasedby
reducingthecrosssectionofthenozzlethroat;however,thesmallerthe
throat,themoreisitsubjecttoerosionandtoblockagebyelectrode
fragments.
Contaminationislessseriousifmetalelectrodesareemployed.Thus,a
12.7mm.graphitecathoderodandahollowthinwalledwatercooledanode
areusedintheAVCOtunnel/23/.Thewallsofthesecondnozzleandthe
chamberaresimilarlywatercooled.TheAVCOtunnelhasaninstalled
powerof130kw.Thethroatdiametersofthefirstandsecondnozzlesare
289/1563
09/09/2015
15.2and7,6mmrespectively.Thecham.berissphericalwithadiameter
of76.2ncun.Thediameterofthetestsectionis152.4mm.Thenoseofthe
modelis6.5mm.upstreamofthenozzleoutlet.
Plasmatunnelsarechieflyusedforthestudyofheatexchangeproblems
ofbluntaxisymmetricalbodies,andfortheinvestigationofsurfacefusion
andmassremovalfrombodiesinhypersonicflight.Studiesofm.ass
removalfrombodiesreenteringtheearth'satmospherecanonlybecarried
outinplasmatunnelsbecauseshocktubetunnelscanbeoperatedonlyfor
briefperiods.
Freestreamvelocitiesupto3600m/seccanbeattainedinplasma
tunnelswithLavalnozzles;themaximumvelocityislimitedchieflyby
erosionofthenozzlethroat.Althoughthearciscomparativelysmall,its
powerm.aybemanythousandsofkw.Thespecificpowerinthenozzle
throatmaybeoftheorderoftensofkilowattspersquaremillimeter,which
ismanytimesthespecificpoweroftheheatflowofaliquidfueljetengine.
Ionizedgas
FIGURE2.97.Amagnetohydrodynamicplasma
accelerator.
96
290/1563
09/09/2015
Itisproposedtoincreasetheflowvelocityinplasmatunnelsstill
further,uptobetween5000and9000m/sec,byacceleratingtheplasma,
asshowninFigure2.97,throughtheinteractionofacurrentpassing
throughitandanappliedmagneticfield.
AvoltageEisappliedbetweenthetwoelectrodesformingopposite
wallsofarectangularduct,sothatacurrentIflowsthroughtheplasma
inthedirectionshownbyanarrowinFigure2.97.Amagneticfieldof
strengthHisappliedinadirectionperpendicularbothtothedirection
ofplasmaflowandtothatoftheelectriccurrent,sothataforce
(Lorentzforce),proportionaltoHandto/actsontheplasm.a,accelerating
italongthetunnelaxisfromtheinitialvelocity1/toavelocityK+AK.
Thenozzlethroatofahypersonictunnelisthemosthighlystressedpart
andismostdifficulttomake.Atfreestreamvelocitiescorrespondingto
iVl=3to5,thesimpleststructuralsolutionisaplaneparallelnozzle.
WhenMexceeds10,however,eveninalargewindtunnel,thethroat
heightofaplanenozzleisonlytenthsorhundredthsofamillimeter,being
severalthousandtimessmallerthanthenozzlewidth.Insuchanarrow
nozzleheattransferfromthegastothewallsisveryhigh,anditbecomes
difficulttomaintaintheheightuniformoverthefullnozzlewidthbecauseof
thehighthermalstresses.
Axisymmetricnozzlesareoftheoptimumshapefromtheviewpointof
heattransferanddimensionalstability,andcanbeefficientlywatercooled.
Theaxisymmetricnozzlescanbeformedbyturning,precisioncasting,or
electroformingindiespreviouslymachinedtotherequirednozzleprofile.
Shocktubes
Theshocktubewasthefirstapparatusinwhichresearchdemanding
simultaneouslyhightemperaturesandhighflowvelocitiescouldbecarried
291/1563
09/09/2015
out.Thesimplestformofshocktube(Figure2.98)isalongcylindrical
tubeclosedatbothendsandseparatedintotwounequalparts(chambers)bya
[frangible]diaphragm.Thesmallerlefthandchamberisfilledwithhigh
pressuregas"propellant",whiletherighthandchamberisfilledwiththe
workinggasatlowpressure.Intheequationsbelowinitialstatesofthe
propellantandworkinggasesareindicatedbythesubsripts4and1
respectively.Thediaphragmisruptured,sothatthepropellantgas
expandstostate3(Figure2.98b),Ararefactionwaveisformedinthe
highpressurechamber,andacompressionshockmovesintothelow
pressurechamberatapropagationvelocityu,[inrelationtothetubeat
rest].
Astheshockmovesthroughthetube,theworkinggasbehinditis
compressed,heated,andforcedtoflowinthedirectionoftheshockwave.
Iftheshockpropagationvelocityinthetubeisconstant,aregionofsteady
hightemperatureflowformsbehindtheshock(stage2).Underthese
conditions,theflowaroundmodelsinstalledintherighthandpartofthe
tube,nonsteadyaerodynamicprocesses,thekineticsofchemicalreactions,
etc.canbestudied.Thecolumnoftheworkinggasmovingataconstant
velocityI'lisdelimitedbythesocalledcontactdiscontinuity,which
separatestheregionsatstates2and3,anddefinesthepropellantgasfront.
97
Thepropagationvelocity//,oftheshockwaveishigherthantheparticle
velocityV2ofthegas,whichequalsthevelocitywithwhichthecontact
discontinuitymovesalongthetube.ThedurationA/ofsteadyflowpastpointyl
ofthetubewherethetestmodelisinstalledcanbecalculatedapproxim.ately
fromthedifferencebetweenthesevelocities;M=l{llVi~1/u,),where/
isthedistancefromthediaphragmtopointA(Figure2,98c),
292/1563
09/09/2015
Model
Zoneof
steadyflow
Distance\>
Durationofsteady
flowpastmodel
FIGURE2,98,Principleoftheshocktube.
GiventheMachnumberMi=Us/cioftheshockitispossibletodetermine
theparametersofthemovinggas.Here,aisthevelocityofsoundin
theundisturbedworkinggasinfrontoftheshockMi.Assumingthe
propellantandworkingfluidstobeperfectgaseswithconstantspecific
heats,andneglectingtheinfluenceofviscosityandturbulenceonthe
contactdiscontinuity.Miisgivenby/24/:
P,2x,M?
293/1563
09/09/2015
^,1
r1
P.I'î+l
'1+1J
^'y,+\a,[^'M,)
(2,1)
Foraninfinitelyhighratioofpropellantpressuretoworkinggaspressure
wehave
'X,1o,
(2,2)
294/1563
09/09/2015
KnowingMiwecanfindtheflowvelocityandMachnumberbehindthe
shock:
Er='^==idn(M'~srr)s7
(2.3)
98
Thepressureratioacrosstheshockis
whiletheratioofthetemperatureintheregionofsteadyflowtothe
temperatureofthepropellantgasis:
t:~k;l"^^:^^]1X7'^'
wherenisthemolecularweightofthegas.From.(2.5)wecansee,that
atagivenpropellantgastemperature,thetemperatureoftheworkinggas
canbeincreasedbyusingaheavyworkinggasandalighterpropellantgas.
Theforceoftheshockandthetemperatureofthemovinggascanbe
raisedfurtherbyincreasingtheratioofthevelocitiesofsoundajoithrough
heatingthepropellantgas.Themostwidelyappliedmethodistouseas
propellantgasacombustiblemixtureofoxygenandhydrogen,towhich
heliumisaddedtoreducetheriskofdetonation.Afterignitingthemixture
295/1563
09/09/2015
electrically(forinstance,byanordinaryautomobilesparkplug),the
temperatureinthechannberrisesto15002000C.Insomeshocktubes
maximumshockpropagationvelocitiesof18km/sechavebeenobserved
afterruptureofthediaphragm,withtemperaturesbehindtheshock
of16,000K.Anothermethodofincreasingtheshockpropagationvelocity
atagivenpressureratioistouseashocktubewithmorethanone
diaphragm.Theruptureofthefirstdiaphragmcausespropagationofa
shockthroughanintermediatechamberfilledwithargon;afterrupturing
aseconddiaphragm,theshockreachestheworkinggas.Shockpropagation
velocityisincreasedinthiscaseattheexpenseofareductionintheduration
ofsteadyflow.
Sincetheshockpropagationvelocityexceedsthevelocityatwhichthe
contactdiscontinuitymoves,theregionofsteadyflowbetweentheshockandthe
contactdiscontinuityincreaseswithtubelength.Infact,viscositycauses
anincreaseinthevelocityatwhichthecontactdiscontinuitymoves,oftento
adegreewhereanyfurtherincreaseintubelengthincreasestheregionof
steadyflowonlyslightly.Usually,thedurationofsteadyflowisafew
milliseconds.Theparametersofthesteadyflowaredeterminedfrom
theshockpropagationvelocityandtheinitialstatesofthepropellantand
workinggases.
Thistypeofshocktubecannotbeusedforcompletesimulationof
atm.osphericreentryconditionsofrocketsorspacecraft.Theratioof
soundvelocitiesinfrontandbehindtheshockis
flj~K2(x,1)
1^
296/1563
09/09/2015
Substitutingthisvalueinto(2.3),weobtainforhighshockpropagation
velocities
M,
l/?=
99
ForairtheMachnumberoftheflowcannotthusexceed1.89,sothatshock
tubesofthissimpletypeareonlyusedwhenitisnotveryimportantto
reproduceM,buthightemperaturescorrespondingtotheactualconditions
mustbeachieved(forinstance,whenstudyingheatexchangeatthenoseofa
bluntbody).
Shockwindtunnels
Thevelocityofsteadyflowinshocktubesm.aybeincreasedbyexpanding
thegas,movingbehindtheshockwave,inanozzle.Distinctfrom
cylindricalshocktubes,thosewithdivergingnozzles(Figure2.99)arecalled
shockwindtunnels.Thetimeintervalrequiredforthepassageoftheshock
wavesformedduringtheinitialflowinthenozzlecanbereduced,by
297/1563
09/09/2015
installingalowstrengthauxiliarydiaphragmatthenozzleinlet.However,
whenadivergingnozzleisfittedthedurationofsteadyuniformflowisless
thaninacylindricalshocktube.Figure2.100showstheprincipleofashock
windtunnelsimilarindesigntothebelowmentionedtunnel,inwhich
adiabaticcompressionisemployed.Inadditiontoincreasingtheflowvelocity
uptoM=20to25,thissystempermitstheperiodoftunneloperationtobe
Highpressureôwpressure
I\T^
X.
Main
diaphragm
Auxiliary
diaphragm
Vacuum
298/1563
09/09/2015
zrt
Durationofsteady
flowatnozzleinlet
nCURE2.99.Asimpleshocl<windtunnel.
increased.Attheendofthechambercontainingtheworkinggas,which
formstheinletofaconvergingdiverging[Laval]nozzle,asecond,low
strengthdiaphragmisinstalled.Afterburstingthefirstdiaphragm,the
shockreachesthenozzleinletandisreflectedfromit,leavingbetween
thenozzleiiêtandthereflectedshockaregionofalmoststationaryhot
gaswhich,afterrupturingtheseconddiaphragm,flowsthroughthenozzle
intothepartiallyevacuatedtestsection.
Whenthereflectedshockreachesthecontactdiscontinuity,itis
reflectedasasecondaryshockmovingtowardsthenozzle.Thevelocity.
100
atwhichthecontactdiscontinuitymoves,issharplydecreasedsothatthe
durationofsteadyflow,whichendsattheinstantwhenthecontact
discontinuityreachesthenozzleinlet,isincreasedconsiderably
(Figure2.100b).Theperturbationscausedbythesecondaryreflected
299/1563
09/09/2015
shockmustbeattenuatedinordertoobtainuniformflowatthenozzleinlet.
Vacuum
High
pressure
Iniermediate
pressure
Primary
reflectedshock
Durationofsteady
flowatnozzlein
letwhennoreflec
tionoccursatcon
tactdiscontinuriy
Durationofsteady
flowatnozzlein
300/1563
09/09/2015
letwhenreflection
occursatcontact
discontinuity
FIGURE2.100.Ashockwindtunnelusingareflectedshock.
Formationofasecondaryreflectedshockcanbepreventedbyaso
called"matched"contactdiscontinuity/2b/.Theinitialstateofthe
workingandpropellantgasesischosensothattheprimaryreflected
shockpassesthroughthecontactdiscontinuitywithoutinteraction.
Theoperatingtimeofthetunnelcanthusbeincreased8to60times.
Inordertofindtheflowconditionsbehindthereflectedshock,which
determinetheinitialstateatthenozzleinlet,thefollowingparameters
havetobemeasured:propellantgaspressureatinstantofdiaphragm
rupture;initialworkinggaspressure;timevariationofpressurebehind
shock;propagationvelocitiesofincidentandreflectedshocks.Detailed
dataforshocktunnelsaregivenin/36/.
Electromagneticshocktunnels
Apowerfulrecentlydevelopedsourceofshockswherebytemperatures
uptotensofthousandsofdegreesmaybeachieved,reliesonthespark
dischargeoftheelectricalenergystoredinabankoflargecapacitors,
some3to50%ofwhichcanbereleasedasJouleheatclosetothe
electrodes.Theelectriccurrentflowingthroughtheinstantaneouslyionized
301/1563
09/09/2015
gasinducesamagneticfield,andthis,togetherwiththermalexpansion,
acceleratesthegas,causingastrongshocktobepropagatedatavelocity
oftens,andevenhundredths,ofkilometerspersecond.Thisshockis
employedinelectromagneticshocktunnelsinexactlythesamewayas
inpneumâticshocktunnels;butthetransittimeofthesteadyflowbehind
theshockwaveisusuallynom.orethan20or30microseconds,whilethe
Machnumberisnotmorethan3or4becauseofthehighvelocityofsound
inaveryhotgas.
Thehighlevelsofionizationoftheveryhotgasesinsuchtunnelsare
suitableforexperim.entsinm.agnetohydrodynamics.Figure2.101shows
aninstallationofthistype/27/.Thetunnelisaglasstubeof76m.m.
insidediameterwiththesparkgeneratorfittedatoneendwhichformsa
truncatedcone;thetestm.odelisinstalled,withtestprobes,atthe
otherflatend.Thecentralsparkgapelectrodeisn:iountedatthe
narrowestpartofthetruncatedcone,theother,annularelectrodeis
placedattheintersectionoftheconicalandcylindricalsectionsofthetube.
Tovacuum
pump
Nittogen15
FIGUEffi2.101.Diagramofanelectromagnetic
302/1563
09/09/2015
shocktunnel.1glasstube;2testmodel;
3ionizationsensingelement.4battery,67.5v;
5moviecamera;6variabledelay;7oscillo
graph;8annularelectrode9conductingstrips
(6#);10oscillographtriggerpickupcoil;11
battery,300v;12auxiliarytriggersupplyunit
(30kv);1330kv.supplyunit;14capacitor
bank,630|iF;15triggerelectrodes;16
centralelectrodes;17insulator.
Thedischargeisinitiatedbymeansofanauxiliarysparkgap,consisting
oftwoconvexcopperelectrodes.Oneoftheseisformedbythebackof
thecentralelectrode;theother,mountedcoaxially,isseparatedfromit
byaceramicinsulator,soastoformacharnberfilledwithnitrogenat
lOOmmHgtoreduceerosionoftheauxiliaryelectrodes.
Thetunnelitselfisevacuatedtoapressureof25to300^mHg
beforeeachtest.Theauxiliarygap,whichiselectricallyin
serieswiththemaingap,shieldsthecentralelectrode,preventingit
102
fromdischargingtotheannularelectrodeuntila15kvtriggerpulseis
appliedtotheauxiliarygap.Assoonasthisgapisionizedthemain
capacitor(formedabankof6;uFcapacitors)dischargesthroughthe
auxiliarygapandthemaingapinseries,thereturnpathfromtheannular
electrodeofthemaingapbeingprovidedbysixcopperstripsequally
spacedaroundtheoutsideofthetruncatedcone.
303/1563
09/09/2015
Highspeedmoviecamerascanbeusedforobservingtheshock;the
camerasavailableinSovietlaboratoriespermitspeedsof2.5million
framespersecond/33/.
Testmodels,andprobesformeasuringionizationintensityandair
conductivityareplacedinthetestsectionofthetunnel.Figure2.102
showsamodelusedforstudyingtheinteractionbetweenanairstream
andamagneticfield.Asolenoidisplacedinsidea20mmdiameter
cylinderhavingabluntnoseof1namthickPyrexglass.A40,000gauss
magneticfieldcanbeinstantaneouslycreatedinfrontofthemodelbydis
charginga100/uF,1500voltcapacitorbankthroughthesolenoid.Thefield
istimedtosynchronizewiththepassageoftheshock,andphotographs
demonstratehowtheshockmovesfurtherawayfromthenoseasthe
magneticfieldintensityincreases.
FIGURE2.102.Modeltotestinteractionbetween
magneticfieldandairstream.1currentsupply;
2Plexiglascote;3solenoid;4glassfiber
reinforcedplastic;6Pyrexglass.
Adiabaticshocktunnels
Tunnelsinwhichhightemperaturesareobtainedbyadiabaticcompression
oftheairbeforeitentersthetunnelareknownasadiabaticshocktunnels.
Suchatunnel,showninFigure2.103,incorporatesalongtube
(generallyagunbarrel)downwhichafreelyfittinglightweightpiston
travelsstsupersonicspeed,impelledbytheairpressurereleasedby
theruptureofadiaphragmsealingoffahighpressurechamberatone
304/1563
09/09/2015
end.Theshockformedaheadofthepistonisrepeatedlyreflectedfrom
adiaphragmatthefarendofthetubebackontothepiston,untilthe
pistonisbroughttorest.Bythistimethegasenclosedbetweenthe
pistonandtheseconddiaphragmhas(virtuallyadiabatically)attaineda
hightemperatureandpressure,sothatruptureoftheseconddiaphragm,
releaseshotgasatveryhighvelocityintothepartiallyevacuatedwind
tunnelofwhichthisseconddiaphragmformstheinlet.Stagnation
103
temperaturesupto3000Kcanthusbeobtainedinsteadyflowpersisting
for0.1second.
High
pressure
il:
Evacuated
Testsectionchamber
Nozzle
305/1563
09/09/2015
Lowpressure
\
Piston
Firstdiaphragm
Second
diaphragm
FIGURE2.103.Principleoftheadiabaticshocktunnel.
Sparkoperatedwindtunnels
Electricarcheatingisincreasinglyreplacingshockwavecompression
heatinginhypersonicwindtunnels.Suchatunnel(Figure2.104)hasaLaval
nozzleinwhichthegasattainsasupersonicvelocity,andacylindricaltest
sectionupstreamofapumpedvacuumchamber.Ahighpressurechamber,
correspondingtothereservoirandsettlingchamberofapressurepowered
306/1563
09/09/2015
tunnel,isdirectlyheatedbyanelectricdischarge.
Diaphragm
Workingsection
Nozzle
Highpressurechamber
Evacuated
chamber
FIGURE2.104.Sparkoperatedwindtunnel.
Thischamberisinitiallyfilledwithairorothergasatapressureof
100to200atm,theremainderofthetunnelbeingevacuatedtoapressure
of0.01mmHg.Electrodesinsidethechamberareconnectedtoalarge
reservoirofelectricalenergywhichcanbeliberatedasapowerfulpulse
dischargewhenthetunnelisstarted.Thedischargeisbrief(afewmicro
seconds)andthecurrentintensityis10âmp,sothatthetemperature
andpressurerisevirtuallyinstantaneouslytoburstadiaphragmseparating
307/1563
09/09/2015
thechamberfromtheLavalnozzle.Afterashorttransitionperiod,quasi
steadyflowconditionsareestablishedinthetestsection.
Todeterminetheflowparametersofthegaspassingthroughthetest
section,itisnecessarytoknowthevolumeofthepressurechamberand
tomeasuretheinitialandvariabletemperaturesandpressuresinit.
104
Thetotalandstaticpressurechangesinthetestsectionarealso
determined.Fromthesedata,andfromthestagnationtemperature
andtotalpressureatthenozzleinlet,thevelocityandstateofthegas
flowingthroughthetestsectioncanbecalculated.
FIGURE2.105.Capacitivestorageunit
forsparkoperatedwindtunnel.1high
pressurechamber;2mainelectrodes;
3auxiliaryelectrode;4fusiblelink
totriggermaindischarge;5contactor
toapplytriggerpulse;6auxiliary
capacitorbank;7maincapacitorbank;
8controlpanel.
Electricalenergytopowersparkoperatedwindtunnelscanbestored
eithercapacitivelyorinductively.Thecapacitivestoragesystemused
308/1563
09/09/2015
inawindtunnelattheArnoldAerodynam.icCenter(U.S.A.)isshownin
Figure2.105,Thistunnelhasatestsectionofabout400mmdiameter
forthesimulationofflightconditionsat4.5km/secat50kmaltitude/22/.
FIGURE2.106.Dischargechamberofsparkoperatedwindtunnel,ipneumaticcylinderfor
advancingofelectrode;2tungstenelectrode;3~Plexiglasscreen;4graphitescreen;
5tungstennozzlethroatliner;6diaphragm;7berylliumbronzeelectrode.
105
The10^jouledischarge(10^kgm)ofabankofonethousand225uF
capacitorsraisedto4000voltsisinitiatedbymeansofanauxiliary
circuit,wherebyaverymuchsmallercapacitorisdischargedthrough
a[fusible]thinwirejoiningoneoftheprincipalelectrodestoan
auxiliaryelectrode.
Theinductivestoragesystememploysaverylargecoilfedfromthe
rotorofasinglepolegeneratorwithahighinertiaflywheelmountedon
itsshaft,whichisdrivenbyanelectricmotor.Thecoilstoresanenergy
amountingtotensofm.illionsofjoules,asubstantialproportionofwhichis
liberatedinthearcformedwhenthecoilisswitchedoverfromthe
generatortothesparkgapinthechamber.
Figure2.106showsthedesignofa700cmchamberintendedforthe
AEDCwindtunnelwitha1270mmdiametertestsection.Thechamber
pressureduringdischargeis3400atm.Thechamberisacylindrical
pressurevesselintowhichacartridge,containingtheelectrodes,pressure
309/1563
09/09/2015
andtemperaturetransducers,ametalorplasticdiaphragm,andahard
metalinterchangeablenozzlethroatliner,isinserted.Theelectrodes
aresupportedexternallybythetunnel,sothattheirinsulatorsdonothave
tobearthefullpressureload.Althoughthenozzleismadeoftungsten,
itburnsoutafteraveryfewexperim.ents.andthecartridgearrangement
permitsitsrapidreplacement.
Sparkoperatedwindtunnelshaveslightlylongeroperatingperiodsthan
shocktunnelsofcomparabledimensions;steadyconditionscanbemain
tainedforseveraltensofmilliseconds.Sparkoperatedtunnelshavethe
furtheradvantageofreproducingnaturalconditionsmoreclosely,sincethe
operatingpressure,andthereforetheReynoldsnumber,canbehigher.
Ballisticranges
Afurthermethodofstudyinghypersonicflowsistoobservethemotion
ofbodiesinfreeflight.Thiscanbedoneinthelaboratorybyusing
"ballisticranges"consistingoflongtubesintowhichthetestmodelis
launchedfromaspecialgun.FullscalevaluesofMandtemperaturecan
beobtainedbyprojectingthemodelattheactualfreeflightvelocity;the
requiredReynoldsnumbercanbeobtainedbyappropriatelyadjustingthe
pressureinthetunnel.
Specialguns,withmuzzlevelocitiesupto4.5km/sec,areusedin
whichlightgaspropellantsareburnedorheatedbyadiabaticcompression
orelectricaldischarge.Themaximumvelocityobtainedwhenusinggun
powderisabout2.4km/sec.Themostpromisingmethodiselectrical
dischargeheating,usingcapacitiveorinductivestoragesystemsasina
sparkoperatedwindtunnel(Figure2.107).
Thegasisheatedatconstantvolumebythesparkdischarge,sothatits
temperatureandpressurerisesharply.Atagivenreleaseofenergyinto
310/1563
09/09/2015
thegas,thefinalpressureisindependentofthegasdensity,thefinal
temperaturevaryinginverselywithgasdensity.Thegasdensityshould
thereforebeaslowaspossibleifthemaximumvelocityistobeobtained.
TheArnoldResearchCenter(U.S.A.)hasatunnelinwhichthehigh
pressurechamberisinitiallyfilledwithhydrogenat35atmpressure.
106
andinwhichanelectricaldischargecausesthepressuretoriseto2600atm,
correspondingtoatemperatureof14,000''K.
FIGURE2,107.Gasgunwithinductiveelectricalenergystoragesystem.1
motor:2generator;3flywheel;4energystoringsolenoid;6main
contactor;6pressuretransducer;7evacuatedchamber;8barrel;9
missile;10electronictimer;11electrodes,andpneumaticsystemfor
adjustingsparkgap;12auxiliarycontactor.
Itistheoreticallypossibletoobtainvelocitiesoftheorderof10to
12km/secwithasparkfiredgasgun,butthisinvolvedgreattechnical
difficultiesbecauseoftheheatlossesandtheerosionofthebarrelat
thesehightemperatures.
Directionofwind
311/1563
09/09/2015
tunnelflow
Directionofmodel
flight
FIGURE2.108.Ballisticrangewithairflow.
Itisinpracticeeasiertoobtainveryhighrelativevelocitiesofmodel
andnaediumbycombiningthewindtunnelandtheballisticrange,projecting
themodelupstreamfromthediffuserofawindtunnel.(Figure2.108).
Inballisticteststhepositionandtrajectoryofthemodelaredetermined
inspaceandtimebyobservingthemodelatanumberofpointsalongits
flightpath.Theaerodynamiccharacteristicsofthemodelcanthenbe
calculated.Ballisticrangesaretheonlytypeofinstallationwhichpermit
thestudyofthesteadyprocessconnected,forinstance,withthestabilityof
107
flightathypersonicvelocities.Tofindthedrag,itisnecessaryto
measurethetimeofflightofthebodybetweenseveralpoints.
Figure2.109showstheCARDBballisticinstallation/35/.Itconsists
312/1563
09/09/2015
ofagasgunandalongvacuumchamberwhosewallhaswindowsforthe
schlierenphotographyofthemodelandformeasuringitsflightvelocity
withphotomultipliersandoscillographs.Pulsesfrom,thephotomultipliers
arealsousedtotriggertheschlierenarcsattheinstantthemodelpasses
thewindow.Thephotographsthusobtainedprovidedatanotonlyonthe
positionofthemodelduringflight,butalsoontheflowintheboundary
layerofthemodelandontheshapeoftheshock,sothatthepressure
anddensitydistributionsnearthemodelcanbecalculated.
Figure2.109.Ballisticinstallation.1gasgun;2vacuumpump;3windowfor
illuminationandforphotomultipliers;4schliereninstrument;5oscillographs;
6chronographs;7vacuumgages.
Recently,radiotelemeteringequipmenthasbeenincreasinglyusedfor
measurementsconnectedwiththeflightofmodels.Aseriesofantennasare
installedalongthetrajectorytointerceptthesignalsradiatedbya
transmitterinsidethemodel.Allthecomponentsofthetransmitter,
includingitsbattery,arecastinepoxyresinwhichformsthebodyofthe
model.Thetransmittercanthuswithstandhighaccelerations.
Experimentsinballistictunnelsareconsiderablymorelaborconsunaing,
andrequiremoreconnplicatedinstrumentation,thanworkinthenaoreusual
typesoftunnel.TheadvantagesofaballisticrangearethehigherMachand
Reynoldsnum.bersobtainable,theabsenceofinterferencefrommodel
supports,andthedirectnessofthemeasurennentsofflightvelocityandgas
parameters.
313/1563
09/09/2015
Measurem.entsinhypersonictunnels
Experimentsatthehightemperaturesandduringthebriefdurationof
thesteadyflowinhypersonicwindtunnelsdemandspecialmeasurement
techniques.Slightlydeviatingfromthesequenceadoptedinthisbook(the
measurementsinwindtunnelsaredescribedinlaterchapters),weshall
discussbrieflyseveralfeaturesofmeasurementsinhypersonictunnels.
108
Measurementofforces.Inairheatedhypersonictunnels,where
theflowdurationsaremeasuredinsecondsorminutesandthestagnation
temperaturemayobtain800K,thetechniqueofmeasuringforcesis
practicallythesameasinsupersonictunnels.Aerodynamicforcescanbe
measuredbywindtunnelbalancesofthemechanicalandstraingagetype.
Theinfluenceoftemperatureonthestraingagesisreducedbycoolingthe
sensitiveelementswithwaterorair.
Insparkoperatedwindtunnelsandadiabaticshocktunnels,which
perm.ittestdurationsfrom^10to100nasec,itispossibletomeasurethe
aerodynamicforceswiththeaidofstraingagetransducersiftherigidity
oftheirelasticmembersishighandthemassofthemodelsmall.The
naturalfrequencyofthemieasuringelementsofthebalancesmustbeofthe
orderof1000cycles/sec.
Transducer
314/1563
09/09/2015
Membranes
FIGURE2.110.Windlunnelbalancefordrag
measurementsinashockwindtunnel.
IntheGeneralElectric(U.S.A.)shockwindtunnelthedragofthe
modelismeasuredwithapiezoelectricquartztransducer(Figure2.110).
Themodelissupportedbyarod,mountedonmetaldiaphragmsinaholder
andforcedagainstthetransduceratitsfreeend.Itisalsopossibletouse
accelerometerstomeasurethedrag.Attemptshavealsobeenm.adeto
measuretheaerodynamicforcesactingonamodelduringaccelerationin
freeflightinatunnel,inwhichitwassuspendedinitiallyonthinstrings,
brokenbytheactionoftheflow.Themotionofthem.odelcanbephoto
graphedwithhighspeedmoviecameras.Knowingthedisplacement5
ofthemodelfromexaminationofthemoviefilm,itsaccelerationcanbe
determinedfromtheexpression
withanaccuracyofabout3%.TheforceQ=maactingonamodelof
massmcanbedeternninedwiththesameaccuracy.Usingthevalueof
thevelocityheadq=^determinedduringthecalibrationofthetunnel,
thedragcoefficientisdeterminedas
109
315/1563
09/09/2015
TheaccuracyofthismethodofmeasuringCxisnothigh,becauseof
thedifficultyofmakingaccuratem.easurementsofq,whichvaries
substantiallyalongtheaxisofthetestsection/30/.
Measurementofpressures.Measurementsoftotalandstatic
pressuresinwindtunnelswithconventionalheaterscanbeperformedby
theusualmethods.Intunnelswithplasmaheaterswatercooledtubes
areusedtomeasurethetotalpressure.
Inintermittentoperationtunnelsthepressuresonthewallsandon
thesurfaceofthemodelarem.easuredm.ainlywithpiezoelectric(quartz)
andbariumtitanatetransducershavingnaturalfrequenciesofupto
100,000cycles/sec.Bariumtitanatetransducersarefarmoresensitive
thanquartztransducers,buttheycannotbeusedforlongperiodsathigh
temperaturesandhaveaverylowmechanicalstrength.Piezoelectric
transducerspermitmeasurementsofpressuresfromfractionsofan
atmospheretothousandsofatmospheres.Forthemeasurementsofhigh
pressures(forinstance,thatofthepropellantgas)transducerscanbe
equippedwithdevicestoreducetheireffectivearea.Afterfittinga
transducertothemodel,itcanbecalibrateddynam.icallybyplacingthe
modelinashocktubeofconstantcrosssection,throughwhichashockof
knowncharacteristicsispropagated.Sometypesoftransducersrespond
undulytovibrationsofthewalltowhichtheyareattached,andanti
vibrationmountingsmustbeused(Figure2.111).Thetestsinadiabatic
shockandsparkoperatedtunnelsareofcomparativelylongduration,
andstraingage,inductive,andcapacitivepressuretransducerscanthen
beused.
Measurementoftemperatureanddensity.Thermocouples
canbeusedforthemeasurementofwindtunnelgastemperaturesupto1000C.
316/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE2.111.Amivibrationmountingfora
pressuretransducer.
Varioustypesoffittingsareavailable(seeChapterIV).Higher
temperaturesaremeasuredspectrometrically.Opticalinterferometers
areusedfordensitymeasurements,supplemented,atlowdensities,by
measurementsoftheabsorptionofelectronsorXrays.Quartzwindows
areprovidedinthewallsofthetunnelsforthispurpose.
JIO
Specialtechniquesarerequiredforopticalinvestigationsinhypersonic
tunnels,becauseoftheveryshorttinaeintervalsduringwhichthe
measurementsmustbemade,andbecauseoftheluminescenceofthevery
hotgases.Theschlierensystemsusedemploymicrosecondspark
lightsources.Opticalfiltersareinstalledneartheslottoreducethe
influenceofgasluminescence.Oftentheluminescenceattheshockprovides
clearphotographsofthenoseshockinfrontofthemodel.
Measurementofshockpropagationvelocity.Theshock
propagationvelocityinshocktubescanbemeasuredwithionization
transducersorfilmresistancethermometers.Theionizationtransducer
consistsofaninsulatedelectrodeinsidethetunnelatashortdistancefrom
thewall,whichformsthesecondelectrode.Apotentialofsometensor
hundredsofvoltsisappliedtotheelectrodeandthechangeofresistanceof
theairgapattheinstantwhenthepassageoftheshockionizestheairis
pickedupanddisplayedonanoscilloscopewithacrystalcontrolledtime
basegenerator.Aseriesoftransducers,installedatknowndistances
317/1563
09/09/2015
alongthetunnel,feedasingleoscilloscope,sothattheshockpropagation
velocityindifferentpartsofthetunnelcanbedetermined.Inelectro
magneticshocktunnelstheshockpropagationvelocityismeasuredwith
ultrahighspeedmoviecamerasandphotorecorderswhichphotographthe
motionoftheluminescentfront.
Filmresistancethermometersareusedtodetectcomparativelyweak
shocks,whichareaccompaniedbyionizationofair(seep.113).The
shockpropagationvelocityismeasuredbyrecordingthesuddentemperature
increasesastheshockpassestwosuccessivefilmresistancethermometers
installedaknowndistanceapart.
Measurementofheattransfer.Incontinuousoperationwind
tunnels,havingcomparativelylongoperatingdurations,theamountofheat
transferredconvectivelybythegastounitsurfaceduringunittimecanbe
determinedwiththeaidofmodelshavingcooled(orheated)walls.
^^/i^v
FIGURE2.112.Measurementofheattransferfromaheatedcone.1voltagemeasurement
points;2currentmeasurementtransformer;3powertransformer;4autottansformer;
5electrontubevoltmeter;6ammeter;7~voltagepointselectorswitch;8thermo
coupleselectorswitch;9potentiometer:10galvanometer;11thermocouplecold
junction
Figure2.112showsthemeasurementoftheheattransferfromacone,
thewallsofwhichareheatedbylowvoltagehighintensitya.c./28/.
318/1563
09/09/2015
Thebodyofthemodelismadefromstainlesssteel,whichhashigh
ohmicresistance;allotherpartsaremadefromcopper.Thetemperature
distributionatanumberofpointsonthesurfaceoftheconeisdetermined
bymeansofthermocouplesconnectedthroughaselectorswitchtoa
potentiometer.Nearbypointsonthewalloftheconeareconnectedby
wiresthroughanotherselectorswitchtoavoltmeterwithwhichthepotential
gradientalongtheconecanbemeasured.Thesupplyvoltageisadjusted
tomaintainthetemperatureofthewallconstant;themeasuredvaluesof
temperature,voltageandcurrentintensitydeterminethelocalheatinputto
thewallofthemodel.Thestagnationtemperature,staticpressure,and
humidityoftheundisturbedairaremeasuredatthesametime.
ir^p
Airinlet
Air
outlet
FIGURE2.113.Measurementofheattransferfromacooledmodel.1containeti2
pump:3coolingvesselcontainingalcoholandsolidcarbondioxide;4airheat
exchanger;6flowmeter;7model;8windtunnel.
319/1563
09/09/2015
Themeasurementofheattransferbycoolingthewallofthem.odelis
illustratedinFigure2.113.Theouterwallofthemodeliscontinuously
cooledbyairflowinginanannulargapbetweenthewallandthebodyof
themodel.Toobtainasufficientlyuniformdistributionofthecooling
airtemperature,theReynoldsnumberinthegapshouldbehigh.Ata
givenmodelsurfacetemperature,thetemperatureriseofthecooling
air(asmeasuredbythermocouples),anditsflowratedeterminethe
heatinputQperunittinrie.
KnowingQ,thesurfaceareaFofthemodel,therecoverytemperatureTr,
andthetemperatureTy,ofthewall,thecoefficientofheattransfercanbe
determinedfromtheexpression
F(T,T^)
Therecoverytemperaturecanbefoundbymeasuringthesurface
temperatureofaheatinsulatednaodelofthesameshape.
Heattransfercanalsobestudiedundertransientconditions,forinstance,
bysuddenlyinsertingamodelatknowninitialtemperatureintoastreamof
hotair.IntheAEDCtunnel(Figure2.94),apairofcoolingshroudsis
112
installedforthispurposeontelescopicmountingsattachedtothewallsof
thetestsection.Themodelisheldwithintheseshroudsatzeroangle
ofattackandisaircooledtotherequiredtemperatureuntilthetunnel
320/1563
09/09/2015
flowisestablished.Theshroudsarethenhydraulicallyretractedinto
thewallsofthetestsection(Figure2.114),themodelisturnedtothe
requiredattitude,andthetemperatureofthemodelwallismeasuredat
0.25secondintervalsby100thernaocouples.Heatconductionparallel
tothesurfacecanbeneglectedinathinwalledmodel,andthelocal
coefficientofheattransfercanbefoundfromthethermalcapacityofthe
wallandtherateofchangeofitstemperature.
FIGURE2.114.Shioudsformodelpre
coolinginawindtunnel.
Thecoefficientofheattransferis
mcdTa,
"Z'dtr,r'
wheremisthemassofthewall,citsspecificheat,andtdenotestime.
Theshroudsservealsotoprotectthemodelfromoverloadscausedby
shocksduringstartupandshutdownofthetunnel.
Inbothshockandconventionalwindtunnels,surfaceheatexchange
atthemodelnosecanbeinvestigatedwithfilmresistancethermometers
whichhaveverysmalltimeconstants.Onthesurfaceofthemodel,which
ism.adefromquartzorrefractoryglass,a0.01to0.1/jthickfilmofplatinum,
gold,orrhodium,isappliedbyevaporationorsintering.Afterdeposition
themetalfilmisheattreatedatatemperatureof610to670C,andthen
321/1563
09/09/2015
slowlycooledtoensurebetterpenetrationofthemetalintothesurfaceof
themodelandtoincreasethewearresistanceofthefilm.Theelectric
resistanceofthefilmis
113
whereRtistheresistanceofthefilmatinitialtemperatureT=Ti,and
ftisaconstant.Forplatinumorgoldfilmskliesbetween0.0015and
0.002degree"^.Theresistancewillbeabout4to40ohm,dependingon
thedim.ensionsofthethernaometer,Acurrentoftheorderof20to
50maispassedthroughthethermometertogenerateanoutputsignal
(usuallymeasuredbyanoscillograph)of1.5to2.5mVperdegree;the
timêconstantisabout1m.icrosecond.
FIGURE2.115.Filmtemperaturetransducer.
Figure2.115showsthediagramofafilmtemperaturetransducer,used
forthestudyofheattransferatthewallofashocktube/34/.Thetrans
ducerconsistsofaglasscylinderof5mmdiameterand6mmheight.
Platinumleads,weldedtothebodyofthetransducer,areattheirends
polishedflushwiththesurfacebeforethefilmisdeposited.Thefilmis
sinteredtothefaceintheformofa3mmlongand1.5mmwidestrip.
Whenthetemperaturesaresohighthatgasbecomesionized,themetal
filmiscoveredwithaverythinlayerofinsulatingmaterial,suchassilica,
322/1563
09/09/2015
whichpreventsshortcircuitingofthem.etalfilmbytheconductivegas,
withoutseriouslyincreasingthetimeconstant.Thesurfaceofthem.etal
filmisfirstcoveredbyevaporationwithafilmofSiOhavingathickness
oftheorderof0.01|U.Themodelisthenheattreatedinafurnaceata
temperatureofabout540C,sothattheSiOisoxidizedtoSi02,whichis
abetterInsulator/32/.Suchafilmcanwithstandapotentialdifference
ofupto12V,correspondingtoabreakdownvoltageofabout1000kV/em,
Heatfluxismeasuredwithfilmresistancethermometersasfollows.
Neglectingthelagduetothethermalcapacitanceofthefilm,the
instantaneousvalueofthespecificheatfluxQis
^^^^VÎvhif.^^
cal
wherep,A,,andcaredensity,coefficientofthermalconductivity,and
specificheatofthefilmsubstratewhiletisthevariabletime.
Thespecificheatfluxcanalsobeexpressedintermsofthevoltageu,
measuredbythefilmresistancethermiometer
Q(t)
323/1563
09/09/2015
iRiky.
f^
du_
dz,
114
whereRtistheelectricalresistanceofthefilmand/isthecurrentflowing
throughit.
Thus,todetermineQfromthetimevoltageoscillogramwemust
knowtheconstant
^k>
whichisevaluatedbypassingthroughthefilmarectangularcurrentpulse,
usingthedischargeofacapacitator,sothatapredeterminedquantityofheat
flowsintothesurfaceofthemodel.Bycomparingthetheoretical
relationshipsbetweenthetemperatureandtimewiththetinaevoltage
oscillogram,wecanfindA.
324/1563
09/09/2015
8.WINDTUNNELSFORTESTINGAIRCRAFTENGINES
Testsinwhichsimilarityofvelocityandflightaltitudeismaintained
areimportantinthestudyofaircrafttakeoffandtheinteractionbetween
theaircraftanditspropellerorjetstream.
Fullscaleaircraftandpropellertestingtunnelswerebuiltinseveral
countriesinthethirtiesforsolvingtheseproblems.IntheNASAlaboratory
atMoffettFieldafullscaleaircrafttunnelwithatestsectionhavingaflow
areaof24.4mX12.2mandalengthof24.4mwasbuilt.Themaximum
velocityinthetunnelis90m/sec,andthedrivepower40,000h.p.Full
scaletunnelsusuallyhavesixcomponentwindtunnelbalancesonwhich
theaircraftisinstalled,traversingcradlesforinvestigatingthepressure
andvelocitydistributionsandtheflowinclination,andalsoacentralized
systemoffuelsupplytotheenginesoftheaircraft,sinceitishazardous
tosupplyfueldirectlytotheenginesfromthetankswithintheaircraft.
Periodicalchangesofairandremovalofcombustionproductsare
necessarywhenanengineisruninthetunnel,becauseevenwith
intermittentoperationoftheengine(1520min),theaircirculatingin
thetunnelbeconriescontarainatedsothattheenginepowerisreduced,
andtheaccuracyofnneasurementssuffers;thereisalsoahazardtothe
operators.Inclosedcircuitfullscaletunnelswithopentestsections,
partialnaturalexchangetakesplacebetweenthetunnelairandthatofthe
roomaroundthetestsection,andapowerfulventilationsystemisrequired
(Figure2.116).
Intunnelswithclosedtestsections,contaminatedairisbledoffinthe
returnduct,usingadditionalfansorcompressors,orasshownin
Figure2.79.
Inthesefullscaletunnelspressurescorrespondingtohighaltitudes
325/1563
09/09/2015
cannotbesimulated,andtestsaremadeonlyforgroundconditions.The
adventofjetenginesmadenecessaryspecialwindtunnelsforlargetest
sectionvelocitiesandvariablepressuresandtemperaturestoapproximate
altitudeconditions;thesetunnelsareequippedwithsystemsforcleaning
andrenewingtheair.
Forthestudyofproblemsingasdynamicsrelatedtoengineintake,
airflowinengines,andcombustion,specialenginetestingtunnelsandrigs
ofvarioustypesarerequired.
115
Oneofthelargesttunnelsfortestingthecharacteristicsofjetengines
inaircraftorrocketsisthehighspeedAEDCwindtunnelmentionedon
p.79.
:c!:^
Exhaustshaft
IILefthandreturnduct
326/1563
09/09/2015
SectionAA
FIGURE2.116.Windtunnelventilationsystem.
Thejetenginestestedinthistunnelhavehighfuelconsumptions,and
apowerfulsystemofcompressorsandextractorsisrequiredtosupply
thetunnelwithfreshdryairandremovecontaminatedairatratesupto
210kg/sec,meanwhilemaintainingatunnelpressureappropriatetoflight
ataltitudesofabout30km.
Thelargedimensionsofthetestsectionofthistunnel(4.88m.X4.88m)
permitinvestigationsoftheflowsbotharoundthejetenginesand,
simultaneously,withinit.Theflowrateofairthroughtheengineisso
greatastoinfluencesubstantiallytheexternalresistanceandstabilityof
theaircraftormissile.
Amoderncontinuousoperationwindtunnelforjetenginetestingexists
attheLewisLaboratoryofNASA(Figure2.117).
Thistunnelhasatestsectionof3.05mX3.05mflowareainwhicha
maximumvelocitycorrespondingtoM=3.5canbeobtained.Thetotal
electricdrivepowerofthetunnelisabout250,000h.p.(or300,000h.p.
whentheboosterisused).Themaincompressorofthetunnelisaneight
stageunitwithadiameterof6.1mof131,000m^/mincapacity,witha
compressionratioof2.8andrequiring150,000h.p.Withthiscompressor
Machnumbersof2.5canbeobtained.Aboostercompressor,usedwhen
higherMachnumbers(uptoM=3.5)areneeded,hastenstages;ithasa
compressionratioof2.8,acapacityof38,200m'/min,andrequires
327/1563
09/09/2015
100,000h.p.
Thetunftelcanbeoperatedeitherasclosedcircuittunnel,orasopen
circuittunnel,exhaustingtoatmosphere.Therangesoftunnelpressures
andvelocitiespossibleineithercaseareshowninFigure2.118(shaded
areas).Thetunnelhasanadjustablenozzle,asupersonicdiffuser,an
installationforaircoolinganddrying,extractorstoreducetheinitial
116
pressure,automaticinstrumentation,andaremotecontrolsystemforthe
modelandfortunneloperation.Dataprocessingisfullyautomatic,
employingcomputersandautomaticcurveplottingequipm.ent.
FIGURE2,117.NASAlunnelfortesangjeiengines(LewisLaboratory).iadjustablenozzle;
2testsection,1coolerNo.1,4niainmotor,5maincompressor,6airdrier;
7extratlor;avalve,'.'coolerNo.2,10boostermotor,11boostercompressor.
Speciallybuiltexhausttestrigsareusedfortestinginternalcomponents
ofjetengines.Acompressorsuppliesairtoacontainerorsettling
chamber,andthencetoanozzle,whenceitpassesdirectlytothejet
engineintake.Ifitisnotdesiredtomeasurethrust,theenginemaybe
flangeddirectlytothenozzle,toavoidleakagesandpressurelosses.The
airflowratethroughthetestrigisarrangedtoequaltheflowratethroughthe
engineunderthecorrespondingflightconditions,takingintoaccount
328/1563
09/09/2015
altitudeandmixturecomposition.
3moo
fc
329/1563
09/09/2015
moon
Meters
zmo
18300
330/1563
09/09/2015
^^^\
ismon
331/1563
09/09/2015
2J]2JSJO3.5M
a)
103.53.03.5M
b)
FIGURE2.118,Pressuresobtainableinthetestsection,aclosedcircuittunnel:
bopencircuittunnel.
117
Conventionaltestrigspermittestsundergroundconditionsorunder
conditionsofflightatlowaltitudes,sincetherarefactionfromflow
accelerationinthenozzleuptoM=0.85to0.95isnothigh.
Forsimulatingconditionsathigheraltitudesadiffusercanbeconnected
totheengineexhaust.Itisbetter,however,toexhausttheengineintoa
separatediffuser,sothatthejetthrustcanalsobemeasured.The
equivalentaltitudeofsuchtestrigscanbefurtherincreasedbyfitting
oneorm.oreextractors.Usingadiffuserandtwoextractorsthepressure
atthenozzleinletissubstantiallyreduced,sothatbychangingthepressure
inthesettlingchamber,theinternalgasdynamicsoftheengineandthe
combustionconditionsatdifferentdensitiesandReynoldsnumberscanbe
332/1563
09/09/2015
investigated.
iiîi&^
vV
FIGURE2.119.Turbojetenginetestfacility(AEDCtestrigT1).
FIGURE2.120.Mountingajetengineonthetestrig.
Withtheincreaseofjetenginepower,velocity,andaltitudeofflight
ithasbecomenecessarytobuildtestrigs,inwhichfullscaleengines
aresuppliedwithclean,dry,andheatedairinthestateandvelocity
correspondingtoflightconditions.Thetestrigsconstructedinrecent
yearsforstudyingjetenginesandtheirequipmentarenot,therefore,
verydifferentfromsupersonictunnelsforenginetesting.Thepowerof
theconapressorssupplyingairtotheenginesandremovingtheexhaust
gasesmayattain50,000to100,000h.p.,andjetintakeMachnumbersof
4to5areobtained.
333/1563
09/09/2015
^^KA.A'.k'.^'.M.^vvkk'.i.kyk^^^.^^^^^^^
Ifin
FIGURE2.121.AdjustablenozzlesystemusedintheAEDCjetenginetestrig.
Figure2.119showstheAEDC(USA)T1testrigforturbojetengines.
Figure2.120showsajetenginebeinginstalledfortests,andFigure2.121,
theadjustablenozzlesystemusedbyAEDC,whichpermitstheangleof
attackoftheenginetobevaried.
Whenenginesaretested,thefollowingmagnitudesaremeasured:jet
thrust,airflowrate,airpressuresandtemperaturesatengineintakeand
exhaust,fuelflowrateandpressure,velocitydistributionatinletandexit
ofenginediffuser.andatoutletnozzle,parametersrelatedtofuel
atomizationandcombustion.
Bibliography11.
1.Malikov.M.F.Osnovymetrologii(FundamentalsofMetrology).
Moskva.1959.
2.Howarth,L.(Editor)(ModernStateofHighSpeedAerodynamics,
Vol.2).[Russiantranslation.1956].
334/1563
09/09/2015
3.SpravochnikaviakonstruktoraVol.1.Aerodinamikasamoleta(Hand
bookofAircraftDesign,Vol.1.AircraftAerodynamics).
IzdanieTsAGI,Moskva.1937.
119
4.Hoerner,S.VersuchemitKugelnbetreffendKennzahl,Turbulenzund
Oberfl5chenbeschaffenheit.Luftfahrforschung,Vol.XII,No.1.
1935.
5.Solodkin,E.E.andA.S.Ginevskii.Turbulentnoetechenievyazkoi
zhidkostivnachal'nomuchastkeosesimmetrichnykh1ploskikh
Kanalov(TurbulentFlowofViscousLiquidsintheInitialLengthof
AxisymmetricalandPlaneDucts).TrudyTsAGI,Vol.701.1957.
6.Abramovich,G.N.Prikladnayagazovayadinamika(AppliedGas
Dynamics).GTTI.1953.
7.Szilard,K.S.Issledovaniediffuzorovaerodinamicheskikhtrub
bol'shikhskorostei(TestingDiffusersofHighSpeedWindTunnels).
TekhnicheskiezametkiTsAGINo,160.1938.
8.Abramovich,G.N.Aerodinamikapotokavotkrytoichasti
aerodinamicheskoi(AerodynamicsofFlowintheOpenTest
335/1563
09/09/2015
SectionofWindTunnels).TrudyTsAGINo.218.1935.
9.Taganov,G.I.Vyravnivayushcheedeistviesetkivpotokakh
zhidkostiigazov(TheSmoothingEffectofScreensInsertedin
StreamsofFluids).TrudyTsAGINo.604.1947.
10.Minskii,E.M.Ogasheniiturbulentnostisponioshch'yusetochnykh
fil'trov(SmoothingofTurbulencewiththeAidofScreens).
TekhnicheskiezametkiTsAGI,No.63.1946.
11.Dryden,H.L.AReviewoftheStatisticalTheoryofTurbulence.
Quart,ofAppl.Math.,Vol.1,No.1.1943.
12.Ide1'chik,1.E.Spravochnikpogidravlicheskimsoprotivleniyam
(HandbookofHydraulicResistances).Gosenergoizdat.1960.
[TranslatedbyIPST,Cat.No.1505.AECtr6630.]
13.Vulis,L.A.Oprekhodecherezskorost'zvukavgazovomtechenii
(PassageofaGasFlowThroughtheSoundBarrier).Doklady
ANSSSR,Vol.54,No.8.1946.
14.Pankhurst,R.C.andD.W.Ho1der.WindTunnelTechnique.1954
[Russiantranslation.1955.)
15.Holder,D.andNorth.The9X3in.NPLInducedFlowHigh
SpeedWindTunnel.Rep.ARC,No.12,387.1949.
336/1563
09/09/2015
16.Holder,D.TheHighSpeedLaboratoryoftheAerodynamics
DivisionNPL.R.a.M.,ARC,No.2,560.1946.
17.Lukasiewicz,!.Diffuzorydlyasverkhzvukovykhaerodinamiches
kikhtrub(DiffusersforSupersonicWindTunnels).Collectionof
translationsandreviewsofforeignperiodicalliterature.
"Mekhanica",No.5(28).IL.1954.
18.German,R.Sverkhzvukovyevkhodnyediffuzory(SupersonicIntake
Diffusers).Fizmatgiz.1960.
19.Andreev,V.A.andS.Z.Belenkii.Vliyaniekondensatsiiparov
vodynasverkhzvukovyetecheniya(TheInfluenceofCondensation
ofWaterVaporsonSupersonicFlow).TrudyTsAGI,No.579.
1946.
20.Lukasiewicz,J.Razvitiebol'shikhaerodinamicheskikhtrub
kratkovremennogodeistviya(DevelopmentofLargeIntermittent
OperationWindTunnels).Collectionoftranslationsandreviews
offoreignperiodicalliterature"Mekhanica",No.6(34).IL.1955.
120
21.Tsien,H.S.Problemyissledovaniipoaerodinamike
337/1563
09/09/2015
razrezhennykhgazovvtrubakh(InvestigationoftheAerodynamics
ofRarefiedGasesinWindTunnels).Collectionofpapers"Gas
Dynamics".IL.1950.
22.Lukasiewicz,J.ExperimentalInvestigationsinHypervelocity
Flight.AdvancesinAeronauticalSciences,Vol.11,Pergamon
Press,London,N.Y.1959.
23.Brogan,T.R.TheElectricArcWindTunnel.AToolfor
AtmosphericReentryResearch.ARSJ.,Vol.29.No.9.1959.
24.Resler,E.L.TheProductionofHighTemperatureGasesinShock
Tubes.J.Appl.Phys.,Vol.23,No.12.1952.
25.Wittliff,C.F.TheTailoredInterfaceHypersonicShockTunnel.
J.Aero/SpaceSciences,Vol.26,No.4.1959.
26.Monoghan,R.J.FeaturesofHypersonicHeatTransfer.Advances
inAeronauticalSciences,Vol.I.PergamonPress,London,
N.Y.1959.
27.Ziemer,R.W.ExperimentalInvestigationsinMagnetoAerodyna
mics.ARSJ.,Vol.29,No.9.1959.
28.Scherrer,J.R.ComparisonofTheoreticalandExperimental
HeatTransferCharacteristicsofBodiesofRevolutionat
SupersonicSpeeds.NACARept.No.1055.1951.
338/1563
09/09/2015
29.Hall,J.andA.Hertzberg.RecentAdvancesinTransient
SurfaceTemperatureThermometry.JetPropulsion,Vol.28,
No.11.1958.
30.Bloxom,D.E.SupersonicAerodynamicExperimentsUsingVery
HighTeraperatureAirWindTunnels.JetPropulsion,Vol.28,
No.9.1958.
31.Bloom,M.H.AHighTemperaturePressureAirHeater.ASME
Paper,No.59A233.1959.
32.Marrone,P.V.ThinFilmThermometerMeasurementsin
PartiallyIonisedShockTubeFlows.Phys.ofFluids,Vol.2,
No.6.1959.
33.Borzunov,N.A.,D.V.OrlinskiiandS.M.Osovets.
Issledovaniemoshchnogoimpul'snogorazryudavkonicheskikh
kamerakh(InvestigationofIntensePulseDischargesinConical
Chambers).ZhurnalEksperimental'noiiTeoreticheskoiFiziki,
Vol.36,No.3.1959.
34.PolyakoV,Yu.A.andE.A.Mit'kina.Tonkoplenochnyi
termometrsoprotivleniya(FilmResistanceThermoraeters).
PriboryiTekhnikaEksperimenta,No.4.1961.
35.Bull,G.V.ReentryStudiesinFreeFlightRanges.JASPaper,
339/1563
09/09/2015
No.143.1959.
36.Udarnyetruby(ShockTubes).Collectionoftranslatedpapers.
IL.1962.
121
ChapterIII
WINDTUNNELDESIGNCALCULATIONS
Thedesigncalculationsofwindtunnelsinvolvethedeterminationofthe
velocities,pressures,densities,andtemperaturesthroughoutthetunnel
circuitintermsofthetestsectionvelocity.Aerodynamiccalculations
beginfromadrafttunnellayoutbasedontherequiredtestsection
dimensions,Machnumber,andReynoldsnumber.
Thetjêoftestsection(openorclosed)isselectedbyconsideringthe
availablepowerandtherequirementsofthetests.Inaddition,the
contractionratioofthenozzlemustbechosen.Foragiventestsection
velocityandwithmaximumpermissiblediffuserdivergence,thecontraction
ratiodeterminesthevelocitydistributionthroughoutthetunnelcircuit,
thetunnellengthandthegeometryofallelementsformingthereturncircuit.
Aerodynamiccalculationdeterminesthecompressionratio,discharge
capacity,andpowerofthecom.pressororthefan*necessaryforobtaining
theflowinthetestsection,andalsothepressureloadsonalltheelements
ofthetunnel.
340/1563
09/09/2015
9.DESIGNOFSUBSONICTUNNELS
Theinfluenceofcompressibilitymaybeignoredinthedesignof
subsonicwindtunnels,becausetheflowthroughoutthetunnelcircuit
isatvelocitiesconsiderablylessthanthatofsound.Energylossesinthe
airstreamareduemainlytofrictionalresistanceandtopressurelosses
duetoeddies,inthediffusers,intheturningvanesatthecorners,etc.
ThetotalhydraulicresistanceA//totofthewindtunnel,whichdefines
thelossofenergy(oftotalhead)whenairflowsinit,canbedivided
arbitrarilyintotwocomponents:thefrictionalresistanceA/Zf^,which
dependsontheflowregime(i.e.,Reynoldsnumber)andonthedegree
ofroughnesssofthewall,andthelocalresistanceAfi^^^,causedby
localflowseparationandturbulentmixing,whichdependsonthegeometry
ofthetunnelelements.Theresistanceoftheductisusuallyexpressedin
termsofthevelocityhead
'i^tot=^totP2"Vm'.
whereto,=t,;^+îsthecoefficientoftotalhydraulicresistance.Here
Ortherequiredpressuregradientsandairflowratesforintermittentoperationtunnels.
1680122
'=/i^^^^^^coefficientoflocalresistance;c,=^îsthecoefficient
r'Iîrp1/^/2
offrictionalresistance*andVisthemeanvelocityinthesectionconsidered.
Thus,thefirststageQfiaerodynamicdesignconsistsofdetermining
341/1563
09/09/2015
themagnitudesofthecoefficientst,andgfjforeachtunnelelement.
Tofacilitatecalculationsandcomparisonsoflossesineachelement
ofthetunnel,thevaluesofândCftareexpressedintermsofthevelocity
headinthetestsection,bymultiplyingthecalculatedvaluesofthe
coefficients2;andZubythefactorjt^)whereFisthecrosssectional
areaofthetunnelelementconsidered,andFi,s,thatofthetestsection.
Themagnitudesoft,andt,fâreestimatedfrommeasureddataforthelocal
andfrictionalresistancesofvarioustunnelelementsofdifferentshapes**.
Thehydraulicresistanceofpartsofductsdependsnotonlyontheir
geometry,butalsooncertainexternalfactors,including:
1)Thevelocitydistributionattheinlettotheelementconsidered,whichin
turnisrelatedtotheflowconditions,theshapeoftheinlet,theinfluence
ofupstreamelementsofthetunnel,andthelengthofstraightduct
immediatelyprecedingtheelementconsidered.
Designhandbooksgenerallygivethehydraulicresistancedatafor
elementsthroughwhichairflowsatuniformvelocity,exceptwherethe
contraryisstated.
2)TheReynoldsnumber(Re=)>whichaffectsthefrictional
resistancecoefficient,andalsothelocalresistancecoefficientat
comparativelylowvalues(Re<(0,10.2)10^),thoughonlyslightlyatlarge
values;whentheReynoldsnumberatwhichthemeasurementwasmade
isnotquotedinthehandbook,itcanbeassumedthatthevalueofîs
independentofReevenatsmallReynoldsnumbers.
342/1563
09/09/2015
3)TheMachnumberM=~,whichinfluencesthelocalresistance(and
thefrictionalresistance)considerably,althoughthiseffecthasbeenlittle
studied.Sincelargevelocitiesarenotusualintheducts(M^0.3to0.4),
datainthehandbooks,compiledfromlowvelocity(M<0.3)tests,can
generallybeusedinpractice.
4)Theroughnessofinternalsurfaces,whichstronglyaffectsthe
frictionalresistance,andshouldbeconsideredineachindividualcase
onthebasisoftheexperimentaldataavailable.Wheredesignhandbooks
failtospecifythedegreeofsurfaceroughnessitshouldbeassumedthat
thecoefficientoffrictionquotedrelatestosmoothwalls.
5)Shapeofthecrosssection.Fornoncircularsections(squareor
rectangularwithsideratiosbetween0.6and1.7),thecoefficientof
resistancecanoftenbetakenasforcircularsections.
AHf.
AsdLsttiictfromthecoefficientA^=1/2/0^/777T\*^frictionalresistanceperunitlengthofductofconstant
crosssection.
ThedatabelowforlocalandfrictionalresistancesareduetoIdelchik,I.E.Spravochnikpogidravlicheskim
soproiivlenam(HandbookofHydraulicResistances).GosenergoizdatM.L.1960.[Englishtranslation,
IPST,Cat.No.1505;AECir66:i0.J
123
343/1563
09/09/2015
Frictionalresistance
Ingeneralthepressuredropperunitlengthduetofrictioninaductis
Xsv;
'^^hîKî
where>.isthecoefficientoffrictionalresistanceperunitoflengthofthe
duct(usuallycalledthefrictioncoefficient),Koisthemeanflowvelocity,
Foisthecrosssectionalareaoftheduct,andSisthefrictionsurfacearea.
Thisformulacanalsobewritten
n
Here,/isthelengthoftheductwhoseresistanceisbeingdetermined,and
Dhisthehydraulicdiameteroftheductcrosssection;foracircular
section)t,=Oo;forarectangularsectionwhosesidesareooandio.
h(/oOof6o'
whereUîstheperimeter.
344/1563
09/09/2015
ThecoefficientXdependsmainlyontheReynoldsnumberandthe
roughness.Theroughnessischaracterizedbytheaverageheightkofthe
surfaceirregularities(projections),calledtheabsolutegeometrical
roughness;theratiooftheaverageprojectionheighttothehydraulic
diametere=îstherelativegeometricalroughness.
Sincethegeometricalroughnesscharacteristicsareaninadequate
mieasureoftheresistanceofthetunnel,weintroducetheconceptof
hydraulicroughness,basedonresistancemeasurements.Thepresence
ofalaminarsublayerdeterminestheeffectofsurfaceroughnessonthe
hydraulicresistance.Whenthethicknessofthelaminarsublayerexceeds
theheightoftheprojections,airflowsuniformlyoverthematthelow
velocitiescharacteristicofthesublayer,andtheheightoftheprojections
hasnoinfluence.ThefrictionalresistancecoefficientAtherefore
decreasesasReincreases.However,asReincreasesthethicknessof
thelaminarsublayerdecreases,untilitissmallerthanthelargest
projections,whichthusintensifytheturbulence.Theconsequentincrease
inpressurelossisreflectedintheincreasingvalueof\asRerisesfurther.
Tunnelscanbeconsideredsmooth(bothhydraulicallyandtechnically),
iftheheightoftheprojectionsislessthanthethicknessofthelaminarsub
layer.Thecorrespondinglimitingvalueoftherelative[geometrical]
roughnessis
UZSSReo^''.
345/1563
09/09/2015
Figure3.1showsthevalueofthefrictioncoefficientasafunctionof
theReynoldsnumberfortunnelsofuniformroughness(obtainedby
sprinklingthesurfacewithsandoffixedgrainsize).Thisrelationship
isusedwhencalculatingthefrictionallossesintheelementsofwindtunnels.
124
DeterminationofXforlaminarf1ow(Re<2000).
1)Circularsection;
Re
2)Rectangularsectionofsideratio.5l.î.o:
X^=Xcp,,
whf.e(p,isdeterminedfromFigure3.2.
'.0
^0.6
346/1563
09/09/2015
Od
0.2
jjm
Be
TO!
e^'0.B333
.B.0W3
oo.om
347/1563
09/09/2015
.Mm
.0.000S8
Regime//;;l^CRe,ff)
.(I^wi*'^"ll^^"^^^"<w**
23.0
Regimelll,Kfj(s)^
logRe
FIGURE3.1.FrictioncoefficientIasfunctionofReynoidsnumberlorlunnelsof
uniformtoughness.Regimeno.1laminar;regimeno.2transitional,regime
no.3turbulent.
DeterminationofXfortunnelswithsmoothwalls
(Re>2000).
348/1563
09/09/2015
1)Circularsection:
0.3164
4000<Re<100,000X="j^(Figure3.3a),
|/Re
Re>4000>=(,gRe'!W<Figure3.3b).
2)Rectangularsection(|i=0.7i.o];
wheretpzisfoundfromFigure3.4.
DeterminationofXfortunnelswithuniformwall
roughness(Re>2000).
1)Circularsection:
X=
[ai+^(Relg/X)+c,lgiJ
125
349/1563
09/09/2015
0?OA0.60.91.0
FIGURE32Correctioncoefficientforrectangular
lunnelsection(Re<2000).
0.01b
0.0111
0.012
0.010
0.009
0.008
0.007
0.006
0.005
0.015
ZWîW'SIO^to*210*iW"W*
350/1563
09/09/2015
Re
W'2^610
FIGURE33VariationoffrictioncoefficientwuliReynoldsnumberfortunnelswith
smoothwalls(Re>2U00,[ranstlionalregime).
Thevaluesofa,,6,,c,,aregiveninTable3.ThevalueofXcanbedetermined
fromFigure3.5.
2)Rectangularsectionf|5=0.7tol.o]:
where$3=92(Figure3.4).
Xj=Xcf3,
126
II^1Iiiiiîi11nilII
351/1563
09/09/2015
10
0.95
0.90
0J5
352/1563
09/09/2015
/^
353/1563
09/09/2015
kW
1210^
Re
FIGURE3.4Correctioncoefficientforrectangular
tunnelsections.
Determinationof^fortunnelswithroughwalls
(turbulentregime).
1)Circularsection:
354/1563
09/09/2015
^=,'^jjT(Figure3.6).
(2Ig3.7^J3)
2)Rectangularsection(|2=0.7tol.o):
).i=a<pj(Figure3.4).
TheReynoldsnumberis
V
wherev=>ji/pdependsonthetemperatureandpressure(forp=1atm,the
valueofVisfoundfromFigure3.7).Thetemperaturedependenceofp,is
lOV=1.712|/lh0.003665/(140.00080',
wheretisinC.
Table3.Valuesofa,,6,,c,fordeterminingthe
coefficientXfortunnelsofcircularsectionand
uniformwallroughness(Re>2000),
.Ro/r
0.8
355/1563
09/09/2015
2.0
<:>
3.610
1020
0.068
1.13
0.87
2040
1.538
356/1563
09/09/2015
2.0
40191
2.471
0.588
2.588
191
1.138
2.0
127
357/1563
09/09/2015
O.DW
0.009
0.008
IliSbSIO''23't56df0'23156SWÎI'iSSSW''2J'tSBSW"
Re
FIGURE3.5.VariationoffrictioncoefficientwithReynoldsnumberfortunnelsofuniform
wallroughness;transitionalregimeCRe>2000).
Thefollowingvaluesoftheprojectionheightk(mm)canbeassum.ed
formaterialsgenerallyusedintheconstructionofwindtunnels.
Cleanseamlessbrass,copper,orlead
pipes0.00150.001
Newseamlesssteelpipes0.040.17
Galvanizedironpipes0.39
Newcastironpipes0,250.42
Birchplywood0,0250.05
Pineplywood0.1
Woodenpipes0.251.25
Planedwoodflumes0.252.0
358/1563
09/09/2015
Cleancementsurfaces0.251,25
Plasterwithcememmortar0.453.0
Concreteducts0,89,0
Glazedceramictubes.,,....,,0.256,
Glasstubes0,00150,01
Oilpaintappliedonaprimingcoat,,0.1
128
A
om
m
m
m
903
OM
m
359/1563
09/09/2015
360/1563
09/09/2015
"^
361/1563
09/09/2015
362/1563
09/09/2015
363/1563
09/09/2015
364/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE3.6.Variationofresistancecoefficientoftunnel
withwallroughnessinturbulentregime.
:,T\mw\\w\20\to\soleo\m/ss\ms5s\M\m4mm!)Oo
vW*mVsecI//.j|tf./|ff|/5/;W.^|/;:ff|/S^la7l^dw.JtowWWJ7|J75M72ilM
vWfi
m'/sec
eo
70
60
50
10
365/1563
09/09/2015
30
to
to
.
W80Wm200M280320360100m
t,'C
FIGURE3.7VariationwithtemperaiureofkinemaLiccoefficientofairviscosity
(p=1atm).
Lossesinthenozzle
Lossesinthenozzlearemainlyduetofriction,andcanthusbe
calculatedforagivennozzleprofilefromtheexpression
where'K=U(Re.e)iscalculatedfromtheformulasandgraphsabove.
129
whileeand/arecoefficientsbywhichallowanceismadeforthecontraction
ratio.
366/1563
09/09/2015
ftr='i
'sinci/2"
'ft~8sinc/2
l^'M
Thefrictionalresistanceofthenozzlecanbemoreaccuratelycalculated
fromtheexpressions
C,=^1^(5i!!r:l+i^=^\foraplanenozzleand
4,/n'I'l
''9D[,n''Mn1)
foranozzleofcircularorrectangularsection.
367/1563
09/09/2015
Lossesinthetestsection
Opentestsection:
1)circularorrectangularcrosssection
Ct=0.0845~0.0053(~^)(Figure3.8);
2)ellipticalcrosssection
!;tot=008^0.0015^(Figure3.9).
Hereli.%.isthelengthofthetestsectionwhileQcandbearelengthsofthe
majorandminorsemiaxesoftheellipse.
tJIVS3J)kO5JS6.0
it.s,/i3h
FIGURE3.8.Resistancecoefficientofopencircularorrectangulartestsectionsas
functionofthetestsectiondimensions.
368/1563
09/09/2015
Theangleaistheconvergenceangleofaconicalnozzleequivalenttothegivencurvilinearnozzle.
130
Inaclosedtestsectionthefrictionallossescanbedeterminedfrom
thevaluesofReands.
Resistanceofamodelinthetestsection
Theresistanceofthemodelanditssupportsinthetestsectionforms
aconsiderablepartofthetotalresistanceofthewindtunnel,anddepends
onthedegreeofblockage#^''bythemodelandthesupports,andtheir
i.s.
streamilining.Theresistancecanbefoundfromtheexpression
C=c,
^med
''('M'
369/1563
09/09/2015
whereCxisthedragofthemodelanditssupports,giveninhandbooksof
aerodynamicsasafunctionoftheReynoldsnumber(calculatedintermsof
thevelocityinthetunnel);Sj^^jistheareaofthemediansectionofthemodel
anditssupports.
Ok=
/;
hu
Uq~Perimeter
Majorandminorsemiaxes
oftheellipse
0.015I0075
0.0190.075
0020I0.077
370/1563
09/09/2015
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
OtI
0.14
0.14
01S
0.20
0.23
0.24
0.25
0.27
0.29
030
0.33
371/1563
09/09/2015
"c^c
1.5(a^*b,)WJ,
DSk
SectionAA
Va_
't.s^
B.20
0.16
0.12
0.08
0.04
372/1563
09/09/2015
/
/
373/1563
09/09/2015
1.02113J)4.05.0
374/1563
09/09/2015
^.s/^h
60
FIGURE3.9Variationofresistancecoefficientofanopenellipticaltestsectionwith
tesisectiondimensions.
Lossesinthediffuser
Theresistancecoefficientofasubsonicdiffuserisarbitrarilyseparated
intothecoefficientoftheresistanceduetocrosssectionenlargement,and
131
thefrictioncoefficient,i.e.,
where
Heretpeniistheshockcoefficient,i,e.,theratiooftheexpansionlosses
tothetheoreticallossesatasuddenchangefromanarrowtoawideflow
section:
AW
375/1563
09/09/2015
fenl
^(v^v,r
VqandI'larethemeanvelocitiesintheinletandexitsectionsrespectively;
ftisacorrectionfactorforthenonuniformityofthevelocitydistributionat
thediffuserinletorfortheboundarylayerregime;and(l~~j^dis
acoefficientwhichtakesintoaccounttheeffectofthediffuserdivergence.
"TiS^Sg
FIGURE3.10,Conicaldiffuser.
Forconicalorplanediffuserswithdivergenceanglesabetween0
and40(Figure3.10)
376/1563
09/09/2015
fenl
=3.2(tg|)'".
Inadiffuserwithsquareorrectangularcrosssectionsinapyramidalor
wedgeshapeddiffuser(Figure3.11),forwhich0<a<25,
9enl=6.2(tg|y/'.
ThecoefficientkisdeterminedfromFigure3.12asafunctionof
132
3^
377/1563
09/09/2015
u
1.2
11
W
8
iO
15
378/1563
09/09/2015
20
I.S
w
FIGURE3.11.Diffuserswithsquareandrectaagularcross
sections,awedgeshaped;bpyramidal.
./'
Behindstraightduct
379/1563
09/09/2015
380/1563
09/09/2015
'"
381/1563
09/09/2015
I.S
WZi32UOtiSjL
Behindfreejet^hn
L2
382/1563
09/09/2015
Citculrr
383/1563
09/09/2015
"^
'M'lane
384/1563
09/09/2015
wi.en3j*.o
385/1563
09/09/2015
1.0
ayi
386/1563
09/09/2015
/m
387/1563
09/09/2015
IT
388/1563
09/09/2015
îf
"^
389/1563
09/09/2015
10
IO*I.OSU2
FIGURE3.12.Effectofvelocitynonuniformityatdiffuserinlet(v^^V,)ondiffuser
resistance(coefficient).
Thefrictioncoefficientforconicalandwedgeshapeddiffusers(with
squareorrectangularcrosssections)is
r^^
'^fr=8^/'
where\,eand/arefoundinthesamewayasforanozzle.Forapyramidal
diffuser(withsquareorrectangularcrosssections)theresistance
coefficientis
^fr=^(/+/'),
133
390/1563
09/09/2015
where
/=
sina/2
/'=
sin?/2
^='(^r
Hereaandparerespectivelythedivergenceanglesofthepyramidal
diffuserinthetwoorthogonalplanes.Theadditionalresistanceofslots,
providedinthediffuserwallinordertodampenpulsations,canbe
determinedfromFigure3.13.Theflowareaoftheslotsisassumedto
beabout25to35%ofthatofthe'diffuserinlet,andtheflowvelocitypast
theslotsasequaltothevelocityinthetestsection;thevelocityimmediately
downstreamoftheslotsistakenas0.8timesthevelocityimmediatelyup
stream.
391/1563
09/09/2015
'JU
"OA0.81.21.6]L
FIGURE3.13.DependenceofresistancecoefficientCciofslotson
velocityimmediatelydownstream.
Resistanceofcorners
Thecornersofwindtunnelsarefittedwithturningvanes,whichmay
becircularorairfoilsections,subtendingarcsof95to107.Thecorners
maybecurvedorsharp.Forthecornershapesandradii,andthenumbers
andtypesofvanesgenerallyused,theresistancecoefficientsaregivenin
Table4,expressedintermsofthevelocityheadatthecornerinlet.
Resistanceofthefaninstallation
Theresistanceofthefaninstallation(motorcasing,shaftbearings,etc.)
canbedeterminedinthesamewayastheresistanceofthemodelinthe
testsection,usingtheexpression
^m^df
392/1563
09/09/2015
^medfV'
ft)
134
COrH
I,O
a,o
a.3
III
393/1563
09/09/2015
135
Herec^fisthedragcoefficientofthefaninstallation,expressedinterms
ofthevelocityimmediatelyupstream,(generallyCxfis0.25),Sêdlisthe
m.ediansectionofthefaninstallation(Smedfisusuallyabout0.4Ff),andFf
istheflowareaatthefan.
Theresistancecoefficientofthesafetynetinfrontofthefanis^=0.02.
Resistanceofthereturnduct.Whenthereturnductis
cylindricalitsresistanceisentirelyfrictional,andcanbecalculatedfrom
thefrictionalresistancefornriulasabove.Whenthereturnductisof
variablecrosssectionitsresistanceiscalculatedinthesam.ewayasfor
adiffuser.
Resistanceofradiators
Thetotalresistanceofaradiator,installedinthereturnductforcooling
thetunnelair,consistof:
1)lossesattheinlettotheradiatortubes;
2)lossesduetofrictionoftheairagainstthetubewalls;
3)lossesduetosuddenexpansionoftheairleavingthetubes.
Forahoneycombcoefficient(Figure3.14)withhexagonalorround
tubes,theresistancecoefficientis
394/1563
09/09/2015
'rad=
7f.Mo3+i)(^)+(^0^^
whereViistheflowvelocityinthetunnelimmediatelyupstreamofthe
radiator,îstheflowarearatiooftheradiator,/isthelengthofthe
radiatortubes(radiatordepth),dt,isthehydraulicdiameteroftheradiator
tubes.Xistheresistancecoefficientperunitlengthofaradiatortube
(A.dependsonthelocalReynoldsnumberRe*==^whereVoistheflow
velocityintheradiatortubes),andkisthenaeanheightoftheroughness
peaksofthetubewalls.
TherelationshipX=/(Re*,e)isshowninFigure3.14.For35<Re*<275,
X=0.375(Re*)''6'''.
For275<Re*<500,îspracticallyindependentoftheReynoldsnumber:
X=0.214e'.
Forahotradiator,theresistancecoefficientishigherbyanamount
.c=(,.7+xi^)e,
wheree=^^'~îstheratioofthedifferenceoftheairtemperaturesatthe
395/1563
09/09/2015
outletandinlettotheabsoluteairtemperatureattheinlet.Forthe
136
radiatorsshowninFigures3.15and3.16,theresistancecoefficientis
1r\isacoefficientwhichtakesintoaccountthelossesdue
totheconstrictionandexpansionoftheairstreambetweenthetubes.
Radiator/'/^flowarea)
V^,ô/o'
aou^
0.03
0.02
396/1563
09/09/2015
11
397/1563
09/09/2015
'
00150
0.0120
398/1563
09/09/2015
0.0WO
""
'
399/1563
09/09/2015
'
_^
~"
^^
.y
400/1563
09/09/2015
y^
'.'.'4
t:
401/1563
09/09/2015
"""
_^
402/1563
09/09/2015
."^
403/1563
09/09/2015
"s^
.'^
^^^
^^
^^^
404/1563
09/09/2015
<,'
00
IM
405/1563
09/09/2015
\^
0.0OSO
406/1563
09/09/2015
"s
407/1563
09/09/2015
408/1563
09/09/2015
30iO
SO80WO
ISO
300m
Re
409/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE3.14VariationwiihReynoldsnumberofresistancecoefficientofa
honeyconnbradiator.
Foisthetotalprojectedareaofthegapsbetweentheradiatortubesatthe
pointwherethegapisnarrowest,Foisthetotalprojectedflowarea
betweentwoadjacentplates,F\istheoverallareaoftheradiatorfront,
andnisthenumberofrowsofradiatortubes.
137
"
410/1563
09/09/2015
411/1563
09/09/2015
*^
412/1563
09/09/2015
^.
413/1563
09/09/2015
414/1563
09/09/2015
2fO^JW^5W^to''
210*Re
FIGURE3,15VariationwithReynoldsnumberoftheresistancecoefficientoftubeandplate
radiators.
Thefrictioncoefficientl.mustbecalculatedintermsoftheReynolds
415/1563
09/09/2015
numberRe=^^wh
2/i,
ereiîi=nri"'Fo'"tubeandplateradiators
0.77
(3,000<Re<25,000)(seeFigure3.15).
0.D5
416/1563
09/09/2015
om
417/1563
09/09/2015
0.03
418/1563
09/09/2015
002
419/1563
09/09/2015
'
420/1563
09/09/2015
1.
421/1563
09/09/2015
2W^310^5W'W"
11I1
210*310*Be
FIGURE3.16,Variationwi.hReynoldsnumber
ofresisiancecoefficientofribbedtuberadiators.
Forribbedtuberadiators:
X=
0.98
(4.000<Re<10,000)
138
422/1563
09/09/2015
11IIIIIIIIIII!Illlllillllflllll111I
and
>.=,?:?LforRe>10,000(seeFigure3.16).
]/Re
Theadditionalresistanceofhottubeandplateandribbedtuberadiators
isfoundinthesamewayasforhoneycombradiators.
Resistanceofsettlingchambersfittedwith
turbulencescreensandhoneycombs
Theresistanceofthesettlingchamberisfrictional.Forahoneycomb
itisfoundinthesamewayasforahoneycombradiator.
Theresistancecoefficientofturbulencescreensis
^=:s[>3(.^)+(în.
whereF\isthecrosssectionalareaofthetunnel,foistheflowarea,
andnisthenumberofturbulencescreensselectedtoobtain^=2.0.
423/1563
09/09/2015
Headandcapacityratingsforawindtunnelfan
Table5showsthevaluesoftheresistancecoefficients,referredtothe
velocityheadinthetestsection,ofthevariouselementsofawindtunnel
foramaximumtestsectionvelocityoflOOm/sec(Figure3.17).
Theheadandcapacityofthefanrequiredforthistunnelcanbe
calculatedfromthedatagiveninTable5,Therequiredfanheadis
'i
whereVistheflowvelocityinthetestsectionandC;istheresistance
coefficientofatunnelelement,referredtothevelocityheadinthetest
section.
Therequiredfancapacityis
Q=F^^ym/sec
Thepowerofthefanmotoris
wheret)isthefanefficiency(usuallyabout0.65to0.75).
139
IHIi
424/1563
09/09/2015
TABLE5
Tunnelelement
Nozzle
Openlesisection
Closedtestsecton
Circularorelliptical
Rectangular
Circularorelliptical
Rectangular
Modelinatestsection...
425/1563
09/09/2015
Fourcorners.
Fan
Radiator.,
Settlingchamberandreturncircuit
Hone)conib
Turbulencescreens....
c
0.01
Testsection
0.11
Slotteddiffuser
0.15
Testsection
426/1563
09/09/2015
0.11
Slotteddiffuser
0.10
Testsection
0.014
Diffuser
0.10
Testsection
0.016
Diffuser
0.10
427/1563
09/09/2015
0.030
0.05
0.02
0.02
0.05
0.02
0.08
428/1563
09/09/2015
Referredtovelocit)headinthetestsection:C=Ci(~p')
TheenergyratioXofthetunnel(seep.24),whichdepencJsonthetunnel
resistanceandthefanefficiency,is
Calculationofvelocities,pressures,
andtemperatures
Thevelocities,pressures,andtemperaturesmustbecalculatedin
ordertoforecasttheloadsontunnelelements,theoperatingconditionsof
equipmentinstalledinthetunnel,andtheextenttowhichaircoolingis
necessary.Thevelocitydistributionvariesalongthetunnelinaccordance
withthechangingtunnelcrosssectionsincethemassflowrateisconstant
throughoutthetunnel.
Thestaticpressureandvelocityheaddistributionsatvarioussections
ofthetunnelaredeterminedfromBernouilli'slaw
Pi
429/1563
09/09/2015
=/'(+
^1.,
r^
wherethesubscriptsi,i+Icorrespondtotheinletandexitrespectively
ofthetunnelelementconsidered,whosetotalresistancecoefficientisJ.
140
C(Corner^^
FIGURE3.17.Geometryofsubsonicwindtunnel.
Sincethevelocityislow,compressibilitycanbeneglected,andwe
430/1563
09/09/2015
canassumethatpi=pj+,.
kg/m^Km/sec
600
Staticpressure(aboveatmospheric)
Pressurehead
Velocity
FIGURE3.18Distributionofvelocitiesandpressuresinacjosedcircuitwindtunnel
(V^nax"1"''m/sec).
Pressurjesintunnelswithopentestsectionsarebestdeterminedby
beginningwiththetestsection,wherethetotalpressureis
141
thecalculationsarebestbegunwiththefanoutletfortunnelswithclosed
testsections.Figure3.18showsthedistributionofvelocitiesandpressures
forthetunnelshowninFigure3.17.
431/1563
09/09/2015
Thetemperaturesinlowspeedclosedcircuittunnelscanbecalculated
byassumingthattheentirepowerofthedriveisconvertedintoheat.In
tunnelswithopentestsectionsandslotsinthediffuseritshouldbe
assumedthatabout10%ofthetunnelairwillbedrawnfromtheroomwhich
surroundsthetunnel.
10.GASDYNAMICSOFSUPERSONICTUNNELS
Thedesignproblem,ofsubsonicandsupersonicwindtunnelsconsists
incalculatingthepressure,densityandtemperatureinthetestsectionin
termsofthevelocity,andindeterminingthecapacity,compressionratio,
andpowerofthecompressorneeded(inacontinuousoperationtunnel)to
providetherequiredReynoldsandMachnumbersinthetestsection.In
anintermittentoperationtunnel,correspondingcalculationsmustyield
thenainimumreservoirvolumeandpressuretoobtaintherequiredvalues
ofReandMduringtheoperatingperiodt.
Compressor
7I65'5
Aircooler
/Settlingchamber
//Nozzle
432/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE3,19.Supersonicwindtunnel.
Thedesignofsupersonictunnelsdiffersconsiderablyfromthatof
subsonictunnelsbyvirtueofthelargevariationsofpressure,density,
andtemperaturethroughoutthetunnel.Furthermore,thelossesdueto
theresistanceoftunnelelementsaresmallcom.paredwiththelossesin
thediffuserandinthetestsectionwhenthenaodelisinstalled.
Designcalculationsofcontinuousoperationtunnels
Consideraclosedcircuitcontinuousoperationwindtunnel(Figure3.19).
Thecalculationsforsupersonictunnelsaremosteasilycarriedoutifthe
pressureandtemperatureinanypartofthetunnelareexpressedinterms
142
ofthetotalpressurepoiandstagnationtemperatureinthesettling
chamber,which,intunnelsofthistype,approximatethepressureand
teniperaturerespectivelyofthestillairinthetunnelwhenthefanisat
rest.ThevaluesofthevelocityX2[referredtothecriticalspeed]atthe
testsectioninlet,andofthecorrespondingMachnumberM=M2,are
assumedtobegiven.
Wedesignatetheratiooftotalpressuresattheinletandoutletofany
433/1563
09/09/2015
tunnelelementasitscoefficientofpressurerecovery^;=^""^'whilethe
correspondingratioofstagnationtemperaturesisOJ
Theratioofstagnationdensitiesis
tu+t___2L
901?
Thestatictemperatures,pressures,anddensitiesarefoundfrom
theexpressions
=1
Thevelocitiesattheinletsectionf,andoutletsectionf,+1ofanytunnel
elementarerelatedtoeachotherbytheequationofcontinuity
where
434/1563
09/09/2015
Thefunctionq=f{k)isgiveninFigure3.20andinTable6(forx=1.4).
Table6.Valuesofq{X)
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0,40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
435/1563
09/09/2015
?(')
jC.)
?lMi
0.65
08541
1,25
0,9271
0.0787
436/1563
09/09/2015
0.70
0.8920
1.30
8965
0.1570
0.75
0.9246
1.35
0,8629
0.2343
0.80
437/1563
09/09/2015
0.9515
1.40
0.8213
0.3101
0.85
0.9726
1.45
0.7775
0.3841
0.90
0.9877
438/1563
09/09/2015
1.50
0.7902
0.4555
0.95
0.9967
1.55
0,6802
0.5242
1.00
1.0000
1.60
0.6278
439/1563
09/09/2015
0.5895
1.05
0,9965
1.65
0.5737
0.6512
1.10
0,9877
1.70
0,5182
0.7088
440/1563
09/09/2015
1.15
0,9728
1.75
0.4625
0.7621
1.20
0.9528
1.80
0.4070
0.8105
441/1563
09/09/2015
1.85
1.90
1.95
2,00
2.05
2.10
2.15
2.20
2.25
2,30
2.35
2.40
0..3527
0.2999
0.2494
0.2021
0.1586
0.1196
0.0854
0.0569
0.0342
0.0174
0.0065
0.0012
442/1563
09/09/2015
143
Letusnowconsiderthechangesinvelocity,pressure,andair
temperatureindifferentpartsofthetunnel.
Settlingchamberandnozzle(vi).Theairflowinthesettling
chamberandnozzleisapproximatelyadiabatic.Thelossesinthenozzle
arerelativelysmallincomparisonwiththoseinothertunnelelements,
andareduemainlytofriction.Atsupersonicvelocities,thenozzle
losses8=1Varelessthan0.01to0.02,i.e.,thetotalpressurelossis
about1to2%.Itissafetoassumeincalculationsthatvi=0.98.
FIGURE3.20ValuesofjW.
Sinceheattransferthroughthewallsofthesettlingchamberandnozzle
(aswellasofothertunnelelements)isnegligible,wecanwrite
'
Testsectionandmodel(vz).Totalpressurelossesinthetest
sectionareduetofrictionattherigidwallsandtotheresistanceofthe
modelanditssupports.Inanopentestsection,alargeresistanceis
causedbytheintenseturbulenceatthefreejetboundary.
Thecoefficientofpressurerecoveryinaclosedcylindricaltestsection
Canbecalculatedfromtheratioofthevelocitiesatitsinletandoutlet:
443/1563
09/09/2015
v(h)
?M
Atvelocitiesclosetothespeedofsound
.+1
A^
144
whereAisfoundfromX2=li(\A).TherelationbetweentheIsandAis
givenapproximatelybytheexpression
'ts
Forgivenvaluesofp^^,I2andCiweobtaintherelationshipsbetweenX,
andA(or,whichisthesame,between^3andAs)andcanfind<?(X2),qiKs)and
444/1563
09/09/2015
'ts
V2..Insupersonictunnels,p^^=1to3.Theresistancecoefficientofthe
testsectioniscalculatedinthesamewayasforsubsonictunnels.Fora
closedtestsection^2=0.014,whileforanopentestsection^2=0.1.
Thus,theparameterC,^^variesbetween0.014and0.042(0.03onthe
average).Thedragcoefficientc^jofthennodelandsupportsismaximum
atvelocitiesclosetoM=1(ci=0.2).Theratio^=2''isgenerally
''t.S.''!
between0.1and0.15.Indesigningthetestsectionsofsupersonictunnels,
wecanassume
Cjo'^=V=n.03,
c^p"i^'^=n.02.
wherer=/,5/0,5.
Ifthewallshaveperforationsorslots,theresistanceofthetestsectionis
higher.Theincreaseinresistancedependsonthedegreeofperforation,i.e.,
theratiooftheareaoftheperforationstothetotalwallareaofthetest
section;thisratiovariesfromabout0.10forM=1.21.3toabout0.40
forM=1.71.8.Theresistanceofatestsectionwithperforated
wallscanbeassumedtobeabout50%higherthanthatofatestsectionwith
unperforatedwalls(c,,=0.045|.Therangeofthetransonicvelocities
445/1563
09/09/2015
obtainableattheinletofaclosedtestsectionislimitedbecausethemodel
anditssupportsblockthetunnelandthusincreasethevelocities.
Usingthecontinuityequation,thedependenceofthetestsectioninlet
velocity(X2)onthecrosssectionalarea(Fmod)ofthemodelcanbefoundby
assumingthatthevelocityatthemediansectionofthemodelissonic
(X~1).Inthiscase,
1^^'^=9(X,)=9(1A)^1Â.
Thisformulaisderivedfromthemomentumequation:
BydividingbothsidesbyPiV^Fja,=p,V,F,a,andsubstituting
P^'+'1
P
5(l^X=)
145
Itthusfollowsthatthereferredvelocityatthetestsectioninletwill
belessthanunitybyanamount
446/1563
09/09/2015
,1/^''mod
Expressingthereferredvelocity^2intermsoftheMachnumber,
obtain(neglectingA^bycomparisonwithA)
Forair(x=1.4)
AM=1.11/^".
Iftheareaofthemediansectioncomprises2%ofthecrosssection
ofthetunnel,thenAM=0.15,i.e.,themaximum,velocityattheinletof
thecylindricaltestsectionwillbe0,85timesthevelocityofsound='=.
Inmoderntransonictunnelsthisobstacletotheincreaseofthefree
streamMachnumberisovercome,aswehaveseen,byperforatingthe
walls,orbyforcedextractionofairthroughthewalls.
Foranopentestsectionpa=Ps,andweobtainfromthemomentum
equation
bHk^^^)]
where^2=0.1istheresistancecoefficientofthefreejet.
ItshouldbenotedthatX3<X2,i.e.,thevelocitydecreasesalongan
opentestsection.
447/1563
09/09/2015
Thepressurerecoverycoefficientis
P02
17+1^J
AssumingthatinanopentestsectionA.3=A.2(lA)wehaveapproximately*
vl__'+''
2'.V.1
whenX2=1
V,=1xA
ThevalueAMiscalledthevelocii)inductioncoriectionolttietunnel,andshouldbetakenintoaccount
whentestingmodelsattransonicvelocitiesinaclosedtestsection
Forcylindricalclosedtestsectionstheoutletvelocityis
1X2
448/1563
09/09/2015
146
^=\Uc^^'+v].
"mod_
ForE2=0.1;c^pS=o.02;1=2,weobtain
't.s.
vj=0.846(modelintestsection)
^2=0.86(nomodelintestsection).
Foropentestsectionswecanassumethatv=0.85.
Lossesinthediffuser
Thevalueofthepressurerecoverycoefficientvainadiffuseris
inferredfromtestresultsofdiffusersofdesignsimilartothatprojected.
Thepressurerecoverycoefficientcanbeestimatedapproximatelyfrom
449/1563
09/09/2015
thetotalpressureandequivalenttestsectionvelocity,usingthedataof
Figure3.21.
1.0
FIGURE3.21.Theoreticalpressurerecoverycoeffi
cientofadiffuserasafunctionoftotalpressureand
referredvelocity.1normalshock;2oblique
shock:3normal+obliqueshocks;4twoobliqueshocks;
5threeobliqueshocks;6fourobliqueshocks.
Lossesinthereturnduct
Inthesectionbetweenthediffuserandcompressorthevelocityislow,
sothatchangesintheairdensityandtemperaturemaybeignored.The
changeintoâlpressureis
PoiPoi+^='îHi
147
450/1563
09/09/2015
But
whence
Thevaluesof^,arecalculatedbythemethodusedforlowspeedtunnels.
Fortheductbetweenthediffuserandthecompressor(twocorners
+seconddiffuser+twocylindricalparts,etc.),thevalueofJ,,expressed
intermsofthevelocityheadintheseelements,isabout0.75.
Therespectivevelocitiesarecalculatedusingthemassflowrate
equation
Forvelocitiesbelow45m/seckisgenerallylessthan0.15.
Intheseconditions,thetotalpressurelossesbetweenthediffuserand
thecompressorare,forair,
V,=10.75^0.152=0.99.
Aconsiderablevelocityincreasetakesplacebetweensections5and5'
(Figure3.19)sincethecompressorrotoroccupiesaconsiderablepart
ofthetunnelcrosssection.Thevelocityincreasecanbecalculatedfrom
theequation
byassumingthat
5=^5=1.
Selectionofcompressor.Thetotalpressureimmediately
upstreamofthecompressordependsontheresistanceofthetunnel
returnductbetweenthecompressorandthesettlingchamber*.Inthe
settlingchamberandaircoolerXissmall(generallybelow0.1),so
thatwecanassumethat
451/1563
09/09/2015
Settingvs=1,wehave'.8=ti"p"îHere&i=4!îsthestagnation
's^8Tqs
temperatureratioacrosstheaircooler.
ForMachnumbersbelow2,thetotalpressurerecoverycoefficientV7inthispart,allowingforthe
resistanceofradiator,corners,honeycomb,andturbulencescreens,isabout0.9^
148
Assumingthattheaircoolerremovesalltheheatgeneratedfromthe
mechanicalenergyoutputofthecompressor,wehave
butsince7"o5=7"o,,and^=^1,itfollowsthat5=i.
Here,%=e*'whereeisthecompressionratioofthecompressor(which
dependsontheresistanceoftheentiretunnel)andt)isthecompressor
efficiency.Thecompressionratiomustbeequaltothetotalpressure
ratiobetweenthebeginningandendofthetunnel:
,__Pot
Pm
wherevisthepressurerecoverycoefficientfortheentiretunnel.The
452/1563
09/09/2015
compressionratioisfoundtoafirstapproximationbyassumingthat
va=V7=V6=I.UsingthevalueofethusdeterminedwecalculateAsfrom
theexpressions#5=^'''',So=jandl.^=0^1,,andalsodeterminev?andve
fromwhichamoreexactvalueofeisthencalculated.Themassflow
rateattheinletofthecompressoris
Ps
ExpressingQintermsofthereferredvelocityinthetestsectionandthe
totalpressureandstagnationtemperatureinthesettlingchamber,taking
intoaccountthat
11
P2=pc(lx^^')""'=Po?W(^)""'andPo=^,
weobtain
Thepowerofthecompressorwillthusbe
'^102
Inhermeticallysealedtunnels,itisnecessarytotakeintoaccountthe
variationwithtestsectionvelocityofthetotalpressureinthesettling
chamber.Lettheinitialpressureandtemperatureatzeroflowbe
Pinand7"i;assumingthat7";^=r,,,,wehave
453/1563
09/09/2015
^MPoiWi^'"'
149
whereWisthevolumeofthetunnel,andWithevolumeoftheith
elementofthetunnelwherethedensityispi.
Figure3.22showsthecompressorpowerrequiredpersquaremeter
ofthetestsectionflowareaasafunctionofthereferredvelocityinthetest
section.Itisassumedthatpoi=1atmandTo\=288K,andexamplesare
givenofdifferentsystemsofpressurerecoveryinthediffuser.
yV,kw
nooo
454/1563
09/09/2015
10000
F=;m2
t.s.
^\
5000
^^
1.0
455/1563
09/09/2015
2.0
FIGURE3.22,Variationofratedcompres
sorpowerwithreferredvefocit)inthetest
sectionofawingtunnelC/'=Im),
1normal+obliqueshock;behindthe
300
Q,m/sec
FIGURE323Theoreticalvariationofcom
pressionratiowithmassflowrateatcompres
sorinletfordifferenisystemsofpressurere
coveryinthediffuser.
shocksv=0.93;2normalshock;
behindtheshocky"0*93
ForthesameinitialconditionsFigure3,23showsthevariationof
compressionratioewithnaassflowrateatthecompressorinletfor
differentsystemsofpressurerecoveryinthediffuser(atT=288K).
Figure3.24showshowtheminimumrequiredcompressionratiovarieswith
themassflowrateandtheMachnumberofacontinuousoperationtunnel/I/''.
Figure3.25showscomparativevaluesofthelosscoefficients(5,=iv,)
456/1563
09/09/2015
indifferentpartsofthetunnel.Ascanbeseen,athightestsection
velocitiesthelossesaremainlyconcentratedinthediffuser.Thelosses
throughoutthereturncircuitarenegligible;thelossesinthetestsection
(orthenaodelresistancelossesinaclosedtestsection)areseveraltinaes
asgreatasthelosses(h^)inthereturncircuit.Thus,insupersonictunnels
attentionshouldbepaidtothecorrectdesignofthediffuserandthetest
section.
TherelationshipbetweenMandReinthetestsectionisthemain
criterionofthetestingcapacityofthetunnel.Thedeterminationofthis
*Experimentalvaluesfortheminimumrequiredcompressionratioaregivenforfixedgeometrydiffusersupto
M=2.5,andforvariablegeometrydiffusersatM>2.5(see/2/).
150
relationshipisthefinalstageinthetunneldesign.TheMachnumber
inthetestsectionis
andtheReynoldsnumber
Forairx=1.4,and
457/1563
09/09/2015
{i+1=1m')'''>
M=0.91,=
]^1O.I66X|
b0.07
Re=,7^=iôi
>>/r^(1+0.2M=)''
where6isatypicallineardimensionofthemodel.
\o
458/1563
09/09/2015
V?.5
N
,3.0
459/1563
09/09/2015
M=
02^
h.O
0.2O.'tas031.01.2
Q/Q'
FIGURE3.24.Variationofihenunimum
requiredcompressionratiowithmassflowrate
andMachnumberofacontmuousoperation
tunnel.Q*isthemassflowrateatA/=lin
thetestsection.
FIGUIIE3.25.Comparativevaluesoflosscoefficients
indifferentpartsofthetunnel.
460/1563
09/09/2015
Designcalculationofintermittentoperationtunnels
Pressurepoweredtunnels(Figure3.26).Thecalculation
consistsindetermining:a)theminimumpressurepomininthestoragecylinders
necessarytoobtaintherequiredMachandReynoldsnumbersinthetest
*Herep.istheviscositycoefficientofiheairtemperatureinthetestsection(seep.5).
151
section,andb)thevolumeWrequiredforgivenoperatingdurationtand
initialpressurepj^.
Airducts
Storage
cylinderft'^
461/1563
09/09/2015
NozzleTestsection
Diffuser
FIGURE3.26.Intermittentoperationpressurepoweredwind
tunnel
ThevaluesofpominforgivenMachnumbersarefoundfromthetotalpressure
lossesinthetunnel,intheairductbetweenthecylinderandthetunnel(va)
andfromtheexhaustlossestoatmosphere.Thetotalpressurelossesin
theairduct(va),thesettlingchamberandnozzle(vi),thetestsection
(V2),andthediffuser(V3)arefoundfromtheaboveformulas.The
exhaustlossescanbefoundfromtheexpression/3/
^Pa.
XIi2\l
462/1563
09/09/2015
,.\\
wherepaistheatmosphericpressure,podisthetotalpressureatthe
diffuserexitandXjisthereferredvelocityatthediffuserexit.
Assumingthatthepressureatthetunnelexitisatmospheric,weobtain
Pomin"
Pa
VjV,...V,1
TheReynoldsnumberinthetestsectionis
WhenReisgiven
463/1563
09/09/2015
Ômln12
r.+1\W^t>Re/gRT,,
withx=1.4,assumingT^=7"i(inthestoragecylinders)weobtain
n=244t??i/tT
Theoperatingdurationofthetunnelis
2m
x+1C?i,
/'Or
Pcin
464/1563
09/09/2015
152
where
ministhemassofairinitiallyinthecylinders,Qinistheinitialmassflow
rateoftheair.
Whenthestoragecylinderpressuresfallrapidly*,wenaustreplacex
byriK(wheretj<1).Forairt)0.8.
Ifthestoragecylinderpressurefallsslowly**theexpansionofthestored
airisvirtuallyisothermal,becauseofheattransfertothewalls.Wethen
have
and
Q=const
,_'"inf.fOmln]
'~L'PoJ
465/1563
09/09/2015
Vacuumpoweredtunnel(Figure3.27).Inthiscasetheairmass
flowrateisconstant:
Pa
Theoperatingdurationofthetunnelis
QgRTa^P"'"^pin/'
where/'p,=/'v^v,...v^(l_A_i_x2J"'isthefinal,andPpjj,theinitialpressure
intheevacuatedreservoir[whosevolumeisW].
466/1563
09/09/2015
NozzleTestsectionDiffuser
>^,//'rôtheevacuated
reservoir
,^W
FIGURE327Vacuumpoweredv/indtunnel.
Inducedflowtunnel(Figure3.28).Airfromhighpressure
cylinders(po,To)issuppliedtoanejectorprovidedwithamixingchamber
atwhoseoutletthetotalpressureofthecompressedairis;ciqandits
stagnationtemperatureisTo.TheinletareaofthemixingchamberisF'.
Tunneloperatingduration1to2min
**Tunneloperatingduration10to16min
153
467/1563
09/09/2015
Thevaluesofpoiand7"oiofthelowpressureairflowingthroughthe
testsectionareknownfromthedesigncalculationsforthetunnel(from
itsinlettothelocationoftheejector).Thetotalpressurepczatthemixing
chamberoutlet(i.e.,diffuserinletintheconsideredsystem)isdetermined
fromthetotalpressurerecoveryfactorofthediffuser.
P02=
Pa
ThecompressedairpressurePocanbeheldconstantwiththeaidofa
pressureregulator.Itis,however,bettertosupplyhighpressureair
totheejectorwithoutthrottlingbyslowlyincreasingtheareaF'to
compensateforthedecreaseintotalpressurepj.Forthedesign
calculationsofejectors,cf,/3/.
Airfromstorage..
Icylinders'Po>Q^
Pc'h,^
FIGURE3.2Inducedflowtunnel
468/1563
09/09/2015
TheoperatingdurationofatunnelinwhichtheareaF'(andthusthe
areaF)isadjustable,sothatthecompressedairpressureisvariable,
isinthecaseofadiabaticexpansion*
^?(î)i/^nf2r/Po^|N212^2[/PamV^,11
0(ô.//'..l)t^To.UIL'IPoinJ(''')^/'oinLUomij\\
Po\^*]I2\xi
whereQ=Fq(\)j^^^\^+^l^^^^^massflowrateofairthroughthetest
sectionp^^îstheinitial(total)pressureinthestoragecylinders,foinis
theinitial(stagnation)teraperatureinthestoragecylinders,ntmisthem.ass
Pn
ofairinitiallycontainedinthecylinders,andp^,^=istheminimum
pressureatwhichthetunnelcanoperate.
Intunnelsoperatedatconstantcompressedairpressure,the
operatingdurationofthetunnelis
t=
469/1563
09/09/2015
minliK)
x+1
^(e0
Herepoaandvâreassumedtobeconstant.
1680
154
Someremarksonthedesignofhypersonictunnels
Aswehaveseen(ChapterII),acharacteristicfeatureofhypersonic
tunnelsistheprovisionofaheaterandanozzlecoolingsystem,whose
effectsonthetemperatureandtheresistancetoflowhavetobetaken
470/1563
09/09/2015
intoaccount.
Theresistanceoftheheater,whichislocatedinaregionoflow
velocities,canbedeterminedfromitsgeometry.Thechangeof
resistanceinthenozzle,duetoitscooling,canbeaccountedforby
consideringflowwithheatremoval.
Themaindifficultyisthedesignofhypersonictunnelsarisesinthe
determinationoftheresistanceofthediffuserandthetestsectionwiththe
modelinit.Theresistanceofthesetunnelelementsisanimportantfactor
inselectingthecompressionratiosrequiredtoobtaintheratedvelocityin
thetestsection.Theresistanceisdeterminedmoreexactlybyexperiment
thanbycalculation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.Lukasiewicz,J.D.Razvitiebol'shikhaerodinamcheskikhtrub
krateovreniennogodeistviya(TheDevelopmentofLargeInter
mittentOperationWindTunnels).[RussianTranslation,]
CollectionofTranslationsandReviews,"Mekhanika",No.6(34).
IL.1955.
2.Lukasiewicz,J.D.Diffuzorysverkhzvukovykhaerodinamicheskikh
trub(DiffusersofSupersonicWindTunnels).[Russian
Translation.]CollectionofTranslationsandReviews,"Mekhanika"
No.5(28).IL.1954.
3.Abramovich,G.N.Prikladnayagasovayadinamika(AppliedGas
Dynamics).Gostekhizdat.1953.
471/1563
09/09/2015
155
illHIIIIIII
ChapterIV
MEASUREMENTOFFLOWPARAMETERS
INWINDTUNNELS
Inthischapterwewillconsidertestmethodsinwindtunnelswhere
conditionsaresteady,i.e.,theflowparametersareconstantintime.
Themostimportantparametersinaerodynamicexperimentsarepressure,
temperature,velocity,anddirectionofflow.
Pressureisdefinedasforceperunitsurfacearea.Itresultsfrom,the
collisionofgasmoleculeswithasurface.Themagnitudeofthepressure
exertedbyaperfectgasonawallisdeterminedbythem.eanvelocityof
thesemoleculesandbythenumberofcollisionswiththewallinunittime.
Thenumberofthecollidingmoleculesdependsonthegasdensity,while
thevelocityofthemoleculesisafunctionoftheabsolutetemperature,and
isthusdeterminedbythekineticenergyofthemoleculesintheir
translational,rotational,andvibratorymotion.Thepressurep,
temperatureT,anddensitypofaperfectgasarerelatedbytheequationof
state
p=9gRT,(4.1)
472/1563
09/09/2015
whereRisthegasconstant(forairR=29.27m/degree).
Steadyflowinwindtunnelscangenerallybeconsideredtobeone
dimensionalandadiabatic(noheatexchangewiththeoutside).Itisalso
oftenpermissibletoneglecttheviscosityandthermalconductivityof
thegasandtoconsiderthegasasaperfectfluid.Continuousadiabatic
flowofaperfectgasisisentropicbecauseintheabsenceofinternalfriction
andheattransfer,allprocessesinaperfectgasarereversible.
Theenergyequationforadiabaticflowbetweentworegions1and2,
wherethevelocitiesareV|andV2,is
'2+2^='.+2^(4.2)
Thisequationisalsovalidforarealgas,inwhichviscosityandheat
transferaffecttheflow.
Thequantity(4.2)iscalledheatcontentorenthalpy.Forgaswith
specificheatsCj,andc,satisfyingtheequationofstate(4.1),i=CpT.
Themechanicalequivalentofheat/isequalto427kgm/kcal.
IfVjotheenergyequationtakestheform:
<^pT+^j=<:pTf;,(4.3)
whereCpT^=i'oistheheatcontentofthestagnantgas.
156
Thelocalvelocityofsoundatanypointinthegasisgivenby
473/1563
09/09/2015
a^=>.gRT,(4.3a)
also
Wecanthususe(4.3)torelatethestagnationtemperaturetothestatic
temperatureofthegasandtheMachnumberM=V/a,
^=1+^^M2.(4.4)
Insubsonicandsupersonictunnels,heatingisnegligibleorzero,and
X=Cplccanbeassumedtobeconstant(forair,y.=1.4).
From(4.4)andtheequationofadiabaticexpansionofaperfectgas.
Pt,IPo/\Tal
weobtaintherelationshipsbetweenthepressuresanddensitiesandthe
Machnumberforisentropicflow,
^=(l+^rM^)^.(4.5)
^=(l+'^M^)^.(4.6)
Thepressurepo,thetemperatureTo,andthedensitypo,which
correspondtoagasisentropicallybroughttorest,arecalledstagnation
parameters,andarethemostimportantcharacteristicsofthegas.The
stagnationparametersarefullydeterminedby(4.1)ifanytwoofthem,
areknown.Thestagnationpressurepoisalsocalledtotalpressure.
474/1563
09/09/2015
Theparameterspoandpoareconstanteverywhereinanisentropicflow.
Thestagnationtemperatureisconstanteverywhereinaonedimensional
adiabaticflow,inwhichthereisnoheatexchangewiththeoutside,although
theremaybeinternaldissipationofenergy,as,forexample,inashock
wave.Equations(4.4)through(4.6)areusedinmeasuringanddetermining
thegasflowparametersinwindtunnels.Differentconditionsapplywhen
shockwavesoccur,andwethenuserelationships,whosederivationcanbe
foundintextbooksonaerodynamics(e.g..Ill),betweentheflowparameters
upstreamanddownstreamoftheshockwave.
TheRankineHugoniotequations(4.7and4.8)relatethepressuresand
densitiesupstream(unprimedsymbols)tothosedownstream(primed)ofa
normalplaneshockwave(seeFigure4.1).
x+1p'
xlp
11"+
9
p'
475/1563
09/09/2015
'1X1
pI_
p
11'p
(4.7)
(4.8)
157
Thechangeofvelocityinpassingthroughtheshockwaveisgivenby
VV'=al(4.9)
where
<^.=\/êRTo(4.10)
476/1563
09/09/2015
isthecriticalvelocityofsound,whichdependsonlyontheinitialgas
temperature.Thecriticalvelocityofsoundalsodeterminesafurther
parameter,similartotheMachnumber:
X=^.(4.11)
Theratioofvelocitiesupstreamanddownstreamofashockwavecan
convenientlybeexpressedintermsoftheupstreamvalueofK.
^=X2.(4.12)
Theratiosofstaticpressures,ofdensities,andoftotalpressures
upstreamanddownstreamofashockwavecanbeexpressedasfollows
intermsoftheMachnumber:
"'^"^M'^.(4.13)
Po
TherelationshipbetweentheMachnumbersupstreamanddownstream
oftheshockwaveis
2i+^M^
Foranobliqueshockwave,theratiosofstaticpressures,densities,
andtotalpressuresaregivenbyformulasinwhichtheanglepbetween
477/1563
09/09/2015
theshockwaveandtheupstreamflowdirection(Figure4.2),depends
ontheangle6throughwhichtheflowdirectionchanges.Theseequations
differfromthoseforanormalshockwaveonlyinthattheycontainthe
componentoftheMachnumberinthedirectionperpendiculartotheshock
wave.
^=^M'sin=P^.(4.17)
p,_(x+l)M'sin'P,..
p~(Xl)M2sin2p+2\.iO)
P"^{2^M'sin^B^M^^r^')M'sin'P+2l7^,.,gv
158
TheMachnumberdownstreamofanobliqueshockwaveis
i+iriw^
Mcos2p
xM^sin^p
478/1563
09/09/2015
1+
11
(4.20)
Msin^p
In(4.17)through(4.20)thesubscripts1refertotheparametersdownstream,
oftheshockwave.
/x/////y//////^/////////
PP
M.V
479/1563
09/09/2015
PP'
y777777777777?y7777777>
FIGURE4.1.Normalplaneshock.
Shock
//////////////>7i
FIGURE4.2.Obliqueshock.
Thetestmethoduseddetermineswhichoftheseformulasapplyinany
particularcase.Themethodofmeasurementwill,inturn,dependonthe
equipmentusedandonthetypeofproblem.Itisimportantinall
measurementstoknowtheparanaetersoftheundisturbedflow.Quantitative
measurements,suchasthedeterminationoftheaerodynanniccoefficientsof
ascalemodelinawindtunnel,demandthattheseparametersbeknownto
amuchhigherdegreeofaccuracythanwhenmerelyinvestigatingthenature
oftheflowaroundthemodel.Measurementsintheregionwheretheflowis
480/1563
09/09/2015
disturbedbythemodelandisnolongerisentropicaremoredifficultthan
measurementsupstreamofthemodel.Miniaturetestprobesmayhaveto
bemountedinsuchregionswhentestingbladeandwingcascades,
determiningthedragbypulsetechniques,studyingtheboundarylayer,etc.
Thepressureandtemperatureofagas,whichcanbedirectlymeasured,
fullydetermineitsstate,andpernnitcalculationofthedensity,viscosity,
thermalconductivity,andotherphysicalquantities,whosedirect
measurementmaybedifficultorimpossible.
Inastationarymediumthedirectmeasurementofpressureand
temperatureisnotdifficult,sincetheresultsareunlikelytobeaffected
bychangesintheattitudeofthesensors.Whenthemediumismoving,
themeasurementofpressureandtemperatureisconsiderablymore
difficult.Dependingonitsorientation,andinsomecasesonthedesign
oftheinstrument,theindicatedpressureortemperaturecanrangefrom
the"static"value,whichcorrespondstothetrueflowvelocity,uptoa
valuecorrespondingtostagnationconditions.Duetoitsfinitesize,a
sensorwilldisturbthemovingmedium.Indesigningprobes,pickups,
andtransducersformeasuringpressuresandtenaperatures,itisthere
foreimportanttominimizethedisturbancestheycausebymakingthem,
ofsmallsizeandcorrectshape.
159
Measurementmethodsnotrequiringtheinsertionofprobesintothe
mediumarecommonlyused.Thus,forinstance,iftheflowbetweenthe
settlingchamberandthetestsectionofatunnelisisentropic,thevelocity,
pressure,andtemperatureoftheflowinthetestsectioncanoftenbe
calculatedfromtheinitialdata(stagnationpressureandtemperaturein
481/1563
09/09/2015
thesettlingchamber),supplenaentedbymeasurementsofthepressureat
thewall.Ifthenatureofthegasflow(e.g.,possibleheattransfertothe
gas)isuncertain,itwillbenecessarytomeasurethetemperatureor
densityinadditiontothepressure.Thedensityiscommonlydetermined
byopticalmethods,whichareveryimportantinthestudyofcompressible
gasflowinboundarylayerswheretheinsertionofprobesmightsubstantially
distorttheflowpattern.
11.PRESSURKMEASUREMENT*
Pressuremeasurementinexperimentalaerodynamicsisimportant
notonlyfordeterminingthestateofthegas.Fromthepressuredistribution
onabodywecandeterminetheforcesactingonit;bymeasuringthe
pressuresatappropriatepointsonthesurfaceofthemodelorthewallof
thewindtunnel,wecandeterminethelocalvelocityandthevelocityofthe
undisturbedflow.
Theaboveformulasarebasedonabsolutepressures.Pressure
measurementsareoftenmadewithmanometers,whichmeasurethe
differenceinpressurebetweentworegions.Onlyifinoneofthesethere
existsperfectvacuum,willthemanometermeasuretheabsolutepressure;
ifthereferenceregionisatatmosphericpressuretheinstrumentwill
indicategagepressure;todeterminetheabsolutepressure,anadditional
barometermustbeused.Inaerodynamicexperimentsitisoftenusefulto
measurethedifferencebetweenagivenpressureandthestaticpressurein
theundisturbedflow;adifferentialmanometerisemployedforthispurpose.
Whenstudyingthemotionofaliquid,knowledgeofthestaticandtotal
(stagnation)pressuresisveryimportant.Thestaticpressureinthe
undisturbedflowmaybedefinedasthepressureactingonthewallofabody
imaginedtobemovingatthesannevelocityasthemedium..Thestagnation
pressureisthepressureofthefluidimaginedtobebroughttorest
482/1563
09/09/2015
isentropically.
Measurementofstaticpressure
Itisvirtuallyimpossibletouseaprobemovingwiththestreamto
m.easurestaticpressure.Acommontechniqueistoconnecta
stationaryiprobetoanorificedrilledperpendicularlytothewallofthe
testmodelatapointwherethestreamlinesareundistortedandparallel
tothestreamlinesintheundisturbedflow.Neglectingminordisturbances
causedbytheorificethepressuresensedbythemanometerisequalto
thestaticpressureintheflow.
[ForpressuremeasurementdevicesseeChapterV.]
160
Thestaticpressureinaflowcanonlyvarybetweenpointsinaplane,
normaltotheundisturbedflow,ifthestreamlinesarecurved.Ifthe
streamlinesarestraight,transversevelocitygradientsdonotaffectthe
staticpressure.Itisthereforebesttomeasurethestaticpressureinan
undisturbedflowatapointwherethemediummovesparalleltoawall
(Figure4.3a),andallthestreamlinesarestraight(neglectingboundary
layerdisturbances).The(effectivelyconstant)pressuredifferenceacross
athinboundarylayeratacurvedwalldoesnotaffectthestaticpressure
actingatthesensororifice.
483/1563
09/09/2015
^^fe
Tothe
manometer
Tothe
manometer
FIGURE4.3.Measurementofstaticpressure,aataflatwall;
batacurvedwall.
Thestaticpressureintheundisturbedflowinawindtunnelisoften
measuredwiththeaidoforificesintheflatorcylindricalwallsatthe
entrancetothetestsection.
Thestaticpressureatanorificedrilledperpendicularlytoacurved
wall,pastwhichthestreamlinesarecurved(Figure4.3b),differsin
generalfromthenormalpressureatthispoint.
Kthestaticpressureacrossthewindtunnelisnotconstantitcanbe
mappedusingastaticpressuresensorconsistingofabodyplacedin
thestream.Sensingholesdrilledatcertainpointsofthisbodyare
connectedtothemanometer.Atthenoseofabody(ofanyshape)the
484/1563
09/09/2015
streamlinesarealwayscurved.Atonepointatthenose,themedium
isstationary,andthepressureatthispointofthesensingbodyis
equaltothetotalorstagnationpressure.Atotherpointsofthesurface
ofthebodythepressuresdifferingeneralfromboththestagnationand
staticpressuresintheundisturbedflow.
Staticpressuresensorscanbedividedintotwogroups.Thefirst
groupcomprisessensorshavingtheformofshorttubesinsertedintheflow
direction.Insuchtubesthesensingorificesareplacedatpointswherethe
pressureisclosetothestaticpressure,butwhereaconsiderablepressure
gradientexistsalongthesurface.Thus,onthesurfaceofacircular
cylinderwhoseaxisisperpendiculartotheflow,suchpointsarelocatedat
anglesofabout30totheflowdirection(Figure4.4).
161
Thecharacteristicsofastaticpressuresensorareexpressedin
termsoftheparameter(determinedbycalibration)
or(,'=S.iZUL^
P
wherepisthetruestaticpressureintheundisturbedflow,andpjisthe
pressuremeasuredbythemanom.eterconnectedwiththesensor.
Fortubesofthefirstgroupthevaluesoft,and%'areusually
influencedconsiderablybythevaluesofReandM.Afurtherdrawback
isthatsmallerrorsinthepositionoftheorificesconsiderablyinfluence
thecalibration.Theyarethereforeseldomusedformeasuringthestatic
pressureintheundisturbedflowinwindtunnels.However,duetotheir
485/1563
09/09/2015
smallcrosssection,thesetubesareoftencombinedwithsensorsformeasuring
thetotalpressureintheflowdirection,whentheflowisverydisturbed
andspaceislimited(forinstance,intheclearancesbetweenthediscsof
axialturbomachines).
PrP
1.0r
ID
3.0
A^
486/1563
09/09/2015
\
\\
\\
"^
1
1
1
\\
1
1
1
487/1563
09/09/2015
\^.
\Vv
1/
^^v^
jHim
W^
488/1563
09/09/2015
\v^
\vO
'
V\
/>
489/1563
09/09/2015
\^'
'1
1
Potential
\
\
flow
WBO120WD
FIGURE4.4.Pressuredistributiononthe
surfaceofacylinderplacedtransversely
490/1563
09/09/2015
totheflow.
FIGU!^4.5.Pressuredistributiononthe
surfaceofacylinderwithafairednose,
alignedparalleltothestream.
Thesecondgroupincludestubespartsofwhosesurfacesarecylindrical
withgeneratricesparalleltothedirectionoftheundisturbedflow.The
orificesaresufficientlydownstream,sothattheinitialdisturbancesare
alreadyattenuatedandthestreamlinesarepracticallyparalleltothe
directionoftheundisturbedflow.Usuallysuchprobesareaxisymmetrical
ordiscshaped.Thepressuredistributionatthesurfaceofacylindrical
body,withstreamlinedflowarounditsnose,isshowninFigure4.5.On
thecylindricalpartofthebody,atacertaindistancefromthenose,there
isalwaysaregionwherethepressureatthewallisequaltothestatic
pressureintheundisturbedflow.
Thestaticpressureatpointsinsidewindtunnelsforlowsubsonicspeeds
areusuallymeasuredbymeansofPrandtltubes(Figure4.6a),whichhave
162
semisphericalnoses.Thetubeisinsertedintothestreamsothatitsaxis
liesinthedirectionoftheundisturbedflow.Thestaticpressureis
transmittedintothetubethroughopeningsorslotslocatedbetweenthe
noseandthestemusedformountingthetubeandconnectingIttoa
491/1563
09/09/2015
manometer.Thestemdisturbstheflow[stemeffect],andcausesa
localincreaseinthestaticpressureneartheorifices.Ontheotherhand,
thedisturbancesatthenosecausealocalvelocityincreaseandapressure
decrease.Figure4.7showstheinfluenceofthepositionofnoseandstem
ofaPrandtltubeontheerrorinmeasuringthestaticpressure.The
differencebetweentheindicatedpressurep;andthetruepressurep,
FIGURE4.6.Tubesformeasuringstaticpressure,aPrandtltube;
bdisctube;ctubewithconicalnose;dtubewithogivalnose.
expressedasapercentageofthevelocityhead,isplottedasafunctionof
thedistancesoftheorificefromthenoseandfromthestemaxis.The
mostsuitablepositionfortheorificeiswheretheeffectsofbothnoseand
stemaresmall,orbalanceeachother.Forsubsonicmeasurementsthe
orificesareusuallyplacedatadistanceof3to8diametersfromthenose.
Thedimensionsofthetubedependonitspurpose.Inlargewind
tunnels,tubesofdiametersupto10mmmaybeused.Formeasuring
thestaticpressureinverynarrowchannelsandintheboundarylayerthe
externaldiametermaybefrom0.3to2mm.
163
492/1563
09/09/2015
Disctubes(Figure4.6b),haveorificesdrilledinthecenterofone
sideofthedisc,andareinsertedintothestreamsothatthesurfaceof
thediscisparalleltotheflowdirection
Thesetubesareverysensitiveto
theorientationofthediscinthestream.
Theorificesinthewallsofthetube
ortunnelcausecertaindisturbancesin
theflowclosetothewall;themedium,
flowingpasttheorificesispartially
mixedwiththestagnantmediuminside
them.Thisandthecentrifugalforces
actingonthefluid,causesthestream
linesadjacenttotheorificestobecome
curved,sothatthepressureinsidethe
tubeisnotexactlyequaltothestatic
pressureintheflow.Theprincipal
errorsinstaticpressuremeasurements
bym.eansoforificesarisefromthe
viscosityofthefluidwhichmanifests
itselfintheboundarylayer.The
pressureinfairlydeeporificesexceeds
thetruepressure,theerrordecreasing
asthediameteroftheorificeisreduced.
Iftheorificediameterissmall
comparedwiththethickness6ofthe
boundarylayer,thedifferencebetween
theorificepressureandthetruestatic
493/1563
09/09/2015
pressurecanbeexpressedasfollows
indimensionlessform/2/:
Stem
effect
494/1563
09/09/2015
28"^
20
12
/'
'e
Jose
ffect
20
495/1563
09/09/2015
28
in
_L
FIGURE4.7.Influenceofnoseandstem
onerrorsinmeasuringstaticpressure.
Ap
cRs'
496/1563
09/09/2015
Here,toisthefrictionalshearingstressatthewall:
%=V
av\
wherenistheviscositycoefficientofthefluidandReistheReynolds
number,calculatedfromtheorificediameterdandthevelocityVjata
distancey=dfromthewall,assumingalinearvelocitydistributioninthe
boundarylayer.Thus,
""~'(X~dyV'
wherev=n/p.TheReynoldsnum.bercanalsobeexpressedintermsofto;
Re=4^.
Thecoefficientcdependsontheratiooftheorificedepth/
d,andvariesfrom1.0(for//rf=1.75)to2.16(for//d=0.1),
3.0<Re<1000.
497/1563
09/09/2015
tothediameter
with
164
Figure4.8showsthevaluesofthiserrordeterminedindimensionless
formasafunctionofReynoldsnumberfromturbulentflowmeasurements
/2/.Fororificesdrilledperpendiculartothewallandconnectedtothe
manonaeterthroughatubeofdiameter2d,theerrorisindependentofIjd
when1.5<j<6
TheOrificediameterisgenerallybetween0.25and2mm,
theratioIjdbeingnotlessthan2.
ID
ip
2.0
498/1563
09/09/2015
1.0
l./(tl.5itiB.O
tidl
^^"^
^^X>*
IJd'ol"
499/1563
09/09/2015
mm600m
as
FIGURE4.8.Orificeerror(expressedindimensionless
form)instaticpressuremeasurements.
Inpractice,theerrorcausedbytheorificeissmall.Thus,for
instance.Figure4.9showstheerrorsinmeasuringthestaticpressure
forbothwaterandairina25,4mmborepipe,polishedinternally/3/.
Fororificediameterslessthan0.5mmtheerrordoesnotexceed0.3%
ofthevelocityheadoftheflow.
Compressibilityeffectsonthereadingsofahemisphericalnosestatic
pressuretubebecomenoticeablewhenthefreestreamMachnumberM
risesabove0.8.Atlargesubsonicvelocitieslocalsupersonicregions
appearonthecylindricalpartoftheprobe,whichareaccompaniedbyshock
waves.Theseregionsareupstreamoftheorifices,sothatthepressure
measuredexceedsthetruestaticpressure.AsMapproachesunity,the
zoneofsupersonicflowspreadsovertheorifices,whichthusexperience
pressuresbelowthatintheundisturbedflow.
WhenMisgreaterthan1,adetachedshockappearsupstreamofthe
tube.Nearthetubetheshockwaveisnormaltothetubeaxis;
thestaticpressuredirectlydownstreamoftheshockisrelatedtothe
staticpressureupstreamofitby(4,13).
Ifwemovetheorificesalongthetubesothattheyarewelldownstreamof
theshockwave,themeasuredstaticpressurewilltendtowardsthevalue
fortheundisturbedflow.ThisisclearlyseeninFigure4.10,which
showstheerrorsinstaticpressuremeasurementforvariousdistances
betweenthehemisphericalnoseandtheorifices/4/.Wecanalso
500/1563
09/09/2015
seefromFigure4.10thattheerrorsinmeasuringthestaticpressureat
highsubsonicvelocitiesareevensmallerwithconicalnozzles
(Figure4.6c).
165
1.6
/.
"Î1.2
^^'
&W
sas
501/1563
09/09/2015
as
a
6
50.^
0.2
4
4'/
/"
502/1563
09/09/2015
Mt
tAfl<
/V^^^^
U^'"
//
1f
503/1563
09/09/2015
7/
//
1iJ
504/1563
09/09/2015
flj/.^/.510Z.5
Cf,MM
FIGURE4.9.Effectoforificedimensionsonindicatedstaticpressure.
H2il
<1
505/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE4.10.Errorsinstaticpressuremeasurementattransonic
velocities.
166
Goodresultsarealsoobtainedwithogivaltubes(Figure4.6d).The
tubeshowninFigure4.11hasasystematicerrornotexceeding1%/4/.
tlJrf
FIGURE4.il.Ogivaltube.
Conicalorogivaltubesmustbeusedatsupersonicvelocitiestoreduce
thestrengthoftheShockwave.Thetaperangleoftheconicalnose
shouldbelessthantheangleatwhichtheshockwavebecomesdetached
fromthecone(Figure4.12).Theorificesmustbeplacedatadistance
notlessthan10to15diametersfromthebeginningofthecylindricalpart
506/1563
09/09/2015
ofthetube.Specialcareshouldbetakenwhendrillingtheseholes
sinceatsupersonicvelocitiesthesmallestroughnessattheedgesmay
causelargeerrorsinthepressuremeasurement.
5.0
3.0
1.0
Attachedshock/
wave^
^^^j^Detached
^^,0''^^'shock
507/1563
09/09/2015
_Hwave
20
a'
FIGURE4.12.Conditionsforattachment
anddetachmentofashockwaveinfront
ofacone.
Pointedtubesarealsonecessarybecausetheshockwavespropagated
fromthenosesmaybereflectedfromthetunnelwallandaffectconditions
neartheorifices(Figure4.13).Thepressureincreasebehindtheshock
wavewillther^propagateupstreaminthesubsonicpartoftheboundarylayer,
sothatthepressureattheorificesmayexceedthestaticpressureinthe
undisturbedflow.
Ifatubeisinsertedatanangletotheundisturbedflowdirection,the
streamlinesneartheorificeswillbedistortedandthepressure
508/1563
09/09/2015
167
measurementsbecomeinaccurate.Thedependenceofitscalibration
coefficientonyaw()isthereforeanimportantcharacteristicofatube.
Orifice
y////////////////////A
FIGURE4.13.Effectoftube
measurementsinsupersonicflow.
Figure4.23showsthisdependenceforaPrandtltube(curve1).The
effectofyawisreducedbyarrangingseveralorificessothatthepressure
insidethetubeisanaveragevalue.Usuallythetubehasfrom4to8
orificeswhosediametersareabout1/lOthoftheoutsidediameterofthetube.
.^WBd\.
509/1563
09/09/2015
lOd
0.35mmhole
e
til
/A
/,
y
fz
510/1563
09/09/2015
/'
Shock
wave
15
Sectionaa
511/1563
09/09/2015
FIGUEIE4.14.EffectofyawontheindicationofatubeatM=1.6.
FIGURE4.15.Staticpressure
tubeforsupersonicflow.
Figure4.14showstheeffectofyawontheindicationsofatubewith
alongogivalnoseatM=1.6/5/.Thedifferentcurvescorrespondto
differentorientationsoftheorifices.Theerrorisleastforatubewith
twoopeningssituatedintheplaneofyaw,sincethepressureincreaseat
oneorificeisthencompensatedbythepressuredecreaseattheother.
Thestaticpressureattransonicorsupersonicvelocitiesmaybe
measuredwithawedgeshapedtube(Figure4.15).Theorificeshould
beinsidethetriangleABCformedbytheleadingedgeABandtheshock
wavespropagatedfromthecornersAandB.
168
Measurementoftotalpressure
Thegasparticlescometorestsoquicklyatthestagnationpointofa
body,thatheattransferandfrictionlossesarenegligible.Insubsonic
flowthegasthereforeundergoesonlyisentropicchanges,andthetotal
pressureatthestagnationpointisalmostexactlyequaltotheinitial
512/1563
09/09/2015
stagnationpressureinthesettling
chamberofthetunnel.Thispressure
isrelatedtothestaticpressureofthe
undisturbedflowby(4.5).Friction
lossestakeplaceintheboundarylayer
onlydownstreamofthestagnationpoint.
Theflowvelocityatthesurfaceofa
bodyisalsoequaltozero,buthere
thisisduetofriction,andthechangeis
notisentropic.
Totalpressureismeasuredwitha
cylindricaltubehavinganorificepointing
towardtheflow.Theshapeofthenose
andtheratiooftheorificediameterto
theexternaldiameterofthetubedonot
influencethetotalpressuremeasurements
overawiderangeofvelocities,provided
thattheaxisofthetubecoincideswith
theflowdirection.Itistherefore
standardpracticetousetubeswithblunt
ends(Figure4.16)whichareinsensitivetoyawatanglesofupto10to12.
Atsupersonicvelocities,ashockwaveappearsupstream,ofthetubenose;
behindthisshockwavethegasmovesatsubsonicvelocity,sothatthe
tubemeasuresonlythetotalpressurebehindtheshockwave,whichdiffers
fromthefreestreamtotalpressurebecauseofenergydissipationinthe
shock.Theratioofthetotalpressuresupstreamanddownstreamofthe
shockwavecanbecalculatedfrom(4.15).Inordertomeasurethetotal
pressuremoreexactly,thetubeorificeismademuchsmallerthanthe
outsidediameterofthetube.Thisensuresthattheorificeiscompletely
behindthenormalpartoftheshockwave.Thetotalpressurelossin
shockwavesatvelocitiesbetweenM=1.0andM=1.25islessthan1%.If
513/1563
09/09/2015
suchanerrorisacceptable,thereadingsofthepressuretubecanbeused
withoutcorrection.
Viscosityhasanegligibleeffectonthereadingsoftotalpressuretubes
overaverywiderangeofReynoldsnumbers.Viscositycanindeed
generallybeignoredinaerodynamicexperiments,sinceitaffectsflowat
atmosphericpressureonlywhenthevelocityiswellbelow1m/sec.This
happensonlyinboundarylayersatwalls.Ithasbeenexperimentallyshown
/3/thatthecorrectionfortheeffectofReynoldsnumbervariationonthe
indicationofthinwalledcylindricaltubesisgivenby
FIGURE4.16.Totalpressuretube.
PuiP
2
\+
5.6
Re'
(4.21)
514/1563
09/09/2015
whereReiscalculatedfromtheradiusoftheorifice.Insupersonicflow
experimentsat2.3<M<3.6,viscositycanbeneglectedatReynoldsnumbers
169
above200/6/;inmeasuringpotheerrorisonly2or3%whenRe=100.
Totalpressuretubesarelesssensitivetoyawthanstaticpressure
tubes.Theinfluenceofyawonthereadingsoftubesofvariousnose
shapesisshowninFigures4.17through4.19,wherepoiPoistheerror
duetoyaw.
FIGURE4.17.Errorinmeasuringthetotalpressure,asafunctionofthe
angleofyaw.
WeseefromFigure4.17thattheaccuracyofatotalpressuretubewith
ahemisphericalnosedependsontheangleofyawandvariesinverselywith
theratiooftheorificediametertotheoutertubediameter.Figure4.18
0.1
0.2
515/1563
09/09/2015
PojPo
Po
0.3
0.1
^>
516/1563
09/09/2015
"
oMfl5
517/1563
09/09/2015
^g
a
518/1563
09/09/2015
W.20
30
W50
60
FIGURE4.18.Errorinmeasuringthetotalpressure,as
afunctionofangleofyawfortubeswithroundedand
planenoses.
showstheresultsofcomparativetestsattwovaluesofMfortwotubes,
onewithahemisphericalhead,theothercutoffatarightangle.
170
Bluntnosedtubesarelesssensitivetoyawthantubeswithroundedoff
noses.Comparisonbetweentubeswithconicalnosesandtubeswith
519/1563
09/09/2015
orificesconicalinward(Figure4.19)showsthatthelatterareless
affectedbyyaw.
^r
^^TPZT?,
g??????
^n
W^PP?\
m^,
'/////A\
520/1563
09/09/2015
yy^y^yyA\
^
^
^^////A\
^=o./^5
^0.96
'OM
521/1563
09/09/2015
W
'\so
lo
0.66
0.33
M'0.26
tir
^23
13
~18
121
*13
10.5
522/1563
09/09/2015
n'1.62
t((
20
32
t29
tlT
till
FIGURE4.19.Typesoftotalpressuretube,showingyawatwhichthe'
errorinmeasuringthetotalpressureis1/bofthevelocityhead.
Whenmeasuringthetotalpressureinastronglyconvergingflow,
devicesareusedinwhichthetubeisplacedinsideashieldwhichguides
~\0S?1)\
at'iTx.ih&nl'D
a=i:6'i\i\\mL=O.I5D
^0.57Ifi.
523/1563
09/09/2015
0.51D
0.5ID
a'3d.5'
.*/.J
FIGUi^4.20.Shieldedtotalpressuretubes.istheyawanglebelowwhichthe
errorinmeasuringthetotalpressureislessthan1"yo.ashieldwithopen
outlet;bshieldwithclosedoutlet;cshieldwithasinglerowofout
letopenings;dshieldwith3rowsofoutletopenings.
theairflowtotheorifice(Figure4.20).Thesensitivitytoyawofsuch
tubesdependsonthetaperoftheinletconeoftheshieldandonthe
171
524/1563
09/09/2015
crosssectionalareaoftheopeningsthroughwhichtheairleavestheshield.
Bestresultsareobtainedwithshieldswhoseoutletcrosssectionsareequalto
orslightlyexceedtheinletcrosssections.Iftheinlettaperangleislarge
theangleofyawmayattain64beforetheerrorinmeasuringthetotal
pressureexceeds1%ofthevelocityhead.Simplifiedshieldedminiature
tubesformeasuringthetotalpressuresinturbomachinesareshownin
Figure4.21.Theorificesoftotalpressuretubesareplacednearthe
apexoftheshieldcone.Atsubsonicflowsuchtubes/4/,111,l8lshow
errorsoflessthan0.5%atyawanglesof30to40.
<limVI>
FIGURE4.21.Shieldedminiaturetubes.
Thecom.pressibilityofthegasaffectstherangeofpermissibleangles
ofyaw.Forunshieldedtotalpressuretubesthisrangeincreaseswiththe
Machnumber,butforshieldedtubesitdecreasesslightly.
Caremustbetakenwhenmeasuringthetotalpressureinflowswithlarge
transversevelocitygradients,e.g.,inturbinebladecascades,andin
525/1563
09/09/2015
boundarylayers.Atransversevelocitygradientcausesthe"effective"
centeroftotalpressureofthetube(i.e.,ofthepointatwhichthelocal
velocityVcorrespondstoavelocityheadequaltothemeasuredtotal
pressure)tomovefromthetubeaxistowardtheregionofhighervelocity.
Them.agnitude5ofthisdisplacennentdependsontheinsideandoutside
diametersofthetotalpressuretube(Figure4.22)andisforsubsonicflow
determ.inedby/9/
^=0.13140.082^,
(4.22)
applicablefor
=0.1to1.2,
172
where
526/1563
09/09/2015
Thisdisplacementoftheeffectivecentercausesanincreaseinthetotal
pressureindicatedbythetube.Forthisreasonthewidthof
thewakebehindaturbinebladewillappeartobesmallerthanitreallyis.
Geometrical
'^^^^^^"^''^^'"^'T
axis
//////////////////////////////////////////,
FIGURE4.22.Displacementoftheeffectivecenterofatotal
pressurelubeinaflowwithtransversevelocitygradient.
Theefficiencyofaturbinebladecascadedeterminedfromsuch
measurementsisthusexcessive.
527/1563
09/09/2015
12.THEMEASUREMENTOFTHEMACHNUMBER
ANDFLOWVELOCITY
Theflowvelocityofaliquidorgascanbemeasureddirectlyby
observingthedisplacementoftracerparticles.Eitherthetimetotravela
measureddistanceorthedistancemovedingiventimecanbemeasured.
Differentinvestigatorshaveusedions,alphaparticles,fluorescent,or
lightreflectingparticlesintracerexperimentsofthiskind.Suchmethods
areinpracticeseldomused,becausealthoughtheydemandveryaccurate
physicalmeasurementstheyyieldonlytheaveragevelocity,andgiveno
informationaboutitslocalvariations.Flowvelocitymeasurementsare
thereforegenerallyindirect,beingbasedeitheronphysicaleffects
resultingfromthemovementofthemedium,orontherelationshipbetween
thevelocityorMachnumberandothermoreeasilymeasuredflow
parameters.Thus,forinstance,hotwireanemometers(seep.192)are
basedontherelationshipbetweenflowvelocityandrateofheatremoval
fromabody.InisentropicflowtheMachnumbercanbefound,using
(4.4),(4.5),or(4.6),fromaknowledgeofstaticandstagnationvalues
ofeithertemperature,density,orpressure.Thestagnationparameters/>
and7"oofthefluidremainunchangedinisentropicflow;theycaneasilybe
measureddirectly,forinstanceinthesettlingchamberofthewindtunnel,
wheretheflowvelocityissmall.Knowingpoand7"o,Pocanbefoundfrom
theequationofstate(4.1).Ontheotherhand,ifthereisanyexchange
173
ofheatwiththesurroundingsupstreamofthepointwheretheflowvelocity
orMachnumberistobedeterminedthelocalvalueofpocanbefoundwith
528/1563
09/09/2015
theaidofatotalpressuretube,whilethelocalvalueofTocanbedetermined
byastaticpressuretube,asdescribedin14.Atpresentnomethodexistsfor
directmeasurementofthestatictemperatureTofthegas.Itcanbe
determinedindirectlybym.easuringthevelocityofsoundinthefluid;for
agivengas,thevelocityofsounddependsonlyontemperature(a'=v.gRT).
However,theremustbeafinitedistancebetweenthesoundsourceandthe
receiverusedforthism.easurement,sothatanaverage,ratherthana
local,temperaturevalueisobtained.
Measurennentofthedensitypinastreamofcompressiblefluidis
considerablyeasier,usingindirectmethodsbasedontherelationships
betweenthedensityandthecoefficientsofrefraction,absorption,and
radiationofthemedium..Therefractionmethod(describedin18)permits
densitymeasurementseveninregionswheretheflowisnotisentropic.
BymeasuringpatdifferentpointswecandeterminethelocalMachnumberat
thesepointsfromtheknownvalueofpo,using(4.6).
Ofthethreestaticparameters,T,p,andp,onlythestaticpressure
cangenerallybemeasureddirectly.Hencethe"pneumometric"method,
basedonthemeasurementofpressures,hasbecometheprincipal,andthe
mostaccurate,methodofMachnumberdetermination,andisusedupto
hypersonicvelocities.Machnumberinanisentropicflowcanbecalculated
from(4.5),whichmayberewrittenintheform
M=l/7^[(f)""'l](4.23)
Fromthisexpressionwecanalsofindthelocalflowvelocity.Expressing
thelocalvelocityofsoundintermsofthetemperature,andremembering
thatV=aM,weobtain
529/1563
09/09/2015
^'=/W[(ir^(4.24)
Fromthisexpressionitcanbeseenthatfordeterminingthevelocityin
termsofpressure,thelocalvaluesofthreeparameters,p,p,andTare
needed.Sincedirectmeasurementof7"isdifficult,thelocaltemperature
isdeterminedbymieasuringthelocalvalueofTo.
r=
Thisisthensubstitutedin(4.24).Sincenoheatistransferredtothe
mediumbetweenthesettlingchamberandthetestsectionofawind
tunnel,thefreestreamvelocityintheheatsection(excludingtheboundary
layer)canbefoundbynaeasuringpinthetestsection,andp,,and7"ointhe
settlingchamber.Thevelocityintheboundarylayerisfoundfromthe
localvalueofT^.Thepressurepisconstantthroughouttheboundary
layer,andcanbemeasuredwiththeaidofanorificeinthewall.
Expandingtherighthandsideof(4.5)asabinomialserieswehave
^=1+|MMH^),(4.25)
174
530/1563
09/09/2015
where
Since
M'.(2x)M<(2:.)(32%)M'.,.pf;^
4+241"192^^*.^t3^
xV2_K2_pV
22a=2Z2p
P
wecanwrite(4.25)intheform
Po=P+?(l+^)(4.27)
Thequantityq=pKV2,iscalledthevelocityhead;itisoftenusedin
experimentalaerodynamics.Thelocalvaluesofthevariousdimensionless
aerodynamiccoefficientsareusuallydeterminedbyexpressingtheforces
andpressuresactingonthetestnriodelintermsofthevelocityheadofthe
undisturbedflowinthetunnel.
Forsufficientlysm.allMachnumbers,(4.27)becomesBernoulli's
531/1563
09/09/2015
equationforanincompressiblefluid.
Po~P=^(4.28)
Aswillbeshownbelow,thevaluepop=&pcanbemeasuredwiththe
aidofadualpurposetubeandadifferentialmanometer.Wecanthus
determinetheaerodynamiccoefficients(forinstance,c^=Q/qS)without
resortingtoindirectmieasurementsofpandV.Thecoefficientc,.thus
isdeterminedbydirectlymeasuring&pandthedragQofthemodel(with
awindtunnelbalance).
IncompressiblefluidsthevalueofApexceedsthevelocityheadwhich
mustbedeterminedfrom
^=P^=|aW=|(x^)M'=|xpM^.(4.29)
Thus,foracompressiblefluid,thevelocityheaddependsonthestatic
pressureandMachnumberoftheflow.
Measurementsofvelocityinincompressiblefluids
Dualpurposetubes
Equation(4.28)showsthatthefreestreamvelocityofanincompressible
fluidis
V=
l/^(/'i^^=./25.(430)
532/1563
09/09/2015
foritsdeterminationitisnecessarytoknowthedifferencebetweenthe
totalandstaticpressuresandthedensityofthefluid.Methodsof
determiningthedensityaredescribedin15.
175
Ingeneral,formeasuringthefreestreamvelocity,orificesattwo
pointsonthesurfaceofastreamlinedbodyareconnectedtoadifferential
manom.eter.Oneoftheseorificesisusuallyarrangedatthestagnation
pointofthebodysothatthetotalpressureactsonthecorrespondingleg
ofthemanometer.Thepressuredifferencebetweenthesetwopointsis
expressedthroughthefreestreamvelocityhead
(4.31)
wheregisthetubecoefficient.Atagivenorientationintheflow,its
valuedependsonthegeometryofthetubeandthepositionoftheorifices.
Ingeneral,|dependsonReandM(andalsoonseveralothersimilarity
criteria,whichare,however,ofsecondaryimportance).
533/1563
09/09/2015
^30
>^^
534/1563
09/09/2015
\^
s/
535/1563
09/09/2015
30W
'^
i/;
(i4>
FIGURE4.23.Dualpurposetube,aPitotPrandtltubeanditscharacteristics
atvariousanglesofyaw;bNPLtube;ctubewithcircularlateralorifices.
176
536/1563
09/09/2015
Forvelocitymeasurementsinwindtunnels,dualpurposetubesare
used.Theyareshapedinsuchawayastoprovideacoefficientascloseto
unityaspossible.Suchatubeconsistsofastaticpressuretubewhich
measuresp,andatotalpressuretubewhichmeasurespo,combinedasa
singledevice.
Figure4.23showsthePitotPrandtlandNPLtubes.TheNPLtubehas
circularorificestosensethestaticpressure,whilethePitotPrandtltube
hasslots.
Slotsarelessliabletoclogging,butthemeasuredstaticpressureis
moresensitivetothegeometryoftheslot.Circularorificesarethere
foregenerallyusedinhemisphericalnosetubes(Figure4.23c).
ThereisasimplerelationshipbetweenthepressuredifferenceAp;,
measuredbyadifferentialmanometerconnectedacrossthedualpurpose
tube,andthetruevalueAp:
^Pi^PoiPijyiojij
sothatifweknow|,thevelocitycanbedeterminedfrom
j{Po~P)=\'^P,
Ibedete
(4.32)
537/1563
09/09/2015
(4.33)
Fordualpurposetubesthecoefficientgisconstantandclosetounityovera
widerangeofReynoldsnumbers.ForstandardNPL(andgeometrically
similar)tubes,|=1forReynoldsnumbersbetween330and360,000,where
Reiscalculatedfromtheoutsidediameterofthetube.
Thelowerlimitofvelocitieswhichcanbemeasuredbydualpurpose
tubesintunnelswithatmosphericpressuretestsections,isintheregionof
1to2m/sec.Belowthesevelocities,measurementsoftotalpressureare
affectedbyviscosityandIisnolongerunity(Figure4.24).Afurther
;
T
101
1.00
0.98
538/1563
09/09/2015
\
\
\
539/1563
09/09/2015
1.2
2.1*
16
1.8
6.0
Vfm/sec
FIGURE4.24.Variationofthetubecoefficientat
smallfreestreamvelocities.1NPLtube;2
PitotPrandtltube.
540/1563
09/09/2015
difficultyistheextremelyhighsensitivityrequiredofmicromanometers
usedatsuchlowvelocities.Tomeasureavelocityof2m/secwithan
accuracyof1%,themicromanonaetererrormustbelessthan0.005mm.
W.G.TheflowdirectionaffectsthereadingsofaPitotPrandtltube
whentheyawangleexceeds5(Figure4.23).
177
Thevelocityissometimesmeasuredwithtubesforwhich|isnotunity,
e.g.,whenusingdualpurposetubesforyawmeasurenaents.Usually,
variationsinReandMconsiderablyaffectthevalueof|ofsuchtubes,
andtheyarelessaccuratethanstandardtubes.
Theadvantageofdualpurposetubesisthatthevalueof|canbe
reproducedinanewtubeifitsgeometryisagoodreplicaoftheoriginal.
However,calibrationagainstareferencetubeisrecommendedifaccuracies
betterthan1or2%arerequired.Referencetubesarecalibratedona
rotaryarmmachine(see3).Areferencetubewhichhasbeencarefully
calibratedonarotaryarmmachineisthenusedforthesecondarycalibration
ofothertubesinaspecialwindtunnelhavinguniformflowinthetestsections.
P'r
541/1563
09/09/2015
ippp'
FIGURE4.25.Calibrationoftubesin
awindtunnel.1tubetobecalibrated;
2referencetube.
FIGURE4.26.Determinationofvelocity
fromthestaticpressuregradientina
tunnelwithclosedtestsection.
Forcalibrationinawindtunnel,thetubeisinstalledbesidethe
referencetube(Figure4.25).Thestaticpressurearmsofbothtubes
areconnectedtooppositelegsofasensitivedifferentialmanometerMj.
ThedifferenceofthestaticpressuresApstat.measuredbythetwotubes,
isthendeterminedatvariousflowvelocities.Thereafter,thetubesare
interchangedandthemeasurementsrepeatedatthesamevelocities.By
takingtheaverageofthetwopressuredifferencestheeffectsofanystatic
pressurenonuniformityinthewindtunnelareeliminated.
Theaveragestaticpressuredifference,measuredbythemanometerAf,
is
'^'"stata"!?ij\2Jav'
542/1563
09/09/2015
whereIandj^^ârethetubecoefficientsofthetubebeingcalibratedandof
thereferencetuberespectively.
ThemanometerMiisconnectedtobotharmsofthereferencetubein
ordertodeterminethedifferencebetweentotalandstaticpressure:
^P^
.1lfV'\
refl2Jav'
178
Eliminatingthevelocityhead,weobtainanexpressionforthetube
coefficientofthetubebeingcalibrated.
jrefli_'^/'siatav
E~'iA'av
Itisassumed,thatinthismethodthereisnoerrorinmeasuringthe
totalpressurebyeithertubes.Wehavealreadyseenthatahigh
accuracyofmeasuringpocanbeobtainedwithtubesofverydifferent
noseshapes.
Measurementofoperationalvelocityinlowspeedwindtunnels
543/1563
09/09/2015
Inwindtunnelswithclosedtestsectionsthefreestreamivelocitycanbe
measuredbythestaticpressuredropbetweentwosectionsofthetunnel.These
sectionsaremostconvenientlychoseninsuchawaythatoneisinthe
settlingchamberofthetunnel(sectionA,Figure4.26),whiletheother
isattheentrancetothetestsection,farenoughawayfromthemodelto
beunaffectedbyitspresence(sectionB).ByBernoulli'sequationthetotal
pressuredifferencebetweenthesetwosectionswillbeequaltothelosses
betweenthem:
;'/!t~2=/'b+5+"i^
whereSiisthelosscoefficient,andp^,ps,Va.andVbarethestaticpressures
andvelocitiesinsectionsAandB,respectively.Ifthecrosssectionsat
i4andB,andtheareaofthetestsectionatC(wherethemodelislocated)
areFa,Fb,andFcrespectively,thenaccordingtothecontinuityequation
foranincompressiblefluid
FaVa=FbVb=FcVc
SubstitutinginBernoulli'sequationthevaluesofthevelocityheadsin
sectionsAandB,expressedthroughthevelocityheadinthetestsection
[sectionC],weobtain
PaPb=^2~
where
[mm'\
544/1563
09/09/2015
Withtheaidofthislastequationwecanobtainthevelocityheadinthetest
sectionofthetunnel,bymeasuringthestaticpressuredropbetween
sectionsAandB.ForthispurposewemustalsoknowthevalueofZ,.
Thisisdeterminedbycalibratingtheemptytunnelwithadualpurpose
tube.Atdifferentflowvelocitiestheaveragevalueofthevelocityhead
insectionCisdeterminedsimultaneouslywiththepressuredroppaPb
Thevalueof^canbefoundfromthesemeasurements.Setting\/t,=yi
weobtain
^(PaPb)
^
179
where|.iisthepressuredropcoefficient.Formoreaccuratemeasurement
ofthepressuredrop,sectionsAandBareprovidedwithseveralopenings
(usuallyfrom4to8),whichareinterconnectedbytubes,thusforming
"piezometric"rings.
Theoperationalflowvelocityofawindtunnelisusuallyspecifiedasthe
averageflowvelocityintheem.ptytunnel,atthepointinthetestsectionwhere
modelsareinstalled,andatthesamem.assflowrateaswhenamodelis
545/1563
09/09/2015
present.Thisconditionensuresequalpressuredropsp.4pswithand
withoutthemodel.
FIGURE4.27.Velocitymeasurementin
atunntilwithanopentestsection.
Thestaticpressureinanopentestsectionisequaltothestaticpressure
inthesurroundingspace.Therefore,theoperationalflowvelocityinthe
testsectioncanbeestablished,aftercalibratingthetunnel,from,the
differencebetweenthetotalpressureinthesettlingchamberandtheroom,
pressure(Figure4.27).
Measurementofhighsubsonicvelocities
Equation(4.27)showsthatinacompressiblefluidthedifferenceAp
betweenthetotalandstaticpressuresexceedsthevelocityhead.Inorder
todeterminethelatter(andthereforethevelocity)itisnecessarytofind
thecompressibilitycorrectione.IfthevalueofApweremeasuredwitha
dualpurposetubeplacedinthetestsectionofthewindtunnel,ashock
wavewouldappearupstreamofthetubeatsupersonicfreestream
velocities.Thepressureattheorificeinthetubenosewouldthennotbe
equaltothetotalpressurep^.Equations(4.25)and(4.27)aretherefore
onlyfullyapplicabletodualpurposetubesatsubsonicflowvelocities,for
which
546/1563
09/09/2015
=/
%.
(4.34)
(4.35)
HereApiisthepressuredifferenceacrossadifferentialmanometer
connectedtothedualpurposetube.
180
IOS
547/1563
09/09/2015
Incompressiblegasflowthevalueof5isnolongerconstant,aswasthe
caseatlowflowvelocities.AscanbeseenfromFigure4.28(curveNo.1),
athighsubsonicfreestreamvelocities
thetotalpressurearmofaPitotPrandtl
tubefunctionedcorrectlyuptoM=1,where
astheappearanceoflocalshockwaves
affectedthereadingsofthestaticpressure
armevenatMachnumberof0.8to0.85
(curveNo.2).Thus,theoveralltube
coefficientlathighsubsonicvelocities
differsconsiderablyfromunity(curveNo.3).
Atlowflowvelocitiesthenoseandthe
stemeffectscompensatemutuallyevenwhen
theorificesarequiteneartothenoseand
thestem(Figure4.7).Athighflow
velocitiestheseeffectsmustbereduced;
thisisusuallydonebyincreasingthe
distanceoftheorificesfrombothnoseand
stem.Hence,dualpurposetubesforhigh
velocitymeasurementsareusuallylong.
Theaccuracyofdualpurposetubesat
highsubsonicvelocitiescanbeimprovedby
theuseofpointednoses.Figure4.29
showsaminiatureTsAGItypetube.Theneedleshapedtubenosegradually
mergesintothecylindricalpart.Atthestagnationpointthenosehasan
orificeformeasuringthetotalpressure.Staticpressureorificesare
drilledintheassumedplaneofyaw.Thesetubesarewidelyusedin
investigationsofcompressorandturbinebladecascades,andnarrow
channels.
Thefirsttermofthegeneralcorrectionformula(4.26)forthe
548/1563
09/09/2015
compressibilityeffectgivesa0.5%velocitycorrectionatM=0.2,as
calculatedfromtubemeasurements.Theerrorcausedbyneglectingthe
secondtermamountsto0.5%atM=0.8,sothatinpractice,wecanusethe
correctionfor<M<0,8.
104
1.0
0.9B
0.92
0.5
/I
549/1563
09/09/2015
>
'^'t
111
0.6
550/1563
09/09/2015
0.70.8
0.91.0
M
FIGURE4.28.EffectoflocalshockKaves
onpressuremeasurementwithaPitot
Prandtltube.
4'
WecandetermineMandVeitherfrom(4.34)and(4.35),orfrom(4.23)
and(4.24).Thelatterareusedwhen,insteadofmeasuringthepressure
differenceAp,separatemanometersareusedtodeterminepoandp.In
thiscasethemagnitudepalpin(4.23)and(4.24)mustbereplacedby
PoihIPih.,whereliand^2arethetubecoefficientsforthetotalandstatic
pressurearmsofthedualpurposetube(Figure4.28).
However,athighvelocitiesApitselfcanbemeasuredveryaccurately
byasensitivedifferentialmanometer,sothat(4.34)and(4.35)are
ordinarilyused.Thevalueofpisthenmeasuredbyaseparatemanometer
connectedtothestaticpressurearmofthedualpurposetube,and
thevalueofpjj2issubstitutedforthevalueofpin(4.34).InadditiontoApiand
Pi,(4.34)and(4.35)alsocontainthecompressibilitycorrectione.Thevalue
551/1563
09/09/2015
ofeisdetermineddirectlyfromiApandpbynotingthatin(4.5),
Pa
p
181
Expanding(^\"asaseriesinpowersof~andwriting
2v.p6%^\pI''24x\PI'
weobtain
l/=|/2g/?r^(lê').
552/1563
09/09/2015
(4.36)
(4.37)
FIGURE4.29.MiniatureneedlenosedTsAGItypetube.
Valuesofe'=e/(1+e)asfunctionof&p/paregiveninTable7.
Duringexperimentsitisnotgoodpracticetousemeasuringtubes
mountedinithetestsection,sincetheyconsiderablyaffecttheflow
aroundthemodel.Theaveragevaluesoftheoperationalfree
streamvelocityandoftheoperationalMachnumberinthetestsection
areusuallyfoundbysubstitutingin(4.36)and(4.37)thedifference
betweenthetotalpressurepi>inthesettlingchamberofthetunneland
thestaticpressurepatthewallofthetestsection;pismeasured
182
Table
553/1563
09/09/2015
3p
_,
ip
554/1563
09/09/2015
1.1
1.1349
0.2537
2.1
8.1491
0.6212
555/1563
09/09/2015
0.1
0.0070
0.0025
1.2
1.4248
0.2925
2.2
9.6952
0.6506
0.2
0.0283
556/1563
09/09/2015
0.0099
1.3
1.7716
0.3323
2.3
11.315
0.6780
0.3
0.0644
0.0222
1.4
557/1563
09/09/2015
2.1827
0.3714
2.4
13.620
0.7040
0.4
0.1166
0,0395
1.5
2.6711
0.4104
2.5
558/1563
09/09/2015
16.094
0.7282
0.5
0.1862
0.0602
1.6
3.2517
0.4489
2.6
18.960
0.7504
559/1563
09/09/2015
0.6
0.2753
0.0846
1.7
3.9383
0.4863
2.7
22.310
0.7712
0.7
0.3872
560/1563
09/09/2015
0.1141
1.8
4.7471
0.5222
2.8
26.100
0.7897
0.8
0.5244
0.1457
1.9
5.7024
561/1563
09/09/2015
0.5568
2.9
30.646
0.8079
0.9
0.6915
0.1800
2.0
6.8247
0.5897
3.0
562/1563
09/09/2015
35.765
0.8239
1.0
8932
0.2163
separately.Thestaticpressureoverthewholecrosssectionisthen
assumedtoequalthepressureatthewall.Inthecontrolstretchatthe
beginningofthetestsection,orificesaredrilledforstaticpressure
tubesconnectedinparallel.
563/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE4.30,LayoutformeasuringtheoperationalvelocityandMach
numberinwindtunnels.
Thetotalpressureinthesettlingchamberisdeterminedwithoneor
severalsimilarlyinterconnectedtubes(Figure4.30).Duetothe
considerableflowcontractionattheentrancetothetestsectionthe
presenceofmeasuringtubesinthesettlingchanabercausespracticallyno
flowdisturbance.
Asubsonicwindtunneliscalibratedbycomparingthepressuredrop
betweenthesettlingchamberandthetestsection(Figure4.30)withthe
averagepressuredropatdifferentpointsofoneorseveraldifferentcross
sectionsofthetestsection;thispressuredropismeasuredeitherwitha
dualpurposetubeorwithseparatetotalandstaticpressuretubes.At
flowvelocitiesclosetothespeedofsound,thecrosssectionalareaofthe
tubeshouldbesmallinrelationtothecrosssectionalareaofthetest
section.Therelativechangeinflowvelocityduetothelocalreductionof
thetunnelcrosssectionalareaFbytheareaAfofthemeasuringtube
183
canbefoundfrom
LV4f
564/1563
09/09/2015
VFW~\
m_AF+^"'
ThusforM=0.95theerrorinmeasuringthevelocityandtheMach
num.ber,duetothepresenceofatubewhosecrosssectionalareais0.1%
ofthatofthetestsection,isabout1%.
Measurementofsupersonicvelocities
TheMachnumberisoneofthemostimportantparametersofsupersonic
flowandmustoftenbedeterminedwithmaximumpossibleaccuracy.Itcan
bedeterminedopticallybyobservingtheinclinationanglesoftheshock
waves.AshockwaveofinfinitelysmallintensityliesalongtheMachline
FIGURE4.31.Machlines.
whoseangleofinclination(Figure4.31)is
Bârcsinrj.
ItisnotpossibletoobserveMachlinesdirectly,butshockwavesof
finiteintensity(caused,forinstance,byirregularitiesonsolidwalls)
canbeobserved.ThevalueofMfoundinthiswayisslightlylessthan
itsactualvalue,sincethepropagationvelocityofweakshocksisslightly
565/1563
09/09/2015
greaterthanthevelocityofsound;theshockwaveenvelopeobserved
willthusbeinclinedtotheflowdirectionatanangleslightlygreaterthanp.
TheMachnumberisbestdeterminedbymeasuringtheinclination
angleoftheshockwaveappearingatawedgeoraconeshapedobstacle
placedwithitsapexatthetestpointandwithitsaxisintheflowdirection.
WemiaythenusetherelationshipbetweentheMachnumber,theinclination
anglepoftheshockwave,andthetaperangle26oftheobstacle.
184
Forawedgewehave
tt1sin?cosp_1_.
2COS0)^M2
(4.38)
foraconethecurvesinFigure4.32maybeused.
Itshouldberemembered,however,thatifthetaperangleofthe
obstacleishigher,ortheMachnumberlower,thanacertainlimiting
value,theshockwavewillbedetachedfromtheapexoftheobstacle,
566/1563
09/09/2015
andwillbecom.ecurved,sothatthemeasurementwillbeincorrect.The
limitingvaluesofgasfunctionofMachnumberforconesofvarious
anglesareshowninFigure4.32,andforwedges,inFigure4.33.
SO
^.
^
6/?
567/1563
09/09/2015
o
x:
SiO
568/1563
09/09/2015
a
o
~^
569/1563
09/09/2015
S'
55
50
W
30
20
10
8.0
7.0
6.0^
570/1563
09/09/2015
5.0
^0
I3.0
e
Iô
1.0
T
/
.z
571/1563
09/09/2015
\\
V,
k
a,
E
<
Attac
V
572/1563
09/09/2015
hedshock/
v'ave/
^Detached
shockwave
1.0
3.0
50
573/1563
09/09/2015
70
S.0
10BO30iO
Maximumvalueof8'
50
FIGURE4.32.VariationwithMachnumberofangle
ofiiicUnationoftheshockwaveataconeapex.
FIGUiÊ4,33.Conditionsfordetachmentof
theshockwaveinfrontofawedge.
Inordertoeliminateanyinfluenceoftherarefactionwavesatthe
trailingedgeoftheobstacleontheshapeofthenoseshockwave,the
angleofinclinationofthelattermustbedeterminednearthenose.
TheopticalmethodofmeasuringMachnumbersistinaeconsuming
574/1563
09/09/2015
andrequirescomplicatedequipment.WindtunnelMachnumbersare
thereforegenerallydeterminedonthebasisofpressuremeasurements.
Supersonicflowinthenozzleofasupersonicwindtunnelisattained
isentropically.Thetotalpressurethroughoutthetestsection,
excludingtheboundarylayerandtheregiondownstreamoftheshockcaused
bythemodel,canbeconsideredequaltothetotalpressureinthesettling
chamber.Hence,theoperationalvelocityandMachnumberinthetest
sectionofasupersonictunnelcanbedeterminedbythesamemethod
(Figure4.30),using(4.5),asforsubsonicvelocities.Atsubsonic
velocities&p=pap,issnaall,andcanbemeasuredwithhighaccuracyby
asensitivemicromanometer.AtsupersonicvelocitiesApisofthesame
orderofmagnitudeaspo,andwecanmeasurepoandpseparatelywithout
lossofaccuracy.
185
InordertofindtheMachnumberdistributionacrossthetestsection
ofthewindtunnel(i.e,,tocalibratethetestsection),itisnecessaryto
useatubeinturnateachtestpoint.Inprinciple,wecanuseforthis
purposeaPitotPrandtltubeandmeasurewithseparatemanometersthe
totalpressurepâtagivenpointbehindthenormalshockandthestatic
pressurepoftheundisturbedflow.TheMachnunnbercanthenbefound
fromRayleigh'sformula,obtainedfrom(4.5)and(4.15):
l^
575/1563
09/09/2015
Po
(^
X1
x+1
(4.39)
However,thisformulaisreliableonlywhenthenoseorificeofthetube
isinitsentiretybehindtheshock.Thetubewithwhichthetotalpressure
p'gismeasuredmustthereforehaveabluntnose.Ontheotherhand,
considerableerrorsariseinmeasuringthestaticpressurepwitha
bluntnosetube;theseerrorscannotalwaysbeeliminatedbylocatingthe
sideorificesawayfromthetubenose.Hence,totalandstaticpressures
insupersonicflowareusuallymeasuredbyseparatetubes:p^withatube
havingabluntnose,andpwithatubehavingasharpconicalorogivaltip.
Whencalibratingthetestsectionwecanalsouse(4.5);itisthen
necessarytomeasurethetotalpressureinthesettlingchamber,andthe
576/1563
09/09/2015
staticpressureinthetestsectionseparately(Figure4.34a).
"^^
FIGURE4.34.MeasuringtheMachnumberinthetestsectionofasupersonicwind
tunnelbydeterminingthetotaJpressurepinthesettlingchamberandthefollowing
inthetestsection;astaticpressurep;btotalpressurep';cstaticpres
sureponthesurfaceofawedge;dtotalpressure^'ininclinedflow.
AfurthermethodofmeasuringMisbymountingonetotalpressure
tubeinthetestsectionandanotherinthesettlingchamber(Figure4.34b).
1680
186
Fromtheratioofthetotalpressuresinfrontofandbehindtheshock,given
by(4.15),wethenfindtheMachnumber.Equations(4.5),(4.15),and
577/1563
09/09/2015
(4.39)enableustodeterminetheMachnumberbyvariousmethodswith
theaidoftotalpressureandstaticpressuretubes.Rayleigh'sformula
(4.39)istobepreferredwhenmeasuringthedistributionofMinthe
boundarylayerofasupersonicflow.Inthiscase(4.5)cannotbeused
becauseduetofrictionlosses,thetotalpressureintheboundarylayer
isnotequaltothetotalpressureinthesettlingchamber.Thetotal
pressurep'întheboundarylayeristhereforemeasuredbymeansofa
miniaturetotalpressuretube,andthestaticpressurewiththeaidofan
orificeinthewall(Figure4.35)orapointedprobe.
FurthermethodsofdeterminingtheMachnumberinsupersonicflow
consistinmeasuringthestaticpressurepiatthesurfaceofawedgeand
thetotalpressurepjbehindtheobliqueshock,formedatthesharpcorner
ofawedge(Figure4.36).ForanobliqueshockMisdetermineddirectly
fromtheanglepbetweentheshockwaveandtheflowdirection.The
relationshipbetweenpandtheMachnumberintheundisturbedflowisgiven
by(4.38)fordifferenttaperanglesofthewedge,whiletherelationships
betweenthepressuresinfrontof,andbehindanobliqueshockaregiven
by(4.17)and(4.19).
^^^F^^^
ir^
z^^
578/1563
09/09/2015
Po
FIGURE4.35.Determining
theMachnumberinthe
boundarylayer.
FIGURE4.36.Wedgeshapedobstacleformeasur
ingMachnumber.
ThustheMachnumbercanbefoundbymeasuringanytwoofthe
followingpressures:p^,p,p\.p'p'^ândp,.Theaccuracyofdetermination
dependsonwhichdifferentpressuresarechosen,andwecanusethe
errortheory/lO/toselectthosepressurespjandp2,whichwillgivethe
leasterrorinthecalculatedvalueofM.Whenk=const,theratioofany
ofthesepressuresmustbeafunctionofMonly,
p=|L=/(M).
Differentiatingbothsidesofthisequation,weobtain
rfM
^/(M)dp
579/1563
09/09/2015
(4.40)
Ifthestandarddeviationsop,andop,ofthepressuresp,andpzaregoverned
bytheGaussianlawofrandomerrordistributionswemayusethe
187
errorsummationformulatodeterminethestandarddeviationofthe
pressureratio
i/]i^r+(f.)'
whence
vWH^f
Sincethemeasuringerrorsareconsideredtobesmall,theerrorinthe
580/1563
09/09/2015
calculatedstandarddeviationvalueofMcanbeapproximatedbysubstituting
oforthedifferentialdpin(4.40).
p
IfPiandp2arem.easuredbymanom.eterswiththesameerrorthroughout
thewholerange:
theerrorbyindirectlymeasuringwillbe/lO/
"p
where
Mp
(4.41)
^mvWMif
Equation(4.41)showsthattheerrorindeterminingMisinversely
proportionaltotherateofchangeofpwithM.Figure4.37showsthe
valuesofthecoefficientgforthreepressureratiosmeasuredinheadon
581/1563
09/09/2015
flow.
g
4.0
1.0
OA
0.1
___!,
1;
582/1563
09/09/2015
^.
FIGURE4,37.ErrorsinMachnumberdetermination
byvariousmettiods(coefficientg).
Using(4.5)and(4.41)wecanalsofindtheerrorsindeterminingthe
operationalvalueofMinthetestsectionwhenpismeasuredinthe
188
583/1563
09/09/2015
settlingchamberandpatthewallofthetestsection:
I
M
M^
(4.42)
TheerrorindeterminingMisthusinverselyproportionaltothepressurepo
inthesettlingchamber.Figure4.38showstherelativeerrorinMifthe
manometerusedformeasuringpoandpisaccurateto1mmHg.Fromthe
graphs,simplecalculationgivesoforothererrorsinmeasuringp,,andjp
Ifthepressures/;,and/)^,aremeasuredwithawedgeshapedobstacle
(Figure4.36)theerrorinMis
=.Si
(4.43)
584/1563
09/09/2015
wherethecoefficientgi
onthewedgeangle8.
whosevaluesareshowninFigure4.39,depends
vfk
585/1563
09/09/2015
586/1563
09/09/2015
Po'
1.0
587/1563
09/09/2015
."
/p^=ldB.ta.1
588/1563
09/09/2015
Pa
=4ata
589/1563
09/09/2015
AO
iO
FIGURE4.38.RelativeerrorindeterminationofMachnumberbymeasuringp,andp.
TechnicallymostsuitablefordeterminingMarethosemethodsinwhich
thetotalpressureinthesettlingchamberisoneofthemeasuredpressures.
Theothermaybethestaticpressure,thetotalpressuredownstreamof
anormalshock,orthetotalorstaticpressurebehindtheobliqueshockat
awedge(Figure4.34).FordeterminingtheMachnumberandthetrue
velocityinsubsonicflow,staticpressureisusuallymeasured.This
method(Figure4.34a)issuitableuptoM=1.6to1,8.AtlargerMach
numbersthestaticpressureinthetestsectionfallssharply;becausethe
manometererrorremainsthesame,theaccuracyofdeterminingMwillbe
greatlyreduced.
DeterminationoftheMachnumberfrommeasurementsofthetotalpressure
Pgbehindanormalshock,(Figure4.34b)isinaccurateatvelocitiesonly
lilightlyhigherthanthesoundvelocity,becausethepressurep^then
590/1563
09/09/2015
189
differsonlyslightlyfrompo.However,asMincreases,theshocklosses
increase,andwhenM=1,6theaccuracyofthemethodsusingthestatic
pressurepandthetotalpressurepj,isthesame.Thispointcorresponds
totheintersectionofthecurvesg=/lS!\andg=//2f\inFigure4.37.
hs'
^"Z9
1.0
OA
0.1
591/1563
09/09/2015
^
^
'^
15
^
^
""'
^^:
p,/fi
Poi/Po
592/1563
09/09/2015
PcfP
1
r^"
25'
iH
FIGURE4.39.ErrorsinmeasuringMwithawedge
(valuesofj,).
WhenMisgreaterthan1.6themeasuringmethodshowninFigure4.34b
ispreferable.WhentheMachnumberexceeds3anevenhigheraccuracy
isobtainedbymeasuringthetotalfullpressurep^^^behindanobliqueshock
(Figure4.34d),thoughinpracticemeasurementofp^liprovidessufficient
accuracy.
Thisanalysishassofardealtonlywithrandomerrorsofpressure
measurements.Thesystem.aticerrorsdemandfurtherconsideration.
Forinstance,athighMachnumberstherecanbeconsiderabletotal
pressurelossesbycondensationintheshock,andthedeterminationofM
fromthevaluesofpjp'ôr/7//j,canbeunreliable.System.aticerrorscan
becausedalsobythetubesthemselves;forinstance,staticpressure
tubesaresometimesaffectedbyshocksformingatasnaalldistancedown
streamoftheorifices.Inthiscase,themeasuredpressuremaybetoo
593/1563
09/09/2015
highsincethepressureincreaseintheshockistransmittedupstream,
withintheboundarylayer.
Whenusingawedgeshapedtube,asystematicerrorcanbecausedby
theboundarylayeronthesurfaceoftbetubewhichchangestheeffective
valueoftheangleeandthereforeofthepressurep^^.Thiserrorcanbe
allowed,forinstance,bymeasuringtheangleofinclinationoftheoblique
shockbytheschlierenmethod.Thecurveofthetotalpressurep
190
downstreamofanobliqueshockasafunctionoftheangle6hasamaximum
foreachvalueofM.Nearthismaximump^jisalmostindependentof6.
Wedgeshapedtubesshouldbeusedattheoptimumvalueof6(i.e.,the
anglewhichcorrespondstotheindicatedmaximum)sothatno
greataccuracyisrequiredinmeasuringtheanglep.Forinstance,
whenM=3.5anerrorof0.5%inthemeasurementofgcausesanerrorinMof
about0.001.
Thetrueflowvelocityinahighspeedwindtunnelisalessimportant
parameterthantheMachnumber,butitisnecessarytodetermineit,for
instance,forcalculatingtheoperationalReynoldsnumber.When
determiningaerodynamiccoefficientsweusethevelocityhead,andno
directdeterminationofVisrequired.ThevelocityisrelatedtotheMach
numberby
Insteadofthetemperatureintheflowwemeasurethetotaltemperature
inthesettlingchamberofthetunnelanddetermineTfrom(4.4).Thus,
594/1563
09/09/2015
thevelocitycanbeexpressedintermsoftheMachnumberandthetotal
temperature:
Yi+J^m
=Ml/'^^(4.44)
Usingtheerrorsummationformula,v/ecanfindtheabsoluteand
relativeerrorsindeterminingV:
^^V{^^^M^^rl(4.45)
wherea,,istheerrorinmeasuringTo.
TheerrorindeterminingMthusdependsontheerrorofthe
manometersandonthetypeofpressurebeingmeasured.Usuallypo
andparemeasured.Theerrorinthemeanoperationalvelocityinthe
testsectionofthewindtunnel,obtainedbyinsertinginto(4.46)thevalue
ofofrom(4.42),becomes
Insubsonicandsupersonicflow,thecoefficientofthefirsttermwithin
thesquarerootislargecomparedwiththatofthesecond;hence,accuracy
ofpressuremeasurementismostimportant.Athypersonicvelocities
thesecoefficientsdifferverylittle:hence,thetotaltemperaturemust
bemeasuredaccurately.
595/1563
09/09/2015
191
Wire
.Fork
Thehotwireanemometermethodof
measuringtheflowvelocity
Theprincipleofthehotwireanemometerisbasedonthevariationin
therateofcoolingofelectricallyheatedwires,withtheflowvelocityof
fluidstreamingpastthem.Therateofheattransferfromtheheated
wiretotheparticlesofthemovingfluiddependsonthediameterand
compositionofthewireandthephysicalcharacteristicsoftheflowing
m.edium.Sincetheelectricalresistanceofthewiredependsonits
temperature,asimpleelectricalresistancemeasurementcanbeused
todeternainethevelocity.Thedependenceoftheanemometerresistance
onthevelocityisdeterminedbycalibrationinawindtunnelagainsta
596/1563
09/09/2015
referenceinstrument.
Themainadvantageofhotwireanemometersoverpneumonaetric
devicesistheirrapidresponse.Changeofpressurecausestheflowof
afinitemassoffluidbetweentheorificesofatube
vândthemanometer,whichthereforeregistersthe
X,changeonlyafterafinitetimelag[transmission
lag].Exceptatresonance,theamplitudeof
pressureoscillationswillbeunderestimatedin
manometermeasurements;theerrorwilldepend
ontheamplitudeandfrequencyofthepulsations
andonthegeometryofthetube(primarilyonthe
dimensionsoftheorificesandonthediametersof
theconnectingpipes).Considerabledifficultyis
experiencedinmeasuringtheamplitudesofpressure
andvelocityfluctuationsatfrequencieshigherthan
afewcyclespersecond.Amoreexactknowledgeof
theconaplexlawsofgasflowdependsonthe
instantaneousmeasurementofvelocities.Thehot
wireanemometeristhustheprincipleinstrument
formeasuringturbulence.
Anotherinnportantadvantageofthehotwire
anemometerisitshighsensitivity.Whereasthe
sensitivityofthepneumometricmethodofvelocity
measurementdecreaseswithvelocitydecrease,
thatofthehotwireanemometerincreases,sothatthelatterismore
suitableformeasuringvelocitiesbelow5to10m/secinspiteofthemore
complicatedmeasuringequipmentrequired.
Afurtherimportantadvantageofhotwireanemometersisthatthey
597/1563
09/09/2015
canbeincorporatedinverysmallprobesforthestudyoftheboundarylayer
atasolidwall.
ThedesignofahotwireanemometerisshownschematicallyinFigure
4.40.Thewire,ofapure,chemicallyinertmetal(platinum,tungsten,
ornickel)issilversolderedorweldedtotwoelectrodeswhichformafork.
Thewirehasadiameterof0.005to0.15mm.,andisfrom3to12mmlong.
Itisinstalledatrightanglestothedirectionofflow.
Therateofheatlossperunitlengthofwireandperdegreeofthe
tenaperaturedifferencebetweenthesurroundingmediumandthewireis
accordingtoKing/12/,
Q=ByVJrC,
FIGURE4.40,
anemometer.
Holder
Hotwire
192
598/1563
09/09/2015
whereBandCarefunctionsofthetemperaturedifferenceandofthe
propertiesofmediumandwire.Forawireofgivendimensionsand
withaconstantexcesstemperatureabovethatofaparticularmedium
(e.g.,air).BandCareconstantswhichcanbedeterminedforthe
particularconditions.Theaboveequationagreeswellwiththeexperimental
dataforvelocitiesuptoabout30m/sec,anddowntoaboutO.lm/sec,which
iscomparabletothevelocityofconvectioncurrentsaroundthehotwire.
Atequilibriumthewirewilltransmitheattothesurroundingmediumat
therateofI'^RjJcal/sec,where/isthemechanicalequivalentofheatin
joules/cal.Hence
!^=BYY{C.
Ifthetemperatureofthewireisheldconstant,itselectricalresistance
isalsoconstant.Foraparticularwireinagivenmediurawethenobtain
wherekisaconstant,and/isthecurrentatzerofreestreamvelocity
ofthegivenmedium.AnexampleisgiveninFigure4.41,whichshows
O.i
"t^Tt
^^
599/1563
09/09/2015
.^^^
^____^
600/1563
09/09/2015
,^..^'
^"mx
30^
rA
^^
Platinumwire.
601/1563
09/09/2015
diameter=0.025mm|
0.2
/
1
len;
^h=35.6mm
2I*68W
Flowvelocity,m/sec
FIGURE4,41,Relationshipbetweenthecurrentinahotwire
anemometerandtheflowvelocity,atconstantwireresistance
(temperature),
602/1563
09/09/2015
themaincharacteristicofthehotwireanemometer,namelyitshigh
sensitivityatlowflowvelocities.Atconstantresistancethecurrent
changeswithvelocitymostrapidlyatsmallfreestreamvelocities.
Sensitivityincreaseswiththewiretemperaturethroughoutthevelocity
range.Thetemperatureofthewireis,however,limitedbyagingand
strengthconsiderationsandshouldnotexceed400to500C.
Ifthecurrentthroughthewireisheldconstant,thechangesin
temperatui'eandresistanceofthewirecanbepredicted.Hotwire
anemometersmaythereforebeusedtomeasurevelocityeitheratconstant
resistanceoratconstantcurrent,asshowninFigure4.42.
Formeasurementsatconstantresistancethewireformsonearm.of
aWheatstonebridge,theotherarmsbeingresistors(e.g.,manganin)
193
havinganegligibletemperaturecoefficient.Achangeinthevelocity
causesthetemperatureandresistanceofthewiretochange;this
unbalancesthebridge.Inordertorestorethebalanceofthebridge
thewiretemperatureisrestoredtoitsinitialvaluebyadjustingthe
resistanceoftheadjacentarmorofanauxiliaryresistor(4.42a).
Velocityismeasuredintermsofthecurrentinthewire,asindicated,
forinstance,byanam.meterconnectedinanejcternalcircuit.
W20SO
603/1563
09/09/2015
Velocity,m/sec
bj
B.5
2.0
''J.5
1.0
[Piatinumwire
<^0.f27mml=Wmu]
'Heatingcurrent
|0ai8amp
604/1563
09/09/2015
W2030
Velocity,m/sec
FIGURE4.42.Circuitsandcalibrationcurvesforhot
wireanemometers,abytheconstantresistance
method:bbytheconstantcurrenimethod.
Highersensitivityisobtainedbyapotentiometricmethod(Figure4.43)
inwhichthewirecurrentisdeterminedintermsofthevoltagedropacross
aconstantresistanceRhavinganegligiblysmalltemperaturecoefficient.
Thus,intheconstantresistancem.ethodthevelocityisdeterminedinterms
ofthecurrent(orvoltage)neededtomaintainaconstanttemperature,and
thusconstantresistance,ofthewire.
ThecircuitforconstantcurrentmeasurementsisshowninFigure4.42b.
Inthiscasethevelocityisdeterminedfromthevalueoftheresistanceof
thewire.Thecurrentinthewireisadjustedtotherequiredconstantvalue
bymeansofarheostatinserieswiththesupplybattery.Thewire
resistanceismeasuredbyavoltmeterofhighinternalresistance,connected
inparallel.Theconstantresistancemethodismorewidelyused,because
itinvolvessimplermeasuringequipment.Complexelectronicamplifiers
areusedtostudyturbulence.
Inrecentyears,shieldedhotwireanemometershavebeenusedto
measurelowvelocitiesinsteadyflow(Figure4.44).Awireheatermade
fromnichrome(whichhasalowtemperaturecoefficientofresistance)is
194
605/1563
09/09/2015
Hotwire
placedinoneoftheboresofatwinboreceramictubeof0.8to1mm
outsidediameter='=.Acopperconstantanthermocoupleintheotherbore
servestomeasurethetemperatureofthehottube.Theheatercurrent
isheldconstant,sothatthetemperatureofthe
ceramictubedependsontheflowvelocity.By
measuringthethermoelectricemSofthethermo
couplewithapotentiometerorgalvometerwecan
determinethetemperatureofthetube,andthus
theflowvelocity.
Figure4.45showsacircuitformaintaininga
constantcurrentintheheaterwire.Anauxiliary
hotwireanemometerB,whichisanexactreplica
oftheprincipalanemometerA,isplacedinan
enclosureinwhichthevelocityiszeroandthe
temperatureisconstant.Theheatersofthe
anemonaetersareconnectedinseries.Under
theseconditions,thethermalemfEndeveloped
accrossthethermocoupleofBdependsonlyonthe
current/passingthroughbothheaters.Arheostat
Risusedtomaintainthiscurrentconstantin
accordancewiththeindicationsofthethermo
coupleB.[ForFigures4.44and4.45seep.196.]
13.THEMEASUREMENTOFFLOWDIRECTION
606/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE4.43.Potentio
metricmethodformea
suringcurrentinahot
wireanemometerat
constantresistance.
Itwasmentionedbeforethatthetotaland
staticpressurereadingsbytubesareaffectedby
theflowdirection.Thebestinstrumentsare,
therefore,thosewhichdependleastonyaw.
Exactlythecontraryistruefortubeswhichare
usedformeasuringtheflowdirection.
Usuallyyawmetersalsomeasureotherflowcharacteristics.Anideal
tubewouldbesuitableformeasuringindependentlyfourquantities:the
anglesa.and3oftheinclinationofthethreedimensionalflowtotwo
mutuallyperpendicularplanes,thetotalpressurep,andstaticpressuref
Thefirstpairofmeasurementsdeterminesthedirections,andthesecond,
themagnitude,ofthevelocityvector.
Allpurposetubesofthiskindfindwideapplicationininvestigations
ofturbomachines.Theyare,however,lessaccuratethandualpurpose
tubesinthemeasurementofthemagnitudeofthevelocityvector,dueto
thedifficultyofmeasuringthestaticpressureaccurately.
Pressuresensinginstrumentsformeasuringtheflowdirectioncan
bedividedintotwogroups.Thefirstgroupconsistsofdevicesinwhich
theyawismeasuredintermsofthepressuredifferencebetweentwo
tubeswhoseorificesarearrangedatafixedanglewithrespecttoeach
other.
607/1563
09/09/2015
[Simmons,I..F.G.AShieldedHotwireAnemometerforLowSpeeds.J.S.I.Vol.26,p.407.1949.]
195
Atotalpressuretubecutatarightangletoitsaxisisnot
verysensitivetovariationsoftheyawangleabetweenitsaxis
Thermocouple
(copperconsranian)
therm'
r
Auxiliaryj|l||
TioanemometerlB
608/1563
09/09/2015
't>r3.
Enclosure
SaMV
Tothegalvanometer(/
Principal
thetmoanemometerA
FIGURE4.44.Shieldedhotwireanemometer.
FIGURE4.45.Circuitdiagramofshielded
hotwireanemometer.
andtheflowdirectionwhenaislessthan15to20.Thesensitivity
increasessharplywhenaisbetween40and60;ifthetubeiscutatan
angletoitsaxis,thesameorderofsensitivitycanbeobtained/3/when
609/1563
09/09/2015
a=(Figure4.46).
FIGURE4.46.Variationwithangleofthedifferencebetween
thepressureinthetubeandthestaticpressureintheflowforplot
tubesfacedoffatvariousangles9.
196
Thesecondgroupincludesdevicesbasedonmeasuringthepressure
differencebetweentwopointsonthesurfaceofastreamlinedsymmetrical
body(sphere,cylinder,wedge,orcone).Whentheaxis(ortheplaneof
symmetry)ofthebodycoincideswiththedirectionofflow,thepressure
atsymmetricallylocatedpointsisequal.
Theorificesaresituatedonthebody(orthedirectionofthetubesis
chosen)insuchawaythatsmallchangesinflowdirectioncauselarge
pressuredifferencesbetweentheorificeswhichareconnectedtoa
differentialmanometer.
Thesensitivityp(ofthetubeisdeterminedbythechangeinpressureat
oneoftheorifices,duetoachangeinyaw:
dp,pp
Thesensitivityisthusdefinedastheslopeofthetangenttothecurve
p=/(a)Thepressureatanorificeinacircularcylinder,whoseaxisis
perpendiculartotheflow,ismostaffectedbytheflowdirectionifthe
610/1563
09/09/2015
radiusthroughtheorificemakesanangleof40to50withtheflow
direction(seeFigure4.4).
Adifferentialmanometerconnectedtotheyawmetermeasuresthe
pressuredifferencebetweentwosuchorifices(1and2)sothatthe
truesensitivityofthenozzle
<%
Pi'
da
mustbetwicethevalueofdp/dn,obtainedfromtheslopeofthecurvesin
Figure4.4.Thevalueofkvariesbetween0.04and0,08perdegreefor
differenttypesoftubes.
Theyawmetersaresensitivetotransversevelocitygradients,which
causethepressuresattwopointssituatedsymmetricallyabouttheaxisof
thetubetobeunequal,evenwhenthetubeaxiscoincideswiththedirection
offlow.Inthiscasethepressuredifferencebetweentheorificesiszero
atananglewhichdependsonthemagnitudeofthegradient,thedistance
betweentheorifices,theirsize,andthesensitivityofthetube[topressure
changes].Thebestmethodtoreducetheerrorduetotransversevelocity
gradientsistodecreasethedistancebetweentheorifices.This,however,
causesadecreaseinthediameteroftheorificesandofthetubesbetween
theorificesandthemanometer,which,inturn,increasesthelagofthe
manometerindicationsbecauseofthehighflowimpedanceofthetubes.
611/1563
09/09/2015
Thisshouldbetakenintoaccountwhenchoosingthetubeandmanometer.
Yawmeterscanbeuseddirectlyorasnullinstruments.Inthenull
methodtheyawmeterisrotatedonacradleuntilitsaxiscoincideswith
thedirectionoftheflow,asindicatedbyzeropressuredifferenceinthe
differentialmanometerconnectedtotheorifices.Thedirectionofflow
isthenindicatedbygraduationsonthecradle.
Inthedirectmethodthetubeisheldataconstantangletothetunnel
wall,andtheyawisdeterminedintermsofthepressuredropbetweenthe
orifices,measuredbyadifferentialmanometer.Therelationshipbetween
yawandmanometerindicationisestablishedbycalibratingthetubeina
windtunnelofnegligiblysmalltransversevelocitygradientsandflow
197
inclination.Thedirectmeasuringmethodrequireslesscomplicated
equipmentandlesstimethanthenullmethod,butislessaccurate,
especiallyatlargeanglesofyaw.Becauseofitssimplicity,andbecause
itispossibletoobtainsimultaneousreadingsfromanarrayoftubes,the
directmethodisusuallyemployedinthecalibrationofwindtunnels,where
normallytheflowinclinationissmall.Inthedirectmethodthetubescan
beeasilyadaptedformeasuringthevelocityanddirectionoftheflowintwo
planes.
Theadvantageofthenullmethodofyawmeasurementliesinthe
independenceofthemeasurementsonMandRe.Itisalsolessimportant
tolocatetheorificesveryaccuratelyonthetubeinthismethod,sincetheir
positionsmerelyaffecttherelationshipbetweenyawandpressuredrop.
Thenullmethodisusuallychosenformeasuringflowanglesinwakes,e.g.,
612/1563
09/09/2015
inexperimentswithbladecascades.
Thecombinationofadirectandanullmethodissometimesusedin
studyingthreedimensionalflow.
p,',h'>.
'0'
c)
FIGURE4.47.Tubularyavv'incterscutarrightangles,aandbforIwodimenstona]flow;
cforthreedimensionalflow.
TubularyawmetersshowninFigure4.47consistofcoplanarbenttubes,
withendscutatrightangles,inclinedtoeachotheratanangleof90.The
tubeinFigure4.47cisintendedforthreedimensionalflow.Theangleof
flowinclinationinthea,?planecanbemeasuredbythenullmethod(by
rotatingthetubeabouttheyaxisuntilthepressuresinorifices1and3are
equal),whiletheangleofinclinationinthexyplaneisfoundbythedirect
methodintermsofthepressuresdifferencebetweentubes4and5,For
613/1563
09/09/2015
measuringtheflowvelocity,yawmetersofthistypeareequippedwiththe
additionaltube2,whichsensesthetotalpressure.Theflowvelocitycanbe
determinedfromthepressuredifferencebetweentheorificesofthistube
andoneofthelateraltubes,ifthetubeiscalibratedagainsta
referencedualpurposetube.Thedrawbackofthesetubesistheir
lowrigidity.Smalldeformationsofthetubescancauseconsiderableerrors
whenmeasuringyaw.
198
Recently,tubularyawmeterswithbeveledendsareincreasinglybeing
usedforthestudyofbladecascades.Suchtubeshaveexternaldiameters
of0.5to2mm.Thetubesaremountedparalleltoeachother,sothatthe
distancebetweentheirorificesisverysmall.Intwodimensionalflow
theinfluenceofvelocitygradientscanbealmostcompletelyeliminatedby
locatingthetubeaxesnotintheplaneofflowinclinationbutinaplane
perpendiculartoit,asshowninFigure4.48d.
Figure4.46showsthatinordertoobtainmaximumsensitivitytoyaw,
thetubesshouldbecutatananglebetween30and45.Figure4.48agives
thesensitivitycharacteristicsofatwotubeyawmeterdesignedforsmall
flowvelocities.Thecharacteristicsofthreetubeyawmetersforthe
directmethodofmeasurementareusuallyexpressedasagraphshowingx^
asafunctionofa,where
^PiPz
(PiPi)+(PiPi)
614/1563
09/09/2015
Figure4.48bshowsthevariationofn.^withaforthreetubeyawmetersof
variousbevelanglesip.
Atsmallflowvelocities(uptoM=0.3to0.4)abeveledtubeyawmeter
canbeusedforthemeasurmentofbothdirectionandspeed.Thetotaland
staticpressurescanbedeterminedwithatwotubeyawmeter(4.48a),
forexample,bythefollowingmethod:theyawmeteristurneduntilthe
pressuresintubes1and2areequal(pi=ps=p').Thevaluesofp,andpjare
thendeterminedafterfurtherrotationofthetubebyanglesof10.The
totalandstaticpressuresarethenfoundwiththeaidofexperimentally
determinedcalibrationcoefficientsk,andAj/13/,
/'o=P'+*A
p=p'+k^^,
where
A=4{(Pi),w(P2),,0"(/'i>.0+(/'2)io'l>
whence
TheyawmetershowninFigure4.48bisfittedwithacentraltube2for
measuringthetotalpressurepo,whichcanbedeterminedbyadjustingthe
tubesothatpi=P3=p'.Theflowvelocitycanbefoundwiththeaidofthe
coefficient5^,:
t_?p:^p_
615/1563
09/09/2015
'''2(p,p')~2(p,p')
whichisalsodeterminedbycalibrationagainstareferencetube.
Figure4.48cshowsthedesignofafourtubeyawmeterforthree
dimensionalflowmeasurements.Theyawmeterconsistsoftubeswhose
outsideandinsidediametersare0.8mmand0.5mmrespectively;the
199
^^
616/1563
09/09/2015
\\
\^
tt
^v
617/1563
09/09/2015
is
618/1563
09/09/2015
5:
i:
"^
619/1563
09/09/2015
>4
H(3^^^
C==6=
ycsj^toooc:^
^3Caca<^^
620/1563
09/09/2015
op
iS'
621/1563
09/09/2015
622/1563
09/09/2015
_\
200
tubesareconnectedatthenose,andcutat45.Thecharacteristicsof
thistubeforM=1.86and2.67areshowninthesamefigure/14/.The
sensitivitytoyawofsuchtubesissimilartothatofwedges(Figure4.53)
andothertypesofyawmeterforsupersonicvelocities.
Cylindricalyawmeters
Cylindricalyawmeters(Figure4.49)areusedfordeterminingthe
623/1563
09/09/2015
directionoftwodimensionalflow.Ascanbeseenfromthecharacteristics
showninFigure4.49b,theirsensitivityishighestwhentheincludedangle
2[betweenorifices(1)and(3)isbetween90and100.Athirdorifice,for
m.easuringthetotalpressure,isdrilledinthecenterbetweenthetwoyaw
meterorifices.Cylindricalyawmetersaregenerallyusedforthenull
method;thetotalpressureismeasuredwhenthepressuresattheouter
orificesareequal.Theflowvelocitycanthusbedeterminedfromthepressure
differencebetweenthecentralandoneoftheouterorifices,provided
thatthevelocitycalibrationcoefficientJ,isknown;itisdeterminedin
thesamewayasformultipletubeyawmeters.ThevalueofIvdepends
ontheflowregimearoundthetube.Thepressureatthefrontofthe
cylindermaydifferfromthetheoreticalvalueforpotentialflow(see
Figure4.4)becauseofboundarylayerseparation.Ifboundarylayer
separationtakesplacesymmetricallyontheupperandlowersurfaces
ofthefrontquadrantsofthecylinder,thechangeofpressureatthewall,
duetotheconsequentchangeinReynoldsnumber,willnotaffecttheyaw
calibrationcoefficientx,buttheremaybeaconsiderablechangeinthe
velocitycalibrationcoefficientIv.Figure4.49cshowsthatxîsvirtually
independentofRe,andisdirectlyproportionaltotheyawangleaforvalues
below15,Nevertheless,thecylindricalyawmetershouldbeusedwith
cautionatM>0,6,sincelocalasymmetricalshocksmayappear.The
velocitycoefficientivbeginstobeaffectedbycompressibilityatA.0.3
ascanbeseenfromthegraphofFigure4.49d.
Theadvantageofthecylindricalyawmeteroverothertypesisitssmall
diameter,sinceitoccupiesanarea,perpendiculartotheflow,determined
merelybytheoutsidediameterofthetube,whichcanbeverysmall.This
isimportant,e.g.,wheninvestigatingtheflowbetweenstatorandrotor
bladesofaxialturbomachines.Tubeswithoutsidediametersupto2.5or
3mmareusedforbladecascadeinvestigations.
Sphericalyawmeters
624/1563
09/09/2015
Sphericalyawmeters(Figure4,50)permitflowdirectionmeasurements
inthreedimensionalflowwiththeaidoffourorificeslocatedinpairsin
twomutuallyperpendicularplanes,Afifthopening,attheintersectionof
theseplanes,servesformeasuringthetotalpressure.Thedetermination
ofthedirectionofathreedimensionalflowbythenullmethodrequires
theuseofacomplicatedcradlegivingindicationsoftheangularpositionin
twoplanes.Onlytheangleg,intheAryplane,isthereforemeasuredby
201
625/1563
09/09/2015
s:
:^
5'
626/1563
09/09/2015
202
thenullmethod;theangleainaplaneperpendiculartothexyplaneIs
determinedbythedirectmethodwiththeaidofacalibrationcurveobtained
bytwodimensionalflowtests(Figure4.50).
2.0
PrPs
1.2
OS
0.4
A_
SWIS
Bevelinglea:
627/1563
09/09/2015
2025
FIGURK1..^)0,Spliericalyavvineteranditscliaracteristics
(!iicliidt.danglebtluuenorificesis'.*0"t.
Whentheyawmetercannotbeturned(e.g.,whenitismountedona
turbinerotor)wecanmeasurebothanglesdirectlywithanaccuracyof
1to2",whilesimultaneouslymeasuringthevelocityandstaticpressure
withanaccuracyoftheorderof3%/I5/.
ThedrawbackofsphericalyawmetersisthelimitedrangeofReynolds
numbers(from.4X10^to1.5X10^)withinwhichtheircalibrationcoefficients
areconstant.Whenthelaminarboundarylayerbecomesturbulant,the
pointofflowseparationonthesurfaceofthespherebecomesindeterminate;
theflowaroundthespherebecomesasymmetrical,andthiscauses
inaccuraciesinmeasurement.
Hemisphericalyawmeters
Ifwereplacetherearhalfofthespherebyacylinder,theflow
conditionsareimprovedandthepointofboundarylayerseparationis
removedfromtheneighborhoodoftheorifices.Hemisphericalyaw
metershavethesamesensitivityassphericalones,buttheinfluence
628/1563
09/09/2015
203
oftheReynoldsnumberontheircharacteristicsismuchsmaller.The
sensitivityofhemisphericalyawm.etersdecreasesatlargeMachnumbers.
Figure4.51showstheTsAGIsixboreyawmeter/22/.Inaddition
tothefiveopeningsinthehemisphericalnoseformeasuringtotalpressure
andflowdirection,theyawmeterhasanopeningonitscylindricalstem
formeasuringthestaticpressure.
FIGURE4.51.TsAGIsixboreyawmeter.
TheTsAGIyawmeterisusedfordeterminingthemagnitudeand
directionoftheflowvelocityinsubsonicwindtunnels.Theflow
inclinationinwindtunnelsisgenerallysmall,sothatthemeasurenaents
aremadebythedirectmethod,i,e,,withoutrotatingtheyawmeter.By
calibrating[theyawmeter]inawindtunnelinwhichtheflowinclinationis
verysmall,weobtain
PiPz
T=/K
629/1563
09/09/2015
(.PiP2)+(PiP2)
(P,P2)+(P,P2)^^^''
wherepi,psandP4,psarethepressuresintheorificeslocatedintheverticaland
horizontalplanesrespectively.Atsmallyawanglestheyawmeasurements
inoneplaneareindependentoftheyawintheother.Correctionsmust,
however,bemadewhentheyawexceeds5,andthesearedeterminedby
calibrationaso=/(a)and=f(^).
Wedgetypeandconicalyawmeters
Wedgetypeyawmeters(Figure4.52)canbeusedformeasuringthe
flowinclinationatvelocitiesabovethoseatwhichshocksappearonthe
surfaceofasphereorcylinder,i.e.,atM>0.55to0.6/16/.The
advantageoftheseovercylindricalyawmetersisthatthepositionofthe
orificesonthesurfaceislesscritical.Thepressuredistributioncurves
204
inFigure4.52showthatwithwedgetypeyawmetersthepressure
measurementisfarlesssensitivetothelocationoftheorificesthan
withcylindricalyawmeters,sothatmanufacturingtolerancescanbefar
wider.Eitheraseparateorificeontheleadingedgeofthewedge,ora
630/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE4,52.Wedgetypeyawmeteranditscharacteristics(thepressure
distributiononthesurfaceofacylindricalyawmeterisshownforcomparison).
completelyseparatetube,canbeusedformeasuringthetotalpressure.
Wedgetypeyawmeterscanbeusedtomeasurethestaticpressureat
higherMachnumbersthancylindricalyawmeters.
O.IS
OJO
0.05
0B5
0.W
0.15
631/1563
09/09/2015
PrPi
!S
(^
632/1563
09/09/2015
'^'
^*
H.
mmW.G.
500
250
250
500
633/1563
09/09/2015
J*
Atn'lk.p.is
rz
Yawangleofthewedge
M/.
FIGURE4.53.Wedgetypeyawmeterformeasuring
thedirectionofsupersonicflow.
205
Wedgetypeandconicalyawmeterswithsmallincludedanglesare
amongthemostreliableinstrumentsforinvestigatingsupersonic
flow.Figure4.53showsthecharacteristicofawedgetypeyawmeter
designedbytheNAELaboratory(GreatBritain)forcalibratingthe
634/1563
09/09/2015
0.9mXO.9mtestsectionofacontinuousoperatidnsupersonicwindtunnel/17/.
Thewedgeyawmeterisinstalledon
asphericalcradlesothatitcanbe
usedfornullmethodmeasurenaents
oftheflowinclination.
Figure4.54showsthecharacter
isticsofconicalandpyramidalRAE
yawmetersforthedirectmethod
measurementinthreedimensional
supersonicflow.Thesensitivityof
A^^"^b)>y'conicalyawmetersincreaseswiththe
^JJfJy^Vpconeangle,butanincludedangleof
15providessufficientsensitivity,
sinceanerrorof1ramW.G.inthe
naeasuredpressurecausesanerror
ofonly0.02intheyawdetermination.
Yawmeterscanthereforebedesigned
withother(e.g.,production)
considerationsinmind.Ifthenoseis
pyramidal(Figure4.54c)theexact
locationoftheorificesismuchless
criticalthanforcircularcones(where
theym.ustlieexactlyintwomutually
perpendicularplanes)becauseflow
roundapyramidismuchlessprecisely
defined.Thecalibrationcurvesfor
theseyawnaetersrem.ainlineareven
whentheshockhasbecomedetached.
Allmeasurementsinaseriesmust,however,becarriedoutwiththeshock
eitherattachedordetached,sincethecalibrationdiffersinthesetwo
635/1563
09/09/2015
cases/18/.
FIGURE4.54.Characteristicsofyawmetersfor
threedimensionalsupersonicflow,aandb
conicalyawmeters;cpyramidalyawmeters.
Heatedwires
Galvanometer
FIGURE4.55.Hotwireyawmeters.
206
Measurementsofflowdirectionwith
ahotwireyawmeter
Iftwoidenticalwiresarlheatedbythesamecurrentandplacedin
auniformflowparalleltotheirplane,theirratesofcoolingwill
636/1563
09/09/2015
differunlesstheyareinclinedatthesameanglestotheflowdirection.
Hotwireyawmetersfunctiononthisprinciple.Thewiresarestretched
betweenmanganinpostsA,B,andC(Figure4.55)soastoincludeanangle
p,andareconnectedtoadjacentarmsofaWheatstonebridge.Theinstrument
isrotatedaboutanaxisperpendicularbothtotheflowandtotheplaneof
thewires,untilbothwiresareatthesametemperatureandhavethesame
resistance,sothattheWheatstonebridgeisbalanced.Theflowdirection
isthenparalleltoalinebisectingtheanglep.Sincethedimensionsand
theelectricalcharacteristicsofthewiresmaydiffer,theinstrumentmust
becalibratedinawindtunnelwheretheflowdirectionisknown.
14.MEASUREMENTOFTEMPERATUREINFLOW
Themeasurementofthetemperatureofaflowinggasisimportantin
investigationsoftheaerodynamicheatingofthesurfacesofaircraftand
rockets,andinstudiesoftheoperationofgasturbines,compressors,
aircraftengines,etc.
Thestateofastationaryperfectgascanbedefinedbytwoindependent
physicalmagnitudes,oneofwhichmaybethetemperature.Iftheflow
velocityissuchthatcompressibilityeffectsareimportantitisnecessary
todifferentiatebetweenthestatictemperatureTandthestagnation(total)
temperature7"o.Athermometermovingwiththefluid,andemittingno
thermalradiationwouldmeasurethestatictemperature.Inpracticethe
statictemperaturecanbedeterminedonlyindirectly,forinstanceby
measuringthestaticpressurewithatubeandthedensityoptically,and
thenusing(4.1);orbymeasuringthevelocityofsoundaandusing(4.3a).
Measurementsofthevelocityofsoundinamovingmediummustbe
correctedfortheflowvelocity.Bothelectronicandopticalmethodsareused
forthesemeasurements,butonlyameantemperaturewithinacertainregion
canbedeterminedthus,sothatthismethodisseldomused.Itismuchsimpler
637/1563
09/09/2015
todeterminethetemperatureTbymeasuringthestagnationtemperature
andtheMachnumber.Thestagnationtemperatureisthetemperaturewhich
thegaswouldattainifbroughttorestadiabatically,sothatitsentirekinetic
energyistransformedwithoutlossintoheat.Thistemperaturewouldbe
shownbyathermometerplacedatthestagnationpointofabodyinthe
stream,providednoheatislosttothesurroundingmedium.However,it
isvirtuallyimpossibletomakeathermometerwhichlosesnoheatatall.
Furthermore,itwouldalwayshavefinitedimensionsandthuscause
turbulence,thuschangingthelocaltemperature.Athermometer
insertedintoafastflowinggaswillthereforeindicateatemperature
lyingbetweenthestaticandthestagnationtemperatures.
ThedifferencebetweenthestagnationtemperatureToandthetrue
temperatureTofamovingperfectgas(inwhichtemperaturechanges
207
areadiabatic)canbedeterminedfrom
T,~T=
2,?/c/
Sinceshocksdonotaffecttheenthalpyofagas,thisequationistrueboth
forsubsonicandsupersonicflow.
638/1563
09/09/2015
Athermallyinsulatedsurfacewillbeheatedbyagasflowingpastit
toatemperaturecalledtherecoverytemperatureTa.Therecovery
temperaturedependsonthelocalMachnumber(oronthestatictemperature)
attheoutsidelimitoftheboundarylayer,onthedissipationofkinetic
energybyfrictionintheboundarylayer,andontherateofheatexchange.
Thedifferencebetweentherecoverytemperatureandthestatic
temperatureisafractionroftheadiabatictemperaturerise:
^'.^='2i^(4.48)
Thecoefficientr,calledthecoefficientofthermalrecovery,isdefinedby
/=^^.(4.49)
Ingeneralthecoefficientofthermalrecovery,whichrepresentsthe
proportionofthekineticenergyofthemediumrecoveredasheat,depends
ontheshapeofthebody,andonM,Re,Prandx.Foragivengas,Prandx
areconstantoverawiderangeofthetemperaturesusualinsubsonicand
supersonicwindtunnels(forair,Pr=0.72,x=14)andwecanthusconsider
rasafunctionofMandReonly.Thevalueofrmayvaryoverthesurface.
Forlaminarflowofanincompressiblefluidaroundaflatplate,rdepends
onlyontherateofheatexchangeandthefrictionintheboundarylayeron
thesurfaceoftheplate.WhenPr=1,heatexchangeandfrictionalheating
compensateeachother,andtheadiabatictemiperatureonthesurfaceis
equaltothestagnationtemperatureTo,i.e.,r=1.
Theoreticallytherecoverycoefficientinlaminarandturbulentboundary
layersataflatplateshouldbe/=Pr''andr=Pr'''respectively,but
experimentalvaluesof0.85and0.89respectively,havebeenobtained.
Thecoefficientofthermalrecoverydependsontheshapeofthesurface.
Studiesinsupersonicwindtunnelshaveshownthatforpoorlystreamlined
639/1563
09/09/2015
bodiesrvariesbetween0,6and0.7,andforwellstreamlinedbodies,
between0,8and0.9.
Therelationshipbetweentherecoverytemperatureandthestagnation
temperaturedependsontheMachnumber,andcanbededucedfrom(4.4)
and(4.49):
^=1Izrr(!')(4.50)
Thisfunctionisplottedforx=1.4andvariousvaluesofrinFigure4.56.
InsubsonicflowTdecreaseswithincreasingvelocity.WhenMexceeds
unity,ashockappearsupstreamofthebodywhoseleadingedgeis
thereforeinasubsonicregion;hence,theMachnumberin(4.50)isless
208
thanunity.Withincreasingsupersonicfreestreamvelocity,thestrength
oftheshockincreases,theMachnumberdecreases,andthereforethe
valueofTarises.
Intheabsenceofheattransfer,athermometeronthewallofatube
insertedintoagasstreamwouldindicatearecoverytemperatureTa
dependentonlyontheflowcharacteristicsintheboundarylayeraround
thetube.Whenr=\.0,Ta=ToHowever,anactualthermometer,inwhich
heatexchangewiththesurroundingmediumcannotbeprevented,will
indicateatemperatureTndifferingfromtherecoverytemperature'/'.
Theprincipalcharacteristicofathermometeristhereforethe
dimensionlessquantity
640/1563
09/09/2015
TnT
(4.51)
whichiscalledtherecoverycoefficientoftheinstrument.Bydefinition,
therecoverycoefficientC,allowsfortheeffectsofheatexchangebetween
thethermometerandthesurroundingatmospherecausedbytheheat
conductivityoftheinstrumentholderandbyheatradiation.
Thevalueof^foragiveninstrumentcanbeestablishedexperimentally
bycalibrationinaspecialwindtunnel.KnowingthetemperatureTn,as
measuredbytheinstrument,anditsrecoverycoefficientg,wecan
determinethestagnationtemperatureT,bysubstitutingTaandrforT^
and5in(4.50).
t.O1.52.02.S3.0
FreestreamMachnumber(upstreamoftheshock)
1.0
641/1563
09/09/2015
O.WI0.5770.5130.475
Machnumberdownstreamoftheshock
FIGURE4.56.RatioTJTâsafunctionoftheMachnumberforathermometer
offinitedimensionsinsubsonicflow,andinsupersonicHowvvithashock.
209
lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllMini
IIIIlllllllllllIIIllllllllllllllll
nilIII
Sensorsformeasuringstagnationtemperature
Thedesignofatemperaturesensordependsontheintendedrangeofflow
velocitiesandtemperatures.Thedesignandnaaterialofthesensorcanbe
sochosenthatitwillindicateatemperature7"nwhichissufficientlycloseto
thestagnationtemperatureoftheflow.Suchasensorcanbecalleda
stagnationtemperaturesensor.
642/1563
09/09/2015
Foragoodstagnationtemperaturesensor,thevalueof^shouldbeclose
tounity.However,itisevenmoreimportantthatJshouldbeconstant,
orchangeverylittleovertherelevantrangeofvelocitiesandtemperatures.
Thedeviationfromunityofthevalueof5dependson:1)convectional
heatexchangebetweensensingelementandmedium;2)heatlossby
conductionfromthesensorthroughthedeviceholdingit;3)radiantheat
exchangebetweensensorandthesurroundings.
Sincetheprocessesbywhichheatexchangetakesplacevarywithflow
velocityandtemperature,thedesignofthesensordependsonthevalues
withinthetestrangeofallthephysicalparameters.Sensorscanbe
roughlydividedintothreegroupsdependingontherangeofmeasurements:
1)sensorsforlowandhighvelocitiesatlowtemperatures;2)sensorsforhigh
velocities,andtemperaturesupto300and400C;3)sensorsforlowand
highvelocitiesathightemperatures(upto10001200C).
Lowtemperaturesensors.Theeffectof[heat]radiationcanbe
neglectedifthetemperatureofthewallonwhichthesensorisraounted
differsverylittlefromthetemperatureoftheflowingmedium.To
determinethelatterinthetestsectionofmostwindtunnels(forlowor
highvelocities)itissufficienttomeasurethestagnationtemperatureinthe
settlingchamberofthetunnel.Sincethereispracticallynoinputorremovalof
heatbetweenthesettlingchamberandthetestsection,thestagnation
temperatureremainsconstant.Theflowvelocityinthesettlingchamber
doesnotusuallyexceedsometensofm/secandthetemperature,
sometensofdegreescentigrade.
Mercurythermometerscanbeusedassensingelementsinthisrange,
butresistancethermometersandthermocouplesprovidefasteroperation
andpermitremoteindication.Thedesignofaresistancethermometerfor
measuringtemperaturesinthesettlingchamberofawindtunnelisshownin
Figure4.57.Thechangeintheresistanceofthewire,asafunctionof
643/1563
09/09/2015
temperature,canbemeasuredwiththeaidofaratiometeroraWheat
stonebridge.Ifallotherparametersinawindtunneloronatestbench
aremeasuredandrecordedautomatically,itisbettertousetheautomatic
electronicbridges(currentlymadebySovietindustry).Standardbridges
haveusuallyarecordingorindicatingdeviceactuatedbyabalancingmotor
placedinsidetheinstrument.Forautomaticrecordingoftemperaturetogether
withotherparametersthebalancingmotorofthebridgeisconnectedtoa
recorderorprinterbymeansofaSelsynoradigitalconverter(see
ChapterDC).Automaticbridgespermitthetemperaturetobemeasured
toanaccuracyoftenthsofadegree.
Sensorsforhighvelocitiesandmediumtemperatures.
Whentestingcompressorsitisnecessarytomeasuretemperaturesupto
300Or400Catuptosonicvelocities.Thesamerangeofstagnation
temperatureisfoundinsupersonicwindtunnelsfittedwithairheating
andintunnelsforheatexchangetests.Inmostcasesthesensorsare
210
mountedinrelativelynarrowchannels;inordertoreducethedisturbances
causedbythem,thesensorsshouldbesmall,forwhichthebestsensing
elementisathermocouplewithwiresof0.1to0.2mmdiameter.Forthe
rangeoftemperaturesconsideredironconstantanorcopperconstantan
therraocouplesaregenerallyemployed;theyhavesensitivitiesof5and
4millivoltsper100Crespectively.Thethermalcapacityofthejunction
ofthethermocoupleisverysmall,sothatitrespondsrapidlyand
measurementcanbemadeatrapidlychangingtemperatures.
644/1563
09/09/2015
Temperature
sensor
Framemadeofinsulating
material
Copper
spiral
Electronic
bridge
console
FIGURE4.57.Resistancethertjiometer
formeasuringthetemperatureinthe
settlingchainberofawindtunnel.
FIGURE4.58.RtsisrancethcnnotuctcTtor
measuringthetemperatureuithesettling
chamberofawindtuiinei.
645/1563
09/09/2015
Whenthereisnoradiantheatexchange,athermocoupleconsistingof
buttweldedcopperandconstantanwires,insertedlengthwiseintothe
flowingmedium,willhaveastablerecoverycoefficient[T,=0.9)for
0,2<M<1,0and3.810^<Re<14.4lO^.Thevalueofîsnotconstantfora
thermocoupleinsertedtransversely,sincetherecoverycoefficientincreases
withvelocity/19/.Althought,isconstantforbarewiresinsertedlength
wise,temperaturesensorsofthistypearenotwidelyusedbecauseof
manufacturingdifficulties.
Attemptshavebeenmadetomeasurethestagnationtemperaturewith
thermocouplesinstalledatthefrontalstagnationpointofastreamlined
sensor.Itwasfoundpossibleinsuchsensorstoachieveabalancebetween
heatexchangebyconvectionwiththemediumandheatexchangebyconduction
withthesupports.However,thistypeofsensorisverysensitivetoslight
changesinitsshape,yaw,andradiantheatexchange,andisnotwidelyused
Themostreliabledesignofstagnationtemperaturesensors,having
recoverycoefficientsclosetounityoverawiderangeofvelocities,relies
onbringingthefluidtorestadiabaticallynearthethermocouplejunction.
211
Thegasupstreamofthejunctioncanbesloweddowntoacertainoptimum
velocity,whereheatgainedbythejunctionduetothermalconvectioninthe
gasisbalancedbytheheatlostfromthejunctionduetotheheatconductionofthe
supports.Inlowvelocityflowthetemperatureandvelocitygradientsare
small,sothatheatexchangeandfrictionintheboundarylayeratthejunction
ofthethermocoupleareinsignificant.Themediumisbroughttorestadiabati
callyinatotalpressuretube,andthebesttemperaturesensorssofardeveloped
646/1563
09/09/2015
arebasedonsuchtubesofmodifiedshape.Afurtheradvantageofthis
designisthatthetubecanalsobeusedasaradiationshieldtoprevent
radiantheatexchangewiththesurroundingmedium.Inordertoprevent
thegasfromcomingtorestcompletely,andtomaintainacertainconvective
heattransfertothejunctioninordertobalancethelossthroughthermal
conduction,thetubehasoutletorificeswhoseareais1/4to1/8ofthearea
oftheinletorifice.Thedimensionsandshapeofasensorwithinthe
stagnationzoneinsideatubearelesscritical,andnaeasurement
reproducibilityisbetterthanifthethernnometerwereplacedonthesurface,
wheretherecoverycoefficientwoulddependontheflowconditionsaround
thebody.Thus,ithasbeenpossibletodesignsensorswithrecovery
coefficientsoftheorderof0.99for0.2<M<3.0.
0.98
ass
OM
0.32
312m/
sec
647/1563
09/09/2015
5^
y^^
180
129
648/1563
09/09/2015
80'WW20'
Yawangle
150300m/sec
Freestreamvelocity
FIGURE4.59.SectionandcharacteristicsofthePrattand
andWhitneyPitotthermocouple.
212
Inoneoftheearliestdesignsofshieldedtemperaturesensorsusedat
highvelocities,thethermocouplewasplacedinthestagnationchamber
ofaroundnosedtube.Airenteredintothechamberthroughadiffuser
andsmallventilatingholesweredrilledinthechamberwallstomakeup
theheatlossesfrom,conductionandradiation.Figure4.58showsthedesign
andcharacteristicsofasensorofthistype,havinganexternaldiameter
of4.7mm[20].Suchasensorishighlysensitivetoyaw;thereisalarge,
randomerrorinitscalibrationcurve,causedbyflowinstabilityinthe
diffuser.Thereasonfortheabruptchangeinrecoverycoefficientatavelocity
ofabout90m/secisthetransitionfromlaminartoturbulentflowatthe
diffuserinlet,whereRe=2000to3000.
649/1563
09/09/2015
SubsequentinvestigationsofPitotthermocoupleshaveshownthatbetter
reproducibilityandreducedsensitivitytoyawisobtainedbyplacingthe
thermocoupleinacylindricalstagnationchamber.Figure4.59showsthe
designandcharacteristicsofsuchasensor.Thesesensorsarevery
widelyusedbecauseoftheirsimpledesign.Theirrecoverycoefficients
varybetween0.95and0.999.
Aluminum
'0**
FIGURE4.60.DoubleshieldedPitotthermocouple.
Figure4.60showsthesensordesignedattheSwedishRoyalTechnological
Institute.Ithasarecoverycoefficientveryclosetounity.Thethermo
couplejunction,0.15mmindiameterandmadefromironconstantan,
issurroundedbytwoaluminumtubes,joinedatthenoseofthesensorby
meansofheatinsulatingmaterial.Atzeroyawtherecoverycoefficients
ofroundandconicalnosedinstrumentsofthistypeare0.998and0.996
650/1563
09/09/2015
213
respectively.Yawsof5to10havepracticallynoeffectontherecovery
coefficients,whichhavealsobeenfoundtoremainpracticallyconstantat
temperaturesofupto250''C/21/.
Sensorsformeasuringthestagnationtemperaturesbetweenthestages
ofturbocompressorsandgasturbinesmustbeassmallaspossibleboth
indiameterandlength.Thedesignsoftwosuchinstrumentsareshownin
Figures4.61and4,62.
Boundarylayertemperaturemeasurementsaremadewithminiature
instruments,similartothatshowninFigure4.59.Medicalhypodermic
needles,whosediametersarefractionsofmillimeters,areusedforthe
externaltubes.
ThevalueofJtendstodecreaseatlowvelocities,atwhichheatinput
byconvectiontothethermocouplenolongerbalanceslossesbyconduction
throughthesupports.
Hightemperaturesensors
Forhightemperatures(above300or400C),atwhichthetemperature
differencebetweenthesensorandthesurroundingm.ediumisoftheorder
of50Cormore,radiantheatlossesbecometheprincipalsourceoferror.
651/1563
09/09/2015
Exactmeasurementsofstagnationtemperatures
areverydifficultinthisrange,whereevenslight
changesinambienttemperatureleadtoconsiderable
changesinthetemperatureofthesensor.
Theamountofheatlostbyradiationis
proportionaltothesurfaceareaofthesensor,
sothatforhightenaperatureduty,sensorsshould
beassmallasisconsistentwithstrength
requirements.Theradiationcapacityofthesurface
ofthebodyonwhichthesensorismountedshould
alsobeverylow:thiscanbeachieved,forinstance,
bypolishingthesurface.Itisdifficult,however,to
avoidgradualoxidationofthesurfaceofasensor
immersedinhotgases.Thebestmethodofreducing
radiationistoimprovetheshieldingofthesensor.
Thethermocoupleofthesensorismountedina
diffusersurroundedbyseveralconcentric
tubularscreens(Figure4.63).Theexternal
screensareheatedbythegasflowingthrough
theannulargaps.Thethermocouplejunction
maybeeithermountedinthemiddleofthecentral
tubeorweldedtoit.Inthefirstcasethe
recoverycoefficientofthesensorissimilarto
thatofapoorlystreamlinedbody(I0.65).Inthesecondcase,thevalue
oftherecoverycoefficientapproachesthatofaflatplate{t,~0.9).Good
resultshavebeenobtainedattemperaturesupto900to1000Cwith
chromelalumelthermocouplesmiountedinenclosuresoftheabovedescribed
type.Theinnerscreenmaybemadeofporcelain,andthethreeouter
screensofheatresistantsteel.
652/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE4.61.Cylindrical
temperaturesensor
(M=1,c=0.98).
214
Radiationlossesinhightemperaturesensorscanbereducedbyheating
theshieldtoatemperatureclosetotheambienttemperatureofthemedium.
1.02
1.00
ass
0.96
094
t
1.02
653/1563
09/09/2015
654/1563
09/09/2015
60
120
WO240
V,m/sec
^1.00
^0.93
096
655/1563
09/09/2015
0.94
0.92
ar
656/1563
09/09/2015
^P
cc
657/1563
09/09/2015
4020'
20'40'
FIGURE4.62.Cylindricaltemperaturesensorwith
openmlet.
Figure4.64showsthedesignofaminiaturestagnationtemperaturesensor
developedbytheCaliforniaInstituteofTechnology/23/.Inthissensor,
anelectricallyheatedwireontheshieldreducesdirectradiationlosses
andlossesbyheatconductionfromtheshield.Tocompensateforheat
lossesbyconductionthroughtheleadsfromthethermocoupleanditsholder,
thelatterisheatedbyaseparatenichromeresistorheater.The
temperaturesoftheshield7"sandoftheholderfi,aremeasuredbyseparate
658/1563
09/09/2015
thermocouples,andcontrolledtobeasnearlyaspossibleequaltothe
215
temperature?"ofthemainthermocouple.Figure4.65showsthevaluesofthe
recoverycoefficientsSsEh^^'^ôbtainedbyinsertingthecorresponding
FIGURE4.63.Shieldedsensorforhightemperatures.
FIGURE4.64.Temperaturesensorwithheatedshield.
1mainthermocouplemountingandheatingelement;
2radiationshieldandheatingelement.
ReW*
FIGURE4.65.Characteristicsofatemperaturesensorwithheatedshieldand
holder(M=5.75).
659/1563
09/09/2015
valuesofT^,Tând7"ninto(4.51).Intheabsenceofheating,t,ândJ
dependonboththeReynoldsnumberandthestagnationtemperatureTo.
216
Ifweheatthethermocoupleholderinsuchawaythat7"i,=T^,i.e.,ifwe
eliminatetheheatlossesduetoconduction,thentherecoverycoefficient
?n=?hwillbehigher.Ifboththeholderandtheshieldareheated,sothat
7"l,=7*5=Tn,therewillbenotemperaturegradientsandthetemperatureof
themainthermocouplewillbeexactlyequaltothestagnationtemperature
(5=1)
Calibrationoftemperaturesensors
Figure4.66showsawindtunnellayoutforthecalibrationoftemperature
sensors.Theairfromthecompressoriscleanedinoilfilledairfilters,and
aftersuitablecoolingisledintoaverticalchamber,whoseupperpartisa
smoothlytaperingconewithasmallcylindricalportthroughwhichtheairis
ejectedtotheatmosphere.Thechamberisplacedverticallyinorderto
avoidflowasymmetryduetoconvection.
FIGURE4,66.Installationforcalibratingtemperaturesensors.
1windtunnel;2compressor;3receiver,coolerand
660/1563
09/09/2015
filter;4radiationshieldandheater;5airheater;6
sensorbeingcalibrated;7stagnationtemperaturesensor;
8totalpressuretube;9potentiometer.
Thestagriationtemperaturesensor(6)tobecalibratedismountedabove
theoutletport.Anotherstagnationtemperaturesensor(7)andatotal
pressuretube(8)areinstalledatthecenterofthechamber,wheretheflow
velocityissmall.Assumingthattherearenoenergylossesbyfrictionand
heattransfer,thestagnationtemperatureandthetotalpressuremusthave
217
equalvaluesattheoutletandinthecentreofthechamber.Thewallsof
theportarelaggedinordertoreduceheatexchangethroughthem.
Radiationeffectsarestudiedusinganelectricallyheatedradiation
shield(4).Afurtherelectricalheater(5)isprovidedatthewindtunnel
inlet,forstudyingtheperformanceofthesensorathightemperatures.
Thecoldjunctionsofthethermocouplesarebroughtouttoicewater
bathsplacedclosetotheleadthroughofeachsensor.Thethermalemf
ofthesensorsismeasuredwithahighaccuracypotentiometerconnected
toacenterzerogalvanometer.Temperaturescanbemeasuredwithan
accuracyof0.05Catagalvanometersensitivityof10"âmps.
Theproportionalityconstantsk,andk2ofemfversustemperature
forthethermocouplesinthereferencesensorandthesensorbeing
calibratedaredeterminedbeforehandbystaticcalibrationagainstastandard
thermometer.
661/1563
09/09/2015
Beforeeachtest,thesensortobecalibratedismountedinthechambernext
tothereferencesensorinsteadyflowconditions.Thedifferencebetweenthe
indications(thermalemfsofthesensors,inthiscaseatthesame
temperatureto)isdueonlytothedifferenceAfbetweentheircalibration
coefficients.Thisdifference
\U=U,U,=^
^0^
ismeasuredbythedifferentialmethod.Thesensorbeingcalibratedisthen
placedattheoutletport.Theindicationofthereferencesensorremains
unchanged,beingU,=^.Theindicationofthesensorbeingcalibratedwill
havethenewvalue6^2=7r'wheretisthecorrespondingtemperature,which
dependsontherecoverycoefficientt,.Thedifferencebetweenthe
indicationsofthetwosensors,measuredbythedifferentialmethod,is
A6f'=i/,i/,'=A4a.
Wecanthusdeterminethetruetemperaturedifferencebetweenthetwo
sensors:
A6f;Ai/=72i/2=^^^,
ThismethodhastheadvantageofmeasuringthesmalldifferencesAU
662/1563
09/09/2015
andAil'sothatthecalibrationerrorsaremuchsmallerthanifthe
thermalemfofeachthermocoupleweremeasuredseparately.
Therecoverycoefficientcanbefoundfrom
2gJc
wheretheflowvelocityisdeterminedbymeasuringthetotal
stagnationtemperatureinthesettlingchamber.
1680
218
15.MEASUREMENTOFDENSITY:
HUMIDITYCORRECTIONS
Thedensityofaperfectgascanbedeterminedfromtheequationof
state(4.1).ForairatS.T.P.U=15C,p=10,331kg/môrB,5=760mmHg,
S=9.81m/sec^,R=29.27m/degree)wehave
p.3=0.125i^.
Tocalculatethedensityofairforotherconditionsweusetheconcept
ofrelativedensity
663/1563
09/09/2015
Insertingintothisthevalueforthedensitydeterminedfromtheequationof
state,weobtain
AZZlLB(273+\5)..
Tp,s~"760(273+'^'
whereBisthebarometricpressureinmmHg.ThisvalueofAisused
fordeterminingtheflowvelocityinwindtunnelshavingopentestsections,
byinsertinginto(4.30)thevalueofp=pisA.
Clapeyron'sequationofstatenolongerappliesexactlytovaporsnear
thecondensationpoint,andwemustusemorecomplicatedequations,
suchasthatofvanderWaals:
cdcT)a
whereaisthevolumetriccoefficientofthermalexpansionofthevapor
atconstantpressure,cisaconstantwhosemagnitudedependsonthe
molecularweightofthegas,and1)=isthespecificvolume.
TheconstantsaandbinvanderWaals'equationareverysmall,so
thatforthedensitiesusuallyencounteredinaerodynamicexperiments,
vanderWaals'equationreducestothatofClapeyron.
Inlowvelocitywindtunnelsthedensitycanbedeterminedfrom
formula(A).Athighvelocites,thedensityofthegascanbefoundby
(4.6)fromthestagnationdensitypo:
664/1563
09/09/2015
ii=(l+^Mf
Thevalueofpoisusuallydeterminedfrommeasurementsinthe
settlingchamberofthewindtunnel,wheretheflowvelocityissmall
andwecanuseformula(A)forA.Inthiscasetisequaltothe
stagnationtemperaturemeasuredbyasensorinthesettlingchamber.
Inhighvelocitywindtunnelsthetenaperatureoftheflowingmedium
Isappreciablylowerthanthetemperatureatthenozzleinlet;therefore,
therelativehumidityrisessharplyinthenozzlethroatandInthesuper
sonicregiondownstream.Undercertainconditionssaturationoccurs.
219
andthewatervaporintheaircondenses.Theonsetofcondensationmay
besharplydefined.Condensationshocksaresimilartoordinaryshocks,
andcausesuddenchangesintheflowparametersinthetestsection.For
thesereasonscondensationshocksshouldbeelim.inated,eitherbydrying
theairorbyincreasingtheinitialstagnationtemperature(seeChapterII).
Intheabsenceofcondensationthepresenceofm.oisturedoesnotaffectthe
flow,butaltersthedensityp.
Indeterminingthedensityofmoistair,wemusttakeintoaccount
changesinthegasconstant.ThevalueRj^ôithegasconstantfora
m.ixtureofairandwatervaporcanbefoundbym.easuringthepartialvapor
pressurep',whichisrelatedtothesaturationvaporpressurep^by
665/1563
09/09/2015
P'=fP's
where9istherelativehumidity.
Knowingthevalueofp',thevalueof;?jj,jjjCanbefoundfromthe
followingequationbasedonDalton'slaw,whichstatesthatthepressure
ofamixtureisequaltothesumofthepartialpressuresofitscomponents
pVrJ
Substitutingintothisexpressionthevaluesofthegasconstantforair
(/?a=29.27m/degree)andsuperheatedsteam{Rs=47.1m/degree)weobtain
D^29.27
_
p
whencethedensityofthemixtureis
mix
wherepaisthedensityofdryairatthetemperatureandpressureof
them.ixture,whileX,=10.378p'/pisthecorrectioncoefficientforthe
moistureconstantoftheair.Thecorrectioncoefficientformoisture
contentcanbesignificant,especiallyatlowpressures.Thus,e.g.,
666/1563
09/09/2015
for9=0.8,p=O.lata,andT=303,thedensityis13%lessthanfordryair.
Thus,theeffectofmoisturemustbetakenintoaccountbydetermining
thepartialvaporpressurep'atthegiventemperature.Partialpressures
aremeasuredwithvarioustypesofpsychrometers.Figure4.67showsa
psychrometerconsistingoftwothermometersplacedintubesthroughwhich
passestheairwhosehumidityistobemeasured.Thetopofone
thermometeriscoveredbyamoistcloth.Whenthernaalequilibriumis
reached,thequantityofheatlostbythewetbulbthermometer,willbe
equaltotheheatgainedbyitfrom,thesurroundingmedium.Thelowerthe
relativehumidityoftheairsurroundingthewetbulbthermom.eter,the
higherwillbetherateofmoistureevaporation.Theconditionofthermal
equilibriumisdefinedby
220
wherep'isthesaturationwatervaporpressureatthetemperaturet'
measuredbythewetbulbthermometer,pîstheairpressureatwhich
themeasurementwasmade,tisthetemperaturemeasuredbythedry
bulbthermometer,andaisacalibrationconstantwhosemagnitude
dependsonthedesignofthepsychrometer.Thesaturationwatervapor
FIGURE4.67.Measuringtherelativehumidity
inawindtunnel.1drybulbthermometer:
2wetbulbthermometer;3smallcontainer;
4fan;5windtunnel.
667/1563
09/09/2015
pressurep'dependsonlyontemperature;itsvaluesaregiveninTable8,
whichcanbeusedInconjunctionwiththevaluesoftandt'determinedby
thepsychrometerandthewindtunnelpressurep^,inordertodeterm.ine
p'from,theformulaabove.
TABLE8.Saturationvaporpressuresofwater
(,c
P's''<g/"1
',,'C
pi.kg/m'
1,c
pj.kg/m'
668/1563
09/09/2015
62
16
185
31
458
67
17
198
32
485
669/1563
09/09/2015
72
18
210
33
513
77
19
224
34
542
670/1563
09/09/2015
83
20
238
35
573
89
21
254
36
671/1563
09/09/2015
606
95
22
270
37
640
102
23
286
672/1563
09/09/2015
38
676
109
24
304
39
713
117
25
323
673/1563
09/09/2015
40
752
10
125
26
343
41
793
11
134
27
674/1563
09/09/2015
364
42
836
12
143
28
385
43
881
13
153
675/1563
09/09/2015
29
408
44
928
14
163
30
433
45
977
15
174
676/1563
09/09/2015
1,c
Pfkg/hi'
46
1029
47
1082
48
1138
677/1563
09/09/2015
49
1197
50
1258
51
1322
52
1388
53
1458
54
678/1563
09/09/2015
1530
55
1605
56
1683
57
1765
58
1850
59
1939
60
679/1563
09/09/2015
2031
221
Formeasuringtherelativehumidityofairinawindtunnel,the
psychrom.eterisplacedinasmallcontainer,throughwhichafancirculates
airdrawnfromthetunnel.Thecirculationmustbesufficienttopreventthe
moisture,evaporatedfromthewetcloth,fromaffectingthehumidityofthe
airinthecontainer.Inordertoavoidmoisturecondensationinthe
container,thetemperatureinitmustrotbelessthanthetunneltemperature
Thereadingsofthepsychrometerm.ustbecorrectedfortemperatureand
pressuredifferencesbetweentheairinthewindtunnelandthatinthe
container.Intheabsenceofmoisturecondensationinthecontainer,thegas
constantoftheairinitandinthetunnelareequal,andwemaywrite
wherep,p,andTarethepressure,density,andtemperatureoftheair
inthetunnel,whilepi,pi,and7",aretherespectivevaluesfortheair
inthecontainer.
Fromthedefinitionofpartialpressure,p[jp'=fJ'^jfT,wherep'and/>,'
680/1563
09/09/2015
arethepartialpressuresinthetunnelandinthecontainerrespectively,
weobtain
P'==P[
P\
i.e.,thepartialpressurevariesindirectproportiontothepressureof
themoistair.
Anothermethodofmeasuringtherelativehumidityoftheairinwind
tunnelsisbasedondewpointdetermination.Weobserve,either
visually,orwithaphotoelectricdevice,theinstantatwhichdewforms
onthesurfaceofametalmirrorwhenitstemperatureislowered.
KnowingthetemperatureiofthemirrorsurfaceandtheairpressurePawe
canfindtherelativehumidityandpartialvaporpressurefromavailable
tables.
FIGURE4.68.Determiningrelativehumidityby
measurementofdewpointtemperature.
222
681/1563
09/09/2015
Figure4.68showsaninstrumentofthistype,whichisusedinanRAE
supersonicwindtunnel.Theairfromthesettlingchamberisledintoa
hermeticallysealedchamber(A)containingacopperdisk(1)whosepolished
surfacecanbeviewedthroughaglasswindow(2).Theairpressurepa
inthechamberismeasuredbyapressuregage(3).Throughtube(6),
whoseinternaldiameteris0.5mm,CO2isfedfromthebottle(7)intoa
secondsealedchamber(B)ontheoppositesideofthedisk.Asthegas
flowsfromthetubeintochamber(B)itexpands,thuscoolingthedisk.
Apreciserelationshipexistsbetweenthepressureandthetemperature
oftheexpandingCO^,sothatbycontrollingthegasflowratewithaneedle
valve(8),connecting(B)toatmosphere,wecanchangethetemperatureof
thedisk(1);thistemperaturecanbedeterminedfromthepressure
measuredbyagage(4).Theexacttemperatureofthediskisdetermined
withthemillivoltmeter(5),whichmeasurestheemfofacopperconstantan
thermocoupleweldedtothedisk(1).
Dewpointinstrumentsmeasurerelativehumidityaccuratelyto0.05%
anddeterminethewatervaporpressureto1%.
16.BOUNDARYLAYERMEASUREMENTS
Measurementsoftheflowparametersintheboundarylayeraround
streanalinedbodiesarenecessarym.ainlyinstudiesofdrag.The
parametersdependalmostentirelyonskinfriction.Theskinfrictionofa
bodycanbedeterminedbysubtractingfromthetotaldrag(determined,
forinstance,bywaketraverse)thevalueoftheformdrag,obtainedby
measuringthepressuredistributionoverthesurface(ChapterVH),
Sincebothquantities,especiallytheformdrag,areverydifficultto
measureaccurately,skinfriction,inpractice,isdeterminedbyother
682/1563
09/09/2015
means.Itisbettertodeterminethedistributionoverthesurfaceofthe
bodyofthefrictionalshearingstress
whereuisthevelocitycomponentparalleltothewallintheboundarylayer
atadistanceyfromthewall,andjiistheviscositycoefficientofthefluidat
thewalltemperature.
Boundarylayerinvestigationsinvolvethedeterminationofcertain
arbitrarilydefinedcharacteristics,namely,theboundarylayerthickness5
thedisplacementthick.iess3*,andthemomentumthickness8**.The
boundarylayerthicknessisunderstoodasthedistancefromthewallat
whichthevelocityis0.99oftheundisturbedflow.Themagnitudesofthe
displacementandmomentumthicknessesaredefinedas
1'CO03*'
223
wherefandvarethedensityandflowvelocityattheouter
limitoftheboundarylayer.Boundarylayerstudiesdemandmoreprecise
methodsofmeasvirementandmoresensitiveequipmentthanisusualin
experimentalaerodynamics.Theboundarylayerhasasmallthickness
andlargetransversevelocitygradients,sothatelaborateminiature
instrumentsareneeded.
Velocityprofiledeterminations
683/1563
09/09/2015
intheboundarylayer
Inathinboundarylayerthestaticpressure,measuredperpendicular
toawallofsmallcurvature,isconstant,whilethetransversevelocity
gradientsareverylarge.Velocitydistributionscanthereforebe
determinedbymeasuringthetotalpressureatdifferentpointsalongthe
normaltothesurface,andthestaticpressureatthewall.
Athighflowvelocitiesitisalsonecessarytoknowthetemperature
ofthemedium,whichcanbedetermined,forinstance,by
measuringthedensityintheboundarylayerwithaninterferometerand
usingtheequationofstate(4.1).Intheabsenceofheatexchangebetween
themediumandthewall,thestagnationtemperatureintheboundarylayer
willdifferverylittlefromthefreestreamstagnationtemperatureand
thevelocityintheboundarylayercanthenbedeterminedfrom(4.44).
Theinsertionofatubeintotheboundarylayermayseriouslymodify
theflowconditionsinit.Disturbancessocausedarepropagatedupstream
andaffecttheflowconditionsatthewallaheadofthetube.Themeasured
pressurewillnotthencorrespondtothepressureintheundisturbed
boundarylayer.Themagnitudeofthedisturbancesintroducedbythe
tubedependsonitsthicknessinrelationtothelocalthicknessofthe
boundarylayer.Theeffectofintroducingthetubeisthereforedetermined
bymeasuringthevelocitydistributionintheboundarylayerwithtubesof
differentdiameters.Aseconddifficulty,relatedtothefirst,isthatthe
tubewillfunctioninalargetransversevelocitygradient,sothata
correctionforthedisplacementofitseffectivecentermustbeintroduced
(see11).
Thesedifficultiescanbereducedbyusingmicroprobes,i.e.,total
pressuretubeswithinternaldiametersof0.05to0.3mm(suchasthetubing
usedformanufacturinghypodermic[medical]needles).However,pressures
measuredwithtubesoftheseverysmalldiametersaresubjectto
considerabletransmissionlagsinthereadingsoftheassociated
684/1563
09/09/2015
pressuregage.Thisisoftenreducedbyusingtubeswithflattenednoses
(Figure4.69a),whichprovideasufficientlylargecrosssection,whilethe
partinsertedintotheboundarylayeristhin.Thetransmissionlagmay
neverthelessstillbemanytenthsofseconds,sothatmeasurementsinthe
boundarylayerareverycomplicatedandtimeconsuming.
Thetubedimensionsareveryim.portantinthestudyofboundarylayers
insupersonicflow.Thus,forinstance,forflowaroundaconeatM2,
thethicknessofthelaminarboundarylayeratadistanceof250rnmfrom
theapexmaybelessthan0.8mm,Thedistortionofthevelocityprofilein
thislayer,duetothecomparativelylargethicknessofthetube,isshown
224
schematicallyinFigure4.70/24/.Thisdistortionresultsinthe
displacementofthewholeoftheboundarylayerprofile(som.etimes
accompaniedbychangesinthevelocitygradient),inchangesoftheshape
ofthevelocityprofilenearthewall,andintheappearanceofapeakon
thevelocityprofileclosetotheouterlimitoftheboundarylayer.This
displacementofthewholeprofileiscausedbythedisplacementofthe
"effectivecenter"ofthetube.Insupersonicflowthisdisplacementmay
betowardlowervelocities,i.e.,inthedirectionwhichisoppositetothe
displacementinnoncompressibleflow(see11).Closetothewallthe
^)
685/1563
09/09/2015
jy//////////////y>//.
S5
n^
/\&
686/1563
09/09/2015
f\
i=_i_
f'///J////,
Distortioncloseto
boundarylayerlimit
''//////y////////////^^/777777777777777?777r.
FIGURE4.69.Miniaturetotalpressuretube,
aflattenedmetaltube;bquartztube.
687/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE4.70.Effectoftotalpressuretube
dimensionsonthevelocitydistributioninthe
boundarylayer.
errorisduealsototheinfluenceoftheReynoldsnumber,sinceatRe<200,
indicationsoftotalpressuretubesareexcessive.Atsupersonic
velocitiesthiserrorcanbeconsiderable,sincethegasdensitiesare
small.
Theappearanceofapeakonthevelocityprofileclosetotheouterlimit
oftheboundarylayercanaffectthedeterminationofthedisplacement
andmomentumthicknesses.Insupersonicflow,theactualvaluesofthese
quantitiescanbedeterminedbymultiplyingwithacorrectioncoefficient,
duetoDavis,therespectivevaluesdeterminedfromvelocityprofile
measurements/24/,
âc=co4r=c=Ce(i4;
whereddenotestheoutsidediameterofthetotalpressuretube.
Inadditiontoflattenedtubes,conicalquartztubeswithacircularorifice
of0.1mmdianaeterareusedformeasurementsinasupersonicboundary
layer.Inspiteofthesm.allerorifice,thequartztubehasasmaller
225
688/1563
09/09/2015
transmissionlagthantheflattenedmetaltube,becauseofthe
smoothnessofitswallsandthinconicalshape(Figure4.69b).E\irther,
FIGURE4.71.Velocityprofilesintheboundarylayer.
anycondensedmoistureintheorificeordustwhichmayhaveenteredit,
aremoreeasilyobservedinatransparenttube.
Forinvestigatingthevelocitydistributionsinboundarylayers,special
traversingcradlesareused,havingmicrometerscrewswhichpermit
thedistanceofthetubefromthewalltobe
measuredaccuratelyto0.02mm.Contact
bythetubenosewiththesurfaceofthe
bodyisdetectedelectrically.Toprevent
arcingwhichmightotherwiseoccurat
verysmallclearances,theappliedvoltage
issometimesreducedbyinsertingthe
contactsintothegridcircuitofanelectron
tube.
Whenthesurfaceofthemodelhasalarge
curvature,thestaticpressurealonga
nornaaltothewallisnotconstant;itisthen
necessarytousestaticpressuremicro
689/1563
09/09/2015
probes.Thestaticandtotalpressure
tubesarethenfixedonacommontraversing
cradleandaremovedsimultaneously.
Theresultsofmeasurementsofthe
velocitydistributionintheboundarylayer
arepresentedintheformofcurves
ufV=f{y/S}(Figure4.71)orintheformof
velocityisolines.Thesearefamiliesof
curves,eachofwhichjoinsthepointsat
whichtheratiooflocaltofreestream
velocityisthesame.
Lately,lowspeedwindtunnelshave
beenusedforintensiveresearchonthe
flowaroundsweptbackanddeltawings.
Foradetailedstudyofthreedimensional
boundarylayers,werequireexactand
FIGURE4.72.Microtraversingcradle..simultaneousmeasurementsofthe
226
magnitudeanddirectionofthevelocityinatraverseofagivencross
sectionoftheboundarylayer.Figure4.72showsamicrotraversing
cradlewhichpermitssuchmeasurementstobemadewiththeaidofdouble
ortripletubes(Figure4.48).Difficultiesintheuseofpneumometric
microprobes(duetocloggingoftheorifices,orthenecessitytocorrectfor
thedisplacementoftheeffectivecenter)haveencourageduseofminiature
hotwireanemometersforvelocitymeasurementintheboundarylayer.
However,becauseofthefragilityofsuchinstruments,andthecomplication
690/1563
09/09/2015
ofusingit,mostexperimentalstudiesofboundarylayerconditionsare
stillmadewithpneumometricprobes.
Determinationofthelocalcoefficient
ofsurfacefriction
Forplaneparallelflow,thefrictionaldragofacylindricalbody,whose
generatrixisperpendiculartotheundisturbedflow,canbeexpressedas
where/isthechordlength,andbthewidthofthebody;c/isthelocal
coefficientofskinfriction:
P.
,v
/2'
andXdenotesdistancealongthechord.
Below,severalexperimentalmethodsaredescribedfordetermining
ToandCj.
691/1563
09/09/2015
Directmethod.Thefrictionalforceactingonanelementofthe
surfaceofabodycanbemeasureddirectly.Suchmeasurementsusually
aremadeonaflatwall.Arectangularorcircularsurfaceelementis
separatedfromtheremainderbyanannulargap,0.1to0.15mmwide,
andisplacedonabalance.Thesurfacesarepolishedandadjustedtogether
toensurethattheplaneoftheelementcoincidesexactlywiththatofthe
wall;thisischeckedwithamicrometeroranopticalinterferometer.It
isespeciallyimportantthatthediskshouldnotprojectfromthesurfaceof
thewall,thoughitmayberecessedtotheextentof0.01mmwithoutadverse
effect.Abalanceformeasuringthefrictionona50mmdiameterdiskis
showninFigure4.73.Thediskismountedonapairofleafspringsinan
annulargap.Sincechangesinthewidthofthisgapduringthemeasurement
areundesirable,theforceismeasuredbyanullmethod.Theforceacting
onthediskcausesittobedisplacedbyanamountindicatedbythe
displacementtransducer.Theforceisthenbalancedwiththeaidofan
electromagnetwhichreturnsthedisktoitsinitialpositioninthegap.
Thecurrentthroughtheelectromagnetisameasureoftherestoring
force,andthusofthefriction.Toavoidtheadverseeffectsofanon
uniformpressuredistributioninthegap,thispressureismeasuredat
aseriesoforificesarrangeduniformlyaroundthedisk.Sincethefrictional
forceonthediskisonly10to20gram,ahighsensitivitybalanceisnecessary.
227
Tomanomet
692/1563
09/09/2015
Displacement
transducer
Displacement
indicator
FIGURE4.73.frictionbalance.
Surfacetubemethod.Inthismethodthevelocityatapointvery
closetothesurface,andjustinsidetheboundarylayer,ismeasuredwith
asocalledsurfacetube.Inestimatingtheskinfrictionbythismethodit
0.3
.02
693/1563
09/09/2015
V'Ziii
9.1m/s&c
1
694/1563
09/09/2015
Z0..
?OA
SOM
IBOM
i,O0
IX.0.05
O.Oi
4r^.
695/1563
09/09/2015
"v
^^
hO.OS
.h'O.II
^fS
:^
696/1563
09/09/2015
1.33.0i.25.46.6
Velocityasmeasuredbythe
tube,m/sec
FIGURE4.74.Surfacetubefortotalpressuremeasurement,aStantontube;
bFageandFaulltnertube.
isassumedthatthevelocityincreaseslinearlyfromzeroatthewalltoa
valuecorrespondingtothepressureindicatedbythesurfacetube.
228
i.e..To=liu/y,whereyisthedistanceofthe"effectivecenter"ofthe
tubefromthewall.
Figure4.74illustratestwotypesofsurfacetubesusedbyStantonand
Fagefordeterminingxo.TheStantontubeisrectangular,itsinnersurface
beingformedbythewall.TheFagetubeconsistsofathinrectangular
plate,threeedgesofwhicharebentoverandsolderedtoacircularrod
letintothesurface.Theinletorificeofthetubeisformedbythestraight
leadingedgeoftheplateandthebuttendoftherod.Thegraphsshowthe
distanceofthe"effectivecenter"fromthewallasafunctionofthewidthof
theinletport;thisdimensioncanbeadjustedwithamicrometerscrew.
697/1563
09/09/2015
Therelationshipisdeterminedfromcalibrationsoftheinstrumentina
laminarflowboundarylayerofkhownprofile,butmayalsobeusedwhen
interpretingmeasurementsinturbulentboundarylayers.
Itisverydifficulttopreparesurfacetubessoshortthattheinletport
(Figure4.74)isentirelywithintheviscoussublayer,andtoismoresimply
estimatedfrommeasurementsintheturbulentlayer,assuggestedby
Preston.Inthismethodtoismeasuredwiththeaidofcirculartotal
pressuretubesheldagainstthewall125/.Themethodisbasedonthe
observation,thatthereisaregionclosetothewallinwhich
f=/(').
whereu.=Vwpiscalledfrictionvelocity(dynamicvelocity).Thisregion
ismuchthickerthantheviscoussublayer,sothatatubeofcomparatively
largesectioncanbeplacedinit.Intheviscoussublayertheaboveequation
becomesu/ii,=^yu,h,andtheuseoftheFageandStantonsurfacetubesis
basedonthis.Theaboveequationcanberewritten
wherepoisthetotalpressureasindicatedbyatubeheldagainst
thewall,pisthestaticpressureatthewall,anddisthediameterofthe
totalpressuretube.Allthetestresultsfromfourtubesofdifferentdiameters,
andinternaltoexternaldiameterratiod/D=0.6,laywithsmallscatterona
curve,which,forlg{poP)''V}pv^>5.0canbeexpressedintheform
Ig4pv^2.604IgIg^p^,.
Thevalueoftocanbederivedfromthisrelationship,
Projectingplatemethod.Thismethodconsistsinmeasuringthe
698/1563
09/09/2015
differenceinpressuresonthewallupstreamanddownstreamofaplate
projectingfromthesurfaceofthebodybysomehundredthsofamillimeter.
Assumingthatbeyondtheprojectionthevelocityincreaseslinearlywith
distancefromthewall,thispressuredifferenceisproportionaltoto:
AjB=2.90^=2.90v
whereuistheflowvelocityattheleveloftheupperedgeoftheprojection
wherey=h.Thisequationisoftheform4p=ktînwhichthevalueofthe
coefficientkdependsonlyontheheightoftheprojectionI2Ql.
229
Methodsbasedonmeasuringvelocityprofiles.The
frictionalstresstoonthewallofabodycanbefoundinprincipleby
determiningthevalueofdujdyatthewallfromthevelocitydistribution
intheboundarylayerasdeterminedwithaminiaturetotalpressuretubeand
anorificeinthewall.Sincetheminimumdistanceofthe"effectivecenter"
ofthetubefromthewallislimitedbythetubedimensions,thecurve
u=f(u)V^m.ustbeextrapolatedtoi/=0;valuesoftofoundbythismanner
arenotsufficientlyaccurate.
However,ifthevelocityprofileisknown,amoreaccuratevalueofto
canbefoundfromcalculatingthechangeofm.omentumintheboundary
layer.Therelevantequationforthemomentumis111
^ÎIKCOS"J8*)=i5
wherethexcoordinateistakenalongthesurfaceofthebody.Todetermine
tofromthisequationitisthusnecessarytofindthevariablesforseveral
699/1563
09/09/2015
valuesofx.Themeanvalueoftooveracertainregionofthesurfacecan
befoundsimplybymeasuringtheparametersattheboundariesx,andX2
oftheregionandintegratingthemomentumequationbetweenthelimits
XiandX2.
Inthecaseofinfiniteflowaroundaflatplate,themomentumequation
takestheform(whenthevelocityVdoesnotdependona:)of
^=^:,f?(Vu)udy.
Alloftheabovemethodsofmeasuringthecoefficientoffrictiongive
goodresultsforincompressiblefluids.Fortheturbulentboundarylayer
insupersonicflow,balancemeasurementsoftogivethemostaccurate
results.
Determiningthetransitionpointfromlaminar
toturbulentflowintheboundarylayer
Theaccuratedeterminationoffrictionaldragonabodydependsupon
knowledgeofthetransitionpointfromlaminartoturbulentflowinthe
boundarylayer,andofthepointofflowseparationfromthesurfaceofthe
body.Relevantexperimentalstudiesprovideauxiliaryqualitativecriteria
forcomparativeevaluationoftheaerodynamiccharacteristicsofmodels
andforcheckingtheoreticalpredictionsofthesecharacteristics.
Withtheincreasingvelocityofmodernaircraftitbecomesnecessary
todesignforlowerdrag,moreuniformmomentsandincreasedflight
stability.Thisrequiresextendedmaintenanceoflaminarflowinthe
700/1563
09/09/2015
boundarylayer,anddelayedseparation.
Forthestudyoftransitionphenomenaintheboundarylayerthetunnel
shouldhavealowfreestreamturbulence,andthesurfaceofthemodel
shouldbewellfinished.Speciallowturbulencewindtunnelsaretherefore
usedforboundarylayerstudies.
230
Boundarylayertransitionisaccompaniedbyamorerapidincreaseof
velocitywithdistancefromthesurfaceandbyfasterthickeningofthe
boundarylayer.Thesephenomenaformthebasisofseveralexperimental
methodsfortransitionpointdetermination.Theprincipalmethodsare:
1.Methodbasedonmeasuringthevelocityprofiles.Thevelocity
profileisdeterminedinseveralsectionsalongachord.Thetransition
point(ormoreexactlythetransitionzone)isestablishedfromthechange
inshapeofthevelocityprofile,whichhasaverysteepslopeinthe
turbulentregion(Figure4.71).
2.Methodbasedondetectionofturbulentvelocityfluctuations.The
transitionfromlaminartoturbulentflowisaccompaniedbyvelocity
fluctuations,whoseonsetindicatesthepositionofthetransitionpoint.
Velocityfluctuationsaredetectedmosteasilywithahotwireanemometer
oratotalpressuretubeconnectedbyashortpipetoalowinertia
pressuretransducer(ChapterV).Thetubeorthehotwireanemo
meterismovedinatraversingcradlealongthesurface.The
oscillogramofthepulsesreceivedatvariousdistancesfromthestagnation
pointindicatesthetransitionposition(orzone)clearlybythesharp
increaseinpulsationamplitudeassociatedwithit.
701/1563
09/09/2015
3.Methodoftotalmeasurement.Aminiaturetotalpressuretubeis
movedalongthewallincontactwiththesurfaceofthebodyparallelto
theflowdirection.Inthetransitionzonethereisamarkedincreasein
totalpressure,sinceatagivendistancefromthewallthevelocityis
higherinaturbulentboundarylayerthaninalaminarboundarylayer.
However,ifthetubeismovedataconstantdistancefromthesurfacewhich
isslightlygreaterthantheboundarylayerthicknessupstreamofthe
transitionpoint,thentherapidgrowthofthelayerbehindthetransition
pointwillgiverisetoasuddendecreaseofthetotalpressureindicatedby
thetube,asitentersthethickerturbulentboundarylayer.
4.Visualizationmethodsatvelocitiesupto30m/sec.Wingprofile
boundarylayersareobservedbyinjectingsmokefilamentsintotheflow
throughopeningsdrilled5to10%ofthechordlengthfromtheleadingedge.
Inlaminarflowthesmokehasawelldefinedstratifiedappearanceand
thepointofflowseparationiseasyfoundsinceatitthesmokefilaments
leavethesurface.Intheturbulentboundarylayerthesmokefilaments
merge.
Chemicalmethodsareusednowadaysforhighervelocities.In
oneofthesethebodyiscoatedwithathinlayerofmaterialwhichreacts
chemicallywithanactivegasaddedtothewindtunnelairorinjected
directlyintotheboundarylayer.Therateofmixing,andtherateatwhich
visiblereactionproductsappearintheturbulentregionishigherthanin
thelaminarregion,sothatthetransitionbetweenthetwoisreadily
observed.
Otherchemicalmethods(thesublinnationmethod.Kaolinmethod,and
fluidfilmmethod)donotrequiretheuseofanactivegasandaretherefore
m.orewidelyusedinwindtunnels.Thesemethodsmakeuseoftheincreased
diffusionrateintheturbulentboundarylayer,whichcausesmorerapid
evaporationorsublimationoftheactivematerialfromthesurfaceofthe
bodyinthatregion1211.
702/1563
09/09/2015
231
;17.INSTRUMENTSFORMAPPINGDISTRIBUTIONS
Forinvestigatingthedistributionsofvelocity,pressure,andtemperature
withinfluids.traversingdevlcesandcombsorrakesofprobesarecommonly
used..'Traversingcradlesareinstrumentsformovingameasuringtubeand
accuratelyindicatingitspositionintermsofthecoordinatesofthetunnel.
Probecombsaredevicesformeasuringtheflowparameterssimultaneously
atalargenumberofpoints;someprobecombscanalsobetraversed.When
usingconabs,calibrationcoefficientsforeachofthetubesmustbe
separatelytakenintoaccount,andthemutualinteractionoftubesmaynotbe
overlooked.Theadvantageoftraversingcradleswithsingletubesisthe
simplicityofprocessingandthehighaccuracyoftheresults,sincethe
systematicerrorsintroducedbythetubearethesamethroughoutthe
field.However,investigationofafieldwithatraversedtuberequires
moretimethanwithacomboftubes.Equipmentforthispurposeshould
thereforebeselectedinaccordancewiththerequiredaccuracyandrapidity
ofmeasurement.Inintermittentoperationsupersonicwindtunnels,itisbetter
tomakemieasurementssimultaneouslybyseveraltubeswhichareinstalled
onacomb;Inlowspeedtunnelsthevelocitydistributionisusuallymapped
withasingletubeinstalledonatraversingcradle.Ininstallationsfor
investigatingbladecascadesbothtraversingcradlesandcombsareused.
Traversingcradles.Wheninvestigatingtheflowinwindtunnels
havingopentestsections,thetubeisinstalledonastreamlinedsupport
whichismovedalongguides,paralleltothejcaxisoftheflowsystemof
coordinates(Figure4.75).PitotPrandtltubesaregenerallyused.Dual
703/1563
09/09/2015
purposeTsAGItypetubesareusedwhensmallanglesofyawhavetobe
determined.(Figure4.51).
FIGURE4.75.Traversingcradleforawindtunnelwith
opentestsection.
232
Instronglyinclinedflowthisindirectmethodofyawmeasurenaentis
ofteninsufficientlyaccurate;insuchcasesthetraversingcradleisfitted
withagoniometer,sothatyawcanbemeasuredbythenullmethod.
Insmall,lowspeedwindtunnelsthetraversingcradleisadjusted
manually,andthecoordinatesareshownonascaleattachedtdit.
1
6
704/1563
09/09/2015
4^'y[tlYkin^Trjg]
#'o=
=@]
stf
ffi'
WE
705/1563
09/09/2015
*1
*Cp=5=^]
FIGURE4.76.Remotecontrolofatraversingcradle.1mainmotor;2traversingcradle;
3and3'reductiongearboxeswithequaltransmissionratios;4displacementregister;5
recordingorintegratingdevice;6controlpanel;stselsyntransmitter;srselsynreceiver
aamplifier;stfselsyntransformer.
Thehighnoiselevelsassociatedwiththeoperationofhighspeedwind
tunnelscanbeverytiringtotheoperator,sothattheaccuracyofthe
experimentsuffers.Further,itishazardoustoapproachtooclosely
benchtestrigsofrotatingequipment,e.g.,turbinedisks.Modernwind
tunnelsarethereforeequippedwithremotelycontrolledtraversing
cradlesandautomaticdatahandlingandrecoringequipment.
Amongothermethods,selsynsareoftenusedforelectricalcontrol
ofthepositionandaltitudeoftheremotelycontrolledequipment.
Threepossiblesystemsforselsynremotecontrolofthepositionofa
probeareshowninFigure4.76.Theselsyndevelopesonlyasmalltorque,
sothatthedirectdrive(systemA)canbeusedonlywhentheresistance
torotationoftheremotelycontrolledshaftissmall.Themainmotoris
706/1563
09/09/2015
installedinthecontrolcabinandisdirectlyconnectedtotheselsyn
transmitterandtothecountingandrecordingdevices;theremotely
controlledshaftofthetraversingcradleisdrivenbytheselsynreceiver
233
throughareductiongearbox.SystemBisusediflargetorquesareneeded
todrivethecontrolshaftofthetraversingcradle.Themotor(whichmay
beofanypower)isconnectedthroughareductiongearboxdirectlytothe
traversingcradle,andtheselsynsdrivetheregisterandtherecording
instruments.SystemCisusedwhenconsiderablepowerisneededfor
drivingboththetraversingcradleandtherecordinggear.Itisaservo
systeminwhichtheselsynreceiveroperatesasatransformertoproduce
anoncoincidencesignalwhichisamplifiedandcontrolstheservodrive.
Anexampleofthedesignofaremotelycontrolledtraversingcradle,
usedinahighspeedtunnelfortestingbladecascades/28/,isshown
inFigure4.77.Thecarriage(A),carryingagoniometerandtubeA',is
movedwiththeaidofascrew(C)alongtwocylindricalguides(B).The
guidesareinstalledparalleltotheaxisofthecascade.Thescrewcan
beturnedeitherthroughareductiongearbytheselsynreceiver(Z,),or
byhandwheel(/?).Thetubeisfixedtoaspecialholder,mountedona
wormwheel,whosewormisdrivenbyanotherselsynreceiver(N)or
handwheel(Af).Springstotakeupbacklashareinsertedbetweenthelead
screwandthenut,whichisfixedtothecarriage,andalsobetweenthe
wormwheelandtheworm.Anut(V)isturnedinordertomovethetubeinplanes
perpendiculartothebladeedges;thiscausesthetubetoslidealongakey
insidethewormgear.Limitswitches(t/)cutthepowertotheservomotors
whenthecarriagereachesitsextremepositions.
707/1563
09/09/2015
Yawmeters.Flowinvestigationsareperformedeitherbymoving
thetraversingcradletoaseriesofchosenpointsorbycontinuous
movement.Inthefirstcasethetubecanbedirectedmanually(byturning
ahandwheelontherotatingmechanismorbyremoteservocontrol).The
attitudeofthetubeisadjustedbyequalizingtheheightsofthecolumnsin
thelegsofaUtubemanometerandtheanglesofthegoniometer,read
directlyfromscalesonthehead,areusedinthesubsequentcalculations.
Forcontinuousdisplacementofthetubecarried,theequipmentshouldinclude
recordingorintegratinginstruments,todeterminetheaveragevalueof
thequantitiesmeasuredbythetube(seeChapterVII).Inthiscase
servosystemsareneededforaligningtheyawmeterintheflow
direction.Figure4.78isasimplifieddiagramofanautomaticyawmeter
fittedwithadiaphragmtypedifferentialpressuretransducer.The
diaphragmismadeofphosphorusbronze;itsdiameteris125mm,its
thicknessis0.06mm,anditisfixedbetweentwohermeticallysealeddisks.
Thepressuresfromtheyawmetertubearetransmittedtothetwosidesof
thediaphragmtowhichplatinumcontactsaresoldered.Eachchamber
containsafixedinsulatedcontact.Whentheattitudeofthetubediffersfrom
theflowdirection,thediaphragmbends,closingoneofthecontacts;an
intermediaterelaythenswitchesonaservomotorwhichrotatestheyaw
meteruntilthepressureisequalizedandthediaphragmreturnstoits
centralposition.Pushbuttonsandsignallampsarefittedforoverriding
manualcontrol.Thetendencyofthesystemtohuntisreducedbysmallair
chambersinthedifferentialpressuretransducerandshortairpipesto
thetube.Ataseparationof0.025mmbetweenthediaphragmandeachof
thecontacts,thetransducerisactuatedbyapressuredifference
ofabout1.25mmW.G.
234
708/1563
09/09/2015
DO
â
^S
>2
I
2
U3
T3
00>
CQ<0
î
709/1563
09/09/2015
ss>
oS1
E3S
235
device
FIGURE4,78.Automaticdeviceforcontinuousmeasurement
offlowdirectionbynullmethod.1diaphragmtransducerof
pressuredifferenceintubeorifices;2rotatinghead;3
servomotor;4and4'relays;5and5'pushbuttons;6and
6'signallamps;7selsyntransmitter.
Totherecording
device
710/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE4.79.Automaticyawmeterwithphotoelectrictransducer,
1Utubemanometer;2rotatinghead;3servomotor;4and
4'photoelectriccells;5lamp;6Wheatstonebridge;7
transformer;8amplifier;9selsyntransmitter.
236
Pt
Pi
FIGURE4.80Safety
devicetopreventlossof
waterfromaUtube
manometer.
Figure4.79showsanautomaticyawmeterusingaphotoelectricservo
system.Thelightsourceconsistsofanincandescentwire,placed
betweenthetwoglasslegsofaUtubewatermanometer.Twophotoelectric
cellsareinstalledontheothersidesofthetubes.Anyliquidinoneof
thelegsactsascylindricallensandconcentratesthelightontothe
711/1563
09/09/2015
corresDondingphotoelectriccell.Intheemptytubethelightisdispersed.Thus,
thephotoelectriccelladjacenttothelegatlowerpressurewillbeilluminated
morestronglythantheother.Acorrespondingelectrical
imbalancesignalisfedtotheamplifierinthesupply
circuitofthegoniometerservomotor,whichturns
theyawmetertubeintotheflowdirection.Thisrestores
theliquidinthemanometertothenullposition.
Thisphotoelectricsystemreactstoachangein
waterlevelof2mm,whichatM=0.2and0.6
correspondstochangesinyawby0.2and0.02
respectivelywhenacylindricalyawmetertubeisused.
h|jArl[~"n"'^ni3yhappenthatwhenthewindtunnelisstartedup,
HYLi^^theyawmeterisnotinstalledintheflowdirection,
_I__""_~sothatalargepressuredifferencewillactonthe
1manometerbeforetheautomaticattitudeadjustment
systembecomesoperative.Asafetydevice,suchas
thatshowninFigure4.80,isinstalledtopreventloss
ofwaterfromtheUtubemanometerinthiseventuality.
AtpressuredifferencesaboveapredeterminedvalueAA
thelegsoftheUtubeareautomaticallyinterconnected.
Forsimultaneousmeasurementoftheflowparametersatseveralpoints
Pitotcombsareused;theyconsistofstreamlinedsupportscarryingarrays
ofmeasuringtubes.Thecombsaresuitableformeasuringtotalpressure,
staticpressure,andtemperatureovertheheightofbladecascades.In
additiontothetotalandstaticpressurecombs,combinedcombs,fitted
alternatinglywithtotalandstaticpressuretubes,areemployed.
Figure4.81showsacombformeasuringthetotalpressureoverthepitch
ofannularandflatbladecascades/4/.Toreducethemeasuringerror
712/1563
09/09/2015
causedbythedownwashbehindthecascade,thetotalpressuretubesare
mountedasnearlyaspossibleinthetheoreticalflowdirection.The
tubesaresometimesspacednonuniformlyonthecombinorder
toincreasethemeasuringaccuracyinregionsoflargepressuregradients.
Toavoidinterferencebetweenthetubesofastaticpressurecomb,the
distancebetweenindividualtubesshouldnotbetoosmall.Interferenceis
especiallypronouncedathighsubsonicvelocities,atwhichthedistance
betweenthetubecentersshouldnotbelessthan15to20tubediameters.
Totalpressuretubesareconsiderablylesssensitive,andcanevenbe
installedincontactwitheachother.
Combsoftotalandstaticpressuretubesarealsousedforcalibrating
thetestsectioninsupersonicwindtunnels.Thus,Figure4.82showsa
crossshapedcombforpressuremeasurementsalongtwoperpendicular
axesofthetestsection.Thecombcanbemovedalongtheaxisofthetest
section.
237
nciI\'fc'î(^'7Probetubes(diameter0.6x0.8)
tJJ|_fc?//Ptobetubes(diameter0.5x0.8)
713/1563
09/09/2015
2Î|i?/7Probetubes(diameter0,5x0.8)
FIGURE4.81.Planeandarcformedcombsoftotalpressuretubes.
238
FIGURE4.82.Crossshapedcombforsupersonic
windtunnels.
18.VISUALANDOPTICALMETHODSOF
FLOWINVESTIGATIONS
Whendiscussingmethodsforthevisualizationoffluidflow,onemust
considerthedifferencebetweenstreamlines,particlepaths,andfilament
linesoftracerparticles.Thetangenttothestreamlinecoincideswith
thevelocityvectoratthatpointandinstant.Thestreamlinesgivean
instantaneouspictureoftheflowdirections.Atdifferentinstantsthe
streamlineateachpointaredeterminedbythedirectionsofmotionofthe
differentparticlesofthefluid.
714/1563
09/09/2015
Aparticlepathisthepathtraversedbyanindividualparticleofthe
fluidduringadefiniteperiodoftime.
Afilamentlineisthelinedrawnatagiveninstantthroughthepositions
ofalltracerparticleswhichhavepassedthroughagivenpoint.
Insteadyflowthestreamlines,particlepaths,andfilamentlinescoincide.
Inthiscasetheirpositionscanbeestablishedfromlongexposure
photographsofastreamintowhichparticleshavebeeninjected.If,how
ever,wephotographanonsteadyflow,thelinesonthepicturewillindicate
themotionoftheseparateparticles,i.e.,theywillbetheparticlepaths.
Ifwephotographthenonsteadyflowatashortexposuretime4/,thepicture
willshowanumberofseparatelinesoflengthV(A/,wherel/,isthevelocity
ofeachseparateparticle.Theenvelopesoftheselineswillbethestream
linesattheinstantofexposure.Thus,byinjectingintothestreamatsome
pointtracerparticles,differinginopticaldensityorcolorfromthefluid,
orbycoloringpartsoftheflowingmedium(e.g.,fuchsininwater),wecan
determinethefilamentlinebyinstantaneousphotography.
Inaddition,itshouldberememberedthatanobserveratrestwith
respecttothemodelwillobserveadifferentflowpatternthananobserver
atrestwithrespecttotheundisturbedflow.
Methodsofvisualflowinvestigation.Directobservation
andphotographyofdetailsoffluidflowisimpossible,becausethe
uniformityofthemediumdoesnotprovideanycontrastbetweenthevarious
239
particles.Flowvisualizationinvolvesgivingdifferentphysicalqualitiestothe
715/1563
09/09/2015
testedregion,toenabledetailsoftheflowtothediscernedeitherdirectly,
orwithaninstrumentwhichamplifiesthediscriminatingpowerofthe
nakedeye.
Themostwidelyusedmethodofvisualizationisthatofinjectingsolid
liquidorgasparticlesintothestream,andviewingtheminreflectedor
dispersedlight.Itisimplicitlyassumedthattheparticleshaveavery
lowinertiaandacquirethelocaldirectionofmotionofthefluid,and
thattheyareofsufficientlysmallweighttoobviateanydisturbancesdue
togravity.Visualizationtechniquesincludesmokefilaments,the
observationofverysmallparticleswhichoccurnaturallyinthestream
andcanbeseenwiththeaidofamicroscopeandanintenselightsource,
andtheobservationoffixedtufts,usedwidelyforinvestigationsnear
thesurfaceofabody.
Sm.okemethod.Thismethodiswidelyappliedatlowflowvelocities
(upto40or50m/sec)andconsistsininjectingsmokefilamentsintoa
transparentgasstreamthroughnozzlesoropeningsinthemodel.The
smokeisproducedinspecialgeneratorseitherbyburningorganic
substances(rottenwood,tobacco),orbycombiningorevaporating
differentchemicals,suchas,titaniumandstannictetrachloride,mineral
oil,etc.
Thetuftmethodconsistsinfixinglightsilkthreadstothinwires
insidethestream.Thethreadsremaininadefinitepositioninsteadyflow,
butvibrateatpointswheretheflowisnonsteadyorturbulent.Itisthus
possibletoestablishtheflowdirectionandregimeatthesurfaceofa
model;quiescenceofthetuftsindicatesalaminarboundarylayer.Behind
thepointofboundarylayerseparationthevibrationsofthethreadsbecome
veryintense.Thetuftmethodiswidelyusedinqualitativeanalysesof
flowaroundmodels,sincethemotionandlocationofthetuftscanbeeasily
observedandphotographed(Figure7.13).
716/1563
09/09/2015
Opticalmethodsofflowinvestigation
Opticalinvestigationmethodshavefoundwideapplicationinhighvelocity
flow,wherecompressibilityeffectsareimportant.Athypersonicvelocities
thesearepowerfulmethodsfordeterminingtheflowpattern;theymake
possibletestswhichcannotbeperformedbyothermeans.Themain
advantageoftheopticalmethodsisthecompleteabsenceoftransmission
lagandoftheneedtoinsertmechanicaldevicesintothestream.Using
sparkillumination,wecanphotographprocessescompletedinamillionth
partofasecond.Sparksourcesareusedtoobtainsequencesofflow
photographs,separatedbyverysmallintervals,showingthedevelopmentof
processesinnonsteadyflow.Evenbetterresultscanbeobtainedinthe
studyofnonsteadyprocessesbycombiningseveraloftheinstruments
describedbelowwithanultrahighspeedmoviecamera,(forinstance,
modelSFR,whichhasspeedsofupto21/2millionframespersecond).
Opticalmethodsofflowinvestigationarebasedonthedependenceof
theindexofrefractiononthedensityofagas,whichisgivenbythe
240
[GladstoneDale]equation
no1
Po
717/1563
09/09/2015
=const.
Kerenandnoaretherespectiveindicesofrefractionatdensitiespandpo,
and=,wherecisthevelocityoflightinvacuo,andvisthevelocityof
lightinthemediumatdensityp.
Forairofdensitypo=0.125kgsec''m"^;n^=1.000294,whence
;i=1+0.00235p.
Foropticalstudyofflowaroundamodelinawindtunnel,optically
parallelglassportsareinstalledinthewallsofthetunnel.Alightbeam
isprojectedthroughtheportsacrossthetunnelperpendicularlytothe
directionofundisturbedflow,andfallonascreenatPi(Figure4.83).
Liglitray
FIGURE4.>^'^.Deflectionofaliglitrayinagasofvarying
dunsirv.
Intheneighborhoodofthemodelthechangeingasdensitycausesachange
intheindexofrefraction,sothntthelightbeamisrefractedthroughan
718/1563
09/09/2015
angle7andfallsonthescreenatP,.Therefractionduetopassagethrough
agaslayerofthickness/is
1dn,
whereîsthegradientoftheindexofrefractioninadirection
perpendiculartothedirectionofincidenceofthelight.Forair,usingthe
aboverelationshipbetweennandp,wehave
=/
00235_rfp_
I+0.00235'dx
Therefractionangles7areusuallyverysmall.Forexample,if/=1m,
p=0.125,andthedensitydoublesalongalightpathof1mlength,then
T=0.015.Therefractionofthelightbeamcanbedetectedbytheshadow
methodorbyschlierenphotography.
Theshadowmethod.Theshadowmethodislesssensitivethan
otheropticalmethodsanditisthereforeusedonlyfordetectinglarge
densitygradients,forinstanceinshockwavesinsupersonicflow.It
hastheadvantageofsimplicity.Ashadowgraphoftheflowaroundamodel
canbeobtainedwiththeaidofapowerfulpointsourceoflight(Figure4.84).
719/1563
09/09/2015
241
Thedivergingbeamfromthesourceisprojectedontothescreen.Ineach
regionofopticalinhomogeneity,therayswillberefracted,causing
correspondingshadowsonthescreenwherethedifferentareaswillbe
illuminatedatdifferentintensities.
Theratioofthebrightnessofthedirectbeam(solidlines)tothatofthe.
refractedbeam(brokenlines)isexpressedby
i.c1
iix+lA!
1+'
di
Theaboverelationshipbetweenfandpshowsthatthebrightnessratio
dependsonthesecondderivativewithrespecttoxofthedensityandwe
mustintegratetwicetofindp.Itisverydifficulttointerpretthebrightness
changesofshadowgraphsquantitatively,andthismethodisusedinpractice
720/1563
09/09/2015
Screen
Regionof
optical
inhomogeneity
FIGURE4.84.Shadowgraphmethodfoestudyingthe
flowaroEindamodel.
onlyforqualitativeinvestigation.Anexampleoftheshadowgraphofflow
aroundabladecascadeisshowninFigure4.85.Thephotographswere
takenwiththeaidofasparklightsourceofabout10"secduration.
FIGURE4.85.Shadowgraphoftheflowaroundablade
cascade.
242
Thephotographshowsshocksofdifferentconfigurationsinthelocal
supersonicregions,andtheboundarylayerseparationsontheconvex
surfacesoftheblades.
721/1563
09/09/2015
Theschlierenmethod.Theschlierenmethod,duetoTbpler,
ismoresensitivetosmalldensitychangesthantheshadowmethod
andpermitsstudyoftheflowaroundmodelsatsubsonicvelocities.The
schlierenmethodiswidelyusedatpresentineveryaerodynamiclaboratory.
Thismethodisbasedonthemeasurementoftheangleofrefractionof
lightrays(finthefigure),which,aswasshownabove,isproportionalto
thedensitygradient(Figure4.86).LightfromapointsourceS(oraline
sourcebetween0.01and0.1mmwide),placedatthefocusofthelensOi,
passesinaparallelbeamtotheplaneparallelglassportsinthewallsof
thetunnelthroughwhichthegasflows,andiscondensedatthefocusof
thelensO2.Ifthebeampassesthrougharegioninwhichthedensity
Knifeedge
orthread
Pointorline
source
Screen
[orphotographicplate]
FIGURE4.86.Schlierensystem.
722/1563
09/09/2015
variesintheflowdirectionitisrefractedthroughananglefandcrosses
thefocalplaneofthelensO2atadistanceBfromtheopticalaxis(pointA/),
where8=/f,/beingthefocallengthofthelensO2
Athinthread(ofabout0.1mmdiameter),passingparalleltotheline
sourcethroughpointN,willcastashadowonthegroundglassscreen
ofacamera,focusedonthecenterlineofthetunnel.Thisshadowindicates
theregionsinwhichthedensityvariationscausethebeamtoberefracted
throughanangle(.
Micrometeradjustment,paralleltoitselfoftheshadowthread[or
knifeedge]toanotherposition8|inthefocalplane,willcauseittostopall
raysrefractedbyanangle71,andsoon.Eachshadedarea(stripe)onthe
screenwillcorrespondtoaregioninwhichadefinitedensitygradient
exists.
Knowingthevalueof5foreachpositionofthethreadwecanintegrate
theexpression
5r^w;r^0.00235df
toobtainp(.;),whichisapproximately
p{x)=p{Xo)+Qj^^jjfh(x)dx.
243
723/1563
09/09/2015
Thus,knowingthedensityatacertainpointxo,wecandeterminepat
everypointbyasingleintegration.
Insteadofasinglethreaditispossibletouseagrid,consistingof
manythreads,sothataninstantaneousphotographicrecordisobtained
ofthefam.ilyshadowstripescorrespondingtothedifferentdensity
gradients.
Ifaknifeedgeisplacedinthefocalplaneinsteadofthethread,itwill
stopallraysdeflectedbyam.ountslargerthanthedistanceoftheknife
edgefromtheopticalaxis.Thescreenofthecamerawillbeshadedfor
allregionsinwhichthedensitygradientexceedsthecorrespondingvalue
(Figure4.87),andthequalitativeflowpattern(compressionand
condensationshocks,flowseparation,etc.)willappearontheschlieren
photograph.
Windtunnel
FIGURE4.87.[Modified]schliereninstrument(accordingtoD.D.Maksutov),
Gettingsharp(highdefinition)imagesbytheschlierenmethodrequires
notonlygreatexperimentalskillandcarefuladjustmentoftheinstrument,
butalsotheuseofverygoodtelephotographiclensesofthetypeusedin
astronomy.Thepreparationofsuchlenses,orofthelargeparabolic
mirrorssometimesusedinstead,isverydifficultsothatitisdifficult
724/1563
09/09/2015
toconstructgoodschliereninstrumentswithfielddiameterslargerthan
200mm.D.D.Maksutovsuggestedanimprovedopticaldesign,providing,
atcomparativeease,aninstrumentofhighqualityandlargefieldofview.
Inthissystem(Figure4.87)thelightbeamfromalinesourceisreflected
fromasphericalmirror(1),andpassesasaparallelbeamfirstthrougha
meniscuslens(2),thenthroughtheglassportofthewindtunnelandacross
theinhomogeneousstream.Afteremergingfromthesecondport,thelight
passesthroughthesecondmeniscuslens(3),andisreflectedbyasecond
sphericalmirror(4)firstontoaflatdiagonalmirror(5)andthenthrough
thediaphragm(6)(situatedatthefocusofthesecondsphericalmirror),
ontoascreen(7)orontotheeyepieceofamagnifyingglass(8).The
preparationofsphericalmirrorsandmeniscuslensesisrelativelysinriple,
andbyassemblingthemsoastocompensatefortheirmutualaberration,
highqualityopticalsystemscanbeobtainedwithconsiderablefield
diameters(uptobetween300and500mm).
244
Figure4.88showstheIAB451[SovietUnion]schliereninstrument,
designedaccordingtoMaksutov'sprinciple.Theinstrumenthastwomain
parts:acollimatorI,designedtoprojectaparallellightbeamof230mm
diameterthroughthefieldinvestigated,andanobservationtuben,designed
forvisualobservationandphotographyoftheschlierenpicture.
FIGURE4.88.IAB451typeschliereninstrument.
725/1563
09/09/2015
Meniscuslenses(2)andmirrors(3)arefixedinholdersinboth
collimatorandobservationtube.Thetubes(1)aremountedonbrackets
onoppositesidesofthetestsectionofthewindtunnelsothattheoptical
axesofthemirrorsandlensescoincide.
Thecollimatorisfittedwithalightsource(4),condenserlens(5),
andslitcarriage(6),aothatthecollimatorslitcanslidealong(for
adjustmentatthefocusoftheopticalsystem)andberotatedaboutthe
collimatoraxis.Thesharpestdefinitionisobtainedwhentheslitis
perpendiculartothedirectionofthelargestdensitygradient.Theslot
isfornnedbyparallelknifeedgeswithmicrometeradjustmentoftheir
separation,sothattheslotwidthcanbereadoffwithanaccuracyof
0.01mm.
245
Theobservationtubeisfittedwithacarriage(7)fortheknifeedgeand
foreitherinterchangeablelenses(8),oracameraadaptor(9).The
carriage(7)servesforfocusingtheknifeedgeandforrotatingitabout
anaxisparalleltotheslot.Inaddition,thecarriagehasamicrometer
slideforadjustingtheknifeedgeinaplaneperpendiculartotheaxis,for
thepurposeofstoppingtheraysfromthelens.Thepositionoftheknife
edgeisindicatedonthescaletoanaccuracyof0.01mm..
Adrawbackofschliereninstrumentswithlargefieldsofviewisthatthey
extendoveraconsiderabledistanceoutsidethewindtunnelperpendicular
toitsaxis.Inthedesignofmodernschliereninstrumentswith500mm.
fielddiametersthecollimatorandobservationtubeareshortenedbyup
726/1563
09/09/2015
to1.5mbyrepeatedlybendingtheopticalaxiswiththeaidofspherical
mirrorsandinclinedlenses.
Theinterferometricmethod.Theinterferometricmethod
offlowinvestigationisbasedonthedifferenceinthevelocityoflightin
mediaofdifferentdensities.Thephenomenonofinterferenceoflight
canbeunderstoodbyconsideringalightbeamasatrainofwaves.When
evertwolightbeamsintersect,theyreinforceeachotheratpointswhere
thewavepeaksofonetraincoincidewiththoseoftheother,butcancel
eachotheratpointswherethepeaksofonetraincoincidewiththe
troughsoftheother.Iftwocoherentlightbeams(i.e.,beamsfromtwo
sourceswhichoscillateinphaseoratconstantphasedifference)converge
atapointonascreenaftertravelingbydifferentpaths,theirrelative
phasewillbedeterminedbythedifferencebetweentheiropticalpath
lengths.Dependingonthisdifference,theywillreinforceorweakenone
another.[Twocoherentparallellinesources]willthusprojectontoa
screenasequenceofdarkandlightfringes.Ifbothlightbeamshave
passedthroughamediumofthesamedensity,theinterferencefringes
willbeparalleltoeachother.Ifthedensityofthemediumisdifferentover
partofthepathofonebeam,thelightpropagationvelocity(whichdependson
density)inthisbeamwillchange,andtheinterferencepatternwillbe
disturbed.Densitygradientsinthemediumwillalsodistortthefringes.
Themagnitudeofthedisplacementandchangeofshapeofthefringes
provideameasureofthedensitychangeswithinthefieldofview.The
opticalinterferometercanthusbeusedforquantitativeandqualitative
investigationsofthedensityandfordeterminingtheflowpatternaround
amodel.
TheMachZehnderinterferometerisusedforaerodynamicresearch.
TheschematicdiagramofthisinstrumentisshowninFigure4.89.An
imageofthelightsource(1)isfocusedontheslot(2)ofthecollimator(l),
situatedatthefocusofthelens(3).Theparallellightbeam.from,the
lens(3)fallsontheinterferometer(II),ofwhichtheprincipalcomponents
arethetwohalfsilveredplates(4)and(5)andthetwomirrors(6)and(7).
727/1563
09/09/2015
Theplate(4)dividesthelightintotwobeamsoiandoj.Thebeama,passes
throughtheglasses(10)and(11)oneithersideofthetestsectionofthe
windtunnel,andisreflectedbythemirror(6)andthehalfsilvered
plate(5)ontoobservationtube(III).Thebeamajisreflectedbymirror
(7)throughthehalfsilveredplate(5)ontotheobservationtube.Inthis
wayplate(4)dividesthebeamfromthecollimator(I)intotwoparts,
whicharereunitedbyplate(5)andfocusedbylens(8)ontotheplaneofthe
photographicplateorthescreen.
246
Dependingonthetransittimefromthecommonlightsourcetothe
cameraorscreen,thewavesinbeamsciand02willarriveeitherin
phaseorwithafinitephasedifference.Thesuperimposedbeams
produceaninterferencepatternonthescreen,whichcanbeobserved
visuallyorcanbephotographed.
'Saa^
FIGURE4.89.TheMachZehnderinterferometer.1collimatorwithlightsource;
IIinterferometermirrorsystem;IIIobservationtube;IVcompensator.
Thevelocityoflightinairincreaseswithdecreasingdensity,sothat
728/1563
09/09/2015
thetransittimealongagivenairpathwilldecreasewithdecreasing
density.Theinterferencepatternwillbeaffectedbychangesindensity
alongthepathsofthebeamsa,andojandinparticular,bychangesin
densityinthetestsectionofthewindtunnel,throughwhichbeama,has
passed.
Theinterferometercanbearrangedtoobtain,fringesofeitherinfinite
orfinite*width.Thesetwomethodsyielddifferentinterferencepatterns.
Forinfinitewidthfringes,theplatesandmirrorsoftheinterferometer
areinstalledparalleltoeachotheratanangleof45totheflowdirection.
Whenbothbeamsa,and02passthroughmediaofthesamedensity,their
opticalpathswillbeequal;theywillarriveinphaseonthescreen,and
thescreenwillbeuinformlyilluminated.Whenthedensityofthemedium
changesuniformlyinthetestsection,thetransittimeofbeama,will
differfromthatofbeamoj,sothatthelightwavesinthetwobeams(which
arecoherentsincetheyoriginateinthesamelightsource)willarriveout
ofphaseatthescreen.Agradualchangeindensitythroughoutthetest
sectionwillcauseacorrespondinggradualchangeinthebrightnessof
thescreen,whichwillbemaximumforphasedifferencescorrespondingto
1,2,3,etc.,wavelengthsandminimumforphasedifferencescorresponding
toi,ii.,2y,3^.etc.,wavelengths.Whenthewindtunnelisfirst
startedupthedensitychangesaroundthemodelwillproduceacomplicated
interferencepatternonthescreen,eachlinebeingacontourofequal
density.Thedistancebetweenadjacentlinescorrespondstoonewavelength,
or,aswillbeshownbelow,toachangeinairdensityof
4.68X10*kgsec^/m*foratestsectionwidthofSOOmm.Settingupthe
[Alsocalledfringedisplacementmethod.]
729/1563
09/09/2015
247
interferometerforfringesofinfinitewidthdoesnotgivehighaccuracy,
sincethenumberofinterferencefringesissmall,andthismethodis
usedonlyforqualitativeanalysis.
Toobtaindatafromalargenumberofpointsinthefieldtheplate(5)
oftheinterferometerisrotatedsothatlightbeamsa,andojemergefrom
itatasmallangleatoeachother.Withundisturbedflowinthetest
section,thedifferentpathlengthsofthebeamsgiverisetoaninterference
patternconsistingofalternatelydarkandlightstraightfringes,whosewidth
(thedistancebetweenthecentersofadjacentdarkandlightregions)is
B=;theirdirectionisperpendiculartotheplanecontainingtheaxesofthe
beamsoj,ajThewidthanddirectionofthefringescanbechangedby
adjustingthemirrorsoftheinterferometer.Whenthedensityofthe
airinthetestsectionchangesgraduallyanduniformly,thewholesystem
ofstraightinterferencefringesbecomesdisplacedparalleltoitself.A
densitychangecausingaphaseshiftequivalenttoonewavelengthX(for
thegreenspectrumlinegenerallyused,Icanbetakenas5.5X10~*mm),
willcausethepatterntomovebyonefringewidth.Ifdifferentraysof
thebeamcicrossthetestsectionofthewindtunnelinregionsof
differentdensity,(i.e.,ofdifferentindexofrefractionn),therewillbe
acorrespondingshiftofpartsoftheinterferencepatternanddeformation
ofthefringes.Wecanmeasuretheseshifts,andcalculatethedifference
oftheindicesofrefractionAnn2niinthecorrespondingsectionsofthe
tunneltodeterminethedensitychangesAp=p2piinthesesections,
assumingthatthedensityalongeachlightpathacrossthetestsectionis
constant,i.e.,thattheflowistwodimensional.
InordertocalculateApfortwodimensionalairflowwecanusethe
730/1563
09/09/2015
aboverelationshipbetweentheindexofrefractionandthedensity.
Differentiating,weobtain
af/i=0.00235fifp.
Themagnitudeoftheshiftofaninterferencelineatagivenpointinthe
xypXaxie,whichisperpendiculartotheopticalaxis,isdeterminedbytwo
photographs,oneunderstaticconditions,andtheotherwithfullflowin
thetestsection.ThisshiftisexpressedbythenumberN(x,y)whichis
equaltotheratiooftheinterferencefringeshiftatthepoint(x,y)tothe
widthofthisfringe.KnowingN(x,y)wecancalculatethecorresponding
differenceintransittimewithandwithoutflow
'2f1f'
wheresubscript1denotesstaticconditionsandsubscript2,fullflowinthe
testsection,andfisthefrequencyoflight,whichisaconstantfora
givencoloranddependsonthefilterused.
Thedifferencebetweenthetransittimesofthebeamscanbeexpressed
intermsofthechangeinthespeedoflightinthetestsection
<,=/('
if2{x,y)f1(AT,y)
731/1563
09/09/2015
248
whereIisthepathlengthofthebeaminthetestsection.Equatingthe
lasttwoexpressions,weobtain
f\"2(x,y)v,(x,y)]
Bydefinitiontheindexofrefractionistheratioofthevelocityoflightin
vacuotjyac'toitsvelocityvinthegivenmedium:
sothat
7^vac='l2(<.V)n^{x,y)l=Mre(A:,y);
sincethelengthofalightwaveinvacuois
then
732/1563
09/09/2015
and
1"vac
vacf
N(x,y)X^^^=IAn{x,y)=/0.00235Ap(x,y),
i^P^x,y)0,00235;
Ifthedensitypiatzeroflowinthetunnelisknown,thedensityofthe
flowingmediumatagivenpointcanbefoundfrom
P2{x,y)=p,+ip(;c,y).
Ifamonochromaticlightsourcewithagreenfilterisusedinthe
interferometer,wecantakeXvac=5,5X10"''.Inawindtunnelwithatest
sectionwidthof500mm,thedensitychangecorrespondingtoapattern
shiftofonefringewidthis
'^P=o.*l55^='*68'0'*kgsecVm*.
Thedisplacementordistortionoftheinterferencefringescanbe
measuredtoanaccuracyof0.1or0.2fringewidths,whichcorrespondto
4p510"''tol0"'kgsecVm*.
733/1563
09/09/2015
Theprocessingofinterferogramsindensitydeterminationsisshown
schematicallyinFigure4.90.Theinterferencefringescorresponding
tozeroflowareindicatedbybrokenlines;thoseobtainedduringtunnel
operation,byfulllines.WedenotebyA/1andASthechangesin
[horizontal]distancefromanarbitrarypointMattheedgeofthefieldto
pointsAandB.Inthefigure,AAis0.7ofafringewidthandABis0.9
ofafringewidth.Takingthefringewidthasas4.68X10"*kgsec^/m.*,
weobtaintheabsolutevaluesofthedensitydifferences:
ap^=P^P^=0.74.6810'=3.3810~''kgsec2/m4,
Apg=PaP^=0.94.6810^=4.2110""kgsec^/m*.
249
Illllll
Bythismethodwecanmeasurethedifferenceindensitiesatpointssituated
onaverticallineinthefieldofview.Tomeasurethedifferencein
densitiesinthehorizontaldirectionthefringesareobtainedhorizontally.
Therelativeerrorofmeasuring
thedensitybytheinterferometer
increaseswithMachnumber,because
ofthedecreaseinabsolutedensity.
Itissimplertodeterminetheshift
ofthefringesiftheyarefirstaligned
734/1563
09/09/2015
perpendicularlytothechordofthe
modelortothewall.Thus,for
instance.Figure4.91showsthe
interferogramofflowpastaflatplate
withalaminarboundarylayerforwhich
M=2.04.Inthiscasethedensity
gradientisnormaltothedirectionof
thefringesatzeroflowandeachfringe
onthephotographisalineof[constant]
densitydifference(withdensityasthe
abscissa).
Knowingthedensitydistribution,
wecanfindthepressuredistribution,
forinstance,onthesurfaceofawing.
Inthisrespecttheadvantageoftheinterferencem.ethodoverthemano
metricmethodisthatitprovidespressuredataforalargernumberof
pointsanddoesnotrequirethepreparationofacomplicatedmodelwith
manyorifices.
Pressurecanbedeterminedasfollows:atanypointonthewallofthe
testsection,ameasuredpressurep,willcorrespondtoadensityp,.
Thesearerelatedtotheflowparametersatanyotherpointbythe
expression
FIGURE4.90.Quantitativeinterpretation
ofinterferograms.
P(x.y)^fr
735/1563
09/09/2015
PoPo
0,00235/p
or,sincepo=/)o/g/?7"o.
PoPa
where
b_Jvac?^
0.00235/'
Iftheflowisisentropicuptothepointwherethepressureisknown,
thenp,lpo=(pr/po)",whence
p(X,y)
Po\PJPo^"
736/1563
09/09/2015
iftheflowisalsoisentropicuptothepoint(a;,y)wherethepressureisto
bedetermined,then
p(x,y)
Po
={(tr+*i7^(''>')
1680
250
Thus,inordertodeterminethepressureatanypoint(a:,y),itisnecessary
tomeasurethestagnationtemperatureTo,thetotalpressurepo,the
pressurep,,andtherelativefringedisplacementA^(a:,j/).Thepressures
determinedinthiswayareingoodagreementwiththeresultsofmano
metricmeasurements.
FIGURE4.91.Interferogramofalaminarboundarylayeronaflatplate(M=2.04;Re=200,000).
737/1563
09/09/2015
Foraccuratequantitativeanalyseswithaninterferometerthelight
sourcemustbeasperfectlymonochromaticaspossible.Themercury
lampsmostlyusedforthispurposearefittedwithinterferencefilters
whichisolatethegreenmercuryline(X=5.46X10"*mm).Sinceclear
interferancepicturesdemandveryshortexposures,sparklightsources
havingdurationsofafewmicrosecondsarealsoused.
Insomemoderninstrumentstheinterferometeriscombinedwith
aschlierenapparatus,usingaseparateobservationtubemounted
coaxiallywiththecollimator.
Theerrorinmeasuringthedistortionorshiftofthefringesofthe
interferencepatternisabout0.2fringewidthinvisualobservationand
0.1fringewidthwhenusingphotographs.Thisaccuracyisachieved
bytheuseofawedgecompensator(IV)(Figure4.89)insertedinto
onebranchoftheinterferometer.Thecompensatorconsistsofa
hermeticallysealedairchamber,onewallofwhichisformedbya
planeparallelglassplate(12),andtheotherbyapairofwedgeshaped
glassplates(13)and(14).Plate(14)canslideoverplate(13),thus
formingaplaneparallelplate,whosethicknesscanbeadjustedto
compensatefortheeffectofthebeamQihavingtopassthroughtheglass
windowsofthewindtunnel.Themagnitudeoftheadjustmentalsoindicates
theeffectsonlighttransittimeofchangesofairdensityinthewindtunnel.
Thedisplacementismeasuredbyamicrometer.Thecompensatingair
chamberservestocompensateforchangesintheinitialdensityoftheair
inthewindtunnel.Bychangingthepressureinsidethechamber,wecan
changeitsequivalentopticalthickness.
Theinterferometricmethodprovidesmoreaccuratequantitativeresults,
thantheschlierenmethod.Theprincipaldifficultiesinbothmethodsare
duetothefactthatallinhomogeneitiesencounteredalongthelightpathin
thewindtunnelaresuperimposed.
738/1563
09/09/2015
Intwodimensionalflow,wherethedensityisconstantalonganylight
path,quantitativemeasurementspresentnodifficultytoanexperienced
251
worker.Itismuchmoredifficulttodeterm.inethedensitychanges,
whentheaxisofflowsymmetryisperpendiculartothedirectionofthe
lightbeam.s.Quantitativeopticalinvestigationsarethereforelargely
restrictedtotwodim.ensionalproblems.
Whencomparingtheuse,inqualitativestudies,oftheinterferometer,
shadowgraph,andschliereninstrument,thefollowingshouldbenoted.
Theshiftoftheinterferencefringesisproportionaltothechangesin
densityoftheflowingmedium,whereastheresultsobtainedbyschlieren
andshadowmethodsdependtoafirstapproximationrespectivelyonthe
firstandsecondderivativesofthedensitywithrespecttodistance.
',ji'1b
FIGURE4.92.Interference(a)andshadowphotographs(b)
offlowaroundairfoil(M=0.95;o=6).
739/1563
09/09/2015
Interferencephotographsthereforeshowclearlychangesindensityfor
whichothernaethodsarenotsufficientlysensitive.Thus,forinstance.
Figure4.92showsinterferenceandshadowphotographsforaflowaroundan
airfoilatM=0.95.Theouterzonesofexpansionofthegasattheleading
edge,andthedensitychangebehindthecompressionshockandalongthe
lowersurfaceofthewingcanbeclearlyseenontheinterference
photograph.Ontheotherhand,theinterferometerislesssensitiveto
smallsuddenchangesindensity,whicharemorereadilyseenonthe
shadowpicture.Thisinsensitivitytosmallbutsuddenchangesisuseful
becauseflawsinthewindows,ordustonthem,reducetheclarityofthe
schlierenphotographs.
252
Bibliography
1.Loitsyanskii,L.G.Mekhanikazhidkostiigaza(Mechanicsof
LiquidsandGases).GTTI,Moskva.1957.
2.Shaw,R.InfluenceofHoleDimensionsonStaticPressureMeasure
ments.J.FluidMech.,Vol.7,pt.4.1960.
3.Dean,R.C.AerodynamicMeasurements.Mass.Inst,of
Technology.1953.,
740/1563
09/09/2015
4.Petunin,A.N.Priemnikidlyaizmereniyadavleniyaiskorostiv
gazovykhpotokakh(ProbesforMeasuringPressureandVelocity
inGasFlows).TsAGI.Collectionofarticles"Promyshlennaya
Aerodinamiko"IssueNo.19.Oborongiz.1960,
5.Holder,D.W.ExperimentswithStaticTubesinSupersonicAir
stream.ARCRep.Mem.,No.2782719537"
6.Fizicheskieizmereniyavgazovoidinamikeiprigorenii(Physical
MeasurementinGasDynamicsandCombustion).MoskvaIL.
1957.
7.Winternitz,F,A.I.SimpleShieldedTotalPressureProbes.
AircraftEngng.,Vol.30,No.356.1958.
8.Markowski,S.J.andE.M.Moffat.Instrumentationfor
DevelopmentofAircraftPowerplantComponentsInvolvingFluid
Flow.SAEQuarterlyTrans.,Vol.2,No.1.1948.
9.Young,A.D.andJ.N.Maas.TheBehaviorofaPitotTubeina
TransverseTotalPressureGradient.ARCRep.andMem.,
No.1770.1937.
10.Barry,F.W.DeterminationofMachNumberfromPressure
Measurements.Trans.ASME,Vol.78,No.3.1956.
741/1563
09/09/2015
11.Malikov,M.F.Osnovyraetrologii(FundamentalsofMetrology).
Moskva.1949.
12.Ower,E.TheMeasurementofAirStreams[RussianTranslation].
MoskvaLeningrad.1935.
13.Bryer,D.W.PressureProbesSelectedforThreeDimensional
FlowMeasurements.ARCRep.andMem.,No.3037.1958.
14.Fusfeld,K.D.AProbeforMeasurementsofFlowInclination
inaSupersonicAirStream.J.Aero.Sci.,Vol.18,No.5.1951.
15.Lee,J.C.andJ.E.Ash.AThreeDimensionalSphericalPitot
Probe.Trans.ASME,Vol.78,No.5.1956.
16.Keast,F,H.HighSpeedCascadeTestingTechnique.Trans.
ASME,Vol.74,No.5.1952.
17.Morris,D.E.CalibrationoftheFlowintheWorkingSectionofthe
3ftX3ftTunnelNAE.ARCC.P.,No.261.1956.
18.Raney,D.J.FlowDirectionMeasurementsinSupersonicWind
Tunnels.ARCC.P.,No.262.1956.
19.Gukhmati,A.A.andothers.Eksperimental'noeissledovanie
742/1563
09/09/2015
prodol'noobtekaemoitermoparypritecheniigazasbol'shoi
skorost'ya(ExperimentalStudyofHighSpeedHotGasFlowing
LengthwisearoundaThermocouple).SbornikTrudyTsKTI,
No.21.1951.
20.Hottel,H.C.andA.Kalitinsky.TemperatureMeasurementsin
HighVelocityAirStreams.^J.Appl.Mechanics,Vol.12,
No.1.1945.
253
21.Malmquist,L.TemperatureMeasurementsinHighVelocityGas
Streams.Kungl.TekniskaHogskolansHandlinger.Trans,ofthe
RoyalInst,ofTechn.Stockholm,Sweden,No.15.1948.
22.Martinov.A.K.Eksperimental'nayaAerodinamika(Experimental
Aerodynamics).Oborongiz.1958.
23.Wood,R.D.AHeatedHypersonicStagnationTemperatureProbe.
J.oftheAeroSpaceSci.,Vol.27,No.7.1960.
24.Monaghan,R.J.TheUseofPitotTubesintheMeasurementsof
LaminarBoundaryLayersinSupersonicFlow.ARCRep.and
Mem.,No.3056.1957.
743/1563
09/09/2015
25.Preston,I.DeterminationofTurbulentSurfaceFrictionwiththe
AidofPitotTubes.[RussianTranslation]In:SbornikPerevodov
iobzorovinostrannoiliteratury"Mekhanika",No.6.1955.
26.KonstantinoV,N.I.andG.L.Dragnysh.Kvoprosuob
izmereniipoverkhnostnogotreniya(TheProblemofMeasuring
SkinFriction).TrudyLeningradskogoPolitekhnicheskogo
Instituta,No.176.1955.
27.Preston,J.H.VisualisationofBoundaryLayerFlow.ARCRep.
andMem.,No.2267.1946.
28.Carter,A.D.S.SomeFluidDynamicResearchTechniques.The
InstitutionofMechanicalEngineersProceedings,Vol.163
(W.E.P.No.60).1950.
254
ChapterV
INSTRUMENTSANDAPPARATUSFOR
PRESSUREMEASUREMENT
Thepressuremeasurementisthemostimportantmeasurementinthe
experimentalstudyofthemotionofaliquidoragas.Itissufficientto
notethatmeasuringthepressureisthesimplestwaytofindthemagnitude
744/1563
09/09/2015
anddirectionoftheflowvelocity;bymeasuringthedistributionofthe
pressuresonthesurfaceofamodelorinthewakebehindit,wecan
determinetheaerodynamicforcesandmomentswhichactonthemodel
anditsseparateparts.
Themethodsofmeasuringthepressureinamovingliquidorgasare
thesubjectsofmuchtheoreticalandexperimentalresearch.Instruments
formeasuringpressuresarecontinuouslybeingimproved.However,
despitethelargenumberofavailabledesignsformeasuringinstruments,
theresearchersometinnesneedsaspecialinstrumentwhichwillsatisfy
inthebestwaypossibletherequirementsofcertainproblems,sincevery
oftenstandardequipmentcannotbeusedforthispurpose.
Thepressureofaliquidorgasisdeterminedbytheforceacting
normallyonunitsurface.Inaerodynamiccalculations,theunitof
pressureveryoftenusedisthatofthetechnicalmkgssystem,(meter,
kilogramforce,sec)whichisequalto1kg/m^.Apressureof1kgpercm^
iscalledonetechnicalatmosphereorsimplyoneatmosphere.Unitsof
pressureordinarilyusedarethemmofwatercolumn(mmH2O)andthe
mmofmercurycolum.n(mmHg),i.e.,thepressureexertedonitsbase
bya1mmhighcolumnofthegivenliquid.Theheightofthecolumn
correspondstothenormalgravitationalacceleration(980.665cm/sec^)
andtodifferenttemperatures(4Cforwaterand0Cformercury).When
measuringpressuresbyUtubemanometers,liquidsotherthanwateror
mercuryareordinarilyused,buttheheightsofthecolumnsofthese
liquidsarereferredtotheheightsofthecorrespondingcolumnofwater
ormercury.
Theuseasunitofmeasurementof1kg/mîsveryconvenientin
experimentalaerodynamics.ThepressureofIkg/m^correspondsto
a1mmhighwatercolumn.Thissimplifiescalculationsaccordingto
thedataprovidedbyUtubemanometers.Whenmeasuringpressures
theresearcherhastotakeintoaccounttheabsolutepressurep,the
gagepressurepg,andthepressuredifferenceAp.Theabsolutepressure
745/1563
09/09/2015
isthepressurereferredtoperfectvacuum.Thegagepressureisthe
differencebetweentheabsolutepressureandtheatmospheric(barometric)
pressureB
255
Anegativegagepressureiscalledrarefaction.Thepressuredifference
isthedifferencebetweenanytwoabsolutepressurespiandpi
Inmostcasesamanometerisaninstrumentwhichmeasuresthegage
pressure.Aninstrumentfornaeasuringthepressuredifferenceisusually
calledadifferentialmanom.eter.Thistermistoacertaindegreearbitrary,
sincethegagepressurealsorepresentsthedifferencebetweenthepressure,
whichisofinteresttotheresearcher,andtheatmosphericpressure.
Inmanyaerodynamicexperimentsthemostimportantmagnitudes
measuredarethepressuredifferencesfromwhichtheflowvelocity,the
massflow,andthecoefficientsofpressurearedetermined.Inother
experimentstheabsolutepressuresaremostimportant.Thus,for
instance,absolutepressureentersinmanyformulasofgasdynamics.
Mostoftentheabsolutepressureisdeterniinedasthealgebraicsumof
thereadingsofabarometerandofamanometershowingthegagepressure.
Abarometerisaninstrumentwhichmeasurestheatmosphericpressure
referredtoperfectvacuum,andisanessentialpartoftheequipmentof
anaerodynamiclaboratory.
Inadditiontomanometerswhichmeasurepressuredifferences,
aerodynamiclaboratoriesalsousemanometerswhichmeasuredirectly
theabsolutepressure.Theuseof"absolute"manometersofspecial
designforaerodynamicresearchpreventsadditionalerrorsduetothe
746/1563
09/09/2015
barometers,thusreducingthetimeneededforcalculations.
Themaincharacteristicsofmanometersarepressurerange,accuracy,
sensitivity,linearity,andspeedofresponse.
Therangeofpressureswhichcanbemeasuredinaerodynamictests
extendsfromalmostperfectvacuum(forinstanceinwindtunnelsforfree
molecularflow)uptoseveralhundredsofatmospheresinsupersonic
installations.Inshockandpulsetunnels,steadyandnonsteadypressures
attaining3000to5000atmhavetobemeasured.Foranygivenwindtunnel
thepressurerangeisnarrower,butstillcannotalwaysbecoveredbya
singletypeofmanometer.
Theaccuracyofamanometercanbeimprovedbyincreasingits
sensitivity.However,anincreaseinsensitivityisusuallyconcomitant
withasmallerpressurerange,sincethesmallerthepermissiblerelative
error,themorecomplicated,expensive,anddifficulttooperatebecomes
them.anometer.Thepressurerangecanbereduced,forinstance,by
choosingacomparisonpressureclosetothemeasuredpressure.
Excessivesensitivityisundesirableinmanometers,sinceasensitive
manometer,reactingtosmalldisturbancescausesanincreaseinthetime
neededfor,andsometimesareducedaccuracyof,themeasurements.
Maximumaccuracyisrequiredinmeasuringstaticandtotalpressures
inwindtunnelsforcontinuousandintermittentoperation,sincethevelocity,
theMachnumberoftheflow,andallaerodynamiccoefficientsaredetermined
fromthesemagnitudes.Utubemanometersareusedforthese
measurements,providingmeasuringaccuraciesfrom0.02to0.1%ofthe
maximummeasuredvalue.
256
747/1563
09/09/2015
Theaccuracyrequirementsarelowerformultiplem.anometersby
whichthepressuredistributionsonsurfacesaredetermined,sincewith
alargenumberofexperim.entalpoints,thepressuredistributioncurve
canbedrawnsufficientlyaccuratelyevenifitdoesnotpassthroughall
points.Itisdifficulttoprovideahighmeasuringaccuracyineach
separatetubeofamultiplemanometerbecausetheabsolutepressure
atdifferentpointsofthebodycandifferconsiderably(athypersonic
velocitiesbyseveralordersofmagnitude).
Linearityisalsorelatedtoaccuracy,because,whentheinstrument
scaleisnonlinear,wehavetouseapproximatefunctionalrelationships
inordertosimplifythecalculations.Therefore,wealwaystrytoensure
proportionalitybetweenthemeasuredpressureandthereadingsofthe
manometer,evenifthisleadstomorecomplicatedinstruments.
Theinstrumentsusedfornaeasuringpressuresinaerodynamicresearch
canbedividedintothefollowinggroups:
1)liquidcolunrinmanometers,
2)pressuregageswithelasticsensingelements,
3)pressuretransducers,
4)manometersformeasuringlowabsolutepressures.
Theoperatingprincipleofmanometersofthelastgroupisbasedon
thechangeofseveralphysicalpropertiesofrarifiedgaseswhentheir
pressurevaries.Adescriptionofthesemanometers,usedformeasuring
pressuresbelow1mmHginspecialwindtunnels,canbefoundinthe
literatureonvacuumtechniques/!/.
748/1563
09/09/2015
19.LIQUIDCOLUMNMANOMETERS
Accordingtotheiroperatingprinciple,liquidcolumnmanonaeterscan
bedividedintotwogroups:manometersfordirectreading,and
manometersofthenulltype.Manometersfordirectreadingareusedfor
measuringthedifferenceinheightbetweenthetwolevelsofaliquidin
communicatingvessels.Eachheightisdeterminedinrelationtothe
stationaryinstrumentframe.Inmanometersofthenulltypethefranne
isdisplaced,thisdisplacementbeingmeasuredafterthedisplacementof
theliquidinrelationtotheframeisreducedtozero.
Manometricliquids
Themediumusedinliquidcolumnmanometersismostoftenalcohol,
water,ormercury;thepropertiesoftheseandothermanometricfluids,
whicharecomplicatedorganiccompounds/2/,areshowninTable9.
Themainrequirementsformanometricfluidsare:highchemical
stability,lowviscosity,lowcapillaryconstant,lowcoefficientofthermal
expansion,lowvolatility,lowtendencytobecontaminated,andlowtendency
toabsorbmoisturefromtheair.Alltheserequirementsareaimedat
increasingthemeasuringaccuracy.Thus,ahighchemicalstabilityand
lowvolatilityareimportantformaintainingaconstantspecific
257
749/1563
09/09/2015
gravityofthemanometricfluid,onwhichthemanometricconstantdepends.
Ahighviscositycausesanincreasedtransmissionlagoftheinstrument.
Propertiesofmanometricfluidsatt20C
Fluid
Methylalcohol
CH3OH
Ethylalcohol
CjHjOH
Distilledwater
Tetrabromo
ethane
02113814
Carbontetra
chloride
CCI4
Ethylenebro
mide
Mercury
750/1563
09/09/2015
Specific
gravity
g/cm'
Boiling
point
Cata
pressure
of760
mmHg
Surface
tension
dyn/cm
Ethylbromide
Toluene
0.792
64.7
751/1563
09/09/2015
0.789
78.4
0.999
100
(l.Oat
4'C)
3.42
189.5
1594
76.8
752/1563
09/09/2015
2.18
L32
13.55
356,9
(13.59
atO'C)
1.43
38.4
0.866
110.8
753/1563
09/09/2015
22.6
22.0
72.8
76.8
26.8
38
465
28,4
TABLE9
Viscosity
centipoise
754/1563
09/09/2015
0.69
1.9
1.000
Coefficientof
volumetricex
pansionX10
Remarks
Physiological
effects
0.97
1.55
110
15.0
755/1563
09/09/2015
18.0
Optimumfluid.
Whenwateris
added,the
specificgravity
increases.
Reactsstrongly
withmetals
Conodesrubber
Reactsstrongly
withrubber
Reactsstrongly
withaluminum
copper,andsol
deringalloys:
weaklywith
ironandsteel
themeniscus
shouldbeco
756/1563
09/09/2015
veredwithan
oilfilm.
Narcotic.Strong
poison
Narcotic.Poison
Narcotic.Poison
Verytoxicvapors
Narcotic.Poison
Thernaalexpansionoftheliquid,causingchangesinitsspecificgravity,
alsocauseschangesinthezeroreadingandtheinstrumentconstant.
Capillarityaffectsthelevelofthefluidinthetube,whichdependsonthe
surfacetensionoftheliquidandonitswettingproperties.Forwetting
liquidsthemeniscusinsidethetubeisconcaveupwardandtheliquidin
thetuberisesundertheactionofcapillaryforcesabovethelevelofthe
liquidinawidevessel(Figure5.la).Fornonwettingliquidsthemeniscus
isconvexupwardandtheleveloftheliquidinthetubeislowerthanina
757/1563
09/09/2015
widevessel(Figure5.lb).
Theriseandfallofaliquid(thecapillarydepression)is
A/!=
4ocos(
(5.1)
258
wherejisthespecificgravityoftheliquid,distheinternaldiameter
ofthetube,9isthewettingangle.Foragivenfluidthecoefficientof
surfacetensionovariesinverselywithtemperature.Tentatively,wecan
writeforwater:^h=
30
758/1563
09/09/2015
'd
foralcohol:AA=
formercury:AA=
Whenmeasuringlowpressures,animportantparameteroftheliquid
isitsvaporpressure,sinceatapressureequaltothevaporpressureof
theliquidatagiventemperature,theliquidevaporates.
^rfU
b^(
C:
759/1563
09/09/2015
,^J
l^h
},,j,i,::n,,,,,,irrrri
a^
<)
c:^
'
760/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE5.1.Capiliarychangeinlevelofliquidinatube,
awemngliquid:bnonwettingliquid.
Whentheinternaldianaeterofthemanometrlctubeisconstantalongits
length,thecapillarychangeinleveloftheliquidcanbeignored,sinceit
willbeequalforbothtubelegs.Innoncalibratedtubesthecapillary
depressionmayvaryalongtheheightofthetube.Inaddition,thecapillary
depressiondependsonthestateoftheinternaltubesurfaceandonthe
purityoftheliquid.Forthesereasonslowvaluesofthecapillary
depressionshouldbeaimedat.Thisisachievedbyusingtubeshaving
largeinternaldiameters(8to12mm)andbychoosingaliquidhavinga
lowsurfacetension.Alcoholisusedinmanometershavingtubesofsnaall
diameter(2to5mm).Itshouldberemembered,however,thatalcohol
hasahighercoefficientofthermalexpansionthanwaterormercury,so
thatalcoholmanometersrequireaccuratetemperatureverification.
Impuritiesinmercurygreatlyinfluencethevalueofitssurfacetension,sotha
thatmercuryhastobecleanedfrequently.Dirtonthetubewallsnot
onlypreventsaccuratereading,butalsoincreasesrandomchangesin
shapeofthemeniscusandinthecapillaryforceswhenthemercuryrises
orfallsinthetube.Contaminationofthemercurycanbereducedbya
thinfilmofoiloralcoholonitssurface.
Utubemanometers
TheUtubemanometerconsistsoftwocommunicatingverticalglass
761/1563
09/09/2015
tubes(legs)(Figure5.2).Thepressuredifferencetobemeasuredis
relatedtotheleveldifferencehinthetubes(legs)ofthemanometerbythe
equation
P\Pi=\h*,
(5.2)
Moreexactlyfromp,_p^=y/i(1yi/v).wherehfîsthespecificgravityoftheliquidintheleft
handleg.ThevalueofYi/Y'susuallyneglected.
259
wheretisthespecificgravityofthemanometricliquid.
Thisequationshowsthattherangeofthemeasuredpressuredifferencescan
bealteredbychangingthespecificgravityoftheliquidandtheheightofthetube.
FIGURES.2.AU
tubemanomeier.
762/1563
09/09/2015
a^p^t
FIGURE5.3.Utubemano
meterwithtotalingdevice.
1leadscrews;2optical
sightingdevices;3differential
gear;4counter;5handle
forturningscrews.
Thesensitivitydh/d{pips),variesinverselywiththespecificgravity
oftheliquid.Themaximumpracticaltubeheightisabout3m(i.e.,the
heightofthelaboratoryroom);hence,therangeofpressureswhichcanbe
measuredbymercurymanometersislimitedtoabout4atmi.Thesame
heightfortubesfilledwithalcoholcorrespondstoapressurerangeof
about0.24atm.Itmayhappenthatmercurymanometersarenotsensitive
enough,whilealcoholorwatermanometerscannotprovidetherequired
measuringrange.Insuchcasesrecourseishadtoheavyliquids,suchas
tetrabromoethane,carbontetrachloride,andThouletsolution(asolutionof
mercuriciodideinpotassiumiodide).
Whenthemanometerisfilledwithwater,thereadingoftheheight
differencesinm.mgivesthenumericalvalueofthepressuredifferencein
kg/m^.
Sincethediametersoftheglasstubesareingeneralnotuniformalong
theirlength,theleveldifferencehmustbecalculatedfromthechangein
763/1563
09/09/2015
heightofthecolumnsofliquidinbothlegs.Anexceptiontothisruleis
260
aspeciallycalibratedtube.UsuallyUtubemanometersareequippedwith
slidingscales;beforetheexperimentthezerograduationisadjustedtothe
leveloftheliquidinbothlegs.
Iftheheightofthecolumnofliquidisreadbythenakedeye,theabsolute
errorinheightmaybeabout0.5mm.Sincetworeadingsarerequired
fordeterminingtheheightdifference,theerrormayattain1to2mm.
Whenhigheraccuracyisrequired,themanometersareequippedwithoptical
readingdevices.
Figure5.3showsaUtubemanometerwithadevicepermittingthe
differenceinheightinbothlegstobedeterminedwithoutintermediate
calculations.Forthispurposethesightingdevices(2)arelocatedatthe
levelofthemeniscuseswiththeaidofleadscrews(1)whichareconnected
tothedifferentialgear(3).Thelatterisconnectedtocounter(4),onwhich
theheightdifferenceftisreadoff.
Iftheaboveprecautionsaretakentoreducetheinfluenceofsurface
tensionintheUtubemanometer,itcanbeusedasaprimaryinstrument
whichrequiresnocalibrationbyanother[reference]instrument.Theonly
correctionnecessaryisfortheinfluenceoftemperature.Thetrue
differenceinthelevelsoftheliquid,expressedthroughthespecificgravity
oftheliquidattemperatureto,is
764/1563
09/09/2015
whereft,andticorrespondtothetemperature/
ismade,or
(5.3)
atwhichthemeasurement
A,r=''/
lHPC^'o)'
wheregisthecoefficientofvolumetricexpansionoftheliquid.
(5.4)
PiPe'/A^yifi
FIGURE5.4.Effectofliquid,presentinthe
connectingtubeonthemanometerreadings.
765/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE5.6.Welltypemano
meter.
Foraccuratepressurem.easurements,itissometimesnecessaryto
makeacorrectionfortemperaturedistortionsofthescale.Inorderto
reducethereadingtothetemperaturetoatwhichthescalewasetched,
weusetheequation
Ao=Attb+<îtio)l
(5.5)
261
whereaisthecoefficientoflinearexpansionofthematerialfromwhich
thescaleisnaade.
Inordertopreventlossofliquidfromthemanometerwhenthepressure
variesabruptly,trapsintheformofwellsorwideningsintheupperparts
ofthetubesareprovided.Whenliquidispresentintheinclinedconnecting
tube(duetooverflowingorcondensation),theactualpressuredifference
willexceedbyfzhithereadingsofthemanometer(Figure5.4).Inorderto
preventthecollectionofliquidinthetubebendstheyarebestarrangedin
them.annershowninFigure5.4bybrokenlines.
766/1563
09/09/2015
Welltypemanometers
ThedrawbackofUtubenaanometersisthenecessitytoreadthe
indicationsoftwotubes.Thisisavoidedinthewelltypemanometer.
(Figure5.5)whichisaUtubemanometeroneofwhoselegshasa
largercrosssectionthantheother.Thehigherpressureactsonthe
leghavingthelargercrosssection(well).Undertheactionofthe
pressuredifference,theliquidrisesintheglasstubetoaheighthi,and
fallsinthewellbyanamountfe.Theheightofthecoluminwhichbalances
thepressuredifferenceis
A=Aij^2
Sincethevolumeoftheliquiddisplacedfromthewell,whosecross
sectionalareaisF2,isequaltothevolumeoftheliquidwhichentersthe
measuringtube,whosecrosssectionalareaisFi,themeasuredpressure
differenceis
/'./'2=M(iF^)(5.6)
TheratioF,/F2allowsforthechangeinlevelofthemanometricfluid
inthewell.Toavoidadditionalcalculations,thecrosssectionalarea
ratioshouldbeverysmall(<1/500);itiseitherignored,orspecial
scalesaremade.
Figure5.6.showsschematicallyanelectricaldeviceforautomatically
measuringtheleveloftheliquidinthetubeofawelltypemercury
767/1563
09/09/2015
manometer/3/.Itconsistsofaservosystem,whosesensingelement
isaphotoelectriccellmountedonamovablecarriagetogetherwitha
lampthrowingalightbeam,throughtheliquidontothephotoelectriccell.
Whenthemeniscusmovesinrelationtothelightbeam,theWheatstone
bridgeintoonearmofwhichthephotoelectriccellininserted(semiconductor
resistance),becomesunbalanced,andanamplifiedimbalancesignalisfed
toaservomotorwhichwiththeaidofanaicrometerscrewreturnsthe
carriagetoapositionfixedinrelationtothemeniscus.Thedisplacement
ofthecarriageism.easuredbyacounterconnectedtothemicrometer
screw.Therangeofthemeasuredpressuresisonlylimitedbythelength
ofthemicrometerscrew,whiletheaccuracyofthedevicedependsonthe
262
accuracyofthealignmentofthecarriagewiththemeniscus
(0.15to0.25mm).Suchaservodevicesimplifiesthetaskofthe
FIGURE5.6.Deviceforautomatically
measuringtheheightofamercurycolumn.1
tubefilledwithmercury:2~micrometric
screw:3guidecolumn:4carriage;5
photoelectriccell;6Wheatstonebridge;
7a.c.amplifier;8bridgesupplytransformer;
9lampsupplytransformer:10rectifier;
11lamp;12servomotor;13counter.
experimenter,freeinghimfrom,theworkofvisuallyaligningthesighting
768/1563
09/09/2015
devicewiththemeniscusinthetube.
Liquidcolumnmicronianom.eters
Thesearesensitivemanometersdesignedforindicatingpressure
differencesfromafewupto500mmW.G.aterrorsbetweenafew
tenthsandafewthousandthsofamillimeter.Thelowerlimitofthe
pressurerangementionedisfound,forinstance,inboundarylayer
velocityinvestigations.Thus,thevelocityheadofairatatm.ospherIc
pressure,flowingat10andIm/sec,is6and0.06mmW.G.respectively;
formeasuringthesevelocitieswithanaccuracyof1%,themicromanometer
errormustnotexceed0.12and0.0012mmW.G.respectively.
Thesensitivityofliquidcolumnmanometersisraisedbyincreasingthe
displacementperunitpressuredifference,ofthemeniscusinrelationto
263
thestationarytubewallsandbyincreasingtheaccuracyinmeasuringthis
displacementwiththeaidofopticaldevices.
Twofluidmicromanometers.IfthelegsofaUtubemanometer
areenlargedatthetoptoformtwowidevesselsandarefilledwithtwo
immiscibleliquidswhosespecificgravitiesaretiandT2(Figure5.7),we
canobservethedisplacementoftheinterfaceseparatingthetwoliquids.
769/1563
09/09/2015
Interface
Ml
1'
un
At
r,
FIGURE5.7.Twofluid
770/1563
09/09/2015
micromanometer.
FIGURE5.8.Increaseofmeniscusdis
placementinanarrowconnectingtube.
Wethenhave
A"2=^[(T271)+^(T2fTi)]^
(5.7)
wherehisthedisplacementoftheinterfaceundertheactionofapressure
differencepipi=ls.p,andF|andFârerespectivelythecrosssectionalareas
ofthetubeandthewell,whichforsimplicityareassumedtobethesame
forbothlegs.WhenFÎFîsverysmall,thedisplacementisapproximately
T2Ti
(5.8)
771/1563
09/09/2015
Theimmiscibleliquidsmaybe,forinstance,ethylalcoholandkerosene.
Fornaeasuringsmallpressuredifferencesinrarefiedgasesitis
suggested/14/touseliquidorganosiliconpolymerswhosevaporpressures
varybetween10"*and10"^mmHg(thevaporpressuresofmercuryand
waterare1.2X10"ând17.5mmHgrespectively).Thevalueof7211
variesbetween0,07and0,2g/cm,Theuseofliquidswhosespecific
gravitiesdifferlessreducestheresponseofthenaanometerandcauses
largetemperatureerrors.
Bubblemicromanometers.Awidelyusedmethodofincreasing
thedisplacementofthemeniscusisillustratedinFigure5.8.The
displacement/ofanairbubbleoranoildropinthetubeconnectingthe
widevessels(1)and(2),canbefoundforatwofluidmanometerfrora(5.7),
ifweput[I=f2=f.Inthiscasethesensitivityoftheinstrumentis
2F,If
(5.9)
264
772/1563
09/09/2015
Thedesignsofmanysensitivemicromanometersintendedformeasuring
verysmallpressuredifferencesarebasedonthisprinciple,e,g,,the
Chattockgage,whichiswidelyusedinGreatBritainandtheU.S.A./5/.
,p.
Â^
î>'
II
/.^^^
h,h
r
2
773/1563
09/09/2015
~"^^_r
FIGURE6.9.Inclinedmicromanometer.
Apeculiarityofthismicromanometeristhatsmallpressuredifferences
aremeasuredbyreturningthebubbletoitsinitialpositioninrelation
totheinstrumentframe,whichistiltedwiththeaidofamicro
metricscrewconnectedtothescalewhichisgraduatedinunitsofpressure.
Directreadinginclinedtubemicromanometers.A
simplemethodofincreasingthedisplacementofameniscusinrelationto
thetubewallsconsistsinincliningthetubeatanacuteangletothehorizontal
(Figure5.9).Thisisoneofthemostwidelyusedinstrumentsfor
measuringflowvelocitiesinlowspeedtunnels.Therelationshipbetween
thedisplacementoftheliquidalongthetubeaxisandthemeasuredpressure
differenceis
/>.i'2=T'(sina+^j.
(5.10)
774/1563
09/09/2015
Thesensitivityofthemicromanometercanthusbeincreasedby
reducingthespecificgravityoftheliquid,theangleofinclinationofthe
tubea,orthearearatioFilF^.Alcoholisordinarilyusedininclined
tubemicromanometers.Inordertoreducecapillarityeffects,calibrated
tubeshavinginternaldiam.etersof1.5to3mmareused.
SovietwindtunnelsarelargelyequippedwithTsAGImicromanometers
(Figure5.10).Thisinstrumenthasacylindricalwellrigidlyconnectedto
aglasstubeenclosedinametalcasing.Thetubeisprovidedwitha
manometricscalegraduatedto200mm.Byrotatingthewellaboutits
horizontalaxis,thetubecanbeinclinedsothatsina=0.125;0.25;0.5;
and1.0.Theratiobetweenthecrosssectionalareasofthetubeandthe
wellis1/700.
Inclinedtubemicromanometersareequippedwithlevelswhichpermit
adjustmentsofthehorizontalpositionofthestand.Thesemicromano
metershavetobecalibrated,sinceslightbendsinthetubesorsmall
changesincapillarydepression,duetosmallvariationsoftheinternal
tubediameter,maycauseconsiderableerrors.
Theerrorsduetocapillarityininclinedtubemanometersarethe
sameasinverticalmanometers.Thereexiststhereforeaminimum
265
{IIIHill
775/1563
09/09/2015
anglea,belowwhichnoincreaseinsensitivityisobtainedbecauseof
thecapillarityerror.Inpracticea=6.
FIGURE5.10.TsAGImioromanometer.1clamp
ingdevice;2glasstube;3spigot:4rotating
well;5casing.
FIGURE5.11Nulltypeliquidcolumnmicromanometer.awithmovable
inclinedtube;bwithmovablewell;1inclinedtube;2micrometricscrew;
3scaleforreadingnumberofscrewturns;4scaleforreadingangleofrotation
ofscrew;5well;6,7flexibletubes;8sightingdevice.
InclinednullrQicromanometers.Thecapillarityerrorcanbe
reducedconsiderablybyusingmanometersinwhichtheleveloftheliquid
isheldinaconstantnullpositioninrelationtothewallsofthecapillary
tube.
InthenullmioromanometershowninFigure5.11a,theinclined
capillarytubeismovableandhasanulllineonit.Thepositioninwhich
them.eniscusisalignedwiththislineiscalledthezeropositionofthe
776/1563
09/09/2015
266
instrument.Whenthepressuredifferencechanges,theinclinedtubeis
moveduntilthemeniscusisagainalignedwiththenull.Thisisdone
withtheaidofamicrometricscrew.Themeniscusisobservedwiththe
aidofasightingdevicewhichmovestogetherwiththeinclinedtube.
Thesecondtypeofnullmicromanometer(5.lib)differsfromtheformer
inthattheinclinedtubeisstationary;inordertoreturnthemeniscustothe
nullpositionthewellhastobemoved.Becauseofthis,themeniscuscan
beobservedwiththeaidofastationarymicroscope,whiletheeyeofthe
observerisalwaysatconstantlevel.Suchadevicepermitsthemeasured
pressuredifferencetobeincreasedupto500or600mmW.G.Thereading
accuracyofthecolumnofliquiddependsmainlyonthemanufacturing
accuracyofthemicrometricscrew,andattains0.03to0.05mm.
Inexperinnentsrequiringaccuratemeasurementsofpressure,attention
mustbepaidtoreducingthetransmissionlagofmanometers.Forinstance,
whendeterminingthevelocityprofileinaboundarylayerbyatubehavingan
internaldiameterof0.2to0.4mm,thetransmissionlagofthemanometer
amountstotensofsecondsandsometimestominutes.Theerrorscaused
bythelagarenotonlyduetothefactthatreadingsaremadebeforethe
pressureinthetubeorificeisinequilibriumwiththepressureinthewell,
butbecauseduringthetimerequiredforthecompleteseriesofmeasurements,
thetemperatureofthesurroundingscanchange(forinstance,duetoheat
transferthroughthewallsofthewindtunnel).Thevolumeofliquidinboth
legsofaliquidcolumnnullmicromanometerattheinstanceofreading
remainsthesame,irrespectiveofthemeasuredpressuredifference.Thelag,
duetotheflowofliquidfromonelegtotheother,thereforedependsonlyon
777/1563
09/09/2015
theskilloftheexperimenter(orontheresponseoftheautomaticdevice
used)inrealigningthemeniscuswiththenullline.
Increasingthesensitivityofanullmicromanometerbyincreasingthe
inclinationofthecapillarytubeincreasesthelag(thevolumeofdisplaced
liquidincreasesforagivenpressuredifference).
Atemperaturechangeoftheliquidinawelltypemicromanometer
causesachangeinthezeroreading;forthistherearetworeasons:
1)thechangeinvolumeoftheliquidduetothermalexpansion;
2)thechangeofthesurfacetensionoftheliquidinthecapillarytube.
Thesefactorsactinopposition,andthusmaycompensatemutually.
Therelationshipbetweenthegeometricalparametersofthemanometer,
necessaryforthecompensationoftemperaturechanges,iswhenthewell
ismadeofsteelandisfilledwithalcohol/6/:
T^=0.29cm',
wherevisthevolumeoftheliquidcolumnmicromanometer;disthe
internaldiameterofthetube;Ftistheareaofthewellcrosssection.
Thiscompensationenablesthetemperatureerrorofthemicromano
metertobereducedtolessthan0,01mm/lC/7/.
Floattypemicromanometers.Determiningthepositionofa
meniscus"byaccuratemeasurementsrequiresmucheffort.Infloattype
micromanometers,thepositionofasolidbodyfloatingonthesurfaceof
theliquidisdeterminedinsteadofthepositionofthemeniscus.
778/1563
09/09/2015
267
Figure5.12showsafloattyperaicromanonieterwhichenables
differencesupto200mmW.G.tobemeasured.Thedifferenceinlevelof
theliquidbetweentheannularwell(2)andthecylinder(1)ismeasured
withtheaidofscale(3)whichisattachedtoabodyfloatingonthesurface
oftheliquidinthecylinder.Thescalecanbeobservedandthedifference
inlevelreadoffthroughwindow(4)andmicroscope(5).Themicrometric
device(6)servesforaligningthesightinglineofthemicroscopewiththe
nulllineofthescale.
Bridge
Recording
Springs
FIGURE5.12Floattypemicromanometerwith
opticalreading.1cylinder;2annularwelt
3scale;4window;5microscope;6
aligningdevice.
779/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE5.13.Floattypemicromanometerwith
remoteindication.
Inanotherfloattypemicromanometer/8/,intendedform.easuring
pressuredifferencesupto25mmW.G.,thepositionofthefloatinrelation
tothewallsofthevesselisrecordedwiththeaidofaninductiontype
displacementtransducerconnectedtoanelectronicbridge.Thefloatis
securedtothewallsofthevesselwiththeaidofsix0.075mmthickwires,
whicharetensionedinpairsby3flatspringslocatedatanglesof120
aroundtheaxisofthefloat(Figure5.13).Thisinstrumentiscalibrated
bydisplacingtheliquidwiththeaidofapistonmovedbyamicrometric
screw.Theaccuracyoftheinstrumentdependsonthesensitivityofthe
transducerandthemeasuringsystem,connectedtoit.
Anerroroflessthan0.5%ofthemeasurementrangeisdifficulttoobtain,
butbyreducingthem.easurementrangeto1mmW.G.,theabsoluteerror
canbereducedtoabout0.005mm.
268
Balancetypemicromanometers.Veryhighsensitivityand
accuracycanbeobtainedwithmicromanometersinwhichmeasuring
theheightofacolumnofliquidisreplacedbymeasuringforceswiththe
aidofbalances.
IntheinstrumentshowninFigure5.14thepressurespiandpjactvia
780/1563
09/09/2015
elasticmetaltubesontheliquidincommunicatingvesselsmountedonthe
armsofabalance.Iftherighthandvesselisatahigherpressure,
someliquidwillflowfrom,itintothelefthandvessel.Equilibriumis
restoredeithernnanuallyorautomaticallybymovingacounterweight.The
sensitivityofthisinstrumentisindependentofthespecificgravityofthe
manometricliquid.Forvesselsofgivenheight,achangeintheliquidis
onlyreflectedintherangeofmeasuredpressuredifferences.
xjpy
yPz
l^'^^^^
781/1563
09/09/2015
'>/////////.
FIGURES,14.Compensatedmanometer.1lever;
2servomotorforleadscrew;3movablecounter
weight;4contactsystemforswitchingontheservo
motorwhentheleverisnotinnullposition;5com
municatingvessels;6elastictubes.
Figure5.15showsabelltypemanometerfordirectreadi..g.Pressures
/?,andp2actontheinsideofcommunicatingvessels(bells)(1)and(2),
FIGURE5.15.Belltypemanometer.1and2bells;3balancelever;
4communicatingvessels;5UJ.iisparentscale;6screen;7mirror;
8lightsource.
269
whicharesuspendedfromabalancelever(3).Theopenendsofthebells
areimmersedintheliquidcontainedinvessels(4).Undertheactionofthe
pressuredifferencesom.eliquidisforcedoutfromonebellintotheother,and
thelevertiltsbyasmallanglewhichisproportionaltothepressure
differenceanddependsonthesensitivityofthebalance.Thisanglecanbe
782/1563
09/09/2015
measuredbydifferentmethods,forinstance,withtheaidofanoptical
systemwhichprojectsanenlargedimageofthetransparentscale(5)onto
thescreen(6).
Incompensatedbelltypemanometers(Figure5.14)theleverisreturned
tothenullpositionwiththeaidofamovablecounterweight,whosetravel
isproportionaltothemeasuredpressuredifference.
Dampingthepulsationsofthecolumnsof
liquidinmanometers
Thepressuresmeasuredindifferentaerodynamictestinstallations
areveryseldomsteady.Usuallythepressurefluctuatesaboutacertain
meanvalue.Theamplitudeandwaveformofthesepulsationsdependon
thedesignandtypeoftheinstallation.Theoscillationsofthecolumnsof
liquidinmanometrictubes,causedbythepressurepulsations,
reducethemeasuringaccuracy.Inordertopreventbuildupofoscillations,
forceddampingsometimesbecomesnecessary.
Thereexistthreewaysofdampinginmanometers:inertial,volumetric,
andresistancedamping.Volumetricdampingisappliedtomanometers
inwhichlargechangesinvolumearerequiredformeasuringsmall
pressuredifferences,asforinstance,inmanometerswherethecross
sectionalareasofthetubesarelarge.Inertialdampingisusedwhenthe
liquidhasalargemass.Theinertiaofthemasspreventsmotioncaused
bysuddenpressurepulsesofshortduration.Inertialdam.pingisnotalways
sufficientfordampingoscillationsoftheleveloftheliquid.Resistance
dampingiscausedbyresistanceofthesystem,whichlimitstheflowvelocity
oftheliquidduringsuddenpressurepulsations.Thistypeofdampingis
veryeffective,andiseasilyobtainedinexistingmanometersbyinserting
adampingresistance.Inorderthatthemanometerreadingscorrespondto
ameanvalue,theresistancemustbelinear,i.e.,proportionaltotheflow
783/1563
09/09/2015
velocityoftheliquid.Nonlineardampingmayoccurifathrottleisinserted
intothepneumaticorhydrauliclineoftheinstrument.Linear("viscous")
dampingisobtainedsimplybyinsertingacapillarytubeintothepneumatic
lineoftheinstrument.Thetubelengthischosenbyexperiment,taking
intoaccountthatanexcessivelengthmaycauseconsiderabletransmission
laginthemanometer.Anothermethodofresistancedampingoftheliquid
columnoscillationsinam.anomieteristoinsertsmallfeltorcottonwool
padsintothepneumaticlineoftheinstrument.
20.MECHANICALMANOMETERS
Manometerswithelasticsensingelennentsandsmallmovingmasses
haveaquickerresponsethanliquidcolumnmanometers.Thetransmission
270
laginsuchmanometersisdeterminedmainlybythetimerequiredfor
theequalizationofthepressureinthechamberoftheelasticelementwith
thepressuretobemieasured,whereasinliquidcolumnmanometersan
additionallagiscausedbythedisplacementoftheliquid.Usingelastic
elements,andkeepingthevolumeofthepressurechambersmall,wecan
reducethedinaensionsofthemanometerandinstallitneartheplacewhere
thepressureisbeingmeasured.Whenthevolumeofthechamberandthe
lengthoftheconnectingtubearereduced,thetransmissionlagofthe
manometerdecreases.
Duetotheirhighnaturalfrequency,elasticelementscanbeusedfor
measuringnotonlysteadybutalsofluctuatingpressures.Pressuresare
784/1563
09/09/2015
measuredbym.eansofelasticelementsbydeterminingeitherthe
defornaationofanelasticelementortheforcerequiredtopreventthe
deformation(forcecompensationmethod).
Thedeformationoftheelasticelem.entsismeasuredwiththeaidof
kinenaatic,optical,orelectricsystems.Kinenaaticpointertypeor
recordinginstrumentsandopticaldevicesareusedmainlyinspringtype
m.anometers,whileelectricsystemsarefoundinpressuretransducers.
Incomparisonwiththemethodofdeterminingthepressurefromthe
deformationofelasticelements,theforcecompensationmethodismore
exactsinceitenablestheeffectsofelastichysteresistobereduced.How
ever,theforcecompensationmethodrequiresmoretime.Whenmeasuring
rapidlyfluctuatingpressures,onlythefirstmethodisthereforeused.The
forcecompensationmethodisusedformeasuringsteadyorslowlyvarying
pressureswhentheerrormustnotexceed0.1to0.5%oftheupperlimit
ofthemeasuredvalue.
Typesofelasticelements
Thefollowingthreetypesofelasticsensingelementsaremostwidely
used:Bourdontubes,bellows,anddiaphragms(flatorcorrugated).
TheoperatingprincipleofaBourdontubemanometeriswellknown.
Undertheactionofthepressure,atubeofovalorellipticcrosssection,
bentinacirculararc(Figure5.16a),tendstostraightenitself.The
displacementofthetubeendismeasuredwiththeaidofakinematicdevice.
785/1563
09/09/2015
II
FIGURE5.16Elasticelementsformeasuringpressures,aBourdontube;
bspiraltube;ctlatdiaphragm;dcorrugateddiaphragmandsetof
aneroidboxes;ebellows.
271
Theactionofaspiraltube(Figure5.16b)isbasedonthesameprinciple.
Flatdiaphragms(Figure5.16c),whichhavehighernaturalfrequencies
thanBourdontubes,canbeusedformeasuringhighfrequencypressure
pulsations.Flatdiaphragmscanbeinstalledflushwiththesurfaceofa
body.Thepressuretobem.easuredactsdirectlyonthediaphragm,hence
thereisnotransmissionlag,duetotheresistanceoftheconnectingtubes
andthevolumeofairinthesystem.
Thesensitivityofaflatdiaphragm,whichcanbeconsideredasaplate
fixedalongacircularcontour,canbedefinedastheratioofthedeformation
8atthecenterofthediaphragmtothepressurep
._6_3(11x2)r'
786/1563
09/09/2015
16k'
Thenaturalfrequencyofthediaphragm,whichshouldbe3to4times
higherthanthefrequencyofthepressurepulsations,is
'^^^[wvc^J'
whererandharerespectivelytheradiusandthethicknessofthediaphragm,
whileE,n,andparerespectivelythemodulusofelasticity,Poisson'sratio,
andthedensityofthediaphragmmaterial.Thus,thesensitivityandthe
naturalfrequencyarerelatedbytheequation
Thesensitivityofadiaphragm,isinverselyproportionaltothesquare
ofitsnaturalfrequencyandtoitsthickness.Thesensitivityofadiaphragm
canthereforebeincreasedbyloweringitsnaturalfrequency.The
sensitivityofadiaphragmtypemanoraeterdependsnotonlyonthevalueof
kbutalsoonthemethodusedformeasuringthedeformationofthe
diaphragm.
Therangeofpressuredifferenceswhichcanbemeasuredwithasingle
diaphragmdependsonitsthicknessanddiameter,andvariesfromhundredths
ofammHgtothousandsofatmospheres.Sincetheabsolutedeformations
ofaflatdiaphragmareverysmall,theyaremeasuredbyopticalor
electricalmethods.Mechanicalnaethodschangethenaturalfrequencyof
thesystembecauseofthemassesconnectedtotheinstrument.Electrical
methodsaresimpleranddonotleadtolargedimensions,asdooptical
787/1563
09/09/2015
methods.Foragivensensitivityofthediaphragm,thesensitivityofthe
manometricsystemcanbeincreasedonlybyanaplifyingtheoutputsignal
whichcorrespondstoagivendeflectionofthediaphragm.
Corrugateddiaphragmspermitconsiderablylargerdeflectionsthan
flatdiaphragms.Forevenlargerdeflections,corrugateddiaphragms
arem.adeintheformofboxeswhichcanbeassembledintosets
(Figure5.16d).
Bellowsaremostwidelyusedinthedesignofmanometersemployed
form.easuringsteadypressuresinwindtunnels.Abellows(Figure16e)
isacylindricalthinwalledtubewithuniformfolds.Thepresenceofa
largenumberoffoldsmakespossiblelargedeformationsofthemoving
bottomofthebellowsundertheactionofpressuredifferences.
272
Thegagepressureactsinsidethebellowsorthevesselwhichsurrounds
it.Themovablebottomofthebellows,whichisconnectedwiththe
measuringmechanisnaofthemanometer,canbeconsideredasapiston
movingwithoutfrictioninacylinderundertheactionofthepressure
forces,andloadedbyaspringwhich,inthiscase,isformedbythefolds
ofthebellows.
Thebellowsisnnadeofbrass,phosphorusbronze,berylliumbronze,
orstainlesssteel.Brassbellowsaremostwidelyused,buttheirhysteresis
ishigh(upto3%ofthefulltravel).Thehysteresisofbellowsmadeof
berylliumbronzeorphosphorusbronzeislower.
Thecharacteristicsofabellowsasamieasuringelementdependontwo
788/1563
09/09/2015
factors:therigidityc,andtheeffectiveareaF^f.Therigidityisthe
ratiooftheforceactingonthemovingbottomofthebellowstoitstravel5.
TheeffectiveareaofthebellowsistheratiooftheforceNtothegage
pressureprequiredtorestorethebottomofthebellowstoitsoriginal
position:
Themaximumpermissibletravelofthebottomofthebellowsisabout
5to10%ofthebellowslength,ifresidualdeformationsaretobeavoided.
Proportionalitybetweenthetravelandtheforceactingonthebottomis
bestmaintainedifthebellowsissubjectedtocompression.
Theratioofthelengthtotheoutsidediameterofthebellowsshouldbe
lessthanunity.Whenthebellowsislonger,thereisadangeroflongitudinal
instabilitycausedbybendingandtransversedeformationofthebellows.In
ordertopreventthisthemovablebottomofthebellowsisusuallyconnected
toaguidingdevicewhichensuresaxialtravelofthebottom.
Springtypemanometers
Sta.ndardmanometerswithspringtypesensingelementsintheformof
Bourdontubeshaveerrorsof1to3%ofthescalerange,whichare
inacceptibleforaerodynamicmeasurements.Forcertaintypesofmulti
pointmeasurements(forinstance,intestingenginesorcompressors),Bourdon
tubereferencemanometersmadebytheSovietindustryaresuitable;theyare
fromhighqualitymaterialandhavelowhysteresis.Thescaleofa
referencemanometerhas300onedegreegraduationsonaconvexscale.
Referencemanometersareavailableformeasuringnegativepressures
downto760mmHgvacuum,andpositivepressuresupto1.5,5,10,
25,and50kg/cmôrmore.Accordingtotheexistingspecificationsfor
mianometers,thepermissiblemeasurementerrorsareasfollows:for
vacuummetersandmanometersforpressuresupto2kg/cm,"0.35%of
thescalelimit;formanometersforpressuresabove2kg/cm^,0.2%
789/1563
09/09/2015
ofthescalelimit.
Theaccuracyofspringtypemanometerscanbeincreasedbyreducing
oreliminatingfrictioninthetransmissionmechanism.Whenfrictionis
eliminated,theaccuracyofthemanometerismainlydeterminedbythe
hysteresisoftheelasticelement.
273
Anexampleofafrictionlessspringtypemanometeristhemanometer
inwhichthedeflectionoftheBourdontubeismeasuredwiththeaidofan
accuratemicrometricmechanismoradialindicator(5)(Figure5.17).The
micrometricmechanismisisolatedfromthetube(1),towhichtheflexible
contactplate(2)issoldered.Asecondflexibleplate(3)issolderedtothe
micrometerscrew.Electriccontactbetweentheplatesissensedbyaso
called"magiceye"electronictubenormallyusedinradioreceivers.The
wiringdiagramisshowninFigure5.17.Tomeasurethepressure,contact
betweenthescrewandtubeisfirstbroken.Plate(3)isthenslowlybrought
backintocontactwithplate(2);thisissensedbythe"m.agiceye."Sucha
devicepermitstheerrortobereducedto1/2or1/3oftheerrorofa
referencemanometerwithpointer,butthisisacconnpaniedbyanincrease
intimerequired.
790/1563
09/09/2015
Mi..
FIGURE5.17.Springtypemanometerwithcontacts.
1Bourdontube;2and3contactplates;4
micrometricdevice:5dialindicator.
FIGURE6.18.Pendulumt>pemanometer.1
pendulum;2lamp;3lens;4transparent
scale;5screen.
Whenusingbellowsmadeoftompacorsemitompacforspringtype
manometers,theinfluenceofhysteresisofthebellowsisreducedbyan
additionalspringofhighqualitysteelorberylliumbronze.Inthiscase
theelasticforceofthebellowsissmallincomparisonwiththeelastic
forceofthespringwhichhasalowhysteresis,andtherefore,theerror
duetohysteresisofthebellowsdecreasesproportionallywiththeratio
oftherigiditiesofbellowsandspring.Thereductioninsensitivityof
theelasticelement,causedbytheadditionalspring,iscompensatedfor
bythehighertransmissionratiotothepointer.
Bellowsmanometershavemeasurementerrorsoftheorderof1%.
Theerrorcanbereducedto0.2to0.5%whenthebellowsareof
berylliumbronzeorphosphorousbronze.Bellowsmanometerscanbe
usedtomeasurepressuresbetweenperfectvacuumand10to20atm.
791/1563
09/09/2015
Inthebellowstypependulummanometer,shownschematicallyin
Figure5.18,theelasticforceoftheadditionalspringisreplacedby
therestoringmomentofthependulum(1),whicheliminatestheinfluence
ofthehysteresisofthebellows.Foranglesofpenduluminclination
belowa=6,therelationshipbetweenthepressureandtheangleislinear.
274
beingexpressedasfollowswithanaccuracybetterthan3%:
Here,Gistheweightofthependulumcounterpoise,pisthegagepressure
actinginsidethebellows,aisthedistancebetweenthependulumsupport
andthecenterlineofthebellows.Byalteringtheweightofthecounter
poiseorthelength/ofthependulum,wecanvarytherangeofthe
measuredpressures.Theinfluenceofhysteresisofthebellowscanbe
almosteliminatedbyselectingtheratioofthestaticmomentofthe
pendulumtotherigidityofthebellowssothatGl'^ca''.Accurate
measurementoftheangulardisplacementofthependulumisensured
byanopticalsystemconsistingoflamp(2)whichprojects,withtheaid
oflens(3),alargeimageofscale(4)onscreen(5).
Forcecompensationmanometers
Manometersinwhichthedeflectionsofelasticelementsaremeasured
haveerrorscausedbyhysteresisandtheinfluenceoftemperatureonthe
rigidityofthoseelements.Sucherrorscanalmostcompletelybeavoidedif
thepressureforceactingontheelasticelementisequilibratedbyaforce
792/1563
09/09/2015
whichreturnstheelasticelementtoitsinitialposition.
Theequilibratingforcecanbecausedbymechanicalorelectric
mechanisms.Theformerincludedeviceswhichusecounterweightsor
springs;thelatterincludedevicesbasedontheinteractionofmagneticor
electrostaticfields.Compensationiseffectedautomaticallyincertain
instruments.
Oneofthebestdesignsofforcecompensationmanometersforwind
tunnelsisacombinationofbellowsorsetsofaneroidboxeswithautomatic
beamtypebalances.Suchabellowstypemanometerisshownin
Figure5.19.Bellows(1)and(2)areconnectedtobalancelever(3)oneither
FIGURE519.Automaticforcecompetisationbeamtypemano
meter1and2bellows;3balancelever;4transducer
cont'rollngtheservomotor,5servomotor;6leadscrew;7
counterweight:8counter.
sideoftheknifeedge.Thepressuresp,andp^,whosedifferencehasto
bemeasured,actinsidethebellows.Whenthepressuredifferencechanges.
275
theequilibriumisdisturbedandtransducer(4)reactstothedisplacement
ofthebeamendbyswitchingonservomotor(5),whichturnsleadscrew
(6)tomovecounterweight(7),creatingamomentwhichrestoresthelever
793/1563
09/09/2015
toitsinitialposition.Thetravelofthecounterweightismeasuredby
counter(8).Thewiringdiagramsofautomaticservomotorcontrolsfor
levertypebalancesaredescribedinChapterVI.
Letthebeambeintheinitialpositionwhenpxp^.Whenthepressures
arevaried,theequationofequilibriumbecomes
<^/'2êfji/'iêfi=0'^'
wherea,andOaarethearmsofthepressureforcesactingrespectively
onbellows1and2;fef,andFefâretheeffectiveareasofthesebellows.
Gistheweightofthecounterweight;xisthedisplacementofthecounter
weightfromitsinitialequilibriumposition(forpi=pj).
Inorderthatthedisplacmentofthecounterweightbeproportionalto
thepressuredifferencep,p^,itisnecessarythat
Inthiscasetheequilibriumconditionsfortheleveris
t^p=PiPi=An,
wherenisthenumberofturnsoftheleadscrew,correspondingtothe
displacementx,recordedbycounter(8)(thescrewhasapitch/)
âF
Ifthebellows(1)isacteduponbyatmosphericpressure(p,=b),then
P2B=An,andtheinstrumentwillnaeasuregagepressure.Ifbellows
(1)isevacuated(pi=0)andsoldered,themanometerwillshowthe
absolutepressurep2=An.Inthelattercasewenausttakeintoaccount
thatwhenbellows(2)isconnectedtoatmosphere,aforceBFgi,willact
onbellows(1),whichnaustbebalancedwiththeaidofanadditional
counterweight.
794/1563
09/09/2015
Inpracticeitisdifficulttoobtainapairofbellowswhichhaveequal
effectiveareas.Inaccuratebellowstypemanometers,oneofthearmsoi
orQiisthereforeadjustable.
Figure5.20showsaset,consistingoftwoautomaticlevertypebalance
elements,whichservetomeasurepressuredifferencesandthestaticgage
pressureintheMoskvaUniversitywindtunnel.Thelevertype
balancesareinstalledoneontopoftheother,whilethebellowsarelocated
onabracketfixedtotheinstrumentbase,andlinkedtotheleversbyrods
andcrossbeams.Thestaticpressureactsonthebellowsattheextrem.e
right,whichislinkedbyarodtotheleveroftheupperbalance.
Theaccuracyofsuchmanometersdependslargelyonthedesignofthe
connectionsbetweenthebellowsandthecrossbeams,whichmustensure
perfectlyaxialdisplacementofthebellows.Forthispurposeelastic
hingedsleevesareprovided(showninthelowerpartofthepicture).
276
FIGURE5.20.Seloflevertypebalancesformeasuring
Apandp,
whichpreventdisplacementoftherodsinthedirectionperpendicularto
thecenterlineofthebellows.Inorderthattheforcesactingontheknife
edgesatthecontactpointsbetweentherodsandtheleversbeofconstant
sign,irrespectiveofthepressuresinthebellows,thecrossbeamsare
providedwithcounterweights,sothatthetotalweightactingoneachknife
edgeexceedstheprodurtofmaximumnegativepressureandeffective
areaofthebellows.
795/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE521RAEautomaticselfbalancingcapsuleiranometer1servomotor;
2leadscrew;3elasticcrossshapedhinge;4counterweight;5induc
tivetransducer;6setofevacuatedaneroidboxes;7connectingelement;8
setofaneroidboxesunderpressure.
277
Figure5.21showstheconnectionsbetweentheaneroidboxesandthe
leversintheautomaticselfbalancingcapsulemanometeroftheRAE
laboratory/9/.Theleverismountedonacrossshapedhingeandlinked
totheaneroidboxes,whicharerigidlyinterconnected,byaflexiblestrip.
Thedrawbackofthisdesignistherequirementthattheaneroidboxeshave
exactlyequaleffectiveareas.
Theaccuracyofsuchamanometerismainlydeterminedbytwofactors:
theinsensitivityoftransducerstodisplacementsandtherigidityofthe
bellows.Iftheinsensitivityrangeofthetransducercorrespondstoabellows
displacement5,therandomerrorofpressuremeasurement,duetothe
unbalancedresidualelectricforce,willnotexceed
%=7;
796/1563
09/09/2015
ef
Formostindustrialbellowstheratiooftherigidityctotheeffectivearea
Fgfvariesbetween0.1andIkg/cm^.Inorderthatthevalueofo^should
notexceed1mmHg,thevalueofsmustbelessthanfrom0.013to0.13mm.
Thecontactandinductivetransducers
attheendofthelever,whosedis
placementismanytimeslargerthan
thedeflectionofthebellows,permit
measurenaentof5withanerrorof
10"^to10"^mm.Withagoodquality
leadscrew,whichmovesthecounter
weight,andwhenpressuredifferences
upto3000to4000mmHgarebeing
measured,theerrorsofcompensation
typemanometersmaybeafew
hundredthsofapercentofthemaximum
measuredvalue.Withbellowsoflow
rigidityandlargeeffectivearea,such
m.anometersperm.itmeasurementsof
absolutepressuresbetween10and
20mjmiHgwithanerrornotexceeding
0.1mmHg.Inordertoreducethe
influenceofrigidityofthebellows,the
sensitivityoftheleversystemofthe
manometerisincreasedwiththeaid
ofcompensatingdevicesdescribedin
ChapterVI.
Sinceremoteindicationoftheangle
ofturnoftheleadscrewispossible,
797/1563
09/09/2015
levertypebellowsmanometersare
widelyusedformeasuringtotal
pressure,staticpressure,and
thepressuredropinthetestsectionofsubsonicandcontinuously
orintermittentlyoperatingsupersonicwindtunnels.
Anothermanometerdesigninwhichabellowsisalsousedaselastic
elementandacounterweightasacompensatingelementisshownin
Figure5.22.Pressures,whosedifferencehastobem.easured,act
insidethehermeticallysealedchamber(1)andthebellows(2),which
FIGURE5.22.Pendulumtypecompensation
manometer,1hermeticallysealedchamber;
2bellows;3lever;4elasticcrossshaped
hinge;5counterweight;6contacts;7
signallamps;8micrometricscrew;9and
10linksforscalelinearizing;11hinge.
278
isconnectedtolever(3)fixedtoanelastichinge(4).Arodwithcounter
weight(5)isfixedtothelever.Inordertoreturntoitsinitialrelativeposition
thelever(3),whichisdeflectedbytheactionofthedifferenceofpressure
onthemovablebottomofthebellows,thecharaberisturnedabouthinge
(11)byananglea.Thisiscontrolledwiththeaidofcontacts(6)andsignal
lamps(7)whichgooutwhentheinitialpositionisreached.Thevalueofthe
angleaisrelatedtothemeasuredpressuredifferenceasfollows:
798/1563
09/09/2015
(P2P\)Fsl^=Q'sina,
wheref^fistheeffectiveareaofthebellows,aisthedistancefromthe
pointofsupportofthelevertothecenterlineofthebellows,/isthe
distancefromthepointofsupporttothecenterofgravityofthependulum,
Qistheweightofthependulumtogetherwiththecounterweight.Itis
assumedthatwhenpjPi=0thena=0,i.e.,thecenterofgravityofthe
pendulumandpartofthebellowsliesontheverticalthroughthepointof
support.
HGURE523Elecironugneticconipeiuaiion
lypemanometer1bellows;2di?place
niemtransducer,'1coil;4permanent
magnet,')amplifier,btiutliammeter
Toprovidealinearscale,themicrometricscrew(8)movesthe
chamberwiththeaidofanintermediatelink(9)hingedtochamber(1)
andlink(10)oflengthL.Therelationshipbetweenthepressuredifference
andthetravelyofthescrewisgivenbyp2p,=my,wherem=QljF^âLis
theinstrumentconstant.
Figure5.23showsamanometerwithelectromagneticforcecompensation
/lO/,whichcanbeusedformeasuringpressuresfluctuatingatfrequencies
ofuptolOkc.Thepressureactingonbellows(1)displacesthemoving
systemwithfixedcoil(3)whichisplacedinthefieldofpermanent
magnet(4).Thedisplacementtransducer(2)sendsasignaltoamplifier
(5).Theoutputcurrentoftheamplifierpassesthroughcoil(3),its
intensityanddirectionbeingsuchthattheinteractionforcebetweenthe
799/1563
09/09/2015
279
II111111IIII
11IIIIIII
IIIIIlaIIIIII11II
IIIIBIIIIIIiaBBIII
coilandthemagnetbalancesthepressureforce.Thepressureis
determinedfromthecurrentintensity/,indicatedbymilliammeter(6),
orfromthevoltageUacrossanoutputresistanceR.Whenthevoltage
ism.easured,thiscircuitprovidesforasufficientlystrongsignal,and
themeasurementscanbeautomaticallyrecorded.Thus,atamaximum
currentintensity/=30maandwitharesistanceR2500ohmthevoltage
U=75V.Theerrorofsuchanelectromagneticmanometerisonly0.1%;
formeasuringpressuredifferencesfromseveralmillimeterstoseveral
hundredsofmillimetersHg,itcancompetewithliquidcolumn
manometers.
800/1563
09/09/2015
<!,.......,.....>>A'!\'^\\^
FIGURE5.24.Capacitivecompensationtypemanometer.1diaphragm;
2metalelectrodes:3annularinserts:4ceramicinsulators:5nuts.
Formeasuringverysmallpressuredifferences(upto1mmHg)the
manometershowninFigure5.24canbeused.Itisacompensationtype
manometerinwhichtheforceofthepressureactingonthediaphragmis
balancedbyanelectrostaticforce/ll/.The0.02mmthickstainless
steeldiaphragm(1)isheldbetweenannularinserts(3).Metalelectrodes
(2)arerigidlyconnectedtotheinserts(3)bymeansofceramicinsulators
(4).Thetensionofthediaphragmcanbeadjustedbynuts(5).
Thecapacitorformedbythediaphragmandtheelectrodesisconnected
tothearmsofacapacitivebridgefedfroma500kcsignalgenerator
accordingtothecircuitshowninFigure5.25.Thedisplacementofthe
diaphragm,duetothedifferenceinpressuresoneitherside,iscompensated
280
801/1563
09/09/2015
byanelectrostaticforce,adjustedwiththeaidofacalibrated
potentiometer/?,.AtaconstantsupplyvoltageVo,thescaleofthemicro
manometerislinear.ByvaryingKo,wechangethesensitivityofthe
instrument.TheseriesconnectedinductancesandcapacitancesiiC,,Z.2C2,
L3C3andL^C,aretunedtothesignalgeneratorfrequency.Thesignalat
thebridgeoutput,causedbythedeflectionofthediaphragm,isamplified,
andthenmeasuredbyamicroammeter.Observingthelatter,thereading
isreducedtozerobymeansofthecalibratedpotentiometer.Atzero
reading,thediaphragmreturnstoitsinitialposition,andthepositionof
thepotentiometerR2givesthepressuredifference.ThepotentiometerR,
servesfortheinitialbalancingofthebridge.Inthepressurerangefrom
10"^to10"^mmHg,theinstrumenterrorisonly0.1%.Thedesignof
themanometerpermitspressuredifferencesuptooneatmosphere;there
fore,ifweconnectonesideofthediaphragmtovacuum(obtained,for
instance,withtheaidofadiffusionpump)theinstrumentwillindicate
absolutepressuresintheabovementionedrange.
Signal2iC^
[AmpliT^
LferJS^,
ydi,Meter(null
ohmp^^^^hindicator)
802/1563
09/09/2015
generator
ZWpf
ZiOpf?^^:
Wohn
/MQ
V.u
ffi^#r#^
JTL
803/1563
09/09/2015
jm\^
(^0*0)
J^Capacitive
;Micro
manometer
FIGURE525Wiringdiagramofacapacitive
compensationt>pemanometer
21.ELECTRICALPRESSURETRANSDUCERS
ANDMICROMANOMETERS
Pressuretransducersareinstrumentswhichconvertthedeformation
ofanelasticpressuresensitiveelementintoanelectricsignal.
Inconnectionwithexperimentalresearchonhighspeedaircraft,
methodsformeasuringvariablepressureshavebeendevelopedin
recentyears.Thesemeasurementsarenecessarywheninvestigating
dynamicloadsduetovibrations,andalsoforstudyingproblemsofdynamic
stabilityofaircraftcomponents.Thus,forinstance,whenconsideringwing
804/1563
09/09/2015
281
flutter,wesometimesdeterminetransientaerodynamicforcesby
investigatingthepressuredistributiononavibratingwing.The
measurementsaremadebyspecialminiaturepressuretransducers,
(of5to6mmdiameter),,whichareplaceddirectlyonthesurfaceofthe
modelorinsideitsbody,closetotheorifices.Thenatureofthe
investigatedproblemsdoesnotdemandahighmeasuringaccuracy.
Goodtransducerspermittheerrorinmeasuringtheamplitudeofpressure
pulsationstobereducedtobetween1and2%,butoftentransducersare
acceptablewhichpermitthepressuretobemeasuredwithanaccuracyof
from5to10%ofthemaximumamplitude.
Quitedifferentrequirementsapplytohighsensitivitytransducers,used
formeasuringsteadyorslowlyvaryingpressures.Suchtransducersare
usedinintermittentlyoperatedsupersonicwindtunnelswheremeasurement
byliquidcolumnmanometersisnotalwayspossiblebecauseofhighlag.
Suchtransducerscanhavecomparativelylownaturalfrequencies,butmust
havemuchsmallererrorsthantransducersformeasuringdynamic
processes.Highsensitivityisusuallyobtainedwithtransducersof
relativelylargedimensions.
Ifthetransducerisconnectedbyatubetoanorificeinthewall,then,
withhighfrequencypulsationsthepressureclosetotheelasticpressure
sensingelementofthetransducermaydifferinphaseandamplitudefrom
thepressureonthewall.Toreducedynamicdistortions,thelowest
805/1563
09/09/2015
1^2^3*^^5^6
FIGURE5,26,Schematiclayoutforrecording
pressurepulsations.1carrierfrequency
oscillator;2measuringbridge;3amplifier;
4rectifier;5filter;6oscillograph;7
transducer.
resonancefrequencyofthepressuremeasuringsystemmustbehigherthan
thehighestfrequencyofthemeasuredpressurepulsations.Thelowest
acousticresonancefrequencyofaclosedpipeoflengthLis
a
whereaisthevelocityofsound.Theamplitudedistortionscausedby
theelasticpressuresensingelementcanbereducedbyincreasingits
naturalfrequency.Inorderthattheerrorshouldnotexceed6to7%,
thisnaturalfrequencymustbe4to5timeshigherthanthatofthemeasured
pressurepulsations.Bestresultsareobtainedbysensingelements
shapedlikeflatdiaphragms.
Pressuretransducerswhoseoperatingprincipleisbasedonmeasuring
changesininductive,capacitive,orohmicresistances,causedbythe
deformationofanelasticelement,aremainlyusedinaerodynamic
experiments.Bridgesystemsaremostwidelyusedforthesemeasurements.
806/1563
09/09/2015
1680
282
Althoughthereexistmanydifferentschemesformeasuringvarying
pressures,theabovementionedtypesoftransducersareusually
employedasshownschematicallyinFigure5.26.Themeasuringbridge,
one,two,orallfourarmsofwhichareformedbytransducers,isfedfrom,
acarrierfrequencyoscillator.Theamplifier,connectedtothemeasuring
diagonalofthebridge,amplifiestheimbalancesignalscausedbythe
changesintransducerresistanceduetothepressurevariations.The
amplifiedsignalsaretransmittedthroughaphasesensitivedetectorand
afilter,whichdiscriminatesthecarrierfrequency,andarethen
measuredbyagalvanonaeterorlooposcillograph.Thecarrierfrequency
mustbe6to10tim.eshigherthanthefrequencyoftheinvestigatedprocess.
Inductivetransducers
Thedesignprincipleofinductivetransducersisbasedonthechanges
intheinductanceofacoil,causedbychangesinthemagneticpermeabilityofa
circuitconsistingofacore,amagneticcircuit,andaferromagnetic
elasticelement.Thelatterisusuallyaflatsteeldiaphragm,which,when
deformed,alterstheairgapbetweenitandthecoreofthecoilwhichis
Tt
807/1563
09/09/2015
oo
_^,
oo
"
jmBBjggjH[
808/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE5.27.Circuitsforinductivepressuretransducers.
connectedtoana.c.circuit.Thereactanceofthecoildependsontheair
gap,andwhenthecoilisinsertedintoameasuringbridgecircuit,the
changeinairgap,duetothevariationofthepressureactingonthe
diaphragm,causesaproportionalimbalancesignal.
283
Figure5.27showsthreearrangementsforconnectinginductive
transducersinameasuringbridgefedfromatransformer7"^.In
Figure5.27a,threearmsofthebridgearefixedinductors.ThefourtharmLj
isavariableinductor.Oneofthepressureswhosedifferenceisbeing
measuredactsdirectlyontheoutersurfaceofthediaphragm,while
theotherpressureactsupontheinternalareaofthetransducer.A
differentialcircuit(Figure5.27b)isordinarilyusedforincreased
sensitivity.Thediaphragmisplacedbetweentwoinductivecoilsi,andLi.
FIGURE5.28.Miniatureinductive
transducer,ibody;2coiis;
3coilleads:4diaphragmsol
deredtobody.
809/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE5,29Circuitdiagramofan
indiictivetransducerwithrectifiers.1
supplyvoltage;2differentialinductive
transducer;3rectifiers;4zeroad
justment;5oscillograph.
Themovementofthediaphragmcausesanincreaseintheinductanceofone
coilandadecreaseintheinductanceoftheothercoil;theamplitudeofthe
signalistwicethatobtainedinthecircuitshowninFigure5.27a.
ThecircuitinFigure5.27chasanevenhighersensitivity,Apivoted
armatureconnectedtotheelasticelementofthennanometerchangesthe
inductanceofallfourarmsofthebridge.
Figure5.28showsatypicalminiatureinductivetransducerformeasuring
pulsatingpressures.Thethicknessofthediaphragmcanvaryfrom0.025mm
(formeasuringpressuredifferencesoftheorderof25mmHg)
to0.25m.mformeasuringpressuredifferenceoftheorderof7atm.When
theam.plitudeofpressurepulsations,smallincomparisonwiththe
meanpressure,hastobemeasured,thediaphragmhasaholewhose
diameterisbetween0.05and0.1mm.Toreducetemperatureeffects,the
transducercoilismadeofnaanganinwire.Theaccuracyofmeasuring
theam.plitudesofpressurepulsationswiththesetransducersdependon
thetypeofequipmentused,andnaayvaryfrom2to10%ofthemtaximum
measuredvalue.
Sincethefrequenciesusedininductivetransducersdonotexceedafew
kc,theindicationsareusuallyrecordedbylooposcillographs.Whentwo
orfourarmsofthebridgehavevariableinductors,asufficientlystrong
810/1563
09/09/2015
signalcanbeobtainedwithoutanamplifier.Thissimplifiestheuseof
inductivetransducersforsimultaneouspressuremeasurementsatseveral
284
points.Asimpleandsensitivebridgecircuitinwhichonehalfofthe
bridgeisformedbysemiconductorrectifiersisshowninFigure5.29.
Torecordlowfrequencypressurepulsations(upto4to5cycles),balanced
measuringcircuitswithfastactingelectronicbridgescanbeused
(Figure5.30).
FIGURES.30.Circuitdiagramofabalanced
bridgeformeasuringliiesignalIromanin
ductivetransducer.1inductivetranducer;
2sensitivityadjustment:3zero
adjusttnent;4transformer;5servo
motor;6amplifier.
Anexampleofaninductivepressuretransducer,whosesensitivityis
comparabletothatofliquidcolumnmanometers,istheNPLinductive
micromanometer/12/showninFigure5.31.Thisinstrumentisintended
forremotemeasurementofpressuredifferencesofupto100mmW.G.,and
811/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE5,31.NPLinductivemicromanometer.1lever;2elastichinge;3and
4bellowsacteduponbypressurestobemeasured;5and6bellowsservingfor
dampingvibrations;7connectingcfiannel;8softironplate;9counterweight;
Ljprimaryinductioncoll.
285
consistsoffourbellowsconnectedtolever(1)whichissupportedonan
elasticcrossshapedhinge(2).Bellows(3)'and(4)areacteduponbythe
pressureswhosedifferencehastobemeasured;theothertwobellows(5)
and(6),interconnectedbychannel(7),arefilledwithoilandserveas
dampers.Oneendoflever(1)carriesasoftironplate(8),balancedby
counterweight(9)ontheotherendofthelever.Whentheleverisdisplaced
duetothepressuredifferencep,pjinbellows(3)and(4),theairgap
betweenplate(8)andtheinductioncoili,changes.Thiscausesan
imbalanceintheinductivebridge(Figure5.32).Therectifiedimbalance
currentcausesthepointerofgalvanometer(6)tobedeflected.
Pressuretransducer
(Figure5,31)
^^gb^jTjflBalancingand
countingdevice
812/1563
09/09/2015
{W/i
FIGURE5.32Circuitdiagramofaninductive
micromanometer.1ironplate;2micro
metricscrew;3reversibleelectricmotor;
4~reductiongear;5counter;6galvano
meter;Liprimaryinductioncoil;Lgsecondary
inductioncoil.
Thebridgeisbalancedbyadjustingtheairgapinthesecondaryinduction
coilZ,2withtheaidofironplate(1)whichismovedinthemagneticfieldof
coilZ,2bymicrometricscrew(2).Thescrewisrotatedbyalowpower
electricmotor(3)throughareductiongear(4)havingalargetransmission
ratio.Thedisplacementofplate(1)inrelationtocoilLi,requiredto
restorethebalanceofthebridge,isproportionaltothedifferencebetween
thepressuresinthebellows,andismeasuredbycounter(5)connected
tothereductiongear.Verysm.allpressuredifferencescanbenaeasured
directlyv/iththegalvanometerbytheunbalancedbridgemethod.
Capacitivetransducers
Acapacitivetransducerformeasuringthedeflectionofanelasticdiaphragm
usesacapacitoroneofwhoseplatesisthediaphragmitself,theotherplate
286
813/1563
09/09/2015
beingfixed.Thecapacitorisconnectedintoasuitableelectriccircuit
whichproducesasignalwhichdependsonthecapacitance.
Maximumsensitivitytopressurechangesisensuredinacapacitive
manometerbyaverysmallairgap.However,alinearrelationship
betweenthechangeincapacitanceandthechangeinpressurerequires
thedistancebetweentheplatestobelargeincomparisonwiththemean
deflectionofthediaphragm.Thus,theincreasedsensitivityofa
capacitivemanometerreducesthelinearity,andviceversa.Inpractice,
acompromisehastobeaccepted.Sometimes,athickdiaphragmisused.
Itsdeflectionsaresmall,buttheairgapcanbereduced.However,it
shouldbetakenintoaccountthatwhentheairgapisreduced,temperature
effectsincrease;temperaturechangescancauseharmfuldeformationsof
thediaphragm.
FIGURE5,33.Capacitivepressure
transducer.1diaphragm;2
indeformableelectrode:3high
frequencyinsulator
Figure5.33showsasmallcapacitivepressuretransducerinwhichthe
diaphragmisintegralwiththebody.Theinsulationofthefixedplateis
madeofceramicmaterialofferingalargeimpedancetohighfrequencies.
Toremoveinternalstressesinthetransducerdiaphragm,whichare
liabletoincreasetemperatureeffects,thediaphragmisheattreated
beforeandafterbeingmachined.
814/1563
09/09/2015
Adiaphragmintegralwiththebodyhasalowerhysteresisthanone
clampedattheedges.However,therangeofmeasuredpressuresis
easiertochangeinclampeddiaphragms.Withdiaphragmsofdifferent
thicknessesanddiameterswecanmakecapacitivemanometersand
transducersforpressuresrangingfromfractionsofammHgtothousands
ofatmospheres.Inthelowerpartofthisrange,corrugateddiaphragms
havingthicknessesofupto0.025mmanddiametersfromi50to100mm
areused;theyaremadeofsilverorbronze.Whenlowabsolutepressures
havetobemeasured,onesideofthediaphragmissubjectedtoapressure
closetoperfectvacuum.
Inadditiontoordinarycapacitivetransducers,wideuseismadeof
differentialcapacitivetransducers.Suchatransducerconsistsoftwo
seriesconnectedcapacitors,withacommonplateinthemiddleserving
asthediaphragm.Whenthedifferentialtransducerisconnectedtothe
287
measuringcircuit,thesensitivityisdoubledincomparisonwithan
ordinarytransducer;alinearrelationshipbetweenthedeflectionofthe
diaphragmandtheoutputvoltageofthecircuitisobtained.
TheRAEminiaturedifferentialcapacitivetransducerintendedfor
investigatingwingflutter/13/,isshowninFigure5.34.Thediaphragm
islocatedbetweentwofixedelectrodes,whiletheairgapsonbothsides
ofthediaphragmareconnectedtotheupperandlowerwingsurfaces.
Severaltensofthesetransducers,whichpermittheforcenormaltothe
wingsectiontobemeasured,arefixedtothewing.
815/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE5.34.Differentialcapacitive
pressuretransducer.1diaphragm;
2electrodes;3electricleads.
Whenthediaphragmisdeflectedduetoadifferenceinpressureacross
it,thecapacitanceofthecondenserformedbythediaphragmandoneof
thefixedelectrodesincreases,whilethecapacitanceofthecondenser
formedbythediaphragmandtheotherelectrodedecreases.
FIGURE5.35.Circuitdiagramofadifferentialcapa
citivepressuretransducer.1transducer;2
carrierfrequencyamplifier;3demodulator;4
filter;5zeroadjustment;6carrierfrequency
oscillator.
288
Thecapacitorsareconnectedtoadjacentarmsofana.c.bridgewhose
othertwoarmsareformedbymutuallycoupledinductioncoils(Figure5.35).
Thecoilsarewoundinoppositedirections;whenthebridgeisbalanced
equalcurrentspassthroughthem,andtheresultingfieldequalszero.The
outputsignalofthebridgeistakenfromathirdwindinginductivelycoupled
tothefirsttwo.ThecapacitorCservesfornoisesuppression.Thebridge
816/1563
09/09/2015
isfedfroma20kccarrierfrequencyoscillator,whichpermitsfrequencies
uptoabout3000cyclestoberecorded.Theoutputvoltageofthebridge,
whichisaboutlOOmVatamaximumpressuredifferenceof0,3kg/cm^,is
fedviaanamplifiertoanoscillograph.
B2Rubber
Polysterene
Mica
FIGURE5,36.Differentialcapacilivemanometer.1diaphragm:
2fixeddisc.
Thecombinederrorsofthesetransducersandthemeasuringcircuits
areabout3%offullscale.Thetransducersarenotsensitiveto
accelerationsnormaltotheplaneofthediaphragm;thisisveryimportant
whenmeasuringpressuresactingonavibratingwing.WhenthebridgeiS
fedatacarrierfrequencyof400kc,itispossibletomeasuretransient
processes(forinstance,inshocktubes).Ataninputtubelengthof
3mm,thetransducerspermitpulsationfrequenciesofupto15,000cycles
tobemeasured;theycanbeusedforturbulenceinvestigations.
Acapacitivemicromanometer,designedformeasuringpressure
differencesfromzeroto10mmW.G.atlowfrequencies,isshownin
Figure5.36,
Asteeldiaphragm(1),havingathicknessof0.05mmandadiameter
817/1563
09/09/2015
of46mm,isclampedbetweensteelflanges.A30mmdiameterdisc(2)isfixed
atadistanceof0.01mmfromdiaphragm(1).Thecapacitanceofthe
condenserisabout80pF,itssensitivitybeing0.23pFpermmW.G.
289
Apeculiarityofthismanometeristhelowtemperaturedependenceofthe
capacitance,whichatroomtemperatureisabout0.1%per1C/14/.
Tomeasurethefrequencysignalsofcapacitivetransducers,resonance
circuitsareusedinadditiontobridgesystenns.Asimpleresonance
circuitofanelectronicamplifier,usedinmeasuringverylowsteady
pressures,isshowninFigure5.37/15/.Thecircuitcontainsonlyone
electronictube,whichoperatesasanoscillator.Thefrequencyof
oscillationsisdeterminedbythecapacitanceofthecondenserCi,which
changeswhenthepressureactingonthediaphragm,varies.
Theresonantcircuitusedformeasuringthisfrequencyconsistsof
inductanceIjandcapacitorCs.Theshaftofthelatterisconnectedtoan
indicatingpointerandtoahandle,withtheaidofwhichthecapacitoris
tunedintoresonancewiththesecondharmonicfrequencyoftheoscillator.
Thepointofresonanceisdeterminedapproximatelywhenminimumplate
current,measuredbymilliammeterMi,flowsthroughthetube.Final
tuningofthecapacitorCsiscarriedoutusingthefineadjustmentgalvano
meterAfj.
250t
818/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE5.37.Resonancemeasuringcircuit;Ci
capacitivemanometer;d20pFmaximum:
c,i=lOOpF;c,=15pFmaximum;c,0.01uF;
c,=0.1uF;cc,=O.OliiF;/?,=l&OKoiim;
Ri,/?,=85Kohm;^,60Kohm,VR,,vr,=
60Kohm;z.,,i,15turns,ai,nuliiam
mecerfor5ma;/iijgalvanometerfor540oiim.
Capacitivemanometersofthistypeareusedformeasuringpressures
from0.001to0.1mmHg.Thecorrugateddiaphragm,madeofsilver,
copper,orbronze,hasathicknessof0.025mmandanexternaldiameter
of76mm;thediameteroftheflatcentralpartis18mm.Thesame
electroniccircuitissuitableforotherpressurerangesanddiaphragm
dimensions.
Thedrawbackofthismeasurementmethodistheeffectofparasitic
capacitances,mainlyintheconnectingwires.Toreduceerrorscaused
byparasiticcapacitancesthetransducersareconnectedtothemeasuring
circuitbyscreenedcables.
290
straingagetransducers
Straingages,whoseoperatingprincipleisdescribedinChapterVI,
819/1563
09/09/2015
providesimpleininiaturetransducersformeasuringvariablepressures
actingonthesurfaceofamodel.Bothgluedwireandfoilstraingagesare
usedforpressuretransducers,asarenongluedtensionwires.
Insmalltransducers,wirestraingageshaving2.5to5mmbasesare
glueddirectlytodiaphragmswhichareintegralwiththebodyorsoldered
toit(Figure5.38).Suchtransducersareusedby
NACAforinstallationinairfoils,andareemployed
ininvestigatingpressurepulsationsrangingfrom.
0.07to1.4kg/cm^116/.Temperaturecompensation
intransducersofthistypewhosediametersare
between6and12mmiseffectedwiththeaidofa
secondstraingagegluedtothebody.Whenthe
meanpressureneednotbemeasured,temperature
compensationisnotnecessary.InONERA
transducers,intendedforthispurpose,(Figure5.39)
thedeflectionofthecorrugateddiaphragmis
measuredwiththeaidofwirestraingagesgluedto
bothsidesofthediaphragmfortemperature
compensation.Thediaphragmislocatedinsidea
cylindricalbodyhavingadiameterof10mmanda
heightof3mm1111.Thestraingages,whose
dimensionsare6X2.5mmandwhoseresistanceis120ohm,areinserted
intothearmsofahalfbridge.Atthemaximumdeflectionofthediaphragm,
whichcorrespondstoapressuredifferenceof0.15kg/cm^,therelative
imbalanceofthebridgeis0.510"^.
FIGURE5.38.Straingage
pressuretransducer,1
body;2diaphragm;3
820/1563
09/09/2015
resistancestraingage.
FIGURE5,39.Straingagepressure
transducerwithcorrugateddiaphragm.
1diaphragm;2body;3strain
gage;4leads.
Gluedstraingageswithsmallbases,usedinthepressure
transducersdescribed,havelowresistances,andconsequently,to
limitthecurrent,alowsupplyvoltageisrequired.Atlargecurrents
theheatdissolvestheglue.Alowsupplyvoltagenecessitatesahigher
291
signalamplification,Nongluedresistancestraingagesareusedtoobtain
strongersignals.Theydisperseheatbetterandthereforepermithigher
supplyvoltages,andhencestrongeroutputsignals.
yjK
821/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE5.40.Pressuretransducerwithanongluedstraingage.1cross
shapedspring;2rod;3disc;4body;5_diaphragm;6sup
portofinsulatingmaterial;7leads.
InthetransducershowninFigure5.40/18/,thedeflectionofthe
diaphragmistransmittedtoanelasticelementconsistingoftwocross
shapedsprings(1)interconnectedbyfourrods(2).Thespringisfixed
toadisc(3)whosepositioncanbeadjustedalongthecenterlineofbody
(4)whichiscoveredbydiaphragm(5).Whenthediaphragmisdeflected,
anaxialforceactsontheelasticelement,bendingsprings(1)and
causingrods(2),tomoveoutward.Thestraingage,whichiswound
aroundrods(2),isinsertedintotwooppositearmsofaWheatstonebridge.
Theothertwoarnas,whichservefortemperaturecompensationofthe
bridge,areformedbyawirewoundaroundtheundeformedsupports(6)
whicharefixedtodisc(3).Sinceallfourbridgearmsarelocatedinthe
sam.ewayinsideonehousing,temperatureequilibriumisattainedvery
quickly.Whenfittingthespringsintobody(4),thepositionofdisc(3)
isadjustedinsuchawaythatthestraingagewireisslightlyprestressed.
Avariableresistanceisinsertedbetweenadjacentbridgearmsinorder
tobalancethebridgeafterthisadjustnaent.Whenthesupplyis10Vd.c.
thetransducerscanbeconnectedtosensitivegalvanomêtersoroscillo
graphswithoutamplification.
Intransducersintendedformeasuringsteadypressures,thewire
straingagesareveryoftenplacedonauxiliaryelasticelenaents(for
instance,oncantileverbeams)connectedtothesensingelements
(diaphragms,aneroidboxes,orbellows)onwhichthepressuresact
(Figure5.41).Abellowsisbest,sinceforequaldiam.etersoftheelastic
elementsandatequalrigiditiesoftheauxiliaryelementsitpermitsthe
292
822/1563
09/09/2015
highestloadtobetakenup.
arerespectively
Forbellowsandfordiaphragmstheseloads
'+^
andN^=\prl
whereCcandCmarerespectivelytherigiditiesofthebellowsandthe
diaphragmwhenacteduponbyaconcentratedload,c^îstherigidity
ofthebeam,rîstheeffectiveradiusofthebellowsandristhe
radiusatwhichthediaphragmisfixed.Whenre=rCmismuchlargerthan
Ccatthesamepressures,henceNc>Nk,i.e.,considerablyhigherloads
canbetransmittedtothebeambymeansofabellowsthanbymeansofa
diaphragm.
P!
823/1563
09/09/2015
J.
t*
y>AWy/\Y77777777
Diaphragm
Aneroidbox
FIGURE5.41.Straingagepressuretransducerswithauxiliarybeams.1elastic
beam;2straingage.
Figure5.42showsdesignsoftransducersformeasuringabsolute
pressures.Bellows(1)isevacuatedandsoldered.Themeasured
pressureactseitheronbellows(2)(Figure5,42a),orinsideahermetically
sealedcasing(5.42b).
824/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE6.42.Transducersformeasuring
absolutepressures.1and2bellows;
3elasticelement;4hermetically
sealedcasing.
293
Inadditiontodiaphragmsandbellows,pressuretransducersarealso
usedinwhichtheaxialandtangentialstressesaredeterminedonthewalls
ofatubewhoseinsideisunderthepressuretobemeasured.Whenmetal
tubesareused,suchtransducershavehighnaturalfrequencies,butdue
tothedifficultiesinmakingthinwalledtubestheycanbeusedonlyforhigh
pressures(tensandhundredsofatmospheres).Ifrubberorplastictubes
insteadofmetaltubesareemployed,suchtransducerscanbeusedfor
muchlowerpressures.
15MM
FIGURE5.43.Pressuretransducersinavibrating
wing.
825/1563
09/09/2015
AnRAEtubetypestraingagetransducerformeasuringpressureson
airfoilsoscillatingatfrequenciesofuptotwentycyclesinalowspeedwind
tunnel/19/isshowninFigure5.43.Themainelementofthetransducer
isacylindricalrubbertubetowhichawirestraingageformingtwoarms
ofaWheatstonebridgeisglued.Thetubeitselfisgluedtoaplasticbeam,
whichhasopeningsforleadinginthepressureactingononeofthe
measuringpointsonthewing.Theoutsidewalloftherubbertubeisunder
thepressureactingonapointontheoppositesurfaceofthewing;the
transducerthusrecordsthedifferenceofthepressuresonbothsurfaces.
Theresistanceofeachbridgearmis250ohm.Thesignalsofthe
transducer,whichissuitableforpressuredifferencesupto300mm
mercury,canbemeasuredwithoutamplifierwiththeaidofasensitive
recordinggalvanometer.
22.EQUIPMENTFORMEASURINGPRESSURE
DISTRIBUTION.MULTIPLEMANOMETERS
Themostwidelyusedinstrumentformeasuringpressuredistributions
isaliquidcolumnmultiplemanometer.Suchmanometersveryoften
294
IIIIIIHÎH
functionaccordingtotheprincipleofwelltypemanometers.Utube
manometersareusedonlywhenthemeasuredpressuredifferencesmay
826/1563
09/09/2015
havedifferentsigns.
^^
^\.jujMtW'tujt
FIGURE5.44.Schematicviewofa
welltypemultiplemanometer.
AwelltypemultiplemanometerisshowninFigure5.44.Thewell
andtheoutermosttubesareunderthepressurepwithwhichtheother
pressuresp,aretobecompared.Theoutermosttubesserveforcontrolling
theleveloftheliquidinthewell.
@^
\n^C^5\\\\V;;^V^^\\n\<^\N^
Plexiglas
Glasstubes
827/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE5.45.Welltypemultiplemanometer.
Atypicalwelltypemultiplemanometerdesignedformeasuring
pressurescorrespondingtorelativelyhighcolumnsofliquid(upto2
or3m)isshowninFigure5.45.Topreventbendingoftheglasstubes
theyarelocatedinslotsmilledintoPlexiglasshields.Marks,spaced
5or10mm,intowhichblackpaintisrubbed,areetchedonthePlexi
glas.Numberswhichcorrespondtothecolumnheightincentimeters
arewrittenonbothsidesoftheselines.TheuseofPlexiglaspermits
295
thescaleandthetubestobeilluminatedfromtherearforphotographing.
Theupperpartoftheinstrumentcontainsanunaerator,whichenables
thenumberoftheexperiment,thenumberofthemodel,andthedateof
theexperimenttobephotographed.
Thelowerendsoftheglasstubesareconnectedthroughgasketsor
rubbertubestoacommonauxiliarytubewhichpassesalongthewidthof
themanometerframeandisconnectedatthecentertoawellbymeansof
arubbertube.Theheightofthewellcanbeadjustedtoalignthelower
markonthescaletozerolevel.Theupperpartsoftheglasstubesare
connectedtorubbertubeswithmetalnipples,towhichtubesfromthetested
objectareconnected.
828/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE5.46.MultipleUtubemanometer.
InSonnemultiplemanometerstheglasstubesarereplacedbychannels
drilledintoplatesofPlexiglas.
2%
Whenthenumberoftubesislarge,itispracticallyimpossibletotakeinto
considerationthemeniscuslevelchangescausedbycapillaryeffect,and
thechangeinleveloftheliquidinthewell.Multiplemanometersthereforehave
tubesofsufficientlylargeinternaldiametersandwellswithlargecross
sectionalareas.Nevertheless,whenthemultiplemanometerscontain
twentytothirtytubesofdiametersbetween8and10mm,andtheheightsof
thecolumnsexceed100cm,achangeof2to3mmintheleveloftheliquid
inthewellisacceptable.Suchanerrorispermissible,sincewithlong
scales,analysisofthephotographswithanaccuracyexceeding3to5mm
isdifficult.
Forhighdensitytransonicwindtunnels,2or3mmhighwelltype
multiplemanometersareusedwhicharefilledwithmercuryortetra
bromoethane.
Longglasstubesaredifficulttobendandtofillwithliquid;inUtube
multiplemanometers(Figure5.46)thelowerendsofeachpairofglasstubes
arethereforeinterconnectedbyrubber,PVC,orpolyethylenetubes.The
designofconnectionspermittingdrainageofcontaminatedliquidisshown
829/1563
09/09/2015
inFigure5.47.Inordertopreventlossofliquidfromtheglasstubes
duringsuddenpressurevariationsaprotectivedeviceshouldbeused.
FIGURE5.47.Deviceforthedrainageofliquid
IrumaUrubemanometer.1glasstubes;2
nutforgaskettightening;3gasket;4drain
plug
Trapsintheformofwellsorwideningsintheupperpartsofthetubes
arenotsuitableformultiplemanometersduetotheirlargesizeand
theincreaseinairspacewhichcausesadditionaltransmissionlags.
AgoodprotectivedeviceisthenonreturnvalveshowninFigure5.48.
Awoodenorplasticballinthelowerpartofthenipplepermitsthe
entryofairintotheglasstube.Whenliquidissuddenlyejectedfromthe
glasstube,theballisforcedupwardandclosesanopeningintheupper
partofthenipple,thuspreventingfurtherlossofliquid.
Thevaporsofmercury,tetrabromoethaneandsomeotherliquids
usedinmanometersareverytoxic;rechargingandadjustmentof
manometersfilledwiththeseliquidsiscarriedoutinspecialrooms.
297
Multiplemanometersdesignedforwidemeasuringranges,whicharevery
heavy,aremountedoncarriageswhichfacilitateremovalfromtheroom
wheretheexperimentsaremade.
830/1563
09/09/2015
Themanometerindicationscanberecordedbyanyphotographiccamera,
butforeaseofanalysisofthenegatives,widefilmcamerasshouldbeused.
V//////,,
FIGURE5.48.Nonreturnvalveto
preventlossofliquidfromthe
manometer.1upperendof
glasstube;2rubbertube;
3ball.
nGURE5.49.Illuminationwhen
photographingmanometerscales,
atransillumination:billumina
tionfromthefront.1camera;
2reflectors;3fluorescentlamp;
4manometertubes.
Whenthepressuredistributionismeasuredsimultaneouslywithother
magnitudes(forinstance,withtheforcesactingonwindtunnelbalances),
remotelycontrolledcamerasareused.Bypressingabuttononthecontrol
panel,theexperimenterobtainssimultaneouslyallmagnitudesofinterest.
Clarityofthepicturesisensuredbyintensiveanduniform,illumination
831/1563
09/09/2015
oftubesandscale.StationarymultiplemanometerswithPlexiglaspanels
areilluminatedfrombehind(Figure5.49a).Inordertoreduceglarethe
Plexiglasshouldbefrostedononeside.Uniformlightingismoreeasily
providedbyalargenumberoflowpower,thenbyasmallnumberofhigh
powerlamps.Gooduniformlightingisobtainedbyfluorescentlanaps.
Portablemanometerscanalsobeilluminatedfromthefront
(Figure5.49b)withtheaidofhighpowerlampshavingreflectorsor
projectors,buttransilluminationgivesbetterdefinedpictures.
298
Inordertoincreasethereadingaccuracy,inclinedmultiplemanometers
with600to700mmlongtubesaresometimesusedinlowspeedwind
tunnels(Figure5.50).Themanometricliquidisusuallyalcohol.Glasstubes
andtheconnectingmetaltubearemountedonacommontablewhichcanbe
pivotedtogetherwiththecameraaboutahorizontalaxis.Amultiple
FIGURE5.60.Inclinedmultiplemanometer.1
2inclinedtablewithtubes;3camera.
manometercanbereadvisuallywithanaccuracyofupto1mmbyfixing
themanometerindicationswiththeaidofavalve.Whiletheindications
arebeingrecordedtheconditionsinthewindtunnelchange;thepressure
intheconnectingtubeshastimetobecomepartiallyorfullyequalizedwith
832/1563
09/09/2015
themeasuredpressure.
FIGURE5.51.Multiplemanometerwithphoto
electricalcounter.1basewithnipplesfor
connectingthepressuretubes;2upperframe
withbearingforspindle;3glasstubes;4
spindle;5carriagewithphotoelectricelements.
299
Figure5.51showsaGottingenAerodynamicInstitutemultiplemanom.eter
withautomaticrecordingoftheindicationsinnumericalform/20/.Vertical
tubes,whoselowerendsareconnectedtoacommonvessel,areplacedina
ring.Theheightsofthecolunansofliquidinthetubesarereadwiththeaid
ofphotoelectriccells,whicharemovedonacommonannularcarriagebya
leadscrew(Figure5.52).Countingmechanismsforeachtubeareswitched
onwhenthecarriagepassesthroughazerolevelwhilemovingupward.
FIGURE5.52.Recordingtheindicationsofapliotoeleclricmultiplemanometer.
1multiplemanometer;2relayinstallation;3converter;4electro
mechanicalcounter;5punchcardsystem;6punchcardreader;7
curveplotter.
833/1563
09/09/2015
Attheinstantwhenthelightbeamfromalamp(alsoinstalledonthe
carriage)fallsonthemeniscusinatube,thecountersendsapulseto
arelayinstallationwhichrecordstheheightofthemeniscus.Aftera
seriesofmeasurementshasbeentakenthevaluesrecordedbytherelay
installationarefedtopunchcards.Thepunchcardsaresenttoa
conaputingoffice,wheretherecordedvaluesareautomaticallydecoded
andfedtoaplotterwhichrecordsonpaperthecoordinatesofthepoints
throughwhichthepressuredistributioncurvecanbedrawn.
Rubbertubestomodel
Model
Wallofchamber
FIGURE5.53.Wiringdiagramforamultiplemanometerwithmeasuringorifices
inthemodelandonthewindtunnelwalls.
Rubbertubesareusedtoconnectthemanometertothemeasured
pressure,asaretubesfromvariousplastics,whicharemorestablethan
rubbertubesandresistchemicalsbetter.Ifthepressureinthetubesis
834/1563
09/09/2015
300
aboveatmospheric,thetubesaresecuredtothenipplesbysoftironor
copperwire.Whenthepressureinthetubesisbelowatmospheric,
specialthickwalledrubbertubesareused,sincethinwalledtubesmay
beforcedinundertheactionoftheexternalpressure.
Insupersonictunnelsitisnotalwayspossibletoconnectthemultiple
manometerdirectlybyflexibletubestothemetaltubesinthemodel.A
goodoutletfromthevariablepressurecham.berisshowninFigure5.53.
Twosimilarmetalpanels(1)and(2)areinstalledrespectivelyinthe
chamberandclosetothemultiplemanometer.Theshieldsarerigidly
fixedtogetherbycoppertubes.Thetubesareledoutthroughthechamber
wallbymeansofacopperbushingtowhichalltubesaresoldered.The
couplingelementsofpanel(1)areconnectedbeforetheexperimentby
rubbertubestothemetaltubesinthemodel,whilethecouplingelements
ofpanel(2)areconnectedtothemultiplemanometer.
Theorificesinthewallsofthewindtunnelarepermanentlyconnected
bymetaltubestopanel(3)whichislocatedoutsidethechamber.
Mechanicalmultipointmanometers
Withalltheirsimplicity,liquidcolumnmultiplemanometershave
severalseriousdrawbacks.Theyareunwieldyandtakeupmuchspace.
Thus,amultiplemanometerdesignedformeasuringpressuresupto4atat
100pointstakesupanareaofabout20m.^(intheverticalplane).The
835/1563
09/09/2015
dangerofleakagesofliquidincreasesinproportiontothenumberof
separatetubesinthemultiplemanometer.Photographingtheindicationsof
multiplemanometers,analyzingthepictures,andsubsequentprocessing
ofthemeasurements,requiresmuchworkandcausesdelaysinobtaining
thefinalresultsoftheexperiment.
Sometinaesgroupsofstandardspringtypemanometersareusedfor
multipointmeasurements,theirindicationsbeingrecordedbyphotography.
However,analyzingthephotographsofdialsofstandardmanometersis
evenmoredifficultthananalyzingthephotographsofthescalesofliquid
columnmanometers.
Thebestwayofsatisfyingtherequirementsofaerodynamicexperim.ents
isbyspecialmultipointmanometerswithelasticsensingelementsand
automaticrecordingoftheirindications.Thesmalldimensionsofmulti
pointmanometerspermittheirsitingincloseproximitytothepointsof
measurement;thereductioninlengthoftheconnectingtubesalsocausesa
reductionintransmissionlagofthemanometersandinthetotaldurationof
theexperiment.
Automaticrecordingoftheindicationsofmultipointmanometerscanbe
simultaneousorconsecutive.Withconsecutiverecordingallreadingsare
madeduringacertainperiodoftime.Consecutiverecordingisemployed
mainlyincontinuousoperationwindtunnels,wherethepressuresduringa
measurementcycleremainconstant.Inintermittentoperationwindtunnels
itispreferabletorecordallindicationssimultaneously,butwhenthecycle
lastsonlyafewseconds,consecutiverecordingwiththeaidofelectronic
circuitsisalsopossible.
301
836/1563
09/09/2015
Simultaneousrecordingofpressures.Levertypemano
meterswithmovingcounterweightscanbeusedforsimultaneousmultipoint
pressuremeasurements.Themaindifficultyinusingsuchmanometersis
theirsizeandcomplexity.ThereductionofthedimensionsofRAE
manometers(Figure5.21)isachievedbyconnectingthebellowsto
theverticalleverarm.InasupersonicRAEwindtunnelagroupoffifty
suchm.anometersisusedformeasuringthedistributionofpressures
varyingfromzeroto1800xoUiHg/9/.Theindicationsofthem.anometers
areprintedonadiagramintheconsoleoftheobservationcabinofthe
tunnel.Forvisualobservationofthepressuredistributiononthesurface
ofthemodelandfordiscoveringfaultsinthemanometers,averticalpanel
isprovidedonwhichtheservosystemsofthemanometersmove
coloredribbons.Externally,suchapanellookslikealiquidcolumn
multiplemanometer.
Levertypemanometersofsimplerdesignarethoseinwhichtheforces
duetothepressureonthebellowsbottomarenotbalancedbyacounter
weightbutbyaspring[springopposedbellows],oneendofwhichis
connectedtothelever,andtheothertoatensioningdevice.Thetensioning
deviceislocatedonafixedbase;hence,thedimensionsofspringtype
balancesareconsiderablylessthanthoseofbalanceswithmovablecounter
weights.InGRMgroupmanometersproducedbytheSovietindustry
(Figure5.54),twentylevertypemanometersareequilibratedwiththeaid
ofonemotor.Whenanyoneoftheleversismovedoutofitsequilibrium
position,thecircuitofacorrespondingelectromagneticreversingclutch,
whosedriveshaftiscontinuouslyrotatedbythemotor,isclosed.The
clutchconnectstheshafttoamicrometricscrew,whichchangesthe
tensionofthespringandrestoresthelevertoitsequilibriumposition.
Thepressuresaredeterminedfromtheturninganglesofthemicrom.etric
screwseachofwhichisconnectedtoadigitalprintingcounter.Whena
buttonispressed,theindicationsofalltwentycountersareprintedona
papertapewiththeaidofanelectromagneticm.echanism.Verticalscales
forvisualobservationareprovidedonthefrontwalloftheinstrument.
837/1563
09/09/2015
Thepointersonthescalesarekinematicallylinkedwiththemicrometric
screws.Themaxim.umerroroftheGRMmanometerisabout0.5%ofthe
nnaximumpressuremeasured.
Consecutive(cyclic)recordingofpressures.Figure5.55
showsamultipointrecordingmanometer,basedontheconsecutive
measurementofthedeformationoftenormoreBourdontubesgrouped
together/21/.Carriage(l)hasflexiblecontacts(3)andtheBourdontubes
(7)haveflatcontacts(5),Carriage(1)isperiodicallymovedbyalead
screwtowardtheBourdontubesinsuchawaythatcontacts(3)are
consecutivelyclosedwithallcontacts(5).Synchronouslywithcarriage(1),
butataspeedahundredtimeshigher,travelscarriage(2),whichhas
sharptippednaetalelectrodes(4)m.ovingaboveapapertape.Whencontacts
(3)and(5)touchthecircuitofsparkingdevice(8)isclosedwhichcauses
asparktobedischargedfromelectrodes(4)throughthepapertoground.
Thisformsapinholeinthepaper.Whencarriage(1)movesfarther,
contacts(3'),alsoonit,closewithfixedrigidcontacts(6)inpositions
correspondingtothezeropositionofthesprings.Thiscausesasecond
holeonthetape.Thus,thedeformationofeachBourdontube,whichis
302
proportionaltothemeasuredpressure,isdeterminedbythedistance
betweentwopinholesonthetape.
FIGURE5.54.GRM2recordinggroupmanometer.1bellows;2elastic
hinge;3lever;4balancingspring;5destabilizingdeviceiorin
838/1563
09/09/2015
creasingthesensitivity;6contactforswitchingontheelectromagnetof
thereversingclutchofthetensioningdevice;7tensioningdevice;8
electromagnets;9drivenshaftofreversingclutch(20nos.);10driving
shaftofreversingclutch,continuouslyrotatedbyelectricmotor;11visual
pressuremdicator;12~printingdeviceforrecordingserialnumberof
reading.
arrangement
FIGURE5.55.MultipointBourdonmanometer.1carriagewithcontacts;2car
riagewithelectrodes;33'contacts;4electrodes;5flatcontactsonBourdon
tubes;6fixedcontacts;7Bourdontubes;8sparkingdevice.
303
Thestraingagemanometersandpressuretransducersdescribedin
20canbeusedformultipointmeasurenaentsiftheyarecombinedwith
autonaaticcompensation(forinstancebymeansofanautomaticbridge).
Withtheaidofacommutationarrangement,thetransducersare
consecutivelyconnectedinagivenordertoasingleautomaticcompensator.
Compensating
pressure
839/1563
09/09/2015
Pressuretobemeasured
FIGURE5.56Diaphragmcontacttypepressuretransducer.
Thecommutatorcanbedrivenfromatelephoneuniselectororbya
smallelectricmotor.Thecommutationperiodmustbelongerthanthe
timetakenbythecompensatortoprocessthemaximumsignal.Modern
automaticbridgespermittheconsecutiverecordingduringonetotwo
minutesofindicationsfrom50to100transducerswithamaximumerror
of0.5%.Suchcircuitsusuallycontainauxiliarydevices,whichpermit
therecording,simultaneouslywiththemeasuredvalue,oftheserial
numberofthetransducer.Certaindesignspermittherecordingindigital
formofthestraingageindications.
Dynamiccompensationmethod.Aerodynamiclaboratoriesin
theU.S.A.widelyuseamethodofconsecutivepressuremeasurementin
whichthepressurestobemeasuredarecomparedwithavariable
compensatingpressurewiththeaidofdiaphragmcontacttypetransducers
(dynamiccompensationmethod)(Figure5.56).A0.05to0.075mmthick
diaphragmmadefromberylliumbronzeandclampedatitsrimbetweentwo
plasticflanges,dividesthetransducerbodyintotwochambers;one
chamberisacteduponbythemeasuredpressurewhiletheotherisacted
uponbythecompensatingpressurewhichisthesameforalltransducers.
Undertheactionofthepressuredifference,thecenterofthediaphragmis
displacedasmalldistance,closingoropeninganelectriccircuitatthe
instantthemeasuredandcompensatingpressuresareequal.Themagnitude
ofthecompensatingpressureatthisinstantismeasuredbyanaccurate
manometer.Topreventresidualdeformationorruptureofthediaphragm
840/1563
09/09/2015
whenthepressuredifferenceislarge,thedeflectionofthediaphragmis
limitedbyplasticdiscslocatedatsmalldistancesoneitherside.Multi
pointinstrumentsfunctioningonthisprinciple,inwhichthecompensating
pressureismeasuredbyelectronicdigitaldevices124/,aredescribedin
ChapterIX.
304
TheelectromagneticmanometershowninFigure5.23canalsobeused
formultipointmeasurementsbythedynamiccompensationmethod.The
wiringdiagramofamultipointelectromagneticmanometerisshownin
Figure5.57.Themovablecoils(3)ofallnnanometersarefedfrom,a
commongenerator(5),whosecurrentvarieslinearlyfromzerotomaximum
(orviceversa).Thecoilsconvertthecurrentintocompensatingforces
simultaneouslyatallm.easuringpoints.Ahighlyaccuratelinear
relationshipexistsbetweenthecurrentandtheforce.Knowingthe
instantaneouscurrentintensityatwhichtheelasticelement(bellowsor
diaphragm)connectedtothecoilreturnstoitszeroposition,wecan
determinethecompensatingforce,andthusthemagnitudeofthemeasured
FRU'RE5.57.Multipointelectromagneticmanometer.1bellows;2zeroposition
transducers,'imovablecoils;4permanentmagnets,5generatoroflinearly
var)ingcurrent;6counters;7recordingdevice.
pressure.Beforethemeasurementcycleisbegun,allelasticelements
841/1563
09/09/2015
(1)aredisplacedundertheactionofthemeasuredpressures.Whenthe
generator,whichhasasawtoothcharacteristic,isstarted,theelectro
magneticinteractionforcesbetweenthecoilsandthepermanentmagnets
deformtheelasticelements.Attheinstantwhentheelectromagneticforce
balancesthepressureforceactingonagivenelasticelement,thelatter
returnstoitszeropositionandatransduceremitsasignal.Thissignal
isreceivedbythecurrentrecorder;thelattermeasurestheinstantaneous
currentintensitywhichisproportionaltothemeasuredpressure,
memorizesitforthedurationofthecycle,andrecordsit.
305
InthemultipointmanometershowninFigure5.58,thecompensating
pressureservesatthesametimetomeasurethepressure/22/.The
manometerconsistsofanumberofcontacttransducers(1),arecording
device(2),acompensatingpressureregulator(3),andairpumps(4)
"H*
iIDd
FIGURE5.58.MultipointmanomeierwithconLacitypepressuretransducers.1contact
transducers:2recordingdevice;3compensatingpressureregulator;4airpumps;
842/1563
09/09/2015
5lathwithpens;6~zeroreadingtransducers;7damper.
whichcontinuouslysupplyairtothecylindricalchambersAandBofthe
compensatingpressureregulator.AfinemicrometricscrewF,rotated
byasmallnaotor,movesalongthepapertapelath(5)withpens
(electrodes),eachofwhichisinsertedintothecircuitofacontact
transducer.Thepaperiscoveredwithathinconductivelayer,which
becomesblackwhereittouchesapenwhenacurrentflowsthroughit.
AsecondleadscrewG,whichisconnectedbygearstothescrewF,moves
anironpiston//insideaUtubecontainingmercury.Themercurylevel
inbothlegsoftheUtubewillchangeinproportiontothetravelofthelath
withthepens;thisalterstheeffectiveweightofthesecondironpiston/
whichfloatsonthemercury.Thevariationofthisweightcausesa
proportionalchangeofthepressureinchamberA.Whenthispressureis
lessthanthemeasuredpressure,thediaphragmofthetransducerkeeps
opentheelectriccircuitintowhichthecorrespondingpenisinserted.At
theinstantwhenthecompensatingpressurebecomesequaltothemeasured
pressure,theelectriccircuitisclosed.Sincetheelectrodedrawsaline
onthepaperonlywhentheelectriccircuitisclosed,thelengthofthisline
isproportionaltothepressureactingonthegivendiaphragmofthe
transducer.Allpressuresmustbecomparedwiththestaticpressurein
thewindtunnel;hence,oneofthetransducersisacteduponbythestatic
pressure,andthecontactsofthistransducerareconnectedtotworecording
penslocatedoneithersideofthepapertape.Thehorizontallinewhich
canbedrawnbypencilonthepaperinprolongationoftheshortline,
markedbythesepens,isthezeroline.Theinstrument,intendedfor
306
843/1563
09/09/2015
relativelysmallpressureranges(from650to900mmW.G.),permits
inoneminutethirtypressurestoberecordedwithamaximumerrorof0.4%
ofthemaximummeasuredvalue.
Selectorvalves
Duetothesmallcrosssectionalareaofthesupportsofthemodel
inthetestsectionofthewindtunnel,itisnotalwayspossibletolead
outofthemodelasufficientlylargenumberoftubes.Sometimesthe
numberoftubeswillbelessthanthenumberofmeasuringpoints.
Theendsofthetubesareconnectedinsidethemodeltothemeasuring
pointsbyflexiblerubbertubes.Betweentwoexperiments,thetubes
aredisconnectedfromonegroupofmeasuringpointsandconnectedto
anothergroup.Thecompletepressuredistributionpatternisobtained
afterseveralexperiments.
FIGURE5,59,Selectorvalvewithtransmissionofpressure
throughonetube.11'stationarydiscs;2
2'rotatingdiscs;33'reductiongears;44'
synchronizedelectricmotors;5~multiplemanometer.
Whentestingmodelsofairplanes,rockets,etc,,whosecentralpartis
axisymmetric,reinstallationofthetubescanbeavoidedbymeansofthe
selectorvalveshowninFigure5.59.Thedevicerequiresonlyone
844/1563
09/09/2015
outlettubeandoneelectricconnection.Itpermitsinvestigationofthe
pressuredistributiontogetherwiththemeasurementoftheaerodynamic
forcesactingonthemodel,whichissuspendedfromwindtunnelbalancesby
307
wiresorarigidsupport.Therearetwosynchronizedselectorvalves
oneofwhich,consistingofastationarydisc(1)andarotatingdisc(2),is
locatedinsidethemodel.Theothervalve,whichconsistsofastationary
disc(1')andarotatingdisc(2'),islocatedintheobservationcabinofthe
tunnel.Theopeningsontheperipheryofthestationarydiscs(1)and(1')
areconnectedrespectivelytotheorificesonthesurfaceofthemodelandto
thetubesofthemultiplemanometer.Thecentralopeningsinthediscs
(1)and(1')areinterconnectedbytheoutlettube.Whenthediscs(2)and
(2')arerotatedbythesynchronizedelectricm.otors(4)and(4')through
reductiongears(3)and(3'),thechannelsinthesediscssuccessively
connecteachorificewithacorrespondingtubeofthemultiplemanometer.
FIGURE5.60.Selectorvalvewithelectrictransmissionof
signals.1stationarydisc;2rotatingdisc;3reduction
gear;4miniaturemotor;5pressuretransducer;6electro
nicbridgeoroscillograph;7recordingtape.
Inorderthatthepressureinthemanometertubescanbecomeecjualized
withthemeasuredpressure,discs(2)and(2')areautomaticallystopped
845/1563
09/09/2015
whenthechannelscoincidewiththeperipheralopeningsofdiscs(1)and
(1').Afteracertainintervalthemotorsareswitchedonagainandturn
thediscs(2)and(2')byananglewhichcorrespondstothedistancebetween
neighboringopeningsinthediscs(1)and(1').Whenoneoftheopenings
isconnectedtothecorrespondingtubeofthem.anonrieter,allothermano
metrictubesaresealedoff.Thus,whenthediscs(2)and(2')have
completedafullturn,theheightsofthecolumnsinthetubesofthemultiple
manometercorrespondtothepressuredistributiononthesurfaceofthe
model.Similardevicesareusedwhentestingrelativelylargemodels
insubsonicwindtunnels,ifthetransmissionlagofthemanometeris
smallduetolargetubecrosssectionsandsm.allpressurechanges.
Figure5.60showsaselectorvalvewhichcanbelocatedin
abodyofrevolutionhavingamaximumdiameterof40mm,andistherefore
suitableforsupersonicwindtunnels/23/.Thedevicepermitsthe
pressuresattwentytothirtypointstobenaeasuredwiththeaidofone
308
straingagetransducerwhichisinstalledinsidethemodel.Thetransducer
(5)isdirectlyconnectedtothecentralopeningofstationarydisc(1).Due
totheshortconnectingtubeandsmallvolum.eofthetransducerchamber,
thedevicepermitspressurestoberecordedattherateofuptothreepoints
persecond.Aquickactingelectronicbridgeoroscillograph(6)
servesforrecording.Themovementoftherecordingtape(7)is
synchronizedbyaservosystemwithminiaturemotor(4)whichrotates
disc(2)throughreductiongear(3).Thepressuredistributionisrecorded
asaseriesofequidistantpeakswhoseheightsareproportionaltothe
pressuresatthecorrespondingpointsofthemodel.Theobviousadvantage
oflocatingtheselectorvalveinsidethem.odelisthecompleteabsenceof
846/1563
09/09/2015
outlettubes,whichinconventionaldesignspassthroughthesupportsofthe
model.
,3
14
847/1563
09/09/2015
1!
FIGURE5.61.Layoutformeasuringpressuresat192points.1model;
2panelwithtubes;3shutoffvalves;4visualobservationmultiple
manometer;5selectorvalves;6mainselectorvalve;7vacuum
pump;8digitalconverter;9memorydevice:10puncher;11
punchedtape;12readoffdevice;13printoutdevice;14chart
recorder.
Figure5.61showsalayoutformeasuringpressureat192pointswith
theaidofselectorvalves,usedattheJetPropulsionIâboratoryofthe
CaliforniaInstituteofTechnology/25/.Thetubesfrommodel(1)areled
topanel(2).The192pointsaredividedinto8groupsof24pointseach,each
groupbeingservedbyaselectorvalve(5).Thecentralopeningsofthediscs
ofalleightvalves(5)areconnectedtoeightperipheralopeningsofthe
848/1563
09/09/2015
stationarydiscofthemainselectorvalve(6)whichissodesignedthat
beforeeachreadingtheairspacebetweenthevalves(5)and(6)canbe
connectedtovacuum.Thispermitsrapidpressureequalizationinthe
straingagetransducerconnectedtothecentralopeningofvalve(6).Shutoff
valves(3)serveforvisualpressureobservationwiththeaidofmultiple
manometer(4).Theuseofonetransducerformeasuringallpressures
makespossibleameasuringaccuracyof0.2%ofthefullscale.
Withtheaidofanautomaticelectronicbridgeandadigitalconverter(8)
(seeChapterIX),thesignalofthetransducerisconvertedtoafourdigit
decimalnumber,whichisstoredinthememorydevice(9)andthenpunched
309
bypuncher(10)ontape(11).Datarecordedonthetapecanbereadoff
atanytimewiththeaidofreadoffdevice(12)whichisconnectedtothe
printoutdevice(13)andthechartrecorder(14).
SuchselectordevicesarewidelyusedoutsidetheUSSR.Forinstance,the
ARAAerodynamicLaboratoryusesasystemofsix48channel"Scanivalve"
valves,eachofwhichisconnectedtoanongluedstraingagehavingaflat
12.7mmdiameterdiaphragm(asinFigure5.40).Theaccuracyofthesetrans
ducersamountsto0.1%ofthemeasurementrange(0.15to1atm).Thesmall
airspaceinthetransducers(0.08cmS)permitsall288pressurestoberecorded
withinaboutoneminute.Togetherwiththepressures,thepunchedtapealso
recordsthemomentsandforces,measuredonawindtunnelbalance/26/.
23.TRANSMISSIONLAGINMANOMETRICSYSTEMS
849/1563
09/09/2015
Whenthepressurechangesneartheorificeorprobewhichisconnected
byatubetothemanometer,equilibriuminthemanometerisestablished
notimmediately,butafteracertaintime.Ifthemanometerisreadoff
earlier,thiscancausegrosserrorsaffectingthefinalresultsofthe
experiment.Smalltransmissionlagsarenecessarynotonlyforhigh
reliablilitybutalsoinordertoreducethedurationoftheexperiments.
Thus,theperformanceofintermittentoperationwindtunnelsdependson
thetransmissionlagofthemanometricsystems.Whenstartingsuchwind
tunnelsthepressureinthetestsectionchangessuddenly,afterwhicha
constantpressureisestablishedateachorificeofthemodel.Equilibrium
willbeestablishedinthosemanometers,whichareconnectedtopoints
wherethepressurechangesmostsharply,laterthaninothermanometers.
Therefore,fordeterminingthepressuredistribution,theintervalsmustbe
notlessthanthelongesttransmissionlag.Unsuitableselectionofthe
manometricsystemmaysometimescausethedurationofsteadytunnel
operationtobelessthanthetransmissionlag.
Thetransmissionlagismainlycausedbytheresistanceofthetubes,
thechangeinairdensity,andtheinertiaofthemovingmasses.The
transmissionlagincreaseswiththevolumeofairinthemanometric
\r
d,
850/1563
09/09/2015
ffl
'c
FIGURE6.62.Pneumaticcircuit.1model:2
capillarytube;3connectingtube;4airspace
ofsensingelementofmanometer.
system,andwiththeresistanceoftheconnectingtubes.Whenmeasuring
pressuresbym.icroprobesintheboundarylayer,thetransmissionlag
attainsseveralminutes.Airfoilmodelstestedinsupersonicwindtunnels
haveusuallysmallcrosssections;thepneumaticconnectionsinthemare
310
851/1563
09/09/2015
madebytubeshavinginternaldiameterslessthan1to1.5mm,andthe
Orificesonthesurfaceofthemodelhavediametersof0.2to0.5mm.To
reducethetransmissionlag,optimumdim.ensionsoftheconnecting
tubingmustbeselected.Usually,thepneumaticsystemformeasuring
thepressureonthesurfaceofthemodelconsistsofametaltubefixedto
themodel,aflexibleconnectingtube,andamanometer(Figure5.62).
30
20
10
8
(J
852/1563
09/09/2015
1=600mm
d=0.6Z
853/1563
09/09/2015
aso
854/1563
09/09/2015
855/1563
09/09/2015
856/1563
09/09/2015
_^
1.07
1J_
857/1563
09/09/2015
11
1.37
1.60
858/1563
09/09/2015
200
WO
50
^20
'"to
6
4
2
I
V{fQ=0.6Jmm
^s^
S^Û
859/1563
09/09/2015
\^^^^s.r
^s^^^^î
^^^ff
0.250.50.75W1.25
dg,mm
0.50.75IM1.251.51.75
d,mm
FIGURE5.63.Transmissionlagtasfunctionoforificediameterdj,andcapillary
tubelength1anddiameterd;v,=1.74cm';1(,=1500mm;dc=1.7mm.
Inmanometershavingelasticsensingelements,thechangeinvolume
ofthesensingelement,causedbythepressurevariation,isusually
860/1563
09/09/2015
sosmallthatitcanbeignored.Themainfactorsinfluencingthe
transmissionlagaretheorificediameterdo,theinternaldiametersdof
thecapillarytubeanddcoftheconnectingtube,andtheirrespectivelengths
/andic.
Figure5.63showstherelationshipsbetweenthetransmissionlagand
do,d,and/foru=1.74cm^(Figure5.62),d^=1.7mm,andh=1500mm
I211.Initiallythissystemwasunderatmosphericpressure;thepressure
attheorificewasthensuddenlyreducedto20mmHg.Theseconditions
approximatethoseofmanometersinintermittentoperationsupersonic
windtunnels.
Theorificediameterisofsmallinfluencewhenrf/do<2.5.Whend/do>2.5
thetransmissionlagincreasessharply.Theorificediametershouldtherefore
notbelessthanhalfthediameterofthecapillarytube.Anincreasein
orificediameteruptothediameterofthecapillarytubehaslittleeffecton
thetransmissionlag.
Theinfluenceofthediameterofthecapillarytubeisverystrong.A
reductionofthisdiameterhasasitsmaineffectanincreaseintheresistance
totheflowofgas.Alengthincreaseofthecapillarytubehasagreater
311
IIIIIIIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIII!III!
effectwhenitsdiameterissmall.Capillarytubesshouldthereforehave
diametersaslargeaspossibleandbeasshortaspossible.
861/1563
09/09/2015
Theinfluenceoftheconnectingtubeistwofold.Firstly,theconnecting
tubehasthelargestvolumeinthesystem,andsecondly,itoffersresistance
tothegasflow.Whendcissmall,thetransmission
lagis,asinacapillarytube,increasedduetothis
resistance.Whendcislarge,thelagincreases
duetothevolumeincrease.Theconnectingtubes
shouldthereforebeasshortaspossible.The
optimumdiameterisbetween1.25dand1.50d.
Atverylowpressures,forinstance,inwind
tunnelswithfreemolecularflow,wherethemean
freepathlengthofthemoleculesislargein
comparisonwiththecrosssectionoftheorifice
forthetubeleadingtothemanometer,the
transmissionlagcanbeconsiderable.Ford=dc
thelagcanbedeterminedaccordingtothe
followingapproximateformulaI"ill:
FIGURE5.64.Determination
ofmanometertransmissionlag.
ISvl
/=
862/1563
09/09/2015
32uSiidH
8^\
r.d]
V2iiRT
wherevisthevolumeofthemanometerchamber.Asinthecase
consideredabove,anoptimumvalueexistsfortheinternaldiameter
ofthetube.
Liquidcolumnmanometershaveinmostcaseslargertransmissionlags
thanmanometersprovidedwithelasticsensingelements.Thisisdueto
thelargevolumesoftheair,thelargemovingmasses,theviscosityofthe
liquid,andtheadditionalvolumechangewhentheliquidflowsfromoneleg
totheother.Inwelltypemanometersthelagdependsonthemethodof
connection.Theairvolumeabovethecapillarytubeinawelltypemano
meterismanytimeslessthanthevolumeoftheairinthewell.Whenever
possible,thewellshouldbeatthatpressurewhichvarieslessduringthe
process(forinstance,thetotalpressure).
863/1563
09/09/2015
ForthemanometricsystemshownschematicallyinFigure5.64,the
transmissionlagis/28/:
where
k=
/=
PfmP,
tMXp
IqPiinPmix.
7^
'""fv^
isthetimeconstantofthesystem,i.e.,thetimeduringwhichthepressure
p,inthemanometerchangesby63.2%ofthetotalpressuredifference
864/1563
09/09/2015
(p=Pjjjjj)attheorifice;uisthevolumeoftheairafterthefinalpressure
equalization.
Theseformulastakeintoaccountthecompressibilityoftheairinthe
manometerbutignoretheinertiaandviscosityoftheliquid.
Inthesecondformula,Lgqisthe"equivalentlength"ofthecapillary
tubewhich,whenthereareseveralconnectingtubesofdifferentdiameters,is
4cr^.+i^(lr^V...+z(|^y,
312
whereL\isthelengthofthetubewhosediameterisd,.
Thetimeaveragedpressurepinthemanometeris
I^.
dt
865/1563
09/09/2015
Insteadofthisvalue,wecansubstituteinthisfornnulatheapproximate
valueofpuptotheinstant/whenthepressurechangeinthemanometer
amountsto98%ofthetotalpressuredifference:
P^fin4
TheequivalentareaF^^,whichdependsonthegeometryofthemanometric
system,canbedeterminedfromFigure5.65.
Measuredpressure
actingincapillary
tube
f'
\zzzzJ
F=J^
eq
Generalcase
866/1563
09/09/2015
(tubesofdifferentdiameters)
t"
F=
KH'
Measuredpressure
actingon
Utubemanometer
withlegsof
equaldiameter
867/1563
09/09/2015
i"'\^
ySffiif^
\,BnJf
êf"
tti'
FIGURE5.65,Determinationofequivalentareaofamanometer.
Thus,whenthepressurechangesabruptly,wecanassumethatthe
transmissionlagisinverselyproportionaltothefourthpowerofthe
diam.eterofthecapilllarytube,directlyproportionaltothelengthofthe
tube,anddependsalsoonthevolumeoftheairintheinstrumentandthe
geometryofthesystem.
313
868/1563
09/09/2015
24.MANOMETRICINSTRUMENTSFORDETERMINING
DIMENSIONLESSCHARACTERISTICS
Manydimensionlesscoefficientsandparametersofexperimental
aerodynanaicsaredeternainedastheratiosbetweendimensionalmagnitudes.
Forinstance,allaerodynamiccoefficients(ChapterI)areproportionalto
theratiosoftheforcesandmomentstothevelocityheadoftheundisturbed
flow,whiletheMachnumberisafunctionoftheratiobetweentwopressures
(ChapterIV).Wheneachmagnitudeenteringintothenominatorand
denominatoroftheratioismeasuredindependently,itisassumedthatthese
magnitudesrefertothesameflowconditions.However,ifthese
magnitudesarenotreadoffatthesameinstant,then,duetothefluctuations
inflowvelocityorpressureinthewindtunnel,thisassumptionleadstonot
accuratelydeterminableerrorsinthecalculatedratios.Innaostcases
theseerrorscanbereducedbyobtainingmoresteadyflowconditionsinthe
windtunnelorusingquickactingmeasuringinstrumentswithsim.ultaneous
automaticrecordingoftheirindications.However,insomecasesabetter
accuracycanbeachievedbymeasuringnoteachmagnitudeseparatelybut
theirratiodirectly.Sucha"coefficientmeter",whichismainlya
simplifiedcomputingdevice,wasfirstusedbyK.A.Ushakovin1924for
determiningtheaerodynamiccoefficientsofairfoilsintheTsAGlwind
tunnel/29/.
Nowadays,aerodynamicexperimentaltechniquesaresodevelopedthat
inmanylargewindtunnelsthecoefficientsareautomaticallycalculatedon
digitalcoraputers.Thesimpledevicesdescribedinthissectionpermit
automationofthesecalculationsinthosesmallwindtunnelsandinstallations
wheretheuseofcomputersandcomplicateddevicesformeasurementsand
datainputisnotjustified.
869/1563
09/09/2015
Instrumentsformeasuringforceandpressurecoefficients
Atlowflowvelocities,anyoftheaerodynamiccoefficientsc,,Cy,d,OTx,
niy,nilareproportionaltotheratiooftheforceormomenttothedifference
betweentotalandstaticpressure,e.g..
Theprincipleofmeasuringthecoefficientofliftinawindtunnelis
schematicallyshowninFigure5.66.TheaerodynamicforceV,which
actsonthemodelinstalledonthewindtunnelbalance,istransmittedbyrod
(1)tobeam(2),atwhoseendcontact(3)islocatedbetweentwostationary
contacts(4).Beam(2)isconnectedwithlath(6)bymeansoflink(5),which
canbemovedalongthebeamandthelathbyleadscrew(7)whichisturned
byservomotor(8).Theforce,whichactsonthelevertypemanometer
consistingofbellows(11)andlever(9),istransmittedtolath(6)by
meansoftwolevers(10)whichhavethesamearmratio.Whenbeam(2)
becomesunbalanced,oneofthecontacts(4)isclosed,servomotor(8)is
switchedon,andleadscrew(7)moveslink(5)tothepositionatwhichthe
m.omentactingonthebeam,duetoforceY,isbalancedinitsabsolutevalue
16803J4
bythemomentduetopressureonthebellows,whichisproportionaltoAp.
Itiseasytoseethatthedistancexfromthefulcrumofbeam(2)to
link(5),attheinstantwhenequilibriumisattained,is
^"Up'
wherekdependsonthetransmissionratiooftheleversandontheareaof
thebellows.Theweightoflevers(9)and(10),link(5),theconnectingrods,
andlath(6)isbalancedbycounterweight(13),whiletheweightofbeam(2)
870/1563
09/09/2015
andthepartsconnectedtoitisbalancedbycounterweight(12).Thevalueof
X,whichisproportionaltoc,canbereadofffromacounterconnectedto
theleadscrew.
nGURE5.66.Directmeasurementofcoefficientoflift.1cod;2beam;
3contactatendofbeam(2);4stationarycontacts;5link;6lath
paralleltobeamC2);7leadscrew;8servomotor;9lever;10levers
withequalarmratios;11bellowsacteduponbypressuredifferenceap;
12and13counterweights.
Figure5.67illustrateshowthedimensionlesstotalpressurecoefficient
//ofafanisdetermined.Here,
whereuistheperipheralvelocityoftheimpellertip.ThepressurePe,which
isproportionaltopu^,iscreatedbyasocalledunitfan,rotatingatthe
samespeedasthetestedfanandoperatinginairofthesamedensity/30/.
ThepressureH,createdbythetestedfan,andthepressurepâct
respectivelyonbellows(5)andbell(4),whoseeffectiveareasareF]
andf2.Theforceonthebellowsactsonthelefthandarmoflever(1).
315
Bell(4)ismountedonacarriagemovingalongguides(3);theforcepef2,
actingonthebell,istransmittedtotheotherarmoftheleverbymeans
871/1563
09/09/2015
ofaroller.Lever(1)isbalancedwiththeaidofleadscrew(2),rotated
ineitherdirectionbymeansofaservosystemconsistingofacontinuously
rotatingfrictionwheel(6)andelectromagnets(7),switchedinbycontacts
(8).ThetotalpressurecoefficientHisproportionaltothedistancex
betweentherollerandthefulcrumoflever(1),whichcanbereadofffrom
ascaleorcounter.
^77777777.
FIGURE5.67,Determinationofthetotalpressurecoe\liciQXiioi&ian.1lever;
2leadscrew;3guides;4bell;5bellows;6frictionwheel;7electro
magnets;8contacts.
Whenthebeamisinequilibrium,Wfio=pcF^x,whence
Pe"F\a
Sincethepressurepcisproportionaltopu',thevalueofxisproportional
tothetotalpressurecoefficientofthetestedfan:
x=cor\%iH.
Similarinstrumentscanbeusedforn:ieasuringpressurecoefficients
wheninvestigatingthepressuredistributionsonbodies.
872/1563
09/09/2015
InstrumentsformeasuringtheMachnumber
oftheflow
Sinceinhighspeedtunnelstheflowcharacteristicsdependtoalarge
degreeontheMachnumber,itsfreestreamvaluemustbecontrolled
316
duringtheexperiment.TheuseofaMachmeter(asinstrumentsfor
measuringtheMachnumberarecalled)simplifiesexperimentsathigh
subsonicvelocities,wheremodelsareveryoftentestedbyvaryingtheflow
velocityatconstantangleofattack.Thisinstrumentisalsosuitable
formodernsupersonicwindtunnelswithadjustablenozzles.TheMach
numberinthetestsectionofsuchatunnelischangedgraduallybyadjusting
theshapeofthenozzle,andthedirectmeasurementofMpermitscontrol
oftheflowconditionsinthetunnel.
TheMachnumberisafunctionoftheratiooftwoselectedpressurespi
andp2inthegas(seeChapterIV).Therefore,anyinstrumentwhichmeasures
theratioofp,andp^canbeusedas
Machmeter.Thescaleofsuchan
instrumentneednotbelinear,since
thefunctionalrelationshipM=flpilpi)
isnotlinear.TheMachnumbercan
bedeterminedfromtheratioofthe
totalpressurepo(orthepressure
differenceAp=pop)tothestatic
pressurepintheundisturbedflow.
873/1563
09/09/2015
Thesimplestdeviceformeasuring
theMachnumberisshowninFigure
5.68.Itconsistsofawelltypemano
meterwithmeasuresAp,andamano
meterwhichmeasurestheabsolute
staticpressurep.Thezeromarkings
ofthescalesofbothinstrumentsare
interconnectedbyadiagonallineAB.
Astringisstretchedbetweenthe
movingverniersCandD.Whenthe
verniersarealignedwiththemeniscuses
inthemanometrictubes,theinter
sectionoflinesABandCDdividesthe
formerintotwopartswhoseratiois
Ap/p.Thus,thedivisionsmarkedon
lineABcorrespondtovaluesofthe
Machnumber,whichisreadoffwith
theaidofstringCD.
Figure5.69showsanotherdevice,
whichpermitscontroloftheMach
numberwhenthepressuresaremeasuredwiththeaidoftwopendulum
typemanometers.Whenthepressurep,changes,theangleofinclination
ofpendulum(1),towhichacurvedmirror(3)isfixed,alsochanges.A
lightbeamfallsonmirror(3)fromlightsource(4)andisreflectedonto
planemirror(5).ThelatteristurnedaroundaverticalaxisOOwhen
pendulum(2)isinclinedbytheactionofpressurep2.Thebeamis
reflectedfrommirror(5)ontoscreen(6).Theverticaldisplacenaentof
thebeamisproportionaltop,anditshorizontaldisplacementtopjp,.
TheMachnumberisdeterminedfromthelinesM=const,drawnonthe
screen.
AutomaticinstrumentsformeasuringMcanbedividedintotwo
groups.Thefirstgroupincludesinstrumentswhicharesimpleelectrical
874/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE5,68.LiquidcolumnMachmeter.
317
analogcomputers,whilethesecondgroupincludesinstrumentswhichare
basedonforcebalancingprinciples.Ininstrumentsofthefirstgroup,the
PiP,
nGURE6.69.OpticalMachmeterwith
pendulumtypemanometers.1and
2pendulumtypemanometers;3
curvedmirrori4lightsource;5
planemirror;6screen.
inputintotheconaputerisformedbymagnitudesproportionaltothe
pressurespiandp^whicharemeasuredbyseparatennanometers.Automiatic
selfbalancingnnanometers,whoseoutputisanangulardisplacenaentofthe
875/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE5.70.DeterminingtheMachnumber
withtheaidofabalancedbridge.1servo
motorsorselsynreceiversconnectedtoself
balancingmanometers;2amplifier(zero
indicator);3balancingservomotor;4
resistorwithscaleforM.
FIGURE5.71.Potentiometricdeter
minationofMachnumber.1and
2selsynreceiversconnectedto
manometersmeasuringpandap;3
automaticpotentiometer.
servomotorshaft,aremostsuitableforthispurpose.Figure5.70shows
awiringdiagramusedintheautomaticcomputationofMwiththeaidofa
318
balancedbridge,inwhichtheresistancesoftwoarmsarechangedin
proportiontotheindicationspandApofthemanometers.Theothertwo
bridgearmsareformedbyaconstantresistanceR<iandavariable
resistance/?<.Thebridgeisbalancedbyvaryingtheresistance/?withthe
876/1563
09/09/2015
aidofabalancingservomotorwhichmovesthecontactoftheresistorinto
thepositionwhichcorrespondstothebalancingofthebridge,sothat
R,_R,
R,Ri
whence
R^=k^=.k[{l+^Mf''^]
IftheresistanceRtvariesinproportiontothedisplacementxofthe
contactoftheresistorandthecounterconnectedtoit,thenxislinearly
relatedtothepressureratioandnonlinearlytotheMachnumber.The
scalefromwhichMisdeterminedisthusnonlinear.Forxtobeproportional
toM,itisnecessarythatthefollowingrelationshipexistbetweenthe
resistanceandthedisplacementofthecontact:
/?4=a[(
wherekandjfci,areconstants.
1+
877/1563
09/09/2015
II
M)"'iJ
l.
0.S
"IT0.6
0.8
al
u/x/
YMA
02OM0.60.6
878/1563
09/09/2015
1.0
a05
y
\
^^
879/1563
09/09/2015
i^
/'
0.ZO.'i0.60.61.0
FIGUflE5.72.OutputvoltageofpotentiometricsystemasfunctionofMachnumber.
Figure5.71showsthewiringdiagram,ofacomputingdevicebasedonthe
880/1563
09/09/2015
principleofthepotentiometer.Aconstantvoltageuaformstheinputof
thepotentiometerwhichconsistsoftwovariableresistances/?,and/?,.The
outputvoltageuiisafunctionoftheratiooftheresistancesi?iandi?2.If
theresistancesRând^2varyinsuchawaythat/?,=kipandR^=AjAp,then
[ui=uo/(/+k\plki^p)\andUjWillthereforedependonlyontheMachnumber.
Theoutputvoltagecanbemeasuredwithhighaccuracybythenullmethod,
forinstance,byanautomaticelectronicpotentiometer.Bychangingthe
raioft,/Asthefunctionu,=/(M)canbevariedconsiderably.Thus,for
instance,forfti/*2=0.5,theoutputvoltagechangesalmostlinearlywiththe
Machnumberintherange0.3<M<1.Thelinearitycanbeimprovedifthe
319
resistanceR,andR2changewiththepressureinsuchawaythat
Ri=fiiP'andRik^l^p'.
Inthiscasethefunctionalrelationshipbetweeniandthepressure
ratiois
"0
Byvaryinga.,weobtaindifferentfunctionalrelationships,sothatin
differentpartsoftheMachnumberrangelinearitywillbemaintainedas
closelyaspossible.Figure5,72showsthatforktjkz=5anda=0.5we
obtainarelativelyhighlinearityintheentirerange0<M<l/32/.
881/1563
09/09/2015
|ManometerzE
(Machmeter)P
Flowvelocitymea
suringbridge"V"
FIGURE6.73.DeterminationoftheMachnumberwiththeaidofelectro
magneticmanometersandoftheflowvelocitywiththeaidofaresistance
bridge.11'levertypemanometers;22'transducers;3
3''coils;4.4'permanentmagnets;CM^,Cm,,CM,servo
motors;yy,Hy,amplifiers.
Figure5,73showsthewiringdiagramofamanometricsystemwhich
permitstheMachnumberandtheactualflowvelocitytobemeasured
320
simultaneously.Thesystemconsistsoftwoelectromagneticlevertype
manometersandacomiputingdeviceintheformofanautomaticm.easuring
bridge.Onemanometerservesformeasuringtheabsolutestaticpressure
p.Whenpchanges,theequilibriumoflever(1)isdisturbed,andtransducer
(2),throughamplifierVi,switchesonservomotorCM,which,withtheaid
882/1563
09/09/2015
ofvariablerheostat/"i,changesthecurrentintensityi,incoil(3).The
latterisfixedtothelever,andthevariationincurrentintensitycausesthe
forceofinteractionbetweenthemagneticfieldsofthecoilandthepermanent
magnet(4)tochangeinsuchawaythatlever(1)returnstoitsequilibrium
position.Thecurrent,whichisproportionaltop,canbemeasuredbythe
positionoftheshaftoftheservomotorCMioroftheslideroftherheostatPi.
Asecondmanometerdiffersfromthefirstonlyinthatitsbalancingcoil
(3'),connectedtolever(1'),isacteduponbyelectromagnet(4'),whose
windingisconnectedinserieswithcoil(3).Hence,theforceofinteraction
betweencoil(3')andelectromagnet(4')isproportionaltotheproductofthe
currentintensitiesi,andij.Lever(1')isacteduponbyamomentwhichis
proportionaltothepressuredifferenceAp.WhenApchanges,transducer
(2'),throughamplifier(y2),switchesonservomotorCAf2,whichmovesthe
sliderofthevariablerheostatPj.Thisaltersthecurrentintensityijin
thecircuitofcoil(3'),andrestoreslever(1')toitsequilibriumposition.
Sincei,isproportionaltop,thecurrentintensityI'jattheinstantwhenlever
(1)returnstoitsequilibriumpositiondependsonlyonthepressureratio:
1=const^=/(M);
thesecondmanometeristhereforeaMachmeter,
Thedeviceforcom.putingKisafourarmbridge,twoofwhosearms
areformedbyresistances/?iand/?2.Themagnitudesofthelatterarechanged
byservomotorCM^simultaneouslywiththatofrheostatP2.Thethirdarm
ofthebridgeconsistsofaresistancethermometerinthesettlingchamber
ofthewindtunnel.Themagnitudeofthisresistanceis
'<o='oIl+(7"o273)1,
whereroistheresistanceofthethermometerat0C,aisthetemperature
coefficientoftheresistance,andToisthestagnationtemperatureofthe
gas.Theresistancenoisconnectedinserieswithaconstantresistance
whichhasanegligiblysmalltemperaturecoefficient,andisequalto
883/1563
09/09/2015
^3='0(1273a).Hence,thetotalresistanceofthearmwillbe
^3='""oT'o
Whenthesupplyvoltageuofthecoilsisconstant,therotationangle
oftheshaftofservomotorCAfjandthedisplacementsoftheslidersof
rheostats/?iandR2areproportionaltoAp/p.TheresistancesRiandR2,
whichvarywiththedisplacementsofthesliders,canbechoseninsucha
waythattheyareproportionalrespectivelyto
Mândi+^^M^.
321
ThebridgeisbalancedbyservomotorCM3whichisfedfromamplifier
(nullindicator)Y3.Whenthebridgeisbalanced.
R,
M'
i+
884/1563
09/09/2015
M2
whence
/?4=
arjTjM^
1+
M=
TheactualflowvelocityisexpressedthroughtheMachnumberandthe
stagnationtemperature:
885/1563
09/09/2015
V=
v.gRTM'
1+^
M^
SinceforagivengasxandRareconstant,RaisproportionaltoV''.IfRt
varieslikethesquareofthesliderdisplacement,therotationangleofthe
shaftofservomotorCM3willbedirectlyproportionaltotheactualflow
velocity.
Inalltheseinstrumentsoneorbothpressuresenteringintothefunctional
relationshipM=[(Pi/Pi)aremeasuredindependently,sothattheMachnumber
isdeterminedindirectly.
Vacuum
jww7w//y/}///yy////y/y///^(/'//'/y'/////'///////,v///\'//avtz.
886/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE5.74.ElectromechanicalMachmeter.1and2levers;3and4fixed
knifeedges;5movableknifeedge;6leadscrew;7servomotor;8transducer;
9counter;10counterweight.
Figure5.74showsanelectromechanicaldevicewhichdirectlymeasures
theratiooftwopressures,i.e.,permitstheMachnumbertobefound
directly.Theadvantageofsuchdevicesisthatthereisnoneedtobalance
eachpressureseparately.Thedeviceconsistsoftwolevers(1)and(2),
restingonfixedknifeedges(3)and(4).Eachleverisconnectedtoapair
322
ofbellows,acteduponbythetotalpressure,staticpressure,andvacuum
insuchawaythatthemomentsofthepressureforces,aboutthefulcrums
oflevers(1)and(2)areproportionaltoApandprespectively.Thesemoments
arebalancedbythemomentofthereactionA/ofmovableknifeedge(5),which
connectslevers(1)and(2).Thepositionofknifeedge(5)canbechangedwith
theaidofleadscrew(6),whichisrotatedbyservomotor(7).Thechangeinthe
momentaboutthefulcrumoflever(2),oftheweightofknifeedge(5)whenthe
latterisdisplaced,iscompensatedbymovingcounterweight(10),inthe
oppositedirection.
Forthispurposepartofleadscrew(6)hasalefthandthread.When
theequilibriumoftheleversisdisturbedbyapressurevariation,the
servomotorisswitchedonbytransducer(8)andmovesknifeedge(5)into
anewpositionatwhichtheequilibriumoftheleversisrestored.The
equilibriumconditionisgivenby
887/1563
09/09/2015
Nx=Ap/îfl
_.^1
Lx
77Pt<^<
whereListhedistancebetweenknifeedges(3)and(4),whilefanda
withcorrespondingsubscriptsaretheeffectiveareasofthebellowsand
thedistancesbetweentheircenterlinesandknifeedges(3)and(4),
respectively.Whenthestaticpressureisequaltothetotalpressure,
i.e.,whentheflowvelocityiszero,lever(1)exertsnoforceonlever(2),
becauseinthiscasethereactionNpassesthroughthefulcrumoflever(1),
Theinitialpositionofknifeedge(5)isinlinewithknifeedge(3),its
displacementfromthisinitialpositionbeing
x^L
k+hpip
888/1563
09/09/2015
wherek=/isconstant.
ThusXisafunctionoftheMachnumberwhichcanbedeterminedwith
highaccuracyfromtheindicationsofcounter(9),whichisconnectedto
leadscrew(6).
10
0.5
889/1563
09/09/2015
'
890/1563
09/09/2015
"^
.^
891/1563
09/09/2015
/'
'
V'
892/1563
09/09/2015
,/
893/1563
09/09/2015
A
/
/
/
/
'
894/1563
09/09/2015
895/1563
09/09/2015
/K'W
896/1563
09/09/2015
897/1563
09/09/2015
1.0
10
3.0
FIGURE5.75.DependenceofrelativeknifeedgedisplacementonMach
number.
323
Figure5.75showsthedependenceoftherelativedisplacementxlL
ontheMachnumber.Byselectingdifferentvaluesofk,wecanobtain
maximumsensitivityoftheinstrumentdx/dMfordifferentsectionsofthe
Machnumberrange.Inpracticeûseoftheinstrumentislimitedtothe
range0.5<M<3,sinceforM>3thestaticpressurepdropsverysharply
andtheaccuracyoftheinstrumentisreducedduetothesmalldisplacements
ofknifeedge(5),requiredtorestorethesystemtoitsequilibrium
position.
898/1563
09/09/2015
Bibliography
1.Deshman,S.Nauchnyeosnovyvakuumnoitekhniki(Scientific
BasisofVacuumTechnology).[Russiantranslation.1950.]
2.SpravochnikkJtiimika(ChemicalHandbook).Goskhimizdat.1951.
3.Farquharson,J.andH.A.Kernikle.PreciseAutomatic
ManometerReader.Rev.Sci,Instr.,Vol.28,No.5.1957.
4.Zhukova,L.A.,N.A.Kolokolova,andV.A.Sukhnev.
Izmereniemalykhperepadovdavleniyavrazrezhennykhgazak
(MeasurennentofSmallPressureDropsinRarifiedGases).
IzvestiyaANSSSR,OTN,MekhanikaiMashinostroenie,No.6.
1961.
5.Falkner.V.M.AModifiedChattockGaugeofHighSensitivity.
ARCRep.andMem.1589.1934.
6.MacMillan^F.A,LiquidMicromanometerswithHighSensitivity
andSmallTimeLag.J.Sci.Instr.,Vol.31,No.1.1954.
7.Smith,A.andJ.S.Murphy.MicromanometerforMeasuring
BoundaryLayerProfiles.Rev.Sci.Instr.Vol.26,No.8.1955.
8.Hart,H.R.ElectricMicromanometer.J.Sci.Instr.,Vol.38,
899/1563
09/09/2015
No.7.1961.
9.Midwood,G.F.andR.W.Hayward.AnAutomaticSelfBalancing
CapsuleManometer.ARCCur.Pap.,No.231.1956.
10.Kinkel,J.F.APrecisionPressureBalance.Proc.Instr.Soc.
Am.,Vol.7.1952.
11.OpStelten,J.J.andN.Warmoltz.ADoubleSidedMicromano
meter.Appl.Sci.Res.,B4,No.5.1955.
12.Halliday,A.S.andH.Deacon.ADistantReadingManometerfor
ParticularApplicationtotheMeasurementofSmallPressures.
ARCRep.andMem.,No.2744.1952.
13.Neubert,N.K.P.,W.R.Macdonald,andP.W.Cole.Sub
MiniaturePressureandAccelerationTransducers.Control,
Vol.4,No.37.1961.
14.Pressey,D.C.TemperatureStableCapacitancePressureGauges.
J.Sci.Instr.,Vol.30,No.1.1953.
15.Cook,D.B.andC.J.Danby.ASimpleDiaphragmManometer.
J.Sci.Instr.,Vol.30,No.7.1953.
16.Wrathall,T.MiniaturePressureCells.Proc.Instr.Soc.Am.,
900/1563
09/09/2015
Vol.7.1952.
17.Bassiere,M.Unemanometredifferentialminiature.Technique
etscienceaeronautique,No.3.1956.
324
18.Delmonte,J.AVersatileMiniatureFlushDiaphragmPressure
Transducer.Proc.Instr.Soc.Am.,Vol.7.1952.
19.Molyneux.W.MeasurementoftheAerodynamicalForceson
OscillatingAerofoils.AircraftEngg.28,232.1956.
20.Wuest,W.VielfachRegistrierManometerfiirlangsamverander
licheDriickeinderStromungsmesstechnik.ATM,Lief.271.
Aug.,1958.
21.Taudler,W.S.AutomaticInstunaentforReadingBourdonGages.
Rev.Sci.Instr.,Vol.27,No.2.1956.
22.Campbell,P.J.AMultipleRecordingManometer.J.Aero.Sci.,
Vol.10,No.8.1943.
901/1563
09/09/2015
23.Parker,W.E.andJ.C.Pemperton.ScanningValveSpeedsUp
PressurePlots.AviationAge,Vol.26,No.4.1956.
24.Sharp,E.M.ADigitalAutomaticMultipointPressureRecording
System.Proc.Instr.Soc.Am.,Vol.7.1952.
25.Bain,M.andM.Seamons.EconomicalOnLineDataReduction
SystemforWindTunnelForceandPressureTests.IRE
Transact,onInstrumentation,Vol.17,No.2.1958.
26.Wood,M.B.andJ.N.W.Baldwin.DigitalRecordinginMultipoint
PressureSurveys.Control,Vol.3,No.21.1960.
27.Dyukov,A.Inertsiyaizmeriteleidavleniyavsverkhzvukovykh
aerodinanaicheskikhtrubakh(TransmissionLagofPressure
MetersinSupersonicWindTunnels)."Mekhanika"No,1,IL.1955.
28.Benedict,R.P.TheResponseofaPressureSensingSystem.
Trans.ASME,J.ofBasicEngng.,Vol.82,No.2.1960.
29.Ushakov,K.A.Novyimetodizmereniyasilpriaerodinamicheskikh
ispytaniyakh(NewMethodforMeasuringForcesduringAero
dynamicTests).TrudyTsAGI,No.5.1924.
30.Ushakov,K.A.Metodneposredstvennogopolucheniyabezrazmernykh
kharakteristikventilyatorov(MethodofDirectlyDetermining
902/1563
09/09/2015
NondimensionalCharacteristicsofFans).In;Sbornik
"Promyshlennayaaerodinamika".No.17,Oborongiz.1960.
31.Schaaf,S.A.andR.R.Cyr.TimeConstantsforVacuumGage
Systems.J.Appl.Phys.,Vol.20,No.9.1949.
32.Manaldi,I.F.MachNumberMeasurement.ISAJournal,Vol.2,
No.4.1955.
325
ChapterVI
WINDTUNNELBALANCES
Theaerodynamicforcesandmomentsactingonmodelstestedinwind
tunnelscanbedeterminedindirectlybynaeasuringthepressuresatmany
pointsofthemodelsurface.Amoreaccurateandreliablemethodisthe
directmeasurementoftheforcesandmomentswiththeaidofwindtunnel
balances.
Incontrasttoordinaryscales,whichservetomeasureforcesacting
inaknowndirection,windtunnelbalancesmustmeasurenotonly
aerodynamicforces,thedirectionofwhoseresultantisunknown,butalso
themomentsaboutcertainaxes,duetothisresultantandtocouples.Inthe
mostgeneralcase,windtunnelbalancesmustmeasurethecomponentsofthis
resultant(calledtotalaerodynamicforce),alongthreemutuallyperpendicular
axespassingthroughanarbitrarypoint,andthethreecomponentsofthe
totalmomentabouttheseaxes(Figure6.1).Thepeculiarityofan
903/1563
09/09/2015
aerodynamicexperimentisthatintheprocessthemagnitudeanddirection
ofthetotalforceandthemomentcanchange;inthedesignofwindtunnel
balancesthishastobetakenintoaccount.
Havingdeterminedtheprojectionsofthetotalaerodynam.icforceandthe
momentinthecoordinatesystemofthegivenwindtunnelbalance,wecan
transformthemintoanothercoordinatesystem.,whoseorigincanbeplaced
atanydesiredpoint,forinstance,atthecenterofgravityoftheairplane
orrocket.
Themaincharacteristicofwindtunnelbalancesisthenumberof
measuredcomponents.Dependingontheproblemconsidered,thisnumber
canvaryfrom.1to6.Thedesignofthebalancesmustprovidethe
possibilityofmeasuringandalteringtheangleofattack,andinmanycases
alsooftheslipangleofthemodel.Whensolvingatwodimensional
problem,forinstance,forasymmetricalmodelofanairplaneatzero
slipangle,threecomponentbalancesareused,whichmeasurethelift,
thedrag,andthepitchingnnoment.Inthiscasethebalancemusthavea
m.echanismpermittingonlytheangleofattacktobechanged.When
problemsconnectedwithlateralcontrolofflyingmissilesareinvestigated,
fourcomponentbalancesareusedwhichpermitalsotheangleofheelto
bemeasured.Incertainpartialproblemssingleandtwocomponent
balancesareused,mostoftenformeasuringdragandliftoronecomponent
ofthemoment.
Dependingontheirlocation,windtunnelbalancescanbedividedinto
twotypes:balanceslocatedoutsidethemodelandthetestsectionofthe
windtunnel,andbalanceslocatedinsidethemodeloritssupports.Inthe
326
904/1563
09/09/2015
balancesofthefirsttype,thetotalaerodynamicforceandmomentare
resolvedintocomponentswiththeaidofvariousmechanisms.These
balanceswillbecalledmechanicalbalances.Themodelisinstalledin
thetestsectionofthetunnelwiththeaidofsupportsconnectedtothese
mechanisms.Thesupportsarealsoacteduponbyaerodynamicforces
andmomentswhosevalueshavetobetakenintoaccountwhendetermining
thetrueaerodynamicforcesandmomentsactingonthemodel.Inaddition,
itisnecessarytotakeintoaccounttheinteraction(interference)between
thesupportsandthemodel,causedbyflowperturbationnearthemodel
duetothepresenceofthesupports.Methodsofdeterminingtheinfluence
ofthesupportsaredescribedinChapterVII.
FIGURE6.1.Coordinateaxesandprojectionsofaerody
namicloadsactingonthemodel.Thebrokenlinesre
presenttheflowsystemofcoordinatesxyz.Thefull
linesrepresentacoordinatesystemfixedtothemodel.
The.r'axisbelongstothesemifixedcoordinatesystem
Inmanycases,especiallyatlargeflowvelocities,thedragofthe
supportscanbeconsiderableandleadtolargesystematicerrors.
Hence,reducingthedragofthesupportsisveryimportant,andthe
designofthewindtunnelbalancesdependsgreatlyonthetypeofsupport.
In"external"(mechanical)windtunnelbalancesthecomponentsof
forcesandmomentsareusuallydeterminedinasystemof"balance"axes
paralleltotheflowaxesofcoordinates.Somelowspeedtunnelshave
revolvingframeswhichservetoaltertheslipangleofthemodel;the
indicationsofsuchbalancesrefertosemifixedcoordinateaxes.
905/1563
09/09/2015
Thedrawbackofmechanicalwindtunnelbalancesisthecomparatively
highweightoftheirelements;duetotheinertiaofthemeasuringsystem
suchbalancescannotbeusedintunnelshavingshortoperatingdurations.
Windtunnelbalanceslocatedinsidethemodelenabletheinfluenceof
thesupportstobeexcludedalmostcompletelyatsupersonicflowvelocities.
Thesmalldimensionsofthemodelstestedinsupersonicwindtunnelsdonot
permitmechanicalbalancestobeplacedinsidethemiodels.Practical
327
designsof"internal"windtunnelbalancesbecamepossibleonlywith
thedevelopmentofstraingagemeasurementmethodsduringthepast
twodecades.
Methodsofmeasuringforcesbystraingagesarebasedontheuseof
elasticsystemswhosedeformations(whichareproportionaltothe
mechanicalloads,andthereforetotheforcesandmoments)aredetermined
withtheaidofsmallstraingages.Thelatteremitelectricsignalswhose
valuesaresimplefunctionsoftheforcesandmoments.Usingdifferent
electricdiagrams,wecanconvertthesefunctionssoastoobtainsignals
whichareproportionaltothecomponentsoftheaerodynamicforcesand
moments.
Atpresent,balancesplacedinsidethemodelsarewidelyusedinhigh
906/1563
09/09/2015
speedwindtunnels.Anotheradvantageofwindtunnelbalancesbasedon
straingageprinciplesistheirrapidresponse,whichpermitsmeasurements
offorcesintunnelsinwhichsteadyflowlastsonlytenthsofsecond.
25.WINDTUNNELBALANCESLOCATED
OUTSIDETHEMODEL
Inspiteofthemanydifferentdesignsofmechanicalwindtunnel
balances,thereareseveralelementswhicharecommontomosttypes.
Theseelementsare:thesupportsforthemodel;thefloatingframefor
holdingthesupportsandfortakinguptheforcesactingonthemodel;the
mechanicalsystemforresolvingintocomponentstheforcestakenupby
thefloatingframe,andbalanceelementsordynamometersconnectedtothe
outputlinksofthissystem;andmechanismsforchangingtheangleof
attackandtheslipangleofthemodel.
Accordingtothedesignofthedevicessupportingthemodel,we
distinguishbetweenbalanceswithrigidandwithflexiblemodelsupports.
Inbalanceswithrigidsupportsthemodelissecuredtothefloatingframe
withtheaidofrigidsupportsorstruts.Inbalanceswithflexiblesupports
themodelissecuredwiththeaidofwires,strings,ortapestensionedwith
theaidofauxiliaryweightsorsprings.Inseveraldesignstheseparate
linksoftheflexibleorrigidsupportsformtheelementsofthemechanical
systemforresolvingtheaerodynamicforceintocomponents.Inthiscase
nofloatingframeisrequiredasaseparateelement.
Thetestedmodelisveryofteninstalledinareversepositioninthe
testsectionofthewindtunnelsothatthepositiveliftisaddedtotheweight
ofthemodelandthefloatingframe.Inthiscasethebalanceisplaced
abovethetestsection.Theweightofthefloatingframeischoseninsuch
awaythatatthemaximumnegativevalueofthelift,thehingesandlinks
ofthemechanismwillbesubjectedtoacertainload,soastomaintain
907/1563
09/09/2015
themincontact.
Modelsinthetrue("flying")positionareinstalledinlargewindtunnels.
Insuchtunnelstheweightofthetestedmodelsislargeanditisgood
practicetoincreasetheaccuracyofmeasurementsbypartlyunloading
thefloatingframeoftheliftactingupward.Inaddition,placingthe
balanceabovethetestsectionwhenthelatterislargecomplicatesthe
designofthesupportingdevicesforthebalance.
328
Theaerodynamicforcesandmomentstakenupbythemodeland
transmittedtothefloatingframe(ortoelementsreplacingit),aremeasured
bydeterminingthereactionsnecessarytopreventtranslationalandrotary
displacementofthemodel.Thisisdonebyforcemeasuringinstruments
(balanceelementsordynamometers)inthelinksofthesystemforresolving
theforceintocomponents,whichusuallyconsistsofamultilinkarticulated
mechanism.Thelinksmustbedesignedsoastoreducetoaminimumthe
workdonebyfrictionduringthedisplacments.AnumberofnonSovietwind
tunnelsareprovidedwithhydraulicandpneumaticmechanismsfor
resolvingtheforcesintocomponents;theyconsistofkinematicpairswith
verylowfriction.
Forbetterutilizationofthewindtunnelandtospeedupthetests,itis
desirablethattheforcesbemeasuredonthebalanceasquicklyaspossible.
Thisismadepossibleinmodernwindtunnelsbyusingspecialbalance
elementswithautomaticequilibrationandrecordingoftheindications.
Inordertodeterminethedimensionlessaerodynamiccoefficients,itis
necessarytomeasure,simultaneouslywiththeforcesactingonthemodel,
908/1563
09/09/2015
theparametersfromwhichthevelocityheadcanbedetermined(see
ChapterIV).
Thesimultaneousmeasurementofallforceandmomentcomponentsis
veryimportantfortheaccuracyoftheexperiment.Inseveralolddesigns
ofbalances,whichtodayhaveonlyhistoricalinterest,eachcomponentwas
measuredseparately.Theaccuracyofdeterminingdimensionless
coefficientsbymeasuringforcesatdifferentinstantsisreduced,for
instance,becauseofpossiblevariationsofthevelocityheadbetween
readings.Thedynamicalcharacteristicsofallbalanceelementsshould
beuniformandclosetothoseoftheinstrumentsusedformeasuringthe
flowparameters.
Oneofthemostcumbersomeoperationswhenpreparingtheexperiment
isthemountingofthemodelanditssupports.Inamodernwindtunnel
thistakesfarmoretimethanthemeasurements.Thetendencyin
designingthesupportsistoprovidemaximumeaseofmodelinstallation
andinterchangeabilityofpartsandsubassemblies.Inseveralindustrial
windtunnels,twoorthreesetsofbalancesareprovidedtospeedup
replacementofthemodel.Whileonesetisusedfortheexperiment,
differentmodelsaremountedontheothersets.Insupersonictunnels,each
setofbalancesisinstalledinaseparatetestsectionprovidedwithwheels
andcarriedonrails.Replacingthetestsectionrequireslessworkthan
exchangingthemodel.
Mechanismforresolvingtheforces
intocomponents
Dependingonthemethodofresolvingtheforcesintocomponents,wind
tunnelbalancescanbedividedintotwogroups:
1.Balancesinwhichtheloadstakenbyoneorseveralelementsdepend
909/1563
09/09/2015
ontwoormorecomponents.
2.Balancesinwhicheachelementtakesupaloadwhichisproportional
toonlyonecomponent.
329
Balancesofthefirstgrouphaveasimplersystemforresolvingthe
forcesintocomponentsthanthosebelongingtothesecondgroup.In
balancesofthefirstgrouptheloadstakenupbytheelementsarefunctions
ofthesumsordifferencesoftwoormorecomponents.Somecalculations
arerequiredtodeterminetheseparatecomponents;thismakesobservation
oftheexperimentdifficult.Insomeearlierdesignsofsuchbalances,
severalmagnitudesweremeasuredseparately,whileaftereach
measurementcertainnaanipulationswiththebalancemechanismwere
necessary.Suchwere,forinstance,thebalancesbasedonthethree
momentprinciple,usedinN.E.Joukowski'slaboratoryattheUniversity
ofMoscowandintheEiffelLaboratoryinFrance.Inthesebalances,the
mom.entsaboutthreepointsofthefloatingframetowhichthetestedmodel
issecuredaremeasuredsuccessively.Solvingequatationsofstatics,the
dragQ,theliftY,andthepitchingmomentMârethendetermined.
Inbalancesofthesecondgroup,eachelementisintendedformeasuring
aseparatecomponent.Thesebalancesrequiremorecom.plicated
naechanismsforresolvingtheforcesintocomponents,buttheiradvantage
isthesimplicityofprocessingtheresultsofmeasurementsandthe
possibilityofdirectlycontrollingtheexperiment.Thisismostimportant
inmodernhighpowerwindtunnels,inwhichmaximumreliabilityof
experimentalresultsisaimedat.
910/1563
09/09/2015
Tosimplifythecontroloftheexperimentwhenusingbalancesofthefirst
group,primaryautomaticprocessingofthemeasurementsissometimes
employed.Thisprocessingconsistsofalgebraicallysummimgup
indicationsofseparateelements,resultingin"net"valuesofthecomponents.
Foralldesignsofmechanicalwindtunnelbalancesitispossibleto
deducegeneralconditionsnecessaryfortheindependentmeasurementof
eachcomponentbyonebalanceelement.Theseconditionsarethatthe
workdonebythecomponentofthetotalaerodynamicforceormoment
overthecorrespondingdisplacementofthemodelmustbeequaltothe
workdonebytheforceactingonthebalanceelementoverthemeasuring
distanceofthelatter.Intheabsenceoffrictioninallkinematicpairs,and
ofdeformationofthelinksinthemechanismwhichresolvestheforces
intocomponents,weobtain
Nm/m,
yM,5,=0,
Nm/m^.
M,5s=a
Nm/m,'
911/1563
09/09/2015
yw,6,=0.
Here8,5y,5,arethepossibletranslationaldisplacementsofthemodel
paralleltothecoordinatex,y,and?axes,8^,5^6^,arethepossible
rotationsofthemodelabouttheseaxes,Ao,Aaj^,arethedisplacements
oftheinputlinksofthebalanceelements,andA'^,...,N^,aretheloads
actingonthelatter.
Kinematicallytheseconditionsmeanthatforasmalltranslational
displacementofthemodelparalleltoanyaxis,theremustbeamotion,
paralleltoitsaxis,onlyofthatlinkwhichconnectsthebalancesystem
withtheelementintendedtomeasuretheforcecomponentactinginthe
directionoftheaxisconsidered.Forasmallrotationofthemodelabout
anyaxis,onlythatlinkmustmoveparalleltoitsaxis,whichconnectsthe
systemwiththeelementintendedtomeasurethemomentaboutsaidaxis.
330
Ifwedisconnectthebalanceelementsfromthemechanismresolving
theforcesintocomponents,themodelwillhaveanumberofdegreesof
freedom,equaltothenumberofthemeasuredcomponents.Eachelement
isconnectedtosuchapointofthemechanismthatwhenthelatterisfixed
themodelisdeprivedofonlyonedegreeoffreedom.Thus,ifallthescale
elementswereabsolutelyrigidandfixed(i.e.,thelinktakinguptheforce
didnotmoveundertheactionoftheforce),thesystemforresolving
912/1563
09/09/2015
theforcesintocomponentswouldbecomeastaticallydeterminedsystem.
''*,.Yr
rrtujfinfjf^ffn
a)
b)
FIGURE6.2.Parallelogrammechanismsformeasuringforces,ameasurementofq;
bmeasurementofk;cmeasurementofQandY.
913/1563
09/09/2015
Thus,thecomponentscanbemeasuredindependentlybyusing
mechanismswhichpermitfreetranslationaldisplacementsofthemodel,
paralleltothecoordinateaxes,formeasuringforces,andfreerotational
displacementsaboutthecoordinateaxes,formeasuringmoments.The
numberofdegreesoffreedomofthemechanismmustbeequaltothe
numberofthemeasuredcomponents.Suchsystemscanbeformedfrom
anumberofelementarymechanisms:mechanismsfortranslational
displacements,mechanismsforrotationaldisplacements,andcombined
mechanisms.
Mechanismsfortranslationaldisplacements.The
simplestmechanismformeasuringforces,whichiswidelyusedinwind
tunnelbalances,isahingedfourlinkmechanismformingaparallelogram.
Figure6.2showsbalancesformeasuringthedragQandtheliftYwiththe
aidofparallelogrammechanisms.Thefloatingframeisconnectedto
rodsACandBD,whosedirectionisperpendiculartothatofthemeasured
forceandwhicharehingedatCandDrespectively.Bymeansoftherod
AE,whichisparalleltothedirectionofthemeasuredforce,thefloating
frameisconnecteddirectly(orthroughalevertransmissionwhichisnot
shown)withthecorrespondingbalanceelement(BEq,BEy).
AtasmalldisplacementofthehingeEalongAE,theframeABtogether
withthemodelmovesparalleltothedirectionofthedragQ(Figure6.2a)
331
ortheliftY(Figure6.2b).Inthesedisplacements,workisdoneonlybythe
forcecomponentsQandYrespectively;theyarethusmeasured
independentlyofeachotherandofthepitchingmoment.Ifwemeasure
914/1563
09/09/2015
theforcesNiandN2actingintherodsACandSDbyseparateelements,
theindicationsoftheseelem.entsenableustodeterminethemomentM^
aboutanyaxisperpendiculartothexyplane.However,ifthehingesC
andDaredisplacedinthedirectionoftherodsACandBD,workisdone
(bytheforcesYandQinFigure6.2aortheforceQinFigure6.2b,and
thenaomentM.);thebalanceelementsconnectedwiththeserodswould
thusmeasureforcesWiandN2dependingbothonthecomponentsofthe
totalforceandonthemoment.InthiscasethevaluesofY(orq)andAfj
canbedeterminedfromtheindicationsoftwoorthreebalanceelements
bysolvingthecorrespondingequationsgiveninthefigure.
Bycombiningtwoparallelogrammechanisms,weobtainamechanism
whichpermitsindependentmeasurementoftwoorthogonalforces
(Figure6.2c).Thissystememploys,inadditiontothemainfloating
frametowhichthemodelissecured,arigidauxiliaryfloatingframeto
whichtherodsarehinged.
Whenmeasuringthehorizontalforceswiththeaidofparallelogram
mechanisms,asmallratioofthehorizontalforceAQtothehorizontal
displacementOpofthefloatingframe,causedbyit,isinaportant;(Jqis
reckonedfromthezeropositionatwhichtherodsACandBDarevertical
andperpendiculartoAB(Figure6.2a).TheforceAQrepresentsthe
horizontalcomponentsoftheforces/V,andA'2inducedbytheweightofthe
floatingframeinrodswhichareinclinedatanangleofSp/a.Ifthe
weightofthefloatingframeisGwhilethelengthoftherodsACandBD
isa,thenwhen5pissmall^
whence
AQîN,+N,)^^G^
915/1563
09/09/2015
AQ_
Itfollowsfromthisthatthesensitivityofthesystemmeasuringthe
forceQcanbeincreasedbylengtheningtherodsorreducingtheweight
ofthefloatingfranae.
Whenthefloatingframeisheavy,highsensitivityoftheparallelogram
mechanismcanbeachievedonlythroughlongrodswhichrequireahigh
roomforinstallingthewindtunnelbalances.The"antiparallelogram"
supportofafloatingframe(Figure6.3a)increasesthesensitivitywhen
shortrodsareused.Thetranslationaldisplacementoftheframeis
obtainedbyhingingitatO,andO2totheequalarmleversP,andPjlinked
toverticalrods(1),(2)and(1')and(2').Thesensitivityisincreasedbythe
forcesinrods(1)and(2)(andalsoin(1')and(2'))havingdifferentsigns;
whenthefloatingframeisdisplaced,thehorizontalprojectionsofthe
forcesintheinclinedrodsactpairwiseinoppositedirections.For
theantiparallelogramsupportwehave
332
wherea,anda2arerespectivelythelengthofrods(1)and(2)(or(1')and
(2^)).Ifrods(1)and(2)areofequallengththesensitivityisinfinitelylarge.
916/1563
09/09/2015
XJff>>f^^f'f7),7f^ff.ffffJf}}.'tfJfJ777n.
/^rrrrrrr^firf^^.rrj^^fTTTTryrm
0:atTG
FIGURE6.3.MeasurementofdragQ.awiththeaidofantiparallelograms;b
withtheaidofChebishevmechanisms.
Inaparallelogramsupportthisispossibleonlywithinfinitelylongrods.
Figure6.3bshowsasystemwhichprovidestranslationaldisplacement
ofthefloatingframewiththeaidofChebishevmechanisms,inwhichthe
equalarmleversP|andPârecarriedbyinclinedcrossedrods.The
advantageofthismechanismisinthattheliftonthemodelandtheweight
ofthefloatingframeactonrods(1)and(2)(or(1')and(2'))inthesame
direction.Thisfacilitatesthedesignofthehinges.
^7777777777777777777777
a)
917/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE6.4.Threecomponentwindtunnelbalancewithleveraddingsystem,
abalancingelementsformeasuringMg,onafloatingframe;bbalancing
elementformeasuringMz,on"ground".
333
Formeasuringthelift,aleveraddingsystemismostlyused,which
permitstranslationaldisplacementofthefloatingframeparalleltothevertical
i/axis.Figure6.4showsathreecomponentwindtunnelbalance,in
whichtheliftismeasuredwiththeaidofleversP,andPj,atwhosefulcrums
CandDthefloatingframeissuspendedbyrodsACandBD.The
leversarehingedtofixedsupportsatO,andO2andconnectedattheirfree
endsbyapullrodtothebalanceelementBEy.Theforceswhichare
proportionaltotheforcesactinginrodsACandBDareaddedinthepullrod.
TheleversPiandP2havethesamearmratioi=01/6,=02/62.'hence,the
loadtakenupbythepullrodandthebalanceelementBEyisequaltoiY,
irrespectiveofthepointwheretheforceYisapplied,i.e.,ofthepitching
mom.entM,.
ThedragQismeasuredwiththeaidofahingedparallelogram,which
consistsofafloatingframe,rodsACandBD,andcrankleverP3through
whichtheforceactinginrodEA,whichisequaltoQ,istransmittedtothe
balanceelementBEq.Crankleversareusedwheneverthebalanceelements
cantakeuponlyverticalloads.
918/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE6.6.Methodofremovingexcessivedegreesoffreedomofafloating
frame
Figure6,5showsamethodforrennovingexcessivedegreesof
freedom,inthedirectionsofthecomponentsnotmeasured,ofafloating
threecomponentframe.Forthispurpose,theaddingleverP2hastwo
equalhorizontalarmsoflength02,whichareconnectedtoeachother
andtothecentralarm(oflength62)byarigidtransverseelement.The
leverPjcanrotateaboutaxisO2OJ,atthesametimepreventingthe
floatingframefromrotatingaboutanyaxisparalleltoOx.Thecrank
leverP3whichhastwoequalarmsoflengthC,alsointerconnectedbya
rigidtransverseelement,addstheforcesactingontherodsAEandA'E'
whichareparalleltothexaxis,andtransmitstheload,whichis
proportionaltothedragQ,tothebalanceelementBEq,Thisleverprevents
334
theframefromrotatingaboutanyaxisparalleltoOy.Translational
displacementoftheframeinthedirectionparalleltothezaxisis
preventedbyahingedrod00whichconnectstheframetoafixedsupport.
Mechanismsformeasuringmoments.Thetransverseaxis
Ozofwindtunnelbalancesisusuallytheaxisaboutwhichthemodelrotates
whenitsangleofattackisaltered.Hence,atallanglesofattack,the
originofthebalancecoordinatesystemremainsfixedinrelationtothe
model.Whenthemodelissufficientlylargeitcanbehingedalongthe
919/1563
09/09/2015
zaxistothefixedpartofthesupport.Thetailsectionofthemodelhas
hingedtoitamovablestreamlinedstrutbymeansofwhichtheangleof
attackisaltered.
Mechanismsformeasuringmomentscanbedividedintotwogroups:
mechanismswithmeasuringhingesonthemodelandmechanismswithout
measuringhinges.Measuringhingesarebearingsonthesupportswith
whoseaidtheangleofattackofthemodelcanbealtered,whileatthesame
timeaslightrotationofthemodel,atlowfriction,enablesaforcetobe
transmittedthroughthetailstruttoabalanceelementwhichmeasuresthe
pitchingmomentM,.Anexampleofathreecomponentbalancewitha
measuringhingeonthemodelisshowninFigure6.4a.Thepitching
momentM,ismeasuredwiththeaidofleverPjandbalanceelementBE^,
supportedonthefloatingframeAB.
FIGUE^6.6.Loaddistributiononhingesofmodelsupports.
335
Thepitchingmomentistransmittedtoleverp^bystrutT,hingedto
thetailsectionofthemodelandtoanintermediateleverP^.Rotation
ofthelatteraboutsupportO4ofleverPicausestheangleofattackof
themodeltobealtered.
920/1563
09/09/2015
S>
FIGURE6,7,Sixcomponentbalancewithmeasuring
hingesonthemodel.
If,inadditiontothepitchingmomentM,,thecomponentsMândMyhave
tobedetermined,themeasuringhingeshavetwoorthreesteps.The
model,whichisfixedtothesupportsatthreepoints,caninthiscasebe
consideredasathreedimensionalstaticallydeterminedbeamsupported
atthreepoints(Figure6.6).Thecomponentsofthetotalaerodynamic
momentcausereactionsatthehingesupportsO,andO2,whichcanbe
geometricallyaddedtothereactionsatthesesupports,causedbythe
componentsofthetotalforce.
Asixcomponentbalance/2/withmeasuringhingesonthemodelis
showninFigure6.7.ThemodelissupportedatpointsdandO2,whichare
locatedatadistanceafromeachother(transversebase)inthewingsofthe
model,bynieansofwiresortapesconnectedtotwoseparatefloatingframes
FiandF,.ThetailhingeO3,locatedatadistance/(longitudinalbase)from
336
theline0,O^(thezaxis),isconnectedbyawireortapetotheleverP,
whoserotationinrelationtoaleverPjindicatestheangleofattackof
themodel.LeversP,andPâreconnectedbymeansofawormgear.
LeverPitransmitstheloadduetothepitchingmomentMt,tothebalance
921/1563
09/09/2015
elementBEy^.
AllverticalcomponentsactingatOi,O2andO3aretransmittedtobalance
elementsBr,,By,andBy,respectivelythroughlevershavingequal
transmissionratiosi^.ThehorizontalcomponentsactingatOiandO2,
whichareparalleltothejcaxis,aretransmittedtobalanceelementsBEq,
andBq,throughcrankleverswhosetransmissionratiois(q,whiletheside
forceZistransmittedtobalanceelementBE^throughacrankleverhaving
atransmissionratioi^.Ifwedenotetheloadstakenupbythebalance
elementsbyNwiththecorrespondingsubscript,thedifferentcomponents
offorcesandmomentsare:
Q=
iQ{NQ,+NQ,),
Y=
iy{N+Ny.+Ny,)
Z=
izN^,
M.=
922/1563
09/09/2015
ha(JVN,,).
M,=
iqlliNQ,Nq,),
M,=
iylNy,
InordertopermitnegativevaluesofM^,M,andYtobemeasured,
thebalanceelementsBEy,BEy,andBi,arepreloadedbyweightsG.
99
?,
9
^"^
923/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE6.8,"Pyramidal"*supportforfloatingframe.
337
Thedesignofthisbalancedoesnotpermitindependentmeasurementsof
thecomponents.TheabovefornnulasshowthatonlyZandMâre
determinedastheindicationsofasinglebalanceelement.Theother
forcecomponentsaredeternninedassums,andtheothermoment
components,asdifferencesoftheindicationsofbalanceelennents.
Measuringhingesarecomparativelyeasilyinstalledonmodelsofwings
testedinsubsonicwindtunnels.Whenmodelsaretestedathighflow
velocities,itisextremelydifficulttoinstallthemeasuringhinges,because
ofthesmalldinaensionsofthemodelandthelargeloads.Transonicand
supersonicwindtunnelsoftenhave,therefore,balancesinwhichthe
instantaneousaxesofrotationofthemodelcoincidewiththecoordinate
axesofthebalanceswithoutmeasuringhingesbeingprovidedonthemodel.
924/1563
09/09/2015
Differingindesignfrombalanceswithmeasuringhinges,where
displacementsofthebalanceelementsmeasuringthemomentsarecaused
bydisplacementsofthem.odelinrelationtoitssupports,inbalanceswith
outmeasuringhinges,displacementsofthebalanceelementsarecaused
bydisplacementsofthem.odeltogetherwithitssupports.Anexample
ofsuchadesign,thesocalled"pyramidal"support(Figure6.8),is
usedinseveraltypesofwindtunnelbalancesintheU.S.A.andBritain
/3/./4/.
FIGURE6.9.Systemwhoseinstantaneousaxisofrota
tioncoincideswithOz.
Frame(1),whichrigidlysupportsthemodelwiththeaidofstream
linedstruts(2),issuspendedonthreestephingesfromfourrodsAC,A'C\
BD,andB'U',whoseprolongationsintersectat0.Thispointisthe
intersectionofthethreeinstantaneousaxesofrotation,whichcoincide
withthex,y,andzaxes,aboutwhichtheframewiththemodelcanturn
throughsmallanglesS,S.and8.Theseanglesaretransmittedas
measurementdisplacementstothebalanceelementsBE^
connectedtothefram.ebythreerods.
BEnyandBEm^c.
925/1563
09/09/2015
338
Asimpletwodimensionalsystemwithinstantaneouscenterofrotation
inthemodelandwithnautuallyperpendicularlinksisshowninFigure6,9.
Thefloatingframe(1)ishingedbyparallelrods(3)tobeam(2).Inthe
directionparalleltothej:axis,theframeisconnectedtothefixedpoints
4andBbytworods(4),locatedateithersideofthetestsectionofthe
windtunnelinthexzplane.
Beam(2)isconnectedbyrod(5)toabalanceelemente^Mjlocatedat
distance/from,theaxisofrotationofthebeam.Theinstantaneousaxis
ofrotationOzofthemodelcoincideswiththeintersectionofthevertical
planepassingthroughtheaxisofrotationofbeam(2),withthehorizontal
planecontainingrods(4).ThepitchingnnomentM,actingonthemiodelis
takenupbybeam(2)andtransmittedtothebalanceelementasload
N.
:MJl.
IfpointsAandBarenotfixed,butformtheendsofacranklever(6),as
shownbybrokenlines,theframewiththemodelhasanadditionaldegreeof
freedomintranslationalmotionalongthe.taxis,permittedbyrods(3)ofthe
parallelogram.Whenlever(6)isconnectedtobalanceelementBEq,we
926/1563
09/09/2015
obtainasystemwithtwodegreesoffreedom,whichpermitsustomeasure
simultaneouslyandindependentlythemomentaboutthezaxisandthedragQ.
Combinedmomentforcemechanisms.Amongthedesigns
ofwindtunnelbalancesthereexistsagroupofnaechanismswhichare
intendedforsimultaneousandindependentmeasurementsofcoplanarforces
andcouples.Thesemechanismsdonotrequiremeasuringhingesonthe
model.
Be,S.
h^md^
FIGURE6.10.Leversystemsformeasuringforcesandmoments.
Figure6.10showsleversystemswithtwodegreesoffreedom,
developedbytheauthorfromoriginaldesignsofwindtunnelbalances
byG.M.Musinyants.
339
ThesystemshowninFigure6.10aconsistsofabeamPgsupportedona
927/1563
09/09/2015
fixedhinge,andtwoaddingleversP,andP2,whoseouterendsaresuspended
byrodsfrombeamPa,theirinnerendsbeingconnectedbyarodtobalance
elementBEyBeamP3isconnectedtoscaleelem.entBE^.Thelengthsof
thesemembersareshowninthefigure.
LetthelinkAS,connectedbyverticalrodstoleversP,andP2,beacted
uponbyaverticalforce/passingthroughOandacoupleM.Theloads
actingontheleversarethenrespectively
TheloadsactingonbalanceelementsBSyandBEmare
N.==(r,\y2)i=ri.(a)
N,
'^=.vl^[L^L,]+MipL,(b)
wherei=ajbi=Cz/bzisthetransmissionratioofleversPiandPz.
InorderthattheloadNmonbalanceelementBEmbeindependentofthe
forceY,itisnecessaryandsufficienttoplacetheoriginofthebalance
coordinatesystematapointbetweenAandBsothatthecondition:
_L~
issatisfied.
Inthiscase,whenlinkABrotatesabout0,theinnerendsofleversP,
andP2,whichareconnectedtobalanceelementBEy,remainstationaryand
928/1563
09/09/2015
ThelinkABisusuallythefloatingframeofthebalance.
Anexampleoftheuseofthecombinedsysteminthreecomponent
balancesisshowninFigure6.11.Toincreasethesensitivityofdrag
measurements,thefloatingframeissupportedontwoantiparallelograms.
TheupperrodsoftheantiparallelogramsareconnectedtoleversP,andP2
ofthecombinedsystem.Thispermits/andM^tobemeasured
independentlybybalanceelementsBEyandBEmz.Inordertoeliminatethe
effectofdragonthepitchingmoment,acompensatingleverp,isused
(seep.344).
InthesecondleversystemofG.M.Musinyants(Figure6.10b)thelink
ABisconnectedbyrodstoanequalarmleverP,whosefulcrumis
suspendedbyarodfrombalanceelementBEy.Twofurtherequalarm
leversareprovided:leverP^withafixedfulcrumandleverP3whosefulcrumis
suspendedbyarodfrombalanceelementBEm.Undertheactionoftheforce
YthelinkABundergoesatranslationaldisplacement8yasshownbybroken
linesinFigure6,10b.LeversPjandP3turnabouttheirfulcrum.sand
transmitonlytheforceA?y=7tobalanceelementBEy.Undertheactionof
themomentM,thelinkABrotatesaboutO,leversPiandP^turnabouttheir
fulcrums,andleverP3isdisplacedparalleltoitselfoveradistance8m,
transmittingaforceNm=2MILtobalanceelementBEm
340
Figure6.12showsasixcomponentwindtunnelbalanceconsisting
ofthreedimensionalleverswithtwostephinges/6/.Thethree
929/1563
09/09/2015
dimensionalelement(Figure6.12a),likethetwodimensionalmechanisms
describedabove,makespossiblemeasurementsoftheverticalforce
passingthroughagivenpointandthemomentaboutthispoint.Itconsists
oftwoplanelevers:theequalarmfrontleverPiandtheonearm
backleverPj,bothrigidlyinterconnected.Theaxisofrotationofthe
threedimensionalleverpassesthroughthefixedsupportO2andthehinge
0\whichisconnectedbyrodTitobalanceelementBBy.RodT^liesinthe
verticalplaneofrodsACandBDthroughwhichtheforce/andthecoupleM
aretransmittedtoleverP,.
FIGURE6.11.Threecomponentwindtunnelbalanceusing
combinedmomentforcemechanism.
TheverticalplanecontainingrodT,andsupportO2isperpendicular
totheplaneACDB.TheforceYistakenupbyrodT,andtransmittedto
balanceelementSr.ThemomentistakenupbyrodTjwhichisconnected
tobalanceelementBE^;,Inthiswaythebalanceelementsareacteduponby
theforcesNy=YandN^,=M/a,sothatthemechanismpermitstheforceand
themomenttobemeasuredindependently.
Mechanismswith"hydrostatic"pairs.OutsidetheUSSR,
windtunnelbalancesarewidelyusedinwhichtheforcesareresolvedinto
componentswiththeaidofkinematicpairsbasedonhydrostaticprinciples.
Theweightofthemovingelementandtheloadappliedtoitaretakenupby
thepressureofoilorair.Pressurizedairoroiliscirculatedbetween
thesurfacesofthemovingandthestationarylinksofthepair;dryfriction
930/1563
09/09/2015
341
betweentwosolidsurfacesisthusreplacedbyfrictionbetweena
liquidandasolidsurface.Surfacesofsuitableshapecanprovide
FIGURE6.12.Sixcomponentwindtunnelbalancewiththreedimensional
mechanisms.
thosedegreesoffreedomofthemovinglinkwhichcorrespondtothe
directionsofthemeasuredcomponentsoftheforceandthemoment.
Byconnectinginthesedirectionsthelinktobalanceelements,we
canmeasurethecomponents.Sincethefrictionalforcebetweena
solidbodyandaliquidisproportionaltothevelocityofthebody,
whilethebalanceelementmeasurestheforceattheinstantwhen
thebodyisstationary,frictioninthe"hydrostatic"pairisvery
snaall.
342
931/1563
09/09/2015
Figure6.13showskinematicpairsprovidingtwodegreesoffreedom,
(translationalong,androtationaboutanaxisperpendiculartotheplaneof
thepaper),andthreedegreesoffreedom(rotationaboutthreecoordinate
axespassingthroughO).InthepairshowninFigure6.13aonly
translationaldisplacementisnormallyusedformeasuringtheforce
componentparalleltothecylinderaxis.
ilf
7^
Sphericalsurfacewith
itscenteratO
FIGURE6.13."Hydrostatic"pairs,awithtwodegreesoffreedom;
bwiththreedegreesoffreedom.
Compensatingmechanisms.Inordertopreventthemoment
fromaffectingthemeasurementofforces,thebalanceelementflj,inmany
designsofwindtunnelbalancesisplacedonafloatingframeasshown
inFigure6.4a.Whenthebalanceelementsarelocatedonastationary
baseinstead,maintenance,andinsomecasesalsothedesignofthe
balance,canbesimplified.However,whenthebalanceelementsare
932/1563
09/09/2015
locatedon"ground",itbecomesnecessarytocompensatetheadditional
forceactingonthefloatingframeinthedirectionofthelinkrodofthe
balanceelement/?
Forinstance,ifinthesystemshowninFigure6.4awetransferthe
balanceelementto"ground",asshowninFigure6.4b,rodT\,which
connectsleverP^tothebalanceelementBEm^willalsotakeuppartof
theverticalload,unloadingrodsACandBD.Inordertodirectthispart
oftheloadtobalanceelementBEy,acompensatingleverP^,havingthe
sametransmissionratioasleversP,andPj,isprovided.
Figure6.14showsathreecomponentwindtunnelbalance/3/.For
measuringdragandlift,thefloatingframeF,hastwodegreesoffreedom
intranslation,providedrespectivelybytheparallelogrammechanism
ACDBandtheaddingmechanismconsistingofleversP,andPj.For
measuringthemoementAf,,asecondfloatingframeFjisconnectedtoF,
byapyramidalsupportwhoseinstantaneouscenterofrotationlieson
theâxis.Sincethebalanceelementwhichmeasuresthemomentis
343
installedonthe"ground",theexternalforcesactingonfloatingframefi
consist,inadditiontotheaerodynamicforces,alsooftheforceMJlin
thehorizontalrodEFconnectingthe"moment"frameF2tobalance
elementBE^z
FIGURE6.14.RemovingthereactionmomentfromthebalanceelementBEf^
933/1563
09/09/2015
Part5C'ofthehorizontalrod5I>',connectingframeFttothesystem
formeasuringtheforceQ,isacteduponbyaloadQ+M^jl.The
compensatingdeviceusedinthissystemdiffersfromthepreviousone
(Figure6,4b)inthatthecompensatingleverP3hasafixedfulcrum.An
equalarmleverPjishingedatthecenterdofleverP3.Oneendof
leverP4isconnectedtorodEF,andtheotherendtobalanceelementBE^^
(throughanintermediatecranklever).AforceS/MJ/actsonleverP4atO,.
Themomentduetothisforce,aboutthefixedsupportO2ofleverP3,
isbalancedbythemomentduetotheforceactinginpartBC'ofrodBD'.
Thuswhenonlyacoupleactsonthemodel,theforceinCD'iszeroand
balanceelementBEqdoesnottakeupanyload.
Inwindtunnelbalanceswithoutmeasuringhingesonthemodel,where
thenaeasuredmomentsaretransmittedtothebalanceelementsthrougha
floatingframe,thelatterisinadditiontothecomponentsoftheaero
dynamicmoment,alsoacteduponbythemomentsduetothereactionsin
thehingesofthelinksconnectingthefram.ewiththebalanceelements.
Theeffectofthereactionmomentsonthebalanceindicationscanalso
beelmininatedbycomipensatingdevices.
Thus,forinstance,inthreecomponentwindtunnelbalances
(Figure6.11)thedragistakenupbythehorizontalrodT,connectingthe
floatingframetothebalanceelementsthroughcrankleverPs.RodT
344
isconnectedtothefloatingframeatadistancehfromthejcaxis.Hence,
934/1563
09/09/2015
inadditiontothemomentMitheframeisalsoacteduponbyacounter
clockwisemomentduetothecoupleQh.Thelowerhingeoftherod
connectingleverP3tobalanceelementBEmîsloadedbytheforce
A'^=(VW,QA)
1/
TobalancethemomentQ/t,crankleverP5isconnectedbyarodtothe
fulcrumofacompensatingleverP,whoseendsarehingedtorodsconnected
tobalanceelementsBEmz^"^"^^^<3^^êarmsofleverP5areequal,
leverPttransmitstobalanceelementBE^zanadditionalload
ThetotalloadactingonbalanceelementBEmîs
1;L
NM=NM+i^M={M,Qh)
935/1563
09/09/2015
Thus,whenthecompensatingleverP4hasatransmissionratio
mln={\i)Lh/cl,theeffectofthedragQonthemeasurementofM,
canbeeliminated.Theloadsonthebalanceelementswillthenbe
N=^JM,,
N^
(it)Q
IfthedirectionofrodTcoincideswiththe^caxis,asshownin
Figure6.11bythebrokenline,thenA=0,min=,andnocompensating
leverisnecessary.
FIGURE6.15.Compensatingthereactionmoment
byapplyingtothefloatingframeanopposingmo
ment.
345
936/1563
09/09/2015
InthesystemshowninFigure6.11,theinfluenceofthereaction
momentQhiseliminatedbyaddingaloadtobalanceelementBEmzA.n
alternativenaethodistoapplytothefloatingframeamomentopposedto
thereactionmoment(Figure6.15),Thefloatingframeissuspended
atAandBfromaleversystem(notshown)whichmeasuresthevertical
loadandthemomentwhileat/I'andB'itisconnectedbyrodstoleversP^
andP3whichhavethesamearmratioa/6.LeverP3takesuppart
oftheloadduetotheforceQ,whichistransmittedbymeansof
leverPi,havingatransmissionratiom/n,andequalarmcrankleverP5.
Thisload,equaltoQm/n,causesequalandoppositeforcesinrodsA'C
andS'D'whichcauseamomentQm{a+h)Llbntoactonthefloatingframe.
ThismomentisopposedtothereactionmomentQh.Hence,ifthe
transmissionratiosofleversP2,P3,andP4aresuchthat
m(a+b)^_
nb
thereactionmomentwillbefullycompensated.
Elementsofwindtunnelbalances
Themainelementsinthedescribedmechanismsofwindtunnelbalances
arelevers,hinges,androds.Sensitivityandaccuracyofthebalances
dependonthedesignoftheseelements,whichareverysimilartothose
usedinordinarybalances.Themaindesignrequirementsare:
1)smallfrictionduringmeasurementdisplacements;
2)highsensitivity;
3)highaccuracyofthetransmissionratiosoftheleversintheadding
and"moment"systems;
937/1563
09/09/2015
4)rigidityofalllevers,rodsandframes;thisisnecessaryforminimum
distortionofthesystemundertheactionofaerodynamicloads;
5)adjustabilityofthefixedsupports,topermiteliminationof
systematicerrorsduetoinitialincorrectinstallationofthesystem.
Thefirsttworequirementsarebestmetbyleversystemsemploying
knifeedgesandelastichinges.Ballbearingsshouldbeavoided,but
aresometimesusedinhighlyloadedsupportsofcranklevers.Inthis
casetheeffectsoffrictionarereducedbyusinglargeleverarms;this
decreasestheworkdonebyfrictionwhentheleversundergoangular
displacements.
Knifeedges.Figure6.16showstwotypesofknifeedgeswhichare
veryoftenusedinwindtunnelbalances.Adoubleknifeedge(Figure6.16a)
ensureshighstabilityoflever(1)inrelationtoitslongitudinalaxis,and
isgenerallyusedasfixedormainsupportofalever.Theseconddesign
(Figure6.16b)isemployedforconnectingaleverwitharod.Inbothtypes
ofhinges,theworkingedgesoftheknivesareobtainedbymillingsurfaces
forminganglesof50to60incylindricalrods(2).Pads(3)areself
adjustablealongpins(4)whichareperpendiculartotheknifeedges.
Theotherdegreesoffreedomofthepads,necessaryforaligningthe
knifeedgeswiththenotchinthepadincaseofmanufacturingerrors.
1680
346
938/1563
09/09/2015
areprovidedbyradialandtransverseclearancese,ande2of0.2to0.3mm.
Topreventlateralfrictionbetweenknifeedgeandpad,thelateralsurfacesof
thelatterhaveconicalprotrusionswhosepeakspressagainsttheknife
edge,whiletheendsurfacesofthelatteraremilledatrightanglestothe
edge(Figure6.16a).Alternativelythelateralsurfacesofthepadareflat
whilethoseoftheknifeedgeareformedbytwoplaneseach,whose
intersectionsarecoplanarwiththeedgeandinclinedtoitatanglesof
60to75(Figure6.16b).
Leversupport
FIGURE6.16.Knifeedges,aformainsupportoflever;bforcon
nectingleverandrod.
Inordertopreventtheknifeedgefromstickingbetweenthepads,an
axialclearanceesof0.2to0.3mmisprovided.Theknifeedgeisfixed
totheleverwiththeaidofintegralflange(5).Thisdesignpermits
adjustmentoftheleverarm.lengthsbyturningtheknifeedgeaboutthe
axisofitscylindricalpart,whichisatadistanceAfromtheedge.After
adjustmenttheknifeedgeisfixedintheleverwiththeaidofpin(6).
Figure6.17showsanotherdesignofaknifeedgeusedinfixedlever
supports.Thetriangularknifeedge(1),whichispressedintolever(2),
issupportedonasplitpadconsistingoftwoparts(3)and(4),inter
connectedbyrings(5)locatedonprojectionsofsaidparts.Theopening
betweenparts(3)and(4)contains,perpendiculartotheknifeedge.
939/1563
09/09/2015
347
aroller(6)onwhichpad(3)canturn.Rotationofthepadaboutanaxis,
perpendiculartotheaxisofknifeedge(1)androller(6),ismadepossible
bythecylindricaltailofpart(4)beinginsertedintoaholeinsupport(7).
Axialdisplacementoftheknifeedgebeyondthepermittedclearanceeîs
preventedbyplate(8),fixedbyscrewstopad(3).
FIGURE6.17,Knifeedgesupport.
Theknifeedgeandpadaremadefromcasehardenedalloysteels
whichareheattreated.ThepadshaveaRockwellhardnessof63to65.
FIGURE6.18.Singlestageelastichinges;awithoutfixedcenter;
b,c~withfixedcenter.
348
Topreventtheknifeedgesfromleavingmarksonthepadsurfaces,the
940/1563
09/09/2015
hardnessoftheformeris2to4degreeslessthanthatofthepads.The
casehardenedlayerhasathicknessof0.8to1mm.Padsandknifeedges
canalsobemadefromnoncarburizedsteelandhaveequalhardness.The
loadactingonhardenedknifeedgesisusually200to400kgspercmof
edgelength.
Thedrawbackofknifeedgesisthattheycantakeuponlypositiveloads
whichforcetheedgeontothepad.Whennegativeloadshavealsotobe
measured,thebalancesarepreloadedbycounterweights.Thesecounter
weightsarecalculatedinsuchawaythatatthemaximumpossiblenegative
aerodynamicforcestheloadsonallhingeswillstillbepositive.
Transverseloadsontheknifeedgesarepermittedonlywithinsmalllimits
(oftheorderofafew%ofthenormalload).
Elastichinges.Elastichingesareplateswhichhavelowbending
rigidityinoneplanebutaconsiderablerigidityinaplaneperpendicular
tothefirst.
Theadvantagesofelastichingesoverknifeedgesare:1)simplicity
ofmanufacture,2)highreliabilityinoperationandeaseofobtaining
hingeswithtwodegreesoffreedom,requiredforthreedimensional
measurementsystems,3)completeabsenceoffriction,4)capability
oftakinguploadsofdifferentsigns.
FLGURH6.19.Twosiepelastichinges.
Therearetwotypesofelastichinges:hingeswithoutfixedcentersand
hingeswithfixedcenters.Inanelastichingewithoutfixedcenter
(Figure6.18a)thepositionoftheinstantaneouscenterofrotationdepends
941/1563
09/09/2015
onthedeformationofthehinge;suchhingesarethereforeusedforfixing
rodstoleversandfloatingframesonlywhenthedisplacementsofthe
latterareverysmall.Hingeswithoutfixedcenterscannottakeup
transverseloads.
349
Hingeswithfixedcentersconsistoftwoormoreplatesintersecting
atrightangles(Figure6.18bandc).ThehingeshowninFigure6.18c
ismadebymillingsideopeningsintoahollowcylinder.Undertheaction
ofthemomentappliedtoit,thefrontalpartofthecylinderturns,in
relationtotherearpart,byasmallangleabouttheaxisofthecylinder.
Hingeswithfixedcentersareusedasprincipalsupportsofleversandcan
takeupconsiderabletransverseloads.
FIGURE6.20.Leveronelastichinges.
ThedesignofelastictwostephingesisshowninFigure6.19.Atwo
stephingecanbemadebymachiningmutuallyperpendicularplanesinto
arod(Figure6.19a).Inthiswidelyuseddesigntheinstantaneousaxes
FIGURE6.21.Crankleveronelastichinges.
942/1563
09/09/2015
ofrotationinthetwoplanesdonotcoincide,butthisisusuallynotimportant.
Rodswithsuchtwostephingesatbothendsaresuitableforinterconnecting
350
leverswithnonparallelaxesofrotation,orwithparallelaxesofrotation
when,duetomanufacturingerrors,therodsareslightlyinclinedtothe
planesofrotationofthelevers.
Figures6.20and6.21showleversonelastichinges.Theprincipal
hinges,whichensuretherequiredtransmissionratios(forinstance,in
leveraddingsystems),areveryoftenknifeedges,whileelastichinges
areusedforthoselinksofthesystemwhichneednothaveaccurate
transmissionratios,sincetheyareadjustedwithotherlinksorparts
ofthesystem.
Elastichingesaremilledfromhighalloysteelrolledsections.
Machiningiscarriedoutafterheattreatmentdesignedtoprovideayield
stressofabout80kg/mm^.Afterthisheattreatmentsteelcanstillbe
machined.Inordertoavoidstressconcentrations,transitionsfromthin
tothicksectionsmusthavefilletradiinotsmallerthantheplatethickness.
Thennaximumpermissibleloadmustnotexceed0.3to0.4timestheyield
stress.Elastichingesmadefromflatspringsteelaresimplerto
manufacturebutlessreliable,sinceitisdifficulttofitthemwithout
clearances.Reliablefixingisthemainrequirementforelastichinges.
Experimenterssometimeswastemuchtimefindingoutwhytheaccuracy
inwindtunnelbalancesisreduced,whiletheonlyreasonissmall
943/1563
09/09/2015
clearancesinsomeoftheconnectionsoftheelastichinges.
Themaincharacteristicoftheelastichingeisitsrigidityorstability.
Whenthehingeisturnedthebendingstressesinthematerialcausea
restoringmomentproportionaltotheangleofrotation.WhenthisangleIs
verysmall,therestoringmomentismuchhigherthanthefrictional
momentofanequivalentknifeedge.Hence,thesehingesarebestused
inthoseelementsofleversystemsofwindtunnelbalances,whichtakeup
thehighestloads,andthushavethesmallestdisplacements.Ifnecessary,
elastichingescanbeusedwhentheanglesofrotationarelarge(upto
severaldegreesofanarc);theirextremerigidityisthencompensatedby
insertingintothesystemunstablelinks,forinstance,ofthetypeshownin
Figure6.43.
Hermeticallysealedopeningsforrods.Inseveraldesigns
ofsupersonicwindtunnelsthefloatingframeofthebalanceisinsidea
hermeticallysealedchambersurroundingthetestsection,whilethelever
systemofthebalanceisoutsidethechamber.Inordertoleadoutthe
forcetransmittingrodsfromthechamber,packingsareusedwhichprevent
entryofairintothechamberfromtheatmosphere.Areliablepacking,
whichfreestherodfromtheactionofthedifferenceofpressureinthe
chamberandthesurroundingatmosphere,isshowninFigure6.22.
Packingsaremadefrommultiribbedmetalmembranes(bellows)which
havearelativelysmallrigidity.Similarpackingsaresometimesused
toleadoutpartsofthemodelsupportfromthetestsectionofthewind
tunnel.
Modelsupports.Accordingtothemethodofconnectingthemodel
tothebalancesystemwedistinguishbetweenflexiblesupports(wiresor
tapes)andrigidsupports(standsorstruts).Wiresupports,firstused
byPrandtlinwindtunnelbalancesofhisdesign,arestillusedinsomelow
speedwindtunnels.Manywindtunnelbalanceswithwiresupportshaveno
floatingframes,sincethewires(ortapes)themselves,whentensioned
bycounterweights,canserveaslinksofthemechanismforresolving
944/1563
09/09/2015
theforcesintocomponents.
351
Theprincipleofmeasuringforces,usedwhenthemodelisflexibly
supported,isillustratedinFigure6.23.TheverticalforceYisdirectly
Balancelever
Chamber
FIGURE6.22.Hermeticallysealedrodoutlets.
Chamber
takenupbywires(1)and(2),pretensionedbycounterweightsG,andG2.
Whenwires(4)and(5)areinclinedatanglesof45,thetensioninwires
(2)and(3),duetothecounterweightG2,isQ,Y2l2.Thechangein
tensioninwire(3),whichismeasuredbybalanceelementBEq,isequal
tothedragQofthemodel.
945/1563
09/09/2015
^V'^f
GfH^
FIGURE6.23.Resolvingaforceintocomponentsv/iththeaidofwire
supports.
Thethreestrutsupport(Figure6.24)ism.ostwidelyusedforfixing
themodeltothefloatingfram.eofthebalanceinasubsonictunnel.The
partsadjacenttothemodelhavetheshapeofsymmetricalairfoils.In
ordertoreducethedragofthestrutsandincreasethemeasurement
accuracy,thosepartswhicharefarthestawayfromthemodelarecovered
withshroudssecuredtothewindtunnelwalls.Theshroudofthetrailing
352
support,whichmovesintheflowdirectionwhentheangleofattackof
themodelisaltered,hasalargeclearanceinrelationtothestrutoris
movedwiththeaidofaservomechanismalongthetunnelwallinsuch
awaythattheclearancebetweenthesupportandtheshroudremains
constant.
946/1563
09/09/2015
^f^
FIGURE6.24.ThreeStrutsupportdevices.1leadingstrut;2shrouds:
3trailingstrut;4mechanismforalteringangleofattack.
Atlargeflowvelocities,interferencebetweenthesupportsandthe
modelincreases,butitsinfluenceisdifficulttodetermine.Attransonic
velocitiestheadditionalblockageofthetunnelbystrutsandshroudsis
veryserious,andmayleadtoprematurechokingofthetunnel.Shocks
attheunshroudedpartsofthestrutscauseadditionaldragwhosemagnitude
variesconsiderablyevenwithsmallchangesinflowvelocity.
'//////yyj//yy/yyy/y//y//y///yy////yyyy/////////^.
^777777^7y777777777777>7777?ZP77777777777?:^7777i
FIGURE6.25.Arrowtypestruts.
Thedegreeoftunnelblockage,theadditionaldrag,andtheeffectof
947/1563
09/09/2015
thestrutsontheflowaroundthemodelcanbereducedbytheuseofarrow
typestruts(Figure6.25)orarrowtypetapesupports.
Itisalsopossibletofixmodelsofrocketsorairplaneswithshortwings
onsinglerigidarrowtypestruts.Theangleofattackofthemodelisin
thiscasealteredwiththeaidofarodinsidethestreamlinedstrut
(Figure6.26).
353
Aseriousdrawbackofwindtunnelbalanceswithstrutsupportsis
thereducedaccuracyofmeasuringsideforcesandheelingmoments.
Floatingframeofbalance
FIGURE6.26.fvlodelfixedtosinglearrowtype
strut
Asmallasymmetryofthesupports,asmallflowinclination,ornon
symmetricalshockscauseatransverseforcetoactonthestrut.
948/1563
09/09/2015
'//////////////y/y//y/^////////////^/.
FIGURE627.Cantileversupport.1model;2
cantileversupport;3strut;4shroud.
Thisforce,takenupbythebalanceelementmeasuringthesideforce,
alsocausesamomentaboutthexaxisofthebalance,whichistakenup
bythebalanceelementmeasuringtheheelingmomentMônthemodel.
Itisnotalwayspossibletoeliminatecompletelytheadditionalloads
takenupbythesupportsatlargeflowvelocities.
Theperturbationscausedbythestrutsatthesidesofthenriodel
distorttheflowpatternnearthemodelatsupersonicvelocitiesina
waythatcannotpracticallybetakenintoaccount.Hence,inasupersonic
windtunnelthemodelisinstalledwiththeaidofacantilevertailsupport
(Figure6.27).Downstream,thesupportisrigidlyfixedtoastrut
mountedattherearofthetestsection,whereitspresencedoesnotaffect
354
FIGURE6.28.Semicircularstrut.1
model;2cantileversupport;3
semicircularstrut:4shroud.
949/1563
09/09/2015
theflowinthetestsectionwherethemodelisinstalled.Thisinstallation
isparticularlysuitableformodelsofnaodernrocketsandairplaneshaving
blunttails.Inmechanicalwindtunnelbalances,whichareplacedoutside
thetestsection,suppo.rtsandstrutsmust
beshrouded.
Agoodsystemofsupportsinasuper
sonicwindtunnelisshowninFigure6.28.
Model(1)isfixedatitstailtocylindrical
cantileversupport(2),whichisinstalledin
thecentralpartofstrut(3).Thelatteris
shapedlikeanarcofacirclewhosecenter
isattheoriginofcoordinatesofthe
balance.Thetailsupportandthestrut
arecoveredbyshroud(4),whichturns
togetherwiththestrutwhentheangleof
attackofthemodelisaltered.Aservo
device,whichsynchronizestherotation
ofstrutandshroud,permitsaconstant
smallclearancetobemaintainedbetween
thestrut,whichisconnectedtothe
balance,andtheshroud,whichis
connectedtothetunnelwalls.Thisdesign
permitsthecrosssectionoftheshroudto
bereducedtoaminimum.
Theminimumsectionsofstrutandtail
supportaredeterminedfromtheirdeformations.Undernocircumstances
mustthedeflectedsupporttouchtheshroudsinceotherwisepartofthe
aerodynamicforceswouldbetakenupbytheshroudandthebalancewould
950/1563
09/09/2015
givefalseindications.Inordertoincreasetherangeofanglesofattack,
supportscurvedinthexyplanearesometimesused.Curvedsupports
servealsoinmodeltestsatdifferentslipangles.Inthiscasetheplane
ofbendingisperpendiculartotheplaneinwhichtheangleofattack
changes.
Figure6.29representsasimplifieddiagramofthebalanceforthe
18"X20"crosssectionsupersonicwindtunneloftheJetPropulsion
LaboratoryoftheCaliforniaInstituteofTechnology.Thefloating"moment"
frameofthebalance,towhichanarcshapedstrutisfixed,restsona
pyramidalrodsystem.Theinstantaneousaxisofrotationofthefloating
framecoincideswiththeaxisofthestrut,aboutwhichthelattercanturn
onthefloatingframe,andwiththezaxisofthebalance/7/.
Forloadtestsofairfoilsinsupersonicwindtunnelsthemodelis
insertedwithasmallclearancethroughthetunnelwallswhichcanbe
rotatedinordertomaintaintheclearanceconstantatdifferentanglesof
attack.Whenopticalobservationsoftheflowaroundthemodelareunder
takensimultaneouslywiththeforcemeasurements,therotatingwallsare
madefrom,opticalglass(Figure6.30).Suchdesignsareusedalsofor
measuringforcesactingonhalfmodels,i.e.,threedimensionalmodels
ofwingsorfinnedbodieswhichareinstalledonthetunnelwallinsuch
awaythattheplaneofsynimetryofthemodelcoincideswiththeplane
ofthewall(Figure6.31).
355
FIGURE6,29.Sixcomponentwindtunnelbalance
withcurvedstrut,oftheCaliforniaInstituteofTechnology.
951/1563
09/09/2015
1support;2momenttable;3balance;4
forcetable;5balanceelement;Ddrag;S
sideforce;Ppitchingmoment;Rheelingmoment;
Yyawingmoment;Llift;6strutsofpyramidal
floatingframesuspension;7shroud;8wind
tunnel.
Airfoil
'/>/////////////,
Tomechanismfor
adjustmentofangle
ofattack
Slot
Protectiveglasses
rotatedtogether
withmodel
952/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE6.30.Airfoilmountedinasupersonicwindtunnel.
356
,,11111111,l>>lll>\)ll>l>lIlt>>irTTT.
Balance
FIGURE6.31.Halfmodelmountedin
asupersonicwindtunnel.
26.DESIGNEXAMPLESOFWINDTUNNEL
BALANCES
Windtunnelbalancesforlowspeedtunnels.Figure6.33
isasimplifieddiagramofasixcomponentwindtunnelbalancewitha
s,(e;)tlt\B^(e;)
953/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE6.32.Sixcomponentwindtunnelbalanceiîhflex
iblemodelsuppofts.
357
flexibletapesuspension.._Balancesofthistypeareintendedfortunnels
withopentestsections,asareinstalledinthesubsonictunnelofthe
MoscowStateUniversity,Thebalanceismountedonaplatform
supportedbycolumnsonacarriagelocatedoutsidetheflow.The
carriagewiththebalanceandthesuspendedmodel(Figure6.33)isrolled
ontoarotatingtableinthetestsectionfloor;byturningthistableabout
averticalaxis/theangleofyawgofthenaodelcanbealtered.
FIGURE6.33.Carriagewithwindtunnelbalance(seediagraminFigure6.32).
ThetestedmodelissuspendedfromthebalanceatpointsA,BandC
(Figure6.32)ininvertedpositionbym.eansofacombinedsuspensionwhich
consistspartlyofrigidshroudedrodsandpartlyoftapesofstreamlined
section.Theoriginofcoordinatesofthem.easuringsystemisatthemid
pointof^Sinthevertical,plane,ofsymmetryofthemodel.Thesame
planecontainsthetailsupportpointCofthemodel.AtAandB,two
horizontalrodsaresecuredwrhichareconnectedatDandEtoinclined
954/1563
09/09/2015
tensionwires,fixedatFandH,andtoverticaltapesconnectedtothe
horizontalbeamTi.CounterweightsGi,gI,Gs,G2andG3servetopre
tensionalltapes,asshownatthebottomofFigure6.32.Thetensions
inrodsADandBE,causedbytheaerodynamicforcesactingonthemodel,
arerespectively^\iandi.where/isthedistancebetween^4
andB.
Sincetheinclinedtensionwiresformanglesof135withthehorizontals
andverticals,thetotalverticalforceactingonbeam7"iisequaltothesxsxd.
oftheforcesactingonrodsADandBE.ThedragQismeasuredbybalance
elementSEqwiththeaidofleversPi,Pj,andP3.Themoment,duetothe
358
verticalforcesactingonbeam7"i,isequaltothemoment/Wmeasured
bybalanceelementBE^ywiththeaidofleverP,.Theliftistakenup
bytapesLi,L2,L3andI,;thedirectionsoftapesLi,L2andialieinthe
sameverticalplane.BeamTitakesupthatpartoftheliftwhichacts
atA.SincetapesL,and1,2areinclinedtothevertical,beamTstakesup
alsothetotalsideforceZ.
InordertotransmittheseforcestothebalanceelementsBEyandBE,,
beamTjissuspendedfromrockingleverB|.Thispermitstranslational
motionofbeamTjintheyzplane.RockingleverB\takesupallmoments
actingintheverticalplaneonbeamT2andpreventsitsrotation.TapeI3
isfixedtobeamTswhichissuspendedfromrockingleverBjsimilarlyas
beamTîssuspendedfromrockingleverBj.
955/1563
09/09/2015
ByrearrangingthepointsatwhichthetapesarefixedtobeamsTiand
Ta,wecanvarythelength/withoutaffectingtheequilibriumconditionsof
thesystem.BeamsTândT3areconnectedbyrodstoleversPs,PsandP^
intendedformeasuringtheliftYandtheheelingmomentMx.Thevertical
forceactingontapeLîsproportionaltothepitchingmomentMz.AtC
thistapeisfixedtoarotatingleverofthemechanismforalteringtheangle
ofattack(columnK).ThelengthLcanbevariedbyfixinghingeCto
differentholesinthelever.Themechanismforalteringtheangleofattack
issuspendedfrom,leverP9,oneendofwhichisconnectedtobalanceelement
BEm,.TheotherendisconnectedtoleverP,ofthesystemformeasuring
theliftY.
TheloadtransmittedtoleverPgisequaltotheverticalforceintape
CC,sincefivehorizontalrods,connectingcolumnKtofixedpoints,prevent
itsmovementexceptforverticaltranslation.Heelingmom.entsare
measuredwiththeaidofleverP7whichisconnectedbyarodtobalance
elementBEmxThesideforceZistakenupbybeamT2andtransmittedto
balanceelementBE,withtheaidofcrankleverP,,andintermediate
leverP,2.
Theloadsonthebalanceelementsare
NQ={Q+02+Q'2)ix.
^M~
M,
956/1563
09/09/2015
7^+0,0,)/,,^,
NM{''^+0202)iMy.
^M=[
where(i,,...,im^)arethetransmissionratiosoftheleversystemsanda
istheangleofattackofthemodel.
Knowingthecalibrationcoefficients(A^,...,kM^)thecomponentsofthe
aerodynaiîcforcesactingonthemodelare
Q=kj,(rixnx.)Qs,Mx=k^,[n^^_^jM^^,
359
aerodynamicforcesduetothesupports,whicharedeterminedbyoperating
thetunnelwithoutthemodel,whilenwiththecorrespondingsubscriptis
theindicationofthebalanceelement.Theadditionalsubscript
correspondstothezeroreadingsofthebalanceelementsbeforethe
experiment,whennoaerodynamicforcesactonthemodel.
957/1563
09/09/2015
Thecounterweightsareselectednotonlyfortighteningthesuspension
systembutalsoforpretensioningcertainbalanceelementstoenable
themtomeasurenegativeloads.Forthisthefollowinginequalitiesmust
hold:
0.|0;+G3>lK,!,
(0,0;)/>iyW,,|,
03^C0St>|/M,|.
Anexampleofabalancewithrigidsupportsisthesixcomponentwind
tunnelbalanceoftheUniversityofWashington(Figure6.34).Thisbalance.
FIGURE6.34.SixcomponentwindtunnelbalanceoftheUniversityofWashington.
Imovablestrut;2fixedstrut;3motordrivenleadscrewformovingstrut;
4shroud:5motorforadjustingangleofattacka;6motorforadjusting
angleofyawp;7rodfortransmissionofforce;8cranklevertotakeupdrag;
9rodstotakeuplift;10rodstotakeupreactionduetoheelingmoment;
IIcranklevertotakeuppitchingmoment;12pedestal;13electromagnetic
balanceelement.
360
958/1563
09/09/2015
intendedformeasuringforcesinalowspeedtunnelhavingaclosed
testsectionmeasuring3.6mX2.4m,haselectromagneticbalanceelements
andverticallydisposedlinksoftheleversystem.Thebasiclever
systemconsistsoftubesA,
B,CandEsupportedonuniversalelastichinges.
TheinnertubeAcontainsthesupportforthe
modelandtransmitstheaerodynamicforces
actingonthelattertotheoutertubes(levers)
BandE.
TheoutertubeCisacompensatinglever
whichpermitsindependentmeasurementofQ
andM,,orZandMx,asillustratedin
Figure6.34awhichshowstheconnectionsof
theleversformeasuringthecomponentsQand
Mj.Similarconnectionsofleversintheplane
passingthroughtheverticalaxisand
perpendiculartotheplaneofthepaper,enable
ZandM,.tobemeasured.Forindependent
measuringofallfourelementsitisnecessary
thatthefollowingrelationshipsobtainbetween
thetransmissionratiosofthelevers:
',1+
959/1563
09/09/2015
)+^
Themagnitudesenteringintotheabove
formulasareindicatedinFigure6.34a.
Whentheseconditionsaresatisfied,theforces
intherodsconnectingtheleverswiththe
balanceelementsBEqandBEm,arerespectively
FIGURE6.35,Sixcomponentwind
tunnelbalanceonhydrostaticpairs.1
support(dynamometerformeasuringY);
2mainfloatingframe;3flatpad;4
intermediatefloatingframe;5spherical
pad;6momentframe;7dynamometer
formeasuringM^;8rod;9dynamo
metersformeasuring^ândm;10jY=(/,[/)^.
dynamometersformeasuringz;11
dynamometerformeasuringg;12rod.^^^^^^^conditionsarenecessaryforthe
independentmeasurementofZandM.Theliftistransmittedtothebalance
elementBEyV/iththeaidofrod(9).
Figure6.34bshowsthesystemformeasuringMy.Themainlever/Iis
connectedbyhingesthroughrodsS,tofloatingleverP,.RodSj,whichis
perpendiculartoS,,connectsthelevertothefixedhingeO.Acouplethus
counteractsthemomentMy.OneconstituentforceactsalongrodS2and
theotheralongrod53whichisconnectedtobalanceelementBEm^.
960/1563
09/09/2015
Themodelsupportconsistsoffixedstrut(2),mountedontubeA,and
movablestrut(1),whichservesforalteringtheangleofattackbymeansof
amotordrivenleadscrew.Forchangingtheangleofyaw,theentire
supportcanbeturnedbyanothermotor/26/.
Windtunnelbalanceswithhydrostaticpairs.Balances
withhydrostaticpairsareusedmainlyinlargetransonicwindtunnelswhere
theaerodynamicforcesactingonthemodelamounttohundredsorthousands
ofkilograms.
ThedesignsofthesixcomponentbalancesforthewindtunnelsinModane
(France)andPasadena(U.S.A.)arebasedonthesameprinciple(Figure6.35).
361
Themainfloatingframe(2)restsonthreesupports(dynamometers)(1).
Threehydraulicdynamometersareinsertedbetweenthesupportsand
thefram.einordertomeasurethelift.Threeflatpads(3),restingonthe
uppersurfaceofthemainframe,carryanintermediatefloatingframe(4).
Thesurfacesofthepadsandthesupportplatesofframe(4)arepolished.
Duringmeasurennentsoil(orair)isconstantlycirculatedbetweenthepads
andtheinternnediateframe,whichissupportedonalayerofliquidandcan
slideoverpads(3)withnegligiblefriction.Theintermediateframeis
restrainedinthelongitudaldirectionbyrod(12)whichconnectstheframe
todynamometer(11)whichisfixedtothemainframeandtakesupthedrag
Qofthemodel.Frame(4)isrestrainedinthetransversedirectionbytwo
horizontalrodsconnectingittoframe(2)viatwodynamometers(10).The
sumoftheloadsonthesedynamometersisequaltothesideforceZ.
961/1563
09/09/2015
Theupperpartoftheintermediateframecarriesthreepads(5)with
sphericalsurfaceswhosecenterliesonthewindtunnelaxisandisthe
originofthebalancecoordinatesystem.Thesphericalpadscarryonoil
filmsthem.omentframe(6),whichtakesupallmomentsandforcesacting
onthemodel.Theforcesaretransnaittedthroughtheintermediateframe
todynamonaeters(1),(10),and(11).
Themomentstendtorotateframe(6)whichcanslidewithnegligible
frictiononpads(5).Rotationoftheframeintheverticalplanepassing
throughthetunnelaxisispreventedbyrod(8)whichconnectsthemonaent
frametoframe(4)viathedynamometer(7)whichservestomeasure
thepitchingmomentM,.Rotationoftheframeinatransversevertical
planeispreventedbytwohorizontalrodswhichconnectframes(4)and(6)
viatwodynamometers(9).Thesumoftheforcesactingonthese
dynamometersisproportionaltotheheelingmomentM^,whiletheir
differenceisproportionaltotheyawingmomentMy.Addingandsubtracting
isdoneoutsideofthebalancewiththeaidofhydraulicmeasuring
instruments(Figure6.42).
Inwindtunnelbalancesofthistypethetotalweightofthefloatingframe
canreachtensoftons,butthefrictioninthesystemissosmallthatwith
thishighweightthesystemfordragmieasurementissensitivetoforces
ofafewhundredsofgrams.
Themodelisusuallyinstalledinthenormalpositionandpositivelift
unloadsthedynamometers.
27.BALANCEELEMENTSOFWINDTUNNEL
BALANCES
Thenaaincharacteristicsofbalanceelementsaretheirloadcapacities,
accuracy,andrapidityofresponse.
962/1563
09/09/2015
Thetransmissionratiosoftheleversusedformeasuringtheseparate
componentsoftheaerodynamicforcesandm.omentsarechoseninsucha
waythatthemaximumpossibleloadsonallbalanceelem.entsare
approximatelyequal.Inverysmallwindtunnelsorintunnelswithvery
lowgaspressurestheaerodynamicforcesactingonthemodelmayamount
totensorsinglegrams.Atsuchsmallloadsthetransmissionratiosof
theleversaresometimeslessthanunity.Inlargewindtunnels,where
362
theforcesactingonthemodelmayreach1to20tons,thetransmission
ratiosoftheleversareveryhigh(100to200).
Rapidityofresponseisveryimportantinhighpowerwindtunnels.
Rapidactionbalanceelementspermitthetestprogramofwindtunnelsto
beincreasedandtheobtainingofexperimentaldatatobespeededup.
Theloadstakenupbythebalanceelementscanbeequilibratedby
counterweights,pressureofaliquidorair,elasticforces,electro
magneticorelectrostaticforces.Irrespectiveofthenatureofthe
equilibratingforce,thebalanceelementindicationscanbeeitherdirect
orbycompensation,returningamovablelinktoitsnullposition.
Elementsofthecompensatingtypearemostwidelyusedinwindtunnel
balancesbecausetheypermithighermeasurementaccuracy.Inaddition,
outsideenergysourcesareusedincompensatinginstruments,whichcanbe
easilyusedforoperatingremoterecordingdevices.
Therequiredaccuracyofthebalanceelementsisdeterminedbythe
rangeofmeasuredvalues.Thisrangecanbeverywide,sincethesame
963/1563
09/09/2015
balancemaybeusedfortestingwellstreamlinedbodiesofrevolution,
havingsmalldragandlift,andtransportcrafthavinglargedragandlift
atlargeanglesofattack.Atthesametimewindtunnelbalancesmust
enableustodeterminerelativelysmalladvantagesofonemodelover
another.
Experienceshowsthattheserequirementsarebestsatisfiedbybalances
ofthemechanicaltype,whichunderconditionsofstaticcalibrationhave
limitingerrorsofbetween1/400and1/2000ofthemaximumload.Highest
accuracyisonlyrequiredwhenmeasuringdragandlift.Sincethesystem
forresolvingforcesintocomponentsintroducesbyitselfanerrorintothe
measurement,mechanicalwindtunnelbalanceshavebalanceelementswith
limitingerrorsfrom1/500to1/5000ofthemaximumload.
Balanceelementsequilibratedbycounterweights
Balanceelementsbasedonthegravitationalprinciplecanbedivided
intoleverbalancesandpointerbalances.Equilibriuminleverbalances
isusuallyattainedbycompensation,themagnitudeofthecounterweight
beingchangedatconstantleverarm,orbymovingacounterweightof
constantmagnitude(rider)inrelationtothefulcrumofthelever.The
measurementismadeattheinstantwhentheleverisinequilibriumina
givenposition.
Directlyindicatingpointerbalancesequilibratetheloadwiththeaidof
oneorseveralpendulumswhosedisplacementsareindicatedbyapointer
onascale.Thedrawbackofthesebalancesisthelargemotionofthelink
whichtakesuptheload.Insomecasesthismayaltertheattitudeofthe
model,andthishastobetakenintoaccount.Inaddition,pointerbalances
arelessaccuratethanleverbalances.Thelimitingerrorinthebetter
designsofpointerbalancesisabout1/1000ofthemaximumload,whilegood
leverbalancescanhavealimitingerroroflessthan1/5000.Pointer
964/1563
09/09/2015
balancesareordinarilyusedwhenmeasuringverylargeloads,forinstance
infullscalewindtunnelswherethesizeofthebalanceisunimportant.In
ordertoreducethedisplacementofthemodel,pointerbalancessometimes
havecompensatingdevices(Figure6.36),
363
iirniniMillIlliniiininiiininiîi
Leverelements,equilibratedmanuallybyweightsorriders,werewidely
usedinolddesignsofwindtunnelbalances.Simultaneousmeasurementofall
componentsonasixcomponentbalancerequires
manyoperatorswhocommunicatebysoundor
sight.Flowfluctuationsinthetunnelalways
causecertainvariationsintheforcesactingon
themodel;hence,manualequilibrationis
characterizedbylargesubjectiveerrorsand
requiresmuchtinne.Atthesametime,lever
balancesbelongtothemostaccuratemeasuring
instruments.Automaticleverbalanceswere
thereforedevelopedtoproviderapidoperation
withahighaccuracy.Inaddition,thesebalance
elementspermittransmissionoftheindicationsto
remoterecordingdevicesinasimpleandreadily
availableform.
965/1563
09/09/2015
Theautonaaticbalanceelement(Figure6.37)
consistsofalever(balancebeam)(1),supported
byaknifeedgeonstand(2).Themeasured
forcePistakenupbytheknifeedgeontheleft
handarmofthelever.Therighthandarmhas
anaccurateleadscrew(6),bywhichcounterweight
(7)canbemoved.Theleadscrewisconnectedto
areversibleservomotor(5).Therotationofthe
servomotoriscontrolledbytransducer(10),which
reactstodisplacementsoftherighthandendofthe
lever.Whentheloadisincreased,therighthand
leverendmovesupwards,transducer(10)switches
intheservomotor,andtheleadscrewmoves
counterweight(7)totheright,restoringthe
equilibriumofthelever.Attheinstantofequilibrium
thesignalofthetransducerbecomeszeroandthe
servomotorisstopped.Whentheloadisreduced,
therightendofthelevermovesdownward,thetransducerswitchesinthe
servomotorinthereversedirection,andload(7)movestotheleftuntil
equilibriumisattainedagain.
AtameasuredloadP,thenumberofrevolutionsoftheleadscrew,
requiredtorestoreleverequilibrium,is
Pa
"=01'
wheretisthepitchoftheleadscrew,Gistheweightofthecounterweight,
andaisthelengthofthelefthandleverarm.Thevalueofnisshownby
decimalcounter(9),inwhichthedigitontheextremerightusually
correspondstoonetenthofarevolutionoftheleadscrew.
Themeasurementaccuracyisincreasedbyusingascrewwithmicro
966/1563
09/09/2015
metricthreadandbytakingupclearanceswiththeaidofsprings.
Oscillationsoftheleverarereducedbyhydraulicshockabsorber(8).The
electricsupplytothemotorontheleveristhroughflexiblewirescoiled
likespirals.Duetothesnaalldisplacementsofthepointswherethewires
arefixedtothepanel,installednearthefulcrumofthelever,theinfluence
FIGURE636.Displacement
compensationinpointerba
lances.1balancebase;
2rod;3screwmechanisms
foradjustingrodlengtha;4
servomotor;5contactsfor
automaticswiichinginof
servomotorwhenrodispulled
down.
364
oftherigidityofthewiresonthesensitivityoftheleverisusually
negligible.
FIGURE6,37Automaticleverbalanceelementwithinductivetransducer.
1lever,2stand;3selsynttansmittet:4feedbacktachogenerator;
5servomotor:6leadscrew;7travelingcounterweight;8hydrau
licshockabsorber,9counter,10inductivetransducer;11amplifier;
967/1563
09/09/2015
12counter;13receiverselsyn:14printingdevice.
InmocJernwindtunnelswherethemeasurementdataaretransmitted
tocontrolcabins,selsynservosystemsareoftenused.Suchsystems
consistofaselsyntransducerandaselsynreceiver,instrumentswhich
resembleminiatureelectricmotors.Therotorofselsyntransmission(3),
whichhasathreephasewinding,isconnectedtotheservomotorshaftofthe
balanceelement,Undertheactionofavariablemagneticfield,createdbythe
singlephasea.c.inthestatoroftheselsyntransmitter,therotorofthe
lattergeneratesana.c.voltagewhichisuniquelydeterminedbythe
angularpositionoftherotorinrelationtothestator.Undertheactionof
thisvoltage,therotorofselsynreceiver(13)inthecontrolcabinturns
tothesameangularpositioninrelationtoitsstator.Therotorofthe
selsynreceiverisconnectedwithcounter(12)andprintingdevice(14).
whichrecordstheindicationsofthecountersofseveralbalanceelements
innumericalform(seeChapterIX).
Thedisplacementtransducerformstogetherwiththeservonaotora
closedloopautomaticcontrolsysteminwhichthecontrolparameteris
theangularpositionofthelever,thecontrollingmemberbeingthelead
screwwiththecounterweight.Thereareseveraldesignsoftransducers.
Themostwidelyusedareinductive(transformer)andcontacttransducers.
ThesystemshowninFigure6.37employsaninductivetransducer
consistingofamovingcoilfixedtotheendoflever(1),andlocatedbetween
twoexcitationcoilswoundonstationaryironcores/9/,/lO/.Thecoilis
excitedfromonephaseofathreephasesupply.Sincethecoilsarewound
inoppositedirections,theycreateopposedmagneticfields,whichinduce
inthemovingcoilana.c.voltagewhoseamplitudeandphasedependonthe
positionofthemovingcoilintheairgapbetweenthestationarycoils.The
voltageisamplifiedbyamplifier(11),andisfedtotherotorof
968/1563
09/09/2015
365
IIIInilllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllIIIIIIIIIHIIllllllllliniiiiiiiiiiiHiinilII
servomotor(5)whichisexcitedbyanotherphaseofthea.c.supply.
Iftheleverisinequilibriumandthemovingcoilisinacentralposition
betweenthestationarycoils,thevoltageinthemovingcoilisequalto
zeroandtheservomotorisatrest.Whentheequilibriumisdisturbed,
themovingcoilisbroughtnearertooneofthestationarycoils,anda
voltageisinduced.Theservom.otorbeginstorotate,andtheleadscrew
movesthecounterweightinthedirectionrequiredforrestoringthe
equilbriumofthelever.
Theautomaticmechanismforcontrollingtheservomotorandthe
counterweightmustfollowthechangesinloadcausedbyvariationsinflow
velocityorintheangleofattackofthemodel.Inordertoreduce
oscillationsofleverandleadscrew,thecontrolsystemisequippedwith
flexiblefeedbackconsistingofaninductivetachogeneratormountedonthe
servomotorshaft.
Incontrasttoinductivetransducers,whichprovidecontinuousspeed
regulationoftheservomotorfromzerotomaximum,contacttransducers
causetheservomotortoattaininstantaneouslyafinitespeed.The
simplestcontacttransducerconsistsofaflexiblemovingcontactlocated
attheendoftheleverinasmallgapbetweentwostationarycontacts,
AAThentheequilibriumisdisturbed,themovingcontactclosesacircuit
withoneofthestationarycontactsandtheservomotorisswitchedin;
thelattermovesacounterweightonthebeamsoastorestorethe
equilibrium.
969/1563
09/09/2015
Thedrawbackofbalanceelementswithcontacttransducersistheir
tendencytocausefreeoscillationsoftheentireautomaticbalancing
systemwhenthesensitivityisincreased.Theseoscillationsaredue
totheinertiaoflever,servomotor,androtatingparts,andcausethe
positionofthecounterweightonthelevertovaryinrelationtoitsstatic
equilibriumposition.Iftheamplitudeoftheloadvariationsislessthan
thepermissiblemeasurementerror,theseselfinducedoscillationsdo
notaffectthemeasurementsandcauseonlyburningofcontacts.
Thecounterweightdisplacementsduringselfinducedoscillations
increasewithangularvelocityoftheservomotorbutdecreasewith
increasingresistancetorqueactingontheservomotorshaftafterbreaking
contact.Inaddition,theydependonthedegreeofoscillationdamping.In
ordernottoreducethespeedofoperationofthebalanceelements(the
rapidityofequilibratingatagivenload)atwospeedsystemisusedfor
controllingtheservomotor(Figure6.38),whichprovidesforasharp
reductionoftherotationalspeedoftheservomotorimmediatelybefore
thecounterweightattainsapositioncorrespondingtostaticequilibrium
ofthelever,andpowerfulbrakingoftheservomotorafteritisswitchedoff.
Forthispurposetheshaftofservomotor(5)andselsyntransmitter(8)
carriesanelectroraagneticbrake(6),consistingofanironrotorrotatinginthe
magneticfieldofad.c.excitedstator.Whentherotorrevolves(eddy)
currentsareinducedinit.Thiscausesatorqueproportionaltothe
rotationalspeedtoactontheshaft.Theleverhas,inadditiontothesystem
of"fine"contacts(1)and(2)alsoasecondsystemof"coarse"contacts
(3)and(4).Thegapbetweenmovingcontact(3)andstationarycontact(4)
isslightlylargerthanthegapbetweenmovingcontact(1)andstationary
contact(2).Thestatorofthebrakeissuppliedwithcurrentwhencontacts
(3)and(4)areopen.Atasmallimbalanceofthelever,contacts(1)and(2)
366
970/1563
09/09/2015
areclosedandtheservomotorrotatesslowly.Atalargeimbalance,
theflexibleplatecontainingcontact(1)isbentandcontacts(3)and(4)
areclosed.Thewindingofthebrakestatorisshortcircuited,andthe
servomotorbeginstorotaterapidly.
'TTTTTTTTTTm
FIGURE6.38.Automalicbalanceelementwithcontacttransducer.1
moving"fine"contact:2stationary"tine"contact,3moving
"coarse"contact;4stationary"coarse"contact:5servomotor:
6electromagneticbrake;7limitswitches;8selsyntransmitter
Balanceelementswithcontactlesstransducerscanoperateunder
conditionsofvibrationsandfluctuationsofthemeasuredforces,when
balanceelementswithcontacttransducerslosetheirsensitivitydueto
burningofcontacts.Automaticbalanceelementscontainlimitswitches
(7)(Figure6.38),whichopenthecircuitofservomotor(5)whenthe
measuredforceexceedspredeterminedlimits.
971/1563
09/09/2015
ro+
YP
4~~^
fflâ^
^'
FIGURE6.39.Automaiicloadingmechanism.1lever;2counter
weight;3,4limitswitches;5servomotorforloading;6
movingplatform;7weights;8changeoverswitch;9linkfor
loadsuspension.
367
972/1563
09/09/2015
Theaccuracyofmeasuringforcesonwindtunnelbalanceswithlever
elementsdependsgreatlyonthedegreeofdampingoftheleveroscillations
causedbynonsteadyloadsonthemodel.Excessivedampingcausesdelayed
openingofthe"fine"contacts,especiallyifthecontactplateisnotveryrigid.
Thiscauseshuntingofthecounterweightandleadstoselfinduced
oscillations.Whendampingisveryweakafterthe"fine"contactsopen,
thekineticenergyofthelevercannotbeabsorbed,andselfinduced
oscillationscanoccuratverysmallinertialovertravelofthecounter
weight.Hence,thedampingshouldbechoseninsuchawaythatafter
contact(1)andoneofcontacts(2)areopened,thekineticenergyofthe
leverisabsorbedbeforeitisabletoclosetheoppositecontact.
Theamplitudesandfrequenciesoftheforcepulsations,causedby
oscillationsofthetestedmodelandbyflowfluctuations,varywiththeflow
velocity,theangleofattackofthemodel,therigidityofthesuspension
deviceandleversystem,etc.Hencethecapacityofhydraulicshock
absorbersofautomaticbalanceelementsissometimesvariedwiththe
aidofelectricmotorsduringtheexperiment,oranelectromagneticdamper
isusedwhichisswitchedinonlywhenthe"fine"contactsareopen;this
reducesthedelayincontactbreaking.
Inordertoincreasetheloadcapacityofthebalanceelements,thelatter
areequippedwithauxiliarynaechanismsforautomaticadditionofweights.
Asingleweightbalancesaloadcorrespondingtothefulltravelofthe
counterweightbetweenthelimitswitches.Asimplifieddiagramofthe
mechanismforweightadditionisshowninFigure6.39.WhentheloadP
onlever(1)exceedsapredeterminedvalue,counterweight(2)movesto
therightandcloseslimitswitch(3).Servomotor(5)isswitchedonand
lowersplatform(6)withweight(7)toapredeterminedheight,afterwhich
thecurrenttotheservomotoriscutoffbychangeoverswitch(8),which
interruptsthecircuitoflimitswitch(3).Whentheplatformislowered
oneofweights(7)becomessuspendedonlink(9).Whentheloadis
reducedbelowapredeterminedvaluecounterweight(2)closeslimit
973/1563
09/09/2015
switch(4);thiscausestheplatformtoriseandtakeoffaweightfrom
link(9).
Pneumaticandhydraulicbalanceelem.ents
Pneumaticandhydraulicbalanceelementsusuallyconsistoftwo
separateinstruments:aprimaryinstrumenttakinguptheload
(dynamometer),andasecondarymeasuringinstrument(manometer).The
manometersareconnectedwiththeprimaryinstrumentsbymetaltubes
upto20or30mlong.Oneoftheprincipaladvantagesofpneunnaticand
hydraulicbalanceelementsisthesinaplicityoftheirdesign,whichmakes
possibleremotemeasurement.Thesimplestpneumaticmeasuringdevice
isshowninFigure6.40,ThemeasuredforcePistransmittedtobell(1),
whichisimmersedinvessel(2),filledwithmercuryorsomeotherliquid.
Thepressureintheairspaceunderthebellisthusraised;thisincrease
istransmittedbyatubetoUtubemanometer(3).Ifweneglectthewall
thicknessofthebell,thedifferencesinheightsofthecolumnsofliquid
368
inthebellandinthemanometerarerespectively
pP
ft,=ETandA,=ij,
whereFisthecrosssectionofthebell,fiandfzarethespecificgravities
oftheliquidsinthebellandinthemanometerrespectively.Theerrors
974/1563
09/09/2015
ofsuchpneumaticdynamometersarecausedmainlybyirreproducibility
'WM
/3
FIGURE6,40.Pneumaticbalanceelement.
1bell:2vesselwithmercury;'J
manometer
ofindicationsduetovariationsinthesurfacetensionofmercurywhenit
becomesoxidizedandcontaminated,andbythetemperaturevariationof
Tiand12.Therangeofthemeasuredforcesisdeterminedbythe
permissibleheightvariationofthecolumnofliquidinvessel(2),andby
thepermissibletravelofthebell,whichisrelatedtothedisplacementofthe
modelinthewindtunnel.
FIGURE6.41.Hydraulicdynamometer.1piston,2cylinder;3
diaphragms;4.5plates:6rodstakingupmeasuredload;7
baffleplate:Bnozzle;airchamber;10bellows;11spring
12rodwithrack;13pointer;14Bourdontube.
975/1563
09/09/2015
369
Figure6.41showsasystemofmeasuringforceswiththeaidofahydraulic
dynamometerwithamanometricspringdevice/ll/.Incontrasttoother
forcemeasuringdevices,hydraulicdynamometerspermitloadsofseveral
tonstobemeasuredwithoutintermediateleversystemsofbalanceelenaents.
SuchhydraulicdynamometersareusedinU.S.balances,inwhichtheforces
areresolvedintocomponentsbymeansofhydrostaticpairs.Inbalances
ofthistypetheverticalload,whichincludesthetotalweightofthefloating
frame,isusuallytakenupbythreedynanriometerswhichcarrytheframe.
Thedynamometerconsistsofpiston(1),insertedwithasmallclearance
incylinder(2).Theflatendsofthepistoncarrydiaphragnas(3),which
sealtheoilspacesintheupperandlowerplates(4)and(5).Thefulltravel
ofthepistonisabout0.05mm.Theloweroilspaceisconnectedbyametal
tubetoameasuringdevice,whiletheupperoilspaceisunderaconstant
pressurepo
Thisdesignpermitsmeasurementnotonlyofpositivebutalsoofnegative
loadsactingonthepistonthroughrods(6).Thepressureintheoilspace
connectedwiththemeasuringsystemdependsonlyonthisloadandonthe
pressurepn.Thepressureinthewindtunnelactsonbothsidesofthepiston
andisthereforenottransmittedtothemeasuringdevice.Thedynamometer
isequippedwithvolumetrictemperaturecompensationwhoseoperating
principleisthesameasinthesystemshowninFigure6.44.Whenthepressure
changesintheloweroilspace,theBourdontube(14)ofthem.easuring
devicetendstobendandthusalterthegapbetweenbaffleplate(7)and
nozzle(8),throughwhichairisdischargedcontinuouslyfromathrottle
openinginchamber(9).Thechangeinthegapalsocausesthepressure
tovaryinbellows(10),whichisconnectedwiththechamber.Whenthis
976/1563
09/09/2015
happens,theuppersurfaceofthebellowsmoves,thusalteringthetension
ofspring(11)insuchawaythatthepositionoftheBourdontuberemains
fixedatsmalldisplacementsofthebaffleplate.Thetensionofspring(11)
andthus,ofrod(12)andpointer(13)connectedtoit,isproportionalto
theoilpressureandthereforetotheforceP.
ThespringismadeofElinvarwhichcontains35%nickeland8%
chromium.Thematerialhasastressstrainrelationshipwhichislinear
withanaccuracyof0.05%,anditspropertiesvaryverylittlewith
temperature.IncertainU.S.windtunnels,wherethebalancesare
equippedwithsuchmeasuringdevices,theangularmotionofthe
pointerisconvertedintoelectricalpulseswhicharefedtoasystemfor
processingthemeasurementdata.
Preliminarysimplifiedprocessingofthedata,inordertoobtainnet
valuesoftheforceandmomentcomponents,iscarriedoutaccording
tothesystemshowninFigure6.42,whichmakespossiblewindtunnel
balanceswithoutleversystemsforresolvingtheforcesinto
components.
Figure6.43showsahydraulicsystemwhichisacombinationofan
automaticleverbalanceelementwithacertaintypeofhydrauliclever.Sucha
systemisadvantageouswhen,duetospacelimitationsorforotherreasons,
thebalanceelementshavetobeatacertaindistancefromthewindtunnel.
Theprim.aryinstrumentconsistsofbellows(1),connectedwithbellows(2)
byabrasstubeof2to4m.mdiameter.Bellowsandtubearefilledwithoil
ordistilledwater.Thepressure,causedbytheloadP,onbellows(1),
370
977/1563
09/09/2015
mrpT^
f,ij
Lnin
lt;,^
FIGURE6.42.Addingandsubtractingforceswiththeaidofahydraulicforce
measuringdevice.
FIGURE6.43,Hydraulictransmissionofforces1bellowstotakeupload;
2bellowsconnectedwithbalanceelement.3balancelever;4
978/1563
09/09/2015
cranklevertocompensateforrigidityofbellows(1);5crankleverto
compensateforrigidityofbellows(2).
371
istransmittedthroughthetubetothebottomofbellows(2)whichis
connectedwithlever(3)oftheautomaticbalanceelement.Thelefthand
armoftheleveristhusacteduponbyaforcePjwhichisequilibratedby
acounterweight.
Thedisplacementofthebottomofbellows(2)dependsonthedistance
betweenthecontactsoftheautomaticbalanceelementandusuallydoes
notexceedafewhundredthsoreventhousandthsofamillimeter;when
thesystemisproperlyfilledwithliquidthedisplacementofthebottomof
bellows(1)isalsoverysmall.Hence,hysteresiseffectsonthebellows
donotinfluencethemeasurementoftheforceP,.Thetransmissionratio
ofthehydraulicsystemisdeterminedbycalibration.Itcanbeassumed
thatP2/P1=FilFiwheref1andfzarerespectivelytheeffectiveareasof
bellows(1)and(2).Whenairbubblesarepresentinthesystem,the
initialpartofthedependencecurvecanbenonlinear;toavoidthis,the
systemisfilledundervacuumafterallconnectionshavebeensoldered,
orthebellowsarepreloaded.
^D
979/1563
09/09/2015
_2
^TT
FIGURE644.VolumetrictemperaturecompensationforahydraulicS)stem
1bellowstotakeupload;2bellowsconnectedtobalanceelement:3
compensatingbellows,4leadscrewandreductiongear.5servomotor.
6contactconnectedtomovablepartofbellows;7stationarycontact
Insuchclosedhydraulicsystemsachangeinthetemperatureofthe
surroundingscausesachangeintheiôlumeoftheliquidandcanbethe
causeofsystematicerrors.Ifbellows(2)isconnectedwithanull
instrument(asinthecaseconsidered),thedifferenceAvibetweenthe
thermaldilatationsoftheliquidandofthebellowsmaterialcausesa
displacement5;=Avt/F,Thisgivesrisetoanelasticrestoringforce
AP(=ciitactingonthebottomandopposingitsmotion.Herecîsthe
springrateofbellows(1)andthelinksconnectedtoit.ThemagnitudeA/'i
isasystematicerrorofmeasuringtheforceP,andisverydifficultto
takeintoaccount.
980/1563
09/09/2015
372
ThetemperatureerrorAP|canbeavoidedbymeansofforceorvolumetric
compensation.Forcecompensationconsistsofapplyingtothebottomof
bellows(1)aforcewhichisequalandoppositetotheelasticrestoring
forcehPt.Figure6.43showsaforcecompensationsystemwhichconsists
ofcranklever(4),whosehorizontalarmishingedatAtobellows(1)and
whoseverticalarmcarriesaweightQ,Whenthebottomofbellows(1)
movesadistance8,,theforceactingonitchangesby
.P,=(.^)B,.
Fullcompensation(APj=)isobtainedwhenQih~cia\;thisis
easilyachievedbyadjustingthevalueofU.
Inordertocompensatefullythereductioninsensitivitycausedbylever
(3)beingconnectedtobellows(2),itissufficienttoraisethecenterof
gravityoftheleverbyfixingtoitaweightQâtaheight4abovethefulcrum
ofthelever.Similarlytotheabove,fullcompensationoftheelastic
restoringforceactingonbellows(2)isobtainedwhenQ2Z2=C2a\.When
02islarge,theweightQ2becomesheavy;inthiscase,initsplace,the
righthandendoftheleverisconnectedtoanadditionalcranklever(5),
shownbybrokenlinesinFigure6.43,carryingaweightQ'^.Forfull
compensationoftherigidityofthebellows,thestaticmomentofthis
weightaboutOjmustbe
981/1563
09/09/2015
'i'Mi)
ciaî.
Theratioa'Jb2istakenas1/10to1/20,sothatQ'îssomehundredsof
timeslessthanQj.
I1=1I;^ntI^mirror"^'^Transparent
'['iII_^/4?iscreen
Pendulum
FIGURE6.45.Throughflowdynamometer.1vessel;2pressure
regulator:3throttle:4disc:5filter:6pump.
Volum.etriccompensationforaclosedhydraulicsystemisillustratedin
Figure6.44.Thesystemincludesanadditionalcompensatingbellows(3),
whosevolumecanbechangedwiththeaidofleadscrew(4),turnedby
servomotor(5).
982/1563
09/09/2015
373
Thereisnonecessityforteinperat\arecompensationinthroughflow
hydraulicdynamometers.SuchasystemisshowninFigure6.45.Oilisforced
bypump(6)intoacylindricalvessel(1),openatthetop,afterpassingthrough
pressureregulator(2)andthrottle(3).Onthevesselthereisadisc(4),which
takesuptheforcePwhighhastobedetermined.Undertheactionoftheoil
pressure,anannularslotisformedbetweenvessel(1)anddisc(4),through
whichtheoiliscontinuouslydischargedintoadrain.Thediscthusfloatsonan
oilfilm.Afterbeingcleanedinfilter(5),theoilisreturnedtopump(6).
WhenthediscfloatsuptheforcePisfullyequilibratedbytheforceofthe
oilpressureonthedisc.Theoilpressureinvessel(1),whichis
proportionaltotheforceP,canbemeasuredbyanytypeofmanometer.
FIGURE6,46.Operatingprincipleofwindrunnelbalancesresting
onthroughflowdynamometers.1,2,11throughflowdy
namometers.3,4,5,6,7pistontypemanometers;8
addingleverformeasuringK;9subtractingleverformeasuring
M;10leverformeasuringq.
Figure6.45showsasystemformeasuringthepressurebyapendulum
pistontypemanometerwithopticalreadout.Inordertoreducefriction
betweenthepistonandthecylinderthelatteriskeptvibratingcontinuously
bytheactionofanelectromagnet.
983/1563
09/09/2015
Intendedformeasuringforcesperpendiculartothediscsurface,the
throughflowdynamometerpermitsfreemotionofthediscinitsplane
atnegligiblefriction,thediscfloatingonanoilfilm.Thesecharacteristics
ofthroughflowdynamometersareusedformeasuringmutuallyperpendicular
forces.ThisisillustratedinFigure6.46whichisasimplifiedlayoutofa
windtunnelbalance.ThefloatingframeAofthebalancerestsontwo
throughflowdynamometers(1)and(2),havingequaleffectiveareas.
Dynamometer(1)isconnectedbytubestomanometers(4)and(6),and
dynamometer(2)tomanometers(3)and(5).Thepistonsofmanometers(3)
and(4)areconnectedbyrodstolever(8),whichaddstheforcesacting
374
onthesepistons;theindicationofbalanceelementsBEy,whichisconnected
tolever(8),isthusproportionaltotheverticalforceY.Thepistonsof
manometers(5)and(6)areconnectedtoequalarmlever(9),whichserves
formeasuring,bymeansofbalanceelementBEm,themomentaboutpointO
whichiscentrallylocatedbetweendynamometers(1)and(2).Dynamometer
(11)takesupthehorizontalcomponentoftheforce,whichismeasuredwith
theaidofbalanceelementBEq,connectedbylever(10)tothepistonof
manometer(7),onwhichthepressureindynamometer(11)acts.
Springandstraingagebalanceelements
Theaccuracyofaspringbalanceelementismainlydeterminedbythe
accuracyofmeasuringthedeformationofanelasticlinkandthephysical
characteristicsofitsmaterial.Theerrorinmeasuringthedeformations
canbeeasilyreducedtoanegligiblevalueifweuseanelasticlinkwitha
984/1563
09/09/2015
largeabsolutedeformation,forinstance,aspiralspring.
Servomotor
Counter
FIGURE6.47Springbalanceelement.
Duetohysteresiseffectsandresidualstresses,theerrorinmeasuring
forceswiththeaidofelasticlinksmadefromdifferenttypesofsteelis
about0.2to0.5%ofthemaximummeasuredforce.Betterphysical
propertiesareprovidedbyspecialalloyslikeberylliumbronzeandElinvar
whosestressstrainrelationshipsarelinearwithanaccuracyof0.02
to0.05%.
Whenspiralspringsareused,theeffectoftheirdeformationonthe
attitudeofthemodelinthetestsectioniseliminatedwiththeaidofanull
methodofmeasurement.Thespringisdeformedmanuallyorautomatically
(Figure6.47)sothatthelever,whichtakesuptheloadfromthewindtunnel
balance,maintainsitsinitialposition.Avisualindicatorisreadoffwhen
theleverisinequilibrium.
Elasticforcelinksintheformofbeamssubjectedtobendinghave
usuallysuchsmalldeformationsthatthedisplacementsofthemodelcaused
bythemcanbeignored.Smalldeformationsaremeasuredwiththeaidof
differenttypesofelectrictransducerswhichconvertthemagnitudeofthe
985/1563
09/09/2015
375
deformationintoachangeofinductance,capacitance,orresistance,which
isthenmeasuredbyanappropriateelectricalinstrument.
Wideuseismadeofmethodsformeasuringdeformationsofelastic
elementswiththeaidofgluedresistancestraingages,whichare
describedindetailinthenextsection.Adynamometerwithglued
wiretransducersisshowninFigure6.64.Duetotheirsmalldimensions
incomparisonwithothertypesofbalanceelements,suchdynamometers
areusedinelectricstraingagebalanceslocatedinsidethemodel.
FIGURE6.48,Fourcomponenibalancefortestingwings.1spindle;2
spindlesupport:3intermediateframe;4,6,8elasticbeamswithstrain
gagetransducers;5stationarysupport;7momentlever.
Inbalanceslocatedoutsidethetestsections,straingagetransducers
areusedveryoftenformeasuringaerodynamicloadsonhalfmodels,i.e.
modelswhoseplaneofsymmetrycoincideswiththetestsectionwall.
Figure6.48showsafourcomponentbalancefortestingmodelsofwings
112/.Awingmodelismountedonspindle(1),bym.eansofwhichitcan
beturnedandtheangleofattackaltered.Spindlesupport(2)iscarried
byaparallelogram,suspensiononintermediateframe(3).
TheliftYistakenupbyelasticbeam(4),whichconnectsspindle
support(2)withfranae(3),andismeasuredbytransducersgluedtothe
beam.Intermediateframe(3)issupportedwiththeaidofbeam(6)
onstationarysupport(5)whichpermitsmovementofsupport(2)and
986/1563
09/09/2015
frame(3)paralleltotheflowdirection.Transducers,whichmeasurethe
dragQ,aregluedtobeam(6).Thepitchingmom.entismeasuredwiththe
aidoflever(7),rigidlyconnectedtotheshaft,andbeam(8)towhich
transducersformeasuringAIjareglued.TheheelingmomentMjis
measuredbytransducersgluedtospindle(1)whereitscrosssection
isreduced.
ThebalanceshowninFigure6.49employsasupportconsistingof
curvedstrut(1)surroundedbyshroud(2).ThemeasuringelementsA,B,
andC,whichhavetheformofelasticparallelograms,areinstalledin
suchawaythatelementAtakesuponlytheliftK|whiletheloadson
elementsBandCdependonthedragQ,andthepitchingmomentjVf,j.
376
Theconnectionsofthestraingagetransducers,whicharegluedtoelastic
elementsBandCandarrangedinbridgesystemsasshownatthebottomofthe
drawing,permitQ,and/Mj,tobemeasuredindependently.Thestationary
partsoftheelasticparallelogramsarefixedtotheshroud.Inorderto
altertheangleofattackofthemodel,theshroudisturnedaboutthe
originofcoordinatesOofthebalancetogetherwiththestrut,theelastic
elements,andthemodel.
Hermeticallysealed
chamber
Testsection
987/1563
09/09/2015
wall
FIGURE6.49Threecomponenlstraingagebalance.1
curvedstrut;2shroud.A,B,C,straingages.
Mechanicalwindtunnelbalancesmayalsobeprovidedwithbalance
elementswithnongluedwireresistancetransducers.Thecharacteristics
ofthesetransducersaremoreconstantintimethanthoseofglued
transducerswhoseaccuracyisaffectedbythenonstablepropertiesofthe
glue.InthebalanceelementshownschematicallyinFigure6.50,thin
constantanwiresareconnectedtoaninsulatedplateattheendofalever
mountedonanelasticsupport,andtotwootherinsulatedplatesfixedtothe
baseofthebalanceelement.
Thetensioninthewiresischangedundertheinfluenceoftheloadto
bemeasured.Thechangeinresistancethuscausedismeasuredbya
Wheatstonebridge,inallfourarmsofwhichthewiresareinserted.
377
Theinstrumentationusedforthisisdescribedinthenextsection.
FIGURE6.50.Balanceelementwiih
nongluedwireresistancetransducers.
988/1563
09/09/2015
Electromagneticbalanceelements
Figure6.51showstwocircuitdiagramsofbalanceelements,basedon
theinteractionbetweenthefieldofapermanentmagnetandthefieldofad.c
excitedcoil.Coil(4)isconnectedtothearmoflever(1),whoseotherarm.
isacteduponbytheforceP.TheforceFoftheinteractionbetween
permanentmagnet(5)andcoil(4)is
F=2KrInH,
whereristhemeanradiusofthecoil,nisthenumberofturns,Histhe
fieldstrengthofthepermanentmagnet,/isthecurrentintensityinthe
coil.
Whentheequilibriumoftheleverisdisturbed,levermotiontransducer
(2)sendsasignaltoamplifier(3).InthecircuitshowninFigure6.51a,
theleverisreturnedtoequilibriumwiththeaidofservomotor(7),which
movesthesliderofvariablerheostat(6).Thischangesthecurrent
intensityinthecoil.TheforcePisdeterminedfrom,thecurrentintensity
whichisreadofffrommilliammeter(8),orfromthepositionoftheslider
ofthevariablerheostat(atastablesupplyvoltage),whentheleveris
inequilibrium.
ThecircuitshowninFigure6.51bpermitsfasteroperationthanthat
showninFigure6.51a,andcanserveformeasuringloadschangingat
frequenciesupto10to20cycles/13/,/15/.Theelectricsignalfrom
transducer(2)(photoelectricelement,capacitiveorinductivetransducer)
isam.plifiedbyamplifier(3)feedingcoil(4),Thecurrentintensityis
measuredeitherdirectlyorbythevoltagedropacrossresistanceR.In
thiscircuitthemagneticsystem,whichconsistsofcoil(4)andmagnet(5),
issimilartoaspring,sincetheforceFisproportionaltothedisplacement
989/1563
09/09/2015
1680
378
oflever(1).Theamplificationcoefficientofamplifier(3)canbeso
chosenthatatthemaximumloadthecoilmoveslessthan0.01mm.
Hence,therigidityoftheelectricalspring,onwhichtheoperating
speedofthesystemdepends,canbeveryhigh.Thus,forinstance,
theelectromagneticwindtunnelbalanceelementoftheUniversityof
Washingtonhasaspringrateofabout2000kg/cmandanaturalfrequency
îV
990/1563
09/09/2015
HLJz:^
V.
,1T^5
991/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE661.Electromagneiicbalanceelements.
a~equilibrationbymeansofservomotor;b
staticequilibration;1lever;2levermotion
transducer;3amplifier,4coil;5perma
nentmagnet,6rtieostat;7servomotor;8
millianimeier
of200cycles/14/.Themaximumcurrentinthecoilofsuchabalance
elementisbetween30and50maatamaximumloadof3to5kg.Using
anappropriatecircuit,anaccuracyandlinearityoftheorderof0.1%can
beobtained.Balanceelementsofthistypecanbeusedinspecialwind
tunnelbalancesserving,forinstance,formeasuringloadsactingon
vibratingwings.
28.WINDTUNNELBALANCES
LOCATEDINSIDETHEMODEL
Aswasalreadystatedintheintroductiontothischapter,windtunnel
balanceslocatedinsidethemodelsweredevelopedduetotheneedto
excludeforcesactingonthesupports.Atsupersonicvelocities,flow
aroundthemodelisleastaffectedbysupportsintheformofcantilever
379
992/1563
09/09/2015
supports,"internal"windtunnelbalancesareinstalledatthejoints
betweenthemodelsandsuchsupportsorinthesupportsthemselves
(Figure6.52).
Cantileversupport
Shroud
FIGURE6.62.Installationofstraingagebalances,
insidemodel;binsidesupport.
Whenthebalanceisinstalledinsidethemodel,theforcesactingonthe
supportarenotmeasuredandthesupportonlycausescertainperturbations
intheflowatthetailofthemodel.Whenthebalanceisinstalledinthe
support,thelatterisprotectedfromtheflowbyacylindricalorconical
shroud.The"ground"pressureactingontherearofthemodelis
measuredwiththeaidoforificesthroughwhichtheregionbehindthemodel
isconnectedtoanaanometer.
Thepossibilityofinstallingthewindtunnelbalanceinsidethemodelis
soattractive,thatinrecentyearsbalancesofthistype,calledstraingage
balances,havefoundverywideuseinspiteofthefactthattheiraccuracy
andthereproducibilityoftheirindicationsarestilllessthanthoseof
ordinarymechanicalbalances.Ameasuringerroroftheseparate
components,equalto1%(underconditionsofstaticcalibration),is
993/1563
09/09/2015
consideredsatisfactory,whileordinarybalanceshaveunderthesame
conditionserrorsofabout0.1%.Thelatterareveryreliableinstrunnents
whichmaintainconstanttheircharacteristicsformonths.Internal
balanceshavetobecalibratedandcheckedveryoften,sometimesbefore
andaftereachexperiment.Particularcareshouldbetakentoeliminate
ortakeintoaccounttemperatureerrors.
Astraingagebalanceformsanelasticsystemthedeformationsof
whoseelementsareproportionaltothecomponentsorthealgebraicsums
ofthecomponentsofthetotalaerodynamicforceandmomentactingonthe
model.Thesedeformationsaremeasuredaselectricalraagnitudeswith
theaidofelectricalconverters.Windtunnelbalancesemployalmost
exclusivelystraingageresistancetransducerswhicharebasedonthe
conversionofthedeformationofanelasticelementintoachangeofthe
electricalresistance,whichcanbemeasuredbyainstrumentconnected
toacorrespondingmeasuringcircuit.
380
straingageresistancetransducers
Straingageresistancetransducersmaybeofdifferentdesigns.Wire
andfoilstraingagetransducersaremostwidelyused.Windtunnel
balanceshavemostlywirestraingagetransducers(Figure6.53)whichconsist
Base(filmorpaper)
994/1563
09/09/2015
.BaselengthI
FIGURE6.53,Wirestraingagetransducer
ofseveralturns(grids)ofwireofverysmalldiameter(0.025to0.03mm),
madefromanalloyhavingahighelectricalresistance,andgluedbetween
twolayersofpaperorfilm.Ifthestraingagetransducerisgluedtothe
surfaceofanelasticelement,thetransducerisdeformedtogetherwith
thissurface.Thelength/ofthewiregridiscalledthebaselengthofthe
transducer.Thecharacteristicsofstraingagetransducersaredescribed
indetailin/16/,/17/.
Theadvantagesofstraingagetransducers,whichmakethemparticularly
suitableformeasuringaerodynamicforces,are:
1)smalldimensionsandweight;
2)possibilityofmeasuringverysmallrelativedeformationsofelastic
elements(lessthan10");thispermitstheuseofveryrigidelastic
elementshavinghighnaturalfrequencies;
3)smallinertia,whichpermitsnotonlystaticbutalsodynamicloads
tobemeasured;
4)possibilityofremotemeasurements.
Themaincharacteristicofresistancestraingagetransducersisthe
coefficientofstrainsensitivity,whichisdeterminedastheratioofthe
relativechangeinelectricalresistanceofthewiretoitsrelativelinear
deformation
995/1563
09/09/2015
'iri~r'
whereRisthe[initial]resistanceofthewire,andIisitslength.
Thus,ifwedeterminethevalueofARIR,wecan,knowingthecoefficient
ofstrainsensitivity,findtherelativeelongationofthewireand,therefore,
oftheelasticelementtowhichthestraingagetransducerisglued:
4_J_&R_
381
Foramonoaxialstateofstress,therelationshipbetweenthestraine
andthestressais,withintheproportionalitylimitsofthematerial,
givenbye=cjE,whereEisthemodulusofelasticityofthennaterial.
Thestressatanypointofanelasticelementdependsontheforces
andm.omentsactingonthiselement.Hence,therelativechangeinthe
resistanceofthetransducer,mountedontheelasticelement,is
proportionaltothecomponentsoftheresultantforceandmoment,
causingthedeformationoftheelement.Thecoefficientofproportionality
dependsonthestrainsensitivityofthetransduerwire,ontheelastic
characteristicsofthematerial,andontheshapeandsizeoftheelastic
996/1563
09/09/2015
element.
Inthegeneralcase,thestateofstressonthesurfaceofanelastic
element,towhichastraingageisglued,canvaryfrompointtopoint.
Hence,thechangeintheresistanceofthetransducerisproportional
toacertainmeanstressoverthebaseofthetransducer.Inorderthat
thetransducermeasurethestressatapoint(thisisparticularlyimportant
duetothesmalldimensionsoftheelasticelementsusedinmulti
componentbalanceslocatedinsidemodels),itsdimensionshavetobe
small.Windtunnelbalancesemploytransducershavingbasesof5
to20mmandresistancesof100to200ohm.Itispossibletoobtain
transducershavingevensmallerbases(downto2mm),butasmallbase
causestheresistanceofthestraingagetransducertodecrease;this
complicatesthemeasurements.
Themostcommonlyusedmaterialforwiretransducersisconstantan,
whosecoefficientofstrainsensitivityis5=1.9to2.1.Forapproximative
calculationsweassumes=2.
Bridgemeasuringcircuits.Theresistanceofastraingage
transducermountedonanelasticelementchangesverylittlewhenthe
latterisdeformed.Thus,at0.1%strain
(which,forsteel,correspondstoastress
ofabout2000kg/cm^),andatan[initial]
transducerresistanceof100ohm,thechange
intheresistanceis
^R=Rst=\m210"^=0.2ohm
Ifthemeasuringaccuracyrequired
correspondsto0.1%ofthemaximumstress
(i.e.,2.0kg/cm^),theresistancemustbe
measuredwithanaccuracyof0.0002ohm,
997/1563
09/09/2015
whichcorrespondstoarelativeaccuracyof
2X10"^.Suchanaccuracycanbeobtained
onlywithacompensationmethodof
measurement,forinstance,bymeansofaWheatstonebridge.
Thesimplestmeasuringbridgeconsistsoffourohmicresistances
(arms)^1,R2,R3,andRi(Figure6.54).PointsAandB(thesupplydiagonal)
areatavoltagedifferencea(fromana.c.ord.c.source),whilepointsC
andD(naeasuringdiagonal)areconnectedtothenaeasuringinstrument.
Inordinarysystems,thestraingagetransducersareusuallyinserted
intooneortwoarmsofthebridge,whiletheotherarmsareformedby
constantresistances.Inwindtunnelbalances,however,thestraingage
FIGURE6.54.Measuringbridge.
382
transducersareinsertedintoallfourarmsofthebridge;thisincreases
thesensitivityandexploitsthebridgecharacteristicstocompensatethe
differenterrors.
Iftheratiosoftheresistancesofadjacentbridgearmsareequal,i.e.,
/?.^ff,
thenthepotentialdifferenceacrossthemeasuringdiagonaliszero.The
bridgeisthenbalanced.
998/1563
09/09/2015
Whentheresistanceofonearmofaninitiallybalancedbridgechanges,
apotentialdifferenceAuappearsbetweenpointsCandDofthemeasuring
diagonal.Thisistheimbalancevoltageofthebridge.Atsmallrelative
resistancechangestheimbalancevoltagedependslinearlyonthesumor
differenceofthesechanges.
TheimbalancevoltageA"acrossthemeasuringdiagonalismeasured
byanindicatingorrecordinginstrument(millivoltmeteroroscillograph
galvanom.eter).Recordinginstrumentsoftheoscillographtypepermit
dynamicprocessestobeinvestigated.
Inordertoobtainhighaccuracy,Aismeasuredbyacompensating
methodwiththeaidofaseparatecompensator.Inthiscasethemeasuring
instrument(zeroindicator)servesonlyasanimbalanceindicatorforthe
compensatorcircuit,whilethemeasuredvalueisreadofffromthe
compensatorscaleattheinstantofbalancing.Theindicationisusually
intheformofalinearorangularmagnitude,relatedtotheimbalance
voltagebytheexpressionn=mAu,wherenisthenumberofdivisions
ofthescale,andmisaconstantforthegivencompensator.
Mostwindtunnelbalancesemploybalancedsystemswhicharefar
moreaccuratethanimbalancesystems.Balancedsystemsareused
formeasuringstaticorslowlyvaryingmagnitudes.Inordertospeed
upthemeasurements,thebridgeisusuallybalancedautomatically.
Ameasuringbridgeismostsensitivewhenallarmsareequal
(Ri=/?2=^3=^4=R).Suchbridgesarenormallyusedinwindtunnel
balances.Themeasuringdiagonalisusuallyconnectedtoatubeamplifier
fortheimbalancevoltage,whoseinputresistanceislargeincomparison
tothatofthestraingagetransducer.Whentheresistanceofonearmof
theequalarmbridgechangesbyAi?,animbalancevoltage
.u&Ruse
999/1563
09/09/2015
willappearacrossthemeasuringdiagonal.
Hence,toincreasetheimbalancevoltageAuitisbesttoincreasethe
supplyvoltagea.However,atagivenresistanceRofthetransducer,an
increaseinuwillcauseanincreasedcurrenttoflowthroughthewireofthe
transducer,whichbecomesheated.Thischangestheresistanceofthe
straingagetransducer,introducingconsiderablemeasuringerrors.Itis
thereforebettertoincreasethetransducerresistance,whilesimultaneously
increasingthesupplyvoltage,buttolimitthecurrenttoacertainvalue
determinedbytheheatingofthewire.Experienceshowsthatinconstantan
wiresofabout25mmdiameter,currentsofabout3maarepermissible;
straingageswhoseresistanceisoftheorderof200ohmshavelimiting
supplyvoltagesofabout6v.
383
Therelationshipbetweentheimbalancevoltageof
thebridgeandthestraininthetransducer.Measuring
circuitsofmulticomponentwindtunnelbalancesemploybridges
consistingof2,4,8,andsometimes12transducers.Inadditiontothe
increasedsensitivity,bridgeswithlargenumbersoftransducerspermit
independentmeasurementoftheseparatecomponentsoftheforces.Itis
particularlyimportantthattheoutputsignalofabridgecircuithavealinear
relationshiptothemeasuredmagnitude.Ifthemeasuringdiagonalofthe
bridgeconstitutesahighinputimpedanceforatubeamplifier,then,in
thecaseofanequalarmbridge,changesintheresistanceofthearms,
amountingtoAî,...,A^4,causeanimbalancevoltageattheextremities
ofthemeasuringdiagonal,which,forsmallvaluesofaR,canbeassumed
tobe
1000/1563
09/09/2015
_u/AR,Aft;.A/?3AR,\
^"~4I/?R^RR)
Ifalltransducershavethesamecoefficientofstrainsensitivity,the
imbalancevoltageis
Au=^{,e,f3eJ.
Thetotalimbalancevoltagecanbeconsideredasthesumoftheimbalance
voltagesoftwohalfbridgesseparatedbythesupplydiagonal.Ifthe
transducersofthelowerhalfbridgeareshuntedbyequalresistances/?sjj
(Figure6.55),then
AU=!^|e,E.,+C(S3E4)],
wherec=Rshl(Rsh+^)determinestheattenuationofthesignalofthelower
halfbridge.Thismethodofattenuatingthesignalofonehalfbridgein
straingagebalancesisusedforeliminatingthem.utualinfluencesofthe
components.
Factorswhichinfluencethemeasuringaccuracy
Theerrorswhichoccurinforcemeasuringdevicesusingstraingage
transducersarecausedbyhysteresiseffects,temperatureinfluences,
andtheelectricalcharacteristicsofstraingagetransducersandmeasuring
circuits.Aspecialfeatureofwindtunnelbalancesusingstraingage
1001/1563
09/09/2015
transducersistheinfluenceofasymmetryoftheelasticelementsandthe
straingagetransducersthemselves(i.e.,nonuniformmounting,different
resistanceandcoefficientsofstrainsensitivity,etc.).
Theinfluenceofasymmetryisreducedbyinsertingthestraingage
transducersintothemeasuringbridgesinsuchawaythattheelectrically
andmechanicallyinducederrorsaremutuallycompensated.
Thehysteresiseffectsdependonthemechanicalpropertiesofthe
materialoftheelasticelements,ofthewiresofthestraingagetransducers.
384
ofthebasesofthetransducers,andoftheglueusedtofixthetransducers
totheelasticelements.
FIGURE6.55.Shuntingof
transducersinahalfbtidge
byconstantresistances.
Forthesamematerialoftheelasticelement,hysteresisvariesdirectly
withthemaximumstrainofthematerial.
Thematerialofthetransducerwiresis,inadditiontohysteresis,also
characterizedbyvariableabsoluteresistanceandtemperaturecoefficient
1002/1563
09/09/2015
ofresistance.Tostabilizethesevalues,thewireissubjectedtoaging
bymeansofrepeatedheatingandcooling.
Errorscausedbytheinstabilityoftheglueandthebaseofthestrain
gagetransduceraremostimportant.Theyarecausedbycreepofthe
straingagetransducers,andslidingofthewiresonthebase.Transducers
onafilm,basearebest;whenpolymerized,agoodbondwiththemetalof
theelasticelementisobtained.Inordertoimprovethebonditisbestto
usestraingagetransducerswithaslargebaselengthsasthedimensions
oftheelasticelementpermit.
Electricallyinducederrorsarecausedbytemperatureeffectsandby
thecharacteristicsoftheelectriccircuitsusedformeasuringthe
signalsofthetransducers.
Temperatureeffectsandtheircompensation.Theoverall
relativechangeinresistanceofastraingagetransducerwithtennperature
is
4/?,
=|ct+5(p,Pj)]e,
whereaisthetemperaturecoefficientoftheresistanceofthetransducer
wire.PiandP2arerespectivelythecoefficientsoftemperatureexpansion
oftheelasticelementtowhichthetransducerisglued,andofthewire,
whileSisthechangeintemperaturewhichcausesthezeroshiftinthe
measurementdiagonalofthebridge.Denotingtheoveralltemperature
1003/1563
09/09/2015
coefficientofthetransducerbya^,weobtain
385
Thevalueofa^forconstantanstraingagetransducersgluedtosteel
isabout10"^,Thestrainwhichcausesthesamerelativechangein
resistanceofthetransduceris
Afl,1âÔ
Thus,theapparentstrainper1Cofaconstantantransducerisabout
Sincethemaximumstrainusuallydoesnotexceed0.5X10"^to1.0X10"^,
theerrorper1Cmayattain0.5to1%ofthemaximumvalue.Thislarge
tenaperatureerrormakesitscom.pensationveryimportant.
Whentransducersareinsertedintoallarmsofthebridge,theim
balancevoltageduetothechangeintemperatureofthetransducersis
Ifallthetransducershadthesametemperaturecoefficientandwere
atthesametemperature,theimbalancevoltagewouldbezero.The
samewouldhappeniftwohalfbridgeswereatdifferenttemperatures,
whilethetransducersofeachhalfbridgewereatthesametemperature.
However,underactualconditions,thetemperaturecoefficientsofindividual
transducersmaydiffer,whileseparatetransducers(evenwhenbelonging
tothesamehalfbridge)maybeatdifferenttennperatures.
ThetotalimbalancevoltageAu;,causedbythechangeintemperature,
isthuscomposedoftwoparts/18/:
1004/1563
09/09/2015
iû,=a.(A(ijj84ct^jAO),
4
whereAs^=<i|jajj)ador.disthetotalchangeofthetemperaturecoefficients
ajfortheentirebridge,while
isthesumofthetemperaturedifferencesbetweenthetransducersofeach
halfbridge.
ThevalueofAajcanbereducedbychoosingstraingagetransducerswhose
overalltemperaturecoefficientsareasnearlyequalaspossible,orpairs
ofstraingagetransducershavingoveralltemperaturecoefficientsnearly
equalbutdifferinginsign.
Inordertodeternainetheirtemperaturesensitivity,straingage
transducersaretestedatdifferenttemperatures.Onemethodoftesting
consistsoftransferringthestraingagetransducersfromonemedium
(forinstance,paraffin)toanothermediumwhosetemperatureis20to
SO'Chigher.Thechangeinoverallresistanceofthestraingagetransducer
isdeterminedbycomparisonwithareference[resistance]afewseconds
aftertransfertothehotbath.Smallchangesinresistanceoccurringafter
anhourormorearethusneglected.Inordertopreventbending,the
straingagetransducersaresometimesheldbetweencopperplatesduring
heating.
386
Thefirstpartofthetemperatureerror,whichdependsonAaj,is
compensatedbysuperimposingonthepotentialinthemeasuringdiagonal
1005/1563
09/09/2015
anadditionalpotentialproportionalbutoppositeinsigntoAui.Thiscan
bedone,forinstance,withtheaidofaresistancetherm.ometer,whichis
asmallpieceofcopperwireconnectedinserieswithoneofthestrain
gagetransducersofthehalfbridgeandhavingthesametemperature.
Thesecondpartofthetemperatureerror,whichdependsonAO,is
compensatedbylocatingmorecloselytogetherthetransducersinthehalf
bridges.Ifthemeasuringbridgemustrespondtotensileorcompressive
strainsoftheelasticelement,ordinarymeasuringcircuitsemploy
compensatingtransducersmountedonnondeformedelementswhichare
atthesametemperaturesasthedeformedelements.Thesetransducers
areinsertedintothearmsinserieswiththeactivetransducersofthe
bridge.Inordertoincreasethesensitivityofthebridgeinwindtunnel
balancesallstraingagetransducersareactive,andteraperatureeffects
arereducedbysymmetricdispositionoftheelasticelements.Ifthe
measuringbridgemustrespondtobendingstrainsthestraingage
transducersofonehalfbridgearemountedoneithersideatequaldistances
fromtheneutralaxisoftheelement.Inthiscasethecompensatingstrain
gagetransducerisalsoactive.
Measuringequipment
Therangeofvoltagesmeasuredwithstraingagesisdeterminedbythe
maximumstrainsoftheelasticelements.Whenthebridgesupplyvoltage
isu=6vandthemaximumstrainise=10~^themaximumvoltagesignalof
afourarmbridgeisAu=use=6X2X10'^=12mv.Inordertoreduce
hysteresisoftheelasticelements,themaximumstrainshouldnotexceed
0.25X10"^to0.5X10"ândthereforetheinstrumentscalemustbesuitable
foramaximumvalueofaubetween3and6mv.
Experienceshowsthatinordertodeterminethecomponentsofthe
aerodynamicloadswithanaccuracyoftheorderofi%,themeasuring
1006/1563
09/09/2015
equipmentmusthaveasensitivityofabout0.1%ofthemeasuredrange.
Thus,thescaleofthemeasuringorrecordinginstrumentmusthaveat
least1000divisions,andmustprovideseveralrangeswithintheabove
mentionedlimits.
Thenumberofchannelsinequipmentusedinwindtunnelbalances
mustbeequaltothenumberofmeasuredmagnitudes.Usually,the
apparatusisequippedwithadditionalchannelswhichalsopermitthe
pressurestobemeasuredsimultaneously.Allchannelsshouldbe
interchangeableandcapableofbeingcalibratedindependentlyonthewind
tunnelbalances.
Theapparatususedformeasurementswiththeaidofstraingage
transducersismainlyselectedaccordingtothetypeofsupplytothe
measuringbridges(d.c.ora.c.)andtheoperatingconditionsofthe
measuringcircuit(balancedorunbalanced).Sinceinaerodynamic
measurementstheoutputsignalhastobeamplified,selectionofthe
amplifieralsodependsonthetypeofsupply.D.c.amplifiershavethe
387
advantagethattheydonotrequirerectificationwhentheyfeedelectro
magneticinstruments.
However,aconsiderabledrawbackofd.c.amplifiersistheinstability
oftheircharacteristics.Inaddition,adrawbackofd.c.supplyisthe
potentialdifferencecausedbytheweldedjointsbetweenthecopper
andtheconstantanwiresformingthethermocouples.Infact,atabridgesupply
voltageof6v,astraine=10''inoneofthetransducerscausesavoltageim
balanceof3X10"^Vinthemeasuringdiagonal.Ontheotherhand,atemperature
1007/1563
09/09/2015
differenceof1Cinthejointsbetweenthecopperandtheconstantan
createsanemfof40X10"^whichcorrespondstoastrainof13X106
Thevaluesofthethermoelectricemfcanbeeasilyfoundbyswitching
offthesupplysource.However,takingintoaccounttemperature
changesduringtheexperimentisratherdifficult.
FIGURE6.56.Carrierfrequencymeasuringcircuit.1gen
eratorforbridge;2measuringbridge:3amplifier;4
demodulator;5filter;6measuringinstrument.
Thethermocoupleeffectiseliminatedwhenthebridgeissuppliedby
a.c.Inthiscase,theconstantcomponentcausedbythethermoelectric
emfistransmittedthroughtheamplifier.
Imbalancemethodofmeasurement.Rapidlyvaryingloads
aremostoftenmeasuredbytheimbalancemethodinwhichthebridgeis
suppliedwitha.c.atafrequencywhichiscalledthecarrierfrequency
(Figure6.56).Carrierfrequencyamplifierspermitmeasurements
ofstaticprocessesaswellasofdynamicprocesseswhenthem.odulating
frequencydoesnotexceed10to15%ofthecarrierfrequency.
Acarrierfrequencycircuitissimpleandstable,butwhenusedinthe
imbcilancenaethodwithlooposcillographrecording,theerrorisnotless
than3%ofthemaximum.Instraingagebalancesthisaccuracyisnot
alwayssufficient,hence,imbalancecircuitsareusedfornneasuringthe
dynamiccomponentsoftheaerodynamicforces,andalsoformeasurements
inshockwindtunnelsofveryshortoperatingdurations.Measurementsof
meanorquasisteadyaerodynamicforcesbystraingagebalancesare
performedwiththeaidofbalancedcircuits,whoseadvantageoverim
1008/1563
09/09/2015
balancecircuitsisinthattheindicationsareindependentofthesupply
voltageandoftheamplificationcoefficientoftheamplifier.
Balancemethodofmeasurements.Balancedcircuits
provideconsiderablyhighermeasuringaccuraciesthantheimbalance
circuits,anddonotrequireaccuratemeasuringinstrumentswithwide
scales.Sensitivenulltypemeasuringinstrumentsareusedinstead,
whichshowtheimbalanceofthecircuit.Thevoltageimbalanceofthe
388
bridgeismeasuredinthiscasebyacompensatingm.ethod,whilethe
compensatorscaleisreadoffattheinstantwhenthesignalofthenull
instrumentiszero.
Windtunnelbalancesemployexclusivelyautonaaticbridgesand
compensatorsinwhichthenullinstrumentisreplacedbyana.c.ord.c.
amplifier.
Thecircuitofanautomaticbridgewitha.c.amplifierisshownin
Figure6.57.ThebridgeissuppliedfromatransformerT.Achange
intheresistanceofthetransducerscausesadisturbanceofthebridge
balance,causingana.c.voltage,whoseamplitudeisproportionaltothe
measuredstrain,toappearacrossthemeasuringdiagonal.Thevoltage
isamplifiedandfedtothefieldwindingofaminiatureasynchronous
reversiblemotorwhichrestoresthebridgebalancebymovingthecontact
ofrheostatP.ManyautomaticbridgesproducedbySovietindustrywork
onthisprinciple.However,directuseofstandardbridgesinautomatic
balancesisdifficult.Instandardinstrumentsthemovingcontactofthe
rheostatisconnectedtoapenwritingonatapedrivenbyaclockwork
1009/1563
09/09/2015
mechanism.Inwindtunnelbalancesseveralmagnitudeshavetobe
recordedsimultaneously,whilestandardmultipointinstrumentsrecord
theindicationsatfixedtimeintervals.Standardbridgescanbe
usedforautomaticmeasurementsifthetapesaremovedbythemechanismi
whichalterstheangleofattackofthemodel.Windtunnelbalancesemploy
specialmultichannelautomaticbridgespermittingsimultaneousrecording
ofseveralmagnitudesindigitalform,whichismoresuitableforsubsequent
C_
Phase
baiancin
FIGURE657Automatica.c.bridge.1digitalconverter;2reduc
tiongear.3servomotor,4poweramplifier,5phasediscriminator;
6bandfilter;7amplifier;8phasesensitiverectifier;9reactive
balanceindicator,Ssensitivityswitch.
decodingandprocessing(seeChapterDC).Becausethedigitaldevice
isconnecteddirectlytotherotoroftheservomotor,theaccuracy
ofsuchcompensatorsattains0.1%ofthescalemaximum,whiletape
typerecordinginstrumentshaveanaccuracyofonly0.5%.
389
1010/1563
09/09/2015
Modernrapidactionautomaticbridgeswithelectronicamplifiersenable
valuescorrespondingtothescalemaximumtobemeasuredduring0.1to
0.5seconds.Automaticbridgesaresuitableformeasuringnotonlystatic
butalsoslowlyvaryingloads,forinstance,whentheangleofattackofthe
modeliscontinuouslyaltered.
Anothera.c.compensatoristheautomaticmeasuringconapensatorwith
decaderesistances/19/,/20/.Inthiscircuittheimbalancevoltageofone
orseveralbridgeswithstraingagetransducersisbalancedbytheimbalance
voltageofbridgeswithknownresistances.Eachbridgeofthecircuitisfed
fromaseparatewindingoftransfornaerT(Figure6.58).Therheostatinthis
systemisreplacedbyaresistancebox,theresistorsofwhichareswitched
overbyabalancingmotorM.Theboxhasdecadesoften(n/lO),hundred
(n/100),andthousand(n/lOOO)divisions,assembledfromstableresistors.
Thedecadesareconnectedtothecornersoftwobridges.Thedecadesof
tl
nsism
^W^~"J^S
FIGURE6.58Automaticcompensatorwithboxofdecaderesistors,hzeroset:
1011/1563
09/09/2015
Mbalancingmotor;cprintingcounter;Kamplifier;fltransducerbridge;
Pcontactlessinductiveconverter.
units(n)havearoundcontactlessinductiveconverterP,whoseimbalance
voltagedependslinearlyontheangleofrotationofthecoreandisinphase
withthetransducerbridgesupply.Thebrushesforswitchingoverthe
decaderesistorsareconnectedwiththedecadedrumsofthedigitalcounter,
whoseunitshaftisdirectlyconnectedwiththebalancingmotor.The
indicationsofthecounter,whichcorrespondtothesignalofthetransducer
bridge,areprintedonatape.
Anexampleofabalancingsystemwithd.c.bridgeisacircuitdeveloped
byONERA,basedontheSpeedomaxpotentiometer/18/.Thebridgeis
balancedbyrheostatRhi(Figure6.59).Theimbalancevoltageacrossthe
diagonalABisamplifiedandfedtoreversiblemotorMwhichmovesthe
sliderofrheostatRhjinthedirectionrequiredforbalancingthebridge.
Inordertoeliminatetheinfluenceofthethermoelectricemf,thelatteris
balancedbyanequalvoltagetakenfromanauxiliarysourceEuandadjusted
bypotentiometerRh2.
390
Forthis,thesupplytothetransducerbridgeisperiodicallycutoffby
switchS,andmotorMconnectedtopotentiometerRh2insteadofRhi.
Sincethebridgethencreatesnopotentialdifferenceinducedbyits
imbalance,theamplifierisfedonlywiththevoltageofthethermoelectric
emf.ThemotordrivesthesliderofRh2untilthesumofthethermo
electricemfandthevoltageofthecompensatingcircuitisequaltozero.
1012/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE6.59.Circuitofautomaticd.c.bridge.1
amplifier;Ej^'~soutceofd.c.voltageforfeeding
transducerbridge;E]^sourceofd.c.voltagefor
compensationofthermoelectricemf;Usourceof
a.c.voltageforheatingtransducersofmeasuring
bridgeduringcompensationofthermoelectricemf;
Sswitches"measuringcompensationofthermo
electricemf".
AfterthemotorisagainconnectedwithpotentionieterRhj,theadjustment
whichwasmadewhenitwasconnectedwithRhjisstillinforceand
compensatesthethermoelectricemfduringthemeasurements.The
durationofswitchoverforcompensationisabout1secondinevery6seconds.
Inordertopreventcoolingofthestraingagetransducersduring
compensationofthethermoelectricemf,switchSsimultaneouslyconnects
thebridgetoana.c.supply.
A.c.andd.c.supplycircuitsfortransducerbridgeshaveadvantagesand
disadvantages.A.c.systenasaremostlyusedintheUSSR;theiradvantage
liesintheabsenceofcomplicateddevicesforcompensatingthethermoelectric
emf.Theirdisadvantageisthenecessityforbalancingnotonlytheactive
(ohmiic),butalsothereactive(capacitive)componentoftheimpedanceof
thestraingagetransducersandtheconnectingwires.
Circuitsforbridgebalancing.Foraccuratemeasurements
oftheaerodynamicforcesbystraingagebalances,acorrectchoiceofthe
m.easuringsystemisveryimportant.Accountmustbetakenofthe
operatingcharacteristicsofstraingagetransducers,andthepossibility
ofcompensatingtheerrorsintroducedmustbeprovided.Manualinitial
1013/1563
09/09/2015
391
regulation(zeroregulation)isprovidedinthemeasuringsysteminaddition
totheprincipalautomaticbridgebalancing.Itisintendedforcompensating
thebridgeasym.metrycausedbytheresistancespreadoftheseparate
straingagetransducers,theweightofthemodel,theinfluenceofthe
resistanceoftheconnectingwires,theinitialtemperaturedistribution
intheelasticelements,etc.
Therheostatoftheautomaticcompensatorisinsertedintothebridge
circuitindifferentways,providingalinearrelationshipbetweenthe
variationofthemeasuredmagnitudeandthedisplacementofthesliding
contactoftherheostat.Therheostatoftheautomaticcompensatorcan
beconnectedeitherinserieswiththearmsofatransducerhalfbridge
(Figure6.60a)orparalleltothem(Figure6.60b).Thelatterispossible
Rheostat
a)
b)
1014/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE6.60.Connectionsofrheostatandpotentiometerforzero
regulationainseries,binparallel,quinitialimbalance
voltagewhichisreducedtozerobytherheostat
onlywithahighresistancerheostat,sincewithalowresistancerheostat
therelationshipbetweenthedisplacem.entoftheslidingcontactofthe
rheostatandthevariationofthemeasuredmagnitudeisnonlinear.Either
aloworahighresistancerheostatshuntedbyalowresistancecanbe
connectedinserieswiththearnasofthehalfbridge.
Whenahighresistancerheostatisinsertedbetweenthearnasofa
bridge(Figure6.60a)wecan,bychangingtheshuntingresistorR^^with
theaidofswitchS,changetherangeofmeasuredvaluescorrespondingto
thefulltraveloftherheostatcontact.Whentherheostatisinparallel
withthesupplydiagonal(Figure6.60b),therangeischangedwiththeaid
ofswitchS,whichinsertsdifferentresistorsbetweenthecornersofthe
bridgeandtheslidingcontactoftherheostat.Inaddition,themeasuring
rangecanbechangedbyexpandingthescale.
392
Whenduringstrainmeasurementstherheostatcontactreaches
eitherofthelinnitsofitstravel,thisswitchesintheshunting
resistorrandthebridgeisbalancedatthestrainattainedbythe
transducers.Thiscorrespondstoadisplacementofthestrainreadings
overthewholetraveloftheslidingcontact.Usinganumberofresistorsr
whichareswitchedinautomatically,wecanexpandthemeasuringrange.
Theinitialbalancingofthebridgeismiostoftencarriedoutwiththe
aidofarheostatconnectedinparalleltothesupplydiagonal(Figure6.60b).
1015/1563
09/09/2015
Bridgearms(1)and(2)areshuntedinsuchawaythattheratiosoftheir
equivalentresistancesisequaltotheratiooftheequivalentresistancesof
theotherpairofarmiswhentheslideroftherheostatisinapositionwhich
correspondstozerostrain.Theshuntingresistancesarenotmountedon
theelasticelement;thus,whenthestrainofthelatterlise,therelative
changeoftheequivalentresistanceoftheshuntedarmis
whereR^h.istheshuntingresistanceofthestraingagewhoseresistanceis/?.
ThevalueRîJiRsb+R)=cdeterminestheattenuationofthesignaloftheshunted
arm.
Iftheresistancesofstraingages(1)and(2)differfromtheirnom.inal
valuesby+aRandaRrespectively,whereaissmall,whilestraingage
transducers(3)and(4)actuallyhavethenominalresistanceR,the
balancingshuntingresistanceforstraingagetransducer(1),isdetermined
from
whenceR^^'^RI2aandc1/(1+2a).
Ifstraingages(1)and(2)aresubjectedtoequalandoppositestrainse,
theimbalancesignalofthebridgeis
,useI,,,as^,.,
Aa=^(c|1)2(la).
Thus,iftheresistanceoftransducers(1)and(2)differsfromthe
nominalvalueby1%(a=0.01),thesensitivityofthehalfbridgealso
changesby1%.Thisshouldbetakenintoaccountwhendesigningthe
measuringcircuit.Iftheelasticelementisdeformedonlybytheforce
tobemeasured,theerrorintroducedbythebalancingshuntcausesa
differencebetweenthemeasuredandthetruestrainoftheelement.If
1016/1563
09/09/2015
otherforcesact(e.g.,forcesnormaltothattobemeasured),thesecause
additionalstrainsoftheelasticelement.Whentheircompensationis
providedinthebridgecircuit,theerrorintroducedbytheshuntappears
asashiftofthezeropositionoftheautomaticcompensator,whichdepends
onthemagnitudesoftheseforces/7/,/2l/.
Whenthebridgeisfedbya.c,balancingofthereactiveimpedance
componentisprovidedwiththeaidofacapacitor(CinFigure6.57)in
additiontobalancingoftheactivecomponent.
393
Theprinciplesofstraingagebalances
Windtunnelbalancesofthestraingagetypemeasuretheforcesof
interactionbetweenthemodelandthecantileversupport,causedbythe
aerodynamicloadsonthemodel.Sincetheangleofattackofthemodel
isadjustedbym.ovingittogetherwithitssupport,thecom.ponentsofthe
totalaerodymamicforceandmomentaremeasuredinthefixed
coordinatesystem.x^yiZi.Whenanalyzingtheforcesactingonawind
tunnelbalancelocatedinsidethemodelofanairplaneorrocketrepresenting
anelongatedbodywithanaxisorplaneofsymmetry,thecomponentsare
bestconsideredinpairs:liftandpitchingmoment(KjandA/i,);sideforce
andyawingm.oment(ZiandMy,).Thesecomponentscausebendingofthe
balancerepresentedinFigure6.61asacylindricalcantileverbeam,while
thedragQ,andtheheelingmomentMx,causerespectivelyaxialcompression
andtorsionofthebeam.
1017/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE6.61.Straingagebalanceasbeambentintwoplanes.
Multicomponentwindtunnelbalanceslocatedinsidethemodelcanbe
classifiedbythefollowingdesigncharacteristics:
1)balancesentirelyinsidethecantileversupportsofthemodels;
2)balanceswithfloatingframes.
Thearrangementofabalanceofthecantilevertypeisbasedonthe
characteristicsofthemeasuringbridge,whichpermititsuseasasimple
computingdevice.Thevariouscomponentsoftheaerodynamicloadcan
bedeterminedbymeasuringthestrainsatdifferentpointsofthesurface
ofthecantileverbeam.Bysuitablyconnectingthestraingagetransducers
mountedatthesepointstom.easuringbridges,theoutputsignalofeach
bridgecanbemadetodependmiainlyononecomponentoftheaerodynamic
load.Examplesofsuchwindtunnelbalancesarethe"beam"balances
394
whicharewidelyusedinaerodynamiclaboratoriesintheU.S.A.,U.K,,
andFrance/22/,/23/.
Balancesintheformofsimplecantileverbeamsmakeitpossibleto
measureatasufficientlyhighaccuracy,forcesandmomentscausing
bendingstrainsinthebeam(Y,,M^,,ZuAfy,).ThedragQ,andtheheeling
momentM^,usuallycauseinthebeamonlyverysmallcompressiveand
1018/1563
09/09/2015
torsionalstrainswhoseaccuratemeasurementispracticallyimpossible.
Topermitmeasurementofthesecomponentsandalsotoincreasethe
accuracyofmeasuringothercomponentswhenthemodelisonlyslightly
loaded,thecantileverbeamiismachinedinacomplicatedmannersoasto
formanumberofelasticelements.Theseelasticelementspermitthe
influenceofanysinglecomponentoftheaerodynamicloadtobeseparated
partiallyorentirelyfromthoseoftheothercomponents.
Inawindtunnelbalancelocatedoutsidethemodel,theaerodynamic
loadisresolvedintocomponentswiththeaidofkinematicmechanisms
consistingoflinkswhichareconsideredundeformable.Suchkinematic
mechanismscannotinpracticebeplacedinsideasmallmodelwhosebreadth
variesbetween2and20cm,asinmostsupersonicwindtunnels.However,ifwe
replacetheusualkinematichingesbyelastichinges,themodelisconverted
intoakindoffloatingframeconnectedtothecantileversupportbya
staticallydeterminedsystemoflinks.Bymeasuringthereactionsinthese
linkswiththeaidofelasticmeasuringelements,wecandeterminethe
componentsoftheaerodynamicloadasfunctionsofthestrainofoneor
severalelasticelements.
Directresolutionoftheaerodynamicloadintocomponentscanbecarried
outinadynamometriccantileverwiththeaidofeitherelastickinematicor
elasticmeasuringelements.Elastickinematicelementsareusedtopermit
translationalorrotationalmotion(kinematicisolation)ofanyrigidelement
ofthebalance,whileelasticmeasuringelementsareintendedtoprevent
suchmotion.Thereactionbetweentwoelasticelements,ofthefirstand
thesecondtyperespectively,isproportionaltothemeasuredcomponent.
Thehighertheratiooftherigidityoftheelasticmeasuringelementtothe
rigidityoftheelastickinematicelement,themoreexactisthis
proportionality.Straingagetransducersmountedontheelasticmeasuring
elementpermitthisreactiontobemeasuredbycalibratingthebalances,the
reactionsarecomparedwiththemeasuredcomponents.Thus,Figure6.62
showsanelasticelementconsistingoftwoparallelplates(1),interconnected
byrigidelements(anelasticparallelogram)andservingforthekinematic
1019/1563
09/09/2015
isolationoftheforceP;theelastichinge(2)isintendedtoisolatethe
momentM.Theelasticmeasuringelements(3)and(4)measure
respectivelyPandM.
Bysuitablymountingthestraingagetransducers,thekinematic
elementcanatthesametimeactasmeasuringelement.Inthiscasethe
entiremeasuredforce(ormoment)isequilibratedbytheelasticrestoring
force,whilethestraingagetransducersarelocatedatthepointsof
maximumstrain.Thestrainsatthesepointsareaffectedalsobythe
componentswhicharenotbeingmeasured.
Bysuitablyselectingtheshapeoftheelasticelementthestraincaused
bythecomponenttobemieasuredcanbemadetoexceedthatcausedby
anyothercomponent.Thiscaninparticularbeachievedwhenthe
componenttobemeasuredinducesbendingstrainsintheelement,whilethe
395
othercomponentscausecompressionortension.Theresidualinterference
variesdirectlywiththeabsolutedeformation(displacement)oftheelastic
Tomodel
Straingage,j^support
transducers/\
1020/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE6.62.Directmeasurememofforceandmoment.
element,andcanbereducedorentirelyeliminatedwiththeaidof
compensatingsystemsbasedonthepropertiesofthem.easuringbridges
intowhichthestraingagetransducersareinserted.
Elasticelementsformeasuringforces
Thesiixiplestelasticelementformeasuringforcesisabeam
(Figure6.63).
FIGURE6.63.Systemsformeasuringtliecomponentsofaforce
resultant,aaxialcomponentRx;bverticalcomponentRy;
callthreecomponentsRx,Ry,andR2.
396
FormeasuringthecomponentRâlongthebeamaxis(Figure6.63a),
theactivetransducers(1)and(3)aremountedonoppositesurfacesof
1021/1563
09/09/2015
thebeaminsuchawaythattheirbasesareparalleltothedirectionof
thelongitudinalstrains.Transducers(2)and(4),whichservefor
temperaturecompensation,aremountedperpendiculartothelongitudinal
direction.Iftheneutralsurfaceoftherodliesinthemiddlebetweenthe
wiregridsoftransducers(1)and(3),thestrainsofthelatter,caused
bythebendingofthebeam,areequalandopposite(eit=st,).Hence,when
transducers(1)and(3)areinsertedintooppositearmsofthebridge,the
verticalcomponentRydoesnotcauseanimbalance,andthelatteris
determinedonlybytheaxialcomponentoftheforce.
Formeasuringtheverticalcom.ponentRy(Figure6.63b),thetransducers
aregluedtoopposite'sidesofthebeamandinsertedintoadjacentarm.sof
thebridge.Theactivetransducersserveatthesametimeforcompensation;
thisincreasesthesensitivityofthebridge.Incontrasttothearrangement
inFigure6.63a,whichpermitstheaxialcoraponentR^,tobedetermined
irrespectiveofitspointofapplication,thearrangementinFigure6.63b
permitsthecomponent/?tobedeterminedonlyifitspointofapplicationO
isknownandiftheaxialcom.ponent/?,doesnotcausebendingofthebeam,
i.e.,causesnomomentabouttheoriginofcoordinatesontheneutral
axisofthebeamatadistance;fromthemidpointsofthetransducers.
Ifthepointofapplicationoftheresultantforceisknownandliesonthe
intersectionoftheneutralplanesofthebeam,wecan,withtheaidof
threeseparatemeasuringbridges,measureindependentlyeachofthe
coraponentsRx,Ry,andRz,bysuitablymountingtransducersonthesurface
ofthebeam(Figure6.63c).Theaccuracyofmeasuringthecomponents
dependsontheratiosoftheirmagnitudes,theaccuratemountingofthe
transducers,theirindividualstrainsensitivities,theuniformstress
distributionatthepointswherethetransducersaremounted,andseveral
otherfactors.
Whenacantileverbeamofheighthisbentbyatransverseforce,the
maximumsignalvoltageatadistance/fromthepointofforceapplication
is6//fttimeshigherthanwhenarodofequalcrosssectionistensioned
1022/1563
09/09/2015
orcompressedbyanequalforce.Hence,axiallystressedrodsareused
mainlyformeasuringlargeloads.However,forequalstrains,thedis
placementofthepointofloadapplicationislargerinbendingthaninaxial
loading.
Largedisplacementsinmulticomponentstraingagebalancesshould
beprevented,sincetheycauseinteractionbetweenthecomponentsand
displacementsofthepointswheretheforcesareapplied.Acompromise
designisthereforeusuallyadopted,inwhichbothsensitivityand
displacementsarerestricted.Sensitivityisfrequentlymoreimportant,
sothatstraingagebalancesaremostlyprovidedwithelasticdynamometric
elementssubjectedtobending.Onlywhentheloadstobemeasuredare
largeorwhenthenaturalfrequencyofthebalancehastobeincreased,
isrecoursehadtoelasticelementssubjectedtocompressionortension.
Thisisnecessary,forinstance,inhypersonicwindtunnelswithvery
shortoperatingdurations.
Elasticelementsintheformofeccentricallyloadedrods(Figure6.64a)
havethedisadvantagethatduringbendingthearmoftheforcechanges;
397
thiscausesnonlinearityoftheforcestrainrelationship.Thisdrawback
iseliminatedinsymmetricalelasticelem.ents(Figure6.64b).
FIGURE6.64.Elasticelementsformeasuringforces.
1023/1563
09/09/2015
Ifthepointofforceapplicationisunknown,theforceismeasuredby
elasticelementspermittingdisplacem.ent,inthedirectionoftheforce,
ofthebalancelinktakingupthisforce.Forinstance,anelastic
parallelogram(Figure6.65)permitsmeasurementoftheforcecomponent
perpendiculartotwothinplatesconnectingtworigidlinks.Thiscom.ponent
(/?j)causesSshapedbendingoftheplates,sothattherigidlinksare
translatedonewithrespecttotheother.Thestrainsonbothsurfacesof
eachplatearedeterminedbytwostraightlinesintersectinginthecenter
oftheplate.Attheendsoftheplatesthestrainsareequalandopposite;
theirabsolutevalueisRyl/AWE,where/isthelengthandWisthemodulus
ofsectionoftheplate.
Whentransducersmountedonbothsidesofoneorbothplatesare
insertedintothemeasuringbridgeaccordingtodiagramaor6in
Figure6.65thebridgemustrespondonlytotheverticalcomponentRy.
Thecomponent/?,paralleltotheplate,andthemomentMcause
compressionortensionintheplates,whichinfluencethebridge
indicationsonlywhentheplatesaredeflected(/).Thisinfluencecanbe
reduced,ifathird,thickplateisinsertedbetweenthetwooutermost
plates(Figure6.66a),whichtakesupthegreaterpartofthevertical
component.Thebendingmomentisalmostcom.pletelytakenupbytension
orcompressionoftheoutermostplates.Theelasticparallelogramisthus
mainlyapurelykinematicelementwhilethecenterplateistheelastic
measuring(dynamometric)element,andcarriesstraingagetransducers
whichrespondtotransversedeformation.Thedynamometricelem.entfor
measuringtheaxialforceQiisusuallyaplatewhichissufficientlythinto
providethenecessarysignalvoltageduetotensionorcompression
(Figure6.66b).Ifanelasticparallelogramisusedaskinematicelement
thethicknessoftheplatesissmallinrelationtotheirlength,andthegreater
398
1024/1563
09/09/2015
partoftheforcetobemeasuredistakenupbythemeasuringelement.
Iftheelasticparallelogramisatthesametimealsothemeasuring
element,theplatesarethickerinordertoreducetheirdeflections.
Plates
Tomodel
Possible
connections
oftransducers
formeasuring
component
FIGURE6.65.Forcemeasurementwiththeaidofan
elasticparallelogram.
TosupportTomodel
AA
1025/1563
09/09/2015
I^Z
Bridgefor
measuring(Y^.Q)
Bridgefor
measui:ing(Y^,Q)
Tosupport
/
^
Tomodel
1026/1563
09/09/2015
1
3
b)
FIGURE6,66.Elasticparallelogramusedaskinematic
element.
399
'33\
A.
&
1027/1563
09/09/2015
ij
tomodel
FIGURE6.67.Doubleelasticparallelogramfordragmeasurements.
Transducers
FIGURE6.68.Singlecomponentbalancefordragmeasurements.1measuringele
ment;2model;3support;4movinglinl<ofparallelogram;5elasticplatesof
parallelogram;6rigidconnectingwalls.
FIGURE6.69.Measuringdragwiththeaidofsupportsmountedonballbearings(a)andi
diaphragms(b).
1028/1563
09/09/2015
400
Figure6.67showsaslightlymodifieddesignofanelasticparallelogram
intendedformeasuringdrag.Themodelisfixedtotherigidcenterlinkof
theelasticelement,whoseoutermostlinksarerigidlyconnectedtothe
support.Thecenterlinkisthecommonmovinglinkofthetwoelastic
parallelograms.Thisdesignpermitstheinfluenceoftransverseforcesto
bereduced,sincethebendingmomentscausedbythemaremutually
compensated.
Inthesinglecomponentbalancefordragmeasurements(Figure6.68),
themeasuringelement(1)isaneccentricallyloadedbentrod,inserted
betweenmodel(2)andsupport(3).Movinglink(4)oftheparallelogram
isrigidlyconnectedwiththenaodelandelasticallywiththesupport,
whosefrontandbackareconnectedbyrigidwalls(6).
Theuseofkinematicelementsformeasuringthedragreducesthe
influenceofthecomponentsViandM,,.Hence,thedragcanalsobe
measuredwiththeaidofotherdeviceswhichpermitaxialtranslationof
themodel,suchasballbearingguidesorelasticdiaphragmsofsmall
rigidityintheaxialdirection(Figure6.69).
FIGURE6.70,Torquemeasurements.
1029/1563
09/09/2015
Elasticelementsformeasuringmoments
Sincetheheelingmoment/Vf^,causestwistingofthecantileversupport
(Figure6.61),Af^,canbedeterminedbymeasuringthestrainsonthe
surfaceofacircularrodoratube.Inatwistedcircularrodtheprincipal
stressesareequalandoppositeindirectionsinclinedat45totherod
axis.Transducersgluedtotherodandconnectedtothemeasuringbridge
401
asshowninFigure6.70undergostrainsequivalenttoastateofpureshear
here(iandEarerespectivelyPoisson'sratioandthemodulusofelasticity
oftherodmaterial,andWpisthepolarmomentofresistanceoftherod
crosssectionwherethetransducersaremounted.
Thus,theimbalancevoltageofthemeasuringbridgeis
Au=^(s,Ej43_64)=jl^vr(1+(I.)jW.
Inbendingoftherodthestrainsofthetransducersconnectedtothe
adjacentarmsofthebridgeareequalinsignandmagnitude.Thesame
1030/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE6.71.Elasticelementsformeasuringmoments,aandbmea
surementofAi_r,:celasticelementfortakingupthesiiearingforces:d"~
measurementofM^^(orvWy,).
appliestocompressionandtension.Hence,thebridgeistheoretically
notsensitivetoanycomponentotherthanMx,.Nevertheless,inorderto
402
reducetheinfluenceofthecomponentscausingbendingoftherod,dueto
nonsymmetricalmountingofthetransducers,thelatteraremountedas
closeaspossibletothefrontoftherod.Whentheseparatetransducers
areatthesametemperature,thebridgeisfullycompensated.
AhighersensitivitytothemomentM^,thaninatwistedrodcanbe
providedwiththeaidofelasticelementsinwhichthetorquecauses
bendingofoneormorepairsofbeamsorplates(Figure6.71).The
designoftheelasticelement(Figure6.71a)issimilartothatofan
elastichingewithfixedcenter(Figure6.18).ThemomentMx,causes
Sshapedbendingoftheplates.Straingagetransducersformeasuring
Mi,aremountedonbothsidesoftheplateroots.Theinfluenceofthe
forcesYiandZ,andthemomentsMy,andM,whichcausebendingofthe
platesintheradialdirections,isverysmallwhentheratiooftheplate
heighthtothethicknessbislarge.TheinfluencesoftheforcesYiandZj
canbestillfurtherreducediftheaxisoftheelasticelementisformedby
acentralrodtakingupthegreaterpartoftheseforces(Figure6.71c).
Anelasticelement(Figure6,71b)whichexternallyissimilartoanelastic
1031/1563
09/09/2015
parallelogram,can,whenh^b,beusedformeasuringnotonlyMx,but
alsomomentsactinginlongitudinalplanes(My,andM^,).Thetransducers
arethenmountedandinsertedintothemeasuringbridgeinsuchawaythat
thebridgerespondstotensionandcompressionoftherods(Figure6.71d).
Tomodel
FIGURE6,72,MeasuremeniofMjbyanejasric
elementsubjectedtocompressionandtension.
IntheelasticelementshowninFigure6.72,thecentralpartofelement
(1)isanelastichingewhichtakesuponlyasmallpartofthemomentM^,.
Thegreaterpartofthemomentistakenupbylateralplates(2)carrying
straingagetransducersconnectedtothemeasuringbridge,whichresponds
totensileandcompressivestrainsoftheplates.Therigidtopandbottom
oftheelasticelementarefixedrespectivelytothemodelandtothesupport.
Necks(3)reducetherigidityoftheelasticparallelogram,oneofwhose
linksformstheelasticelementwhenthedragisbeingmeasured.
Figure6.73showsthemeasurementofthemomentMx,byakinematic
method.Thesupportismountedonballbearingsinsideashroudandis
connectedtoanelasticplatefixedatitsotherendtoastationarystrut.
403
1032/1563
09/09/2015
ThemomentMx,causesbendingoftheplateinaplaneperpendicularto
theaxisofthesupport.
FIGURE6.73.MeasuringthemomentM^^withtheaidofakinematic
device.
Iftheoriginofcoordinatesofthebalanceisplacedinthebeamsection
whichpassesthroughthecenterofthetransducerbase,thebending
momentinthissectionwillbeequaltotheaerodynamicmomentintheplane
ofbendingofthebeam;hence,theunbalanceofthebridgeconsistingof
thesetransducerswillbeproportionaltoTM^,(orVMj.,).Theoriginof
coordinatescanbetransferredtoanypointontheaxisofthesupportby
insertingintothecircuitauxiliarytransducerswhosestrainsareproportional
toaforce.Thus,forinstance,inthecircuitshowninFigure6.74,
Transducersfor
measuringforceK,
Y///////////Ay/////mm^
^???^
1033/1563
09/09/2015
Auxiliarytrans
ducersfortrans
ferringtheorigin
ofcoordinatestoO
//
/VLSY.
^^Nx*'
</
Xis;~/y
1034/1563
09/09/2015
'yi^~1
//"^
/<
=i
ar
2'\
1035/1563
09/09/2015
\r
4>^
*\
\//3
1I
tj,i
UJk,H'^
1036/1563
09/09/2015
V^Vfl\
FIGLiK^'^4.Circuitfortransferringtheoriginofcoordinates.
404
themomentAf^,abouttheoriginofcoordinatesOcanbemeasuredby
bridgeI.whichconsistsoftransducers(1),(!'),(2),and(2').Inorder
totransfertheoriginofcoordinatestoO',wherethebendingmoTa&nXis
VMj,=/M2,aK,abridgenisconnectedinserieswithbridgeI,whosearms
consistoftheauxiliarytransducers(3),(3'),(4).and(4'),gluedtothe
membersofanelasticparallelogram.Sincethesemembersareonly
strainedbythetransverseforceY\,theimbalancesignalofbridge11is
proportionaltothisforce.Theproportionalitycoefficientdependsonthe
supplyvoltageofthebridge.Hence,thetotalsignalofbridgesIand11is
wherek\and^2areconstantswhichcharacterizethesensitivitiesof
bridgesIandII.ThesupplyvoltageofbridgeIIcanbechoseninsuch
awaythatk^=k\a,sothat
A=*,(M^^+aK,)=/fe,yM;,
i.e.,thetotalsignalisproportionaltotheTD.oraenXaboutO'.
1037/1563
09/09/2015
Thesameproblemcanbesolvedinasimplerwaywiththeaidofa
singlebridgeIIIinwhichtheforcesensitivestraingagetransducers
areshuntedbyequalresistancesr.
Independentmeasurementofforcesandcouples
ThecircuitshowninFigure6.74correspondstotwocomponentbalances
whichpermitindependentmeasurementofaforceandamomentabouta
givenpointwiththeaidoftwoseparateelasticelements.Thisproblem
canalsobesolvedwiththeaidoftwoelasticelementswhicharesoplaced
thattheyarekinematicelementsinrelationtooneanother.Thus,for
instance,intheelasticelementshowninFigure6.75,thecentralrod(1)
Bridgefor/^X//gBridgeforij^
measuring/>y^measuring//
FIGURE6.75.Elasticelementformeasuringforceand
moment,1rodtakinguptransverseforce;2rods
takingupbendingmoment;3rigidlink.
405
issubjectedtobending,asinanelasticparallelogram(Figure6.66a),
takingupthegreaterpartoftheforceY.Theouterrods(2)formthe
linksofanelasticparallelogrampermittingtranslationoflink(3)under
1038/1563
09/09/2015
theactionofthisforce.Straingagetransducersmountedoncentralrod
(1)areinsertedintoameasuringbridge,whichpermitstheforceYtobe
measuredindependentlyofthecouple.Thecouple,whosemomentisM,
istakenupalmostentirelybytheouterrods.Theserodsareeccentrically
loadedbyaxialforcesofoppositesigns,whichcausebending.Thecentral
beamformsanelastichinge(i.e.,akinematicelement),aboutwhichlink
(3)rotates.Eweinsertthestraingagetransducersmountedontheouter
rodsintoameasuringbridgewhichrespondstothealgebraicsumsoftheir
bendingstrains,thebridgewillmeasurethemomentMaboutapointlying
ontheaxisofsymmetryoftheelasticelement.
SectionII
SectionIIU
FIGURE6.76.Fivecomponentelasticelement.
Similarly,tomeasureaforcetogetherwithamomentwecanusethe
centralrodintheelasticelementshowninFigure6.71c.Acombination
oftwosuchelasticelementswithacommoncentralrod(Figure6.76)
permitssimultaneousmeasurementoftwoforcesandtwomomentsin
mutuallyperpendicularplanes,i.e.,Ki,TM^,,andZi,/M^,.
Theforcesaredeterminedwiththeaidofmeasuringbridgesresponding
tostrainscausedbybendingofthecentralrodintwoplanes,whilethe
1039/1563
09/09/2015
momentsaredeterminedwiththeaidofbridgesrespondingtotensileand
compressivestrainsoftheouterrods.Thesamecomplexelasticelement
canbeusedformeasuringafifthcomponent{M'^)withtheaidofstraingage
transducersmountedattherootsoftherodsandinsertedintoameasuring
bridgerespondingtoSshapedbendingoftherods(Figure6.71a).The
straingagetransducerswhichareconnectedtobridgesmeasuringAf,,
and/Vfj,aremountedatthecenteroftherods,wherethedeformationis
closesttopuretensionorcompression.
Abasicallydifferentmethodofmeasuringforcesandmoments(Viand
yVIj,orZiandMy,)consistsindeterminingbytwoseparateelasticmeasuring
elements,thereactionsR]andR2betweenthemodelandthesupportattwo
pointslyingonthe.xaxis(Figure6.77).Acoupleandaforcecanbe
406
determinedasinamechanicalwindtunnelbalance,sincetherigidbalance
link,whichisconnectedtothemodel,servesasafloatingframe.
IftheresultantoftheforcespassesthroughO,whichisequidistant
fromthem.easuringelements,theforceisdeterminedasthesumofthe
measuredreactions,whilethemom.entisproportionaltotheirdifference.
Thiscorrespondstodeterminingtheforcesandmom.entsfromthe
indicationsofbalanceelementsofmechanicalwindtunnelbalancesin
whichtheforcesarenotresolvedintocomponents.However,the
characteristicsofthebridgemakepossibleaddingandsubtracting
operationssimilartothoseperformedinmomentandforcelever
mechanisms(Figure6.10).
1040/1563
09/09/2015
Tomodel
PConnectionof
transducersfor
measuringRi
andRj
Connectionof
transducersfor
measuringY
andM
FIGURE6.77,Installationofinternalbalances
withfloatingframes.
Infact,theseleversystemsareactuallymechanicalcomputingdevices
whichaddandsubtracttheforcesactingintherodsconnectedtothefloating
frame.Measuringbridgesperformthesameoperationsonthevaluesof
thestrainswhichdependlinearlyontheforcesandmoments.Anexample
ofsuchaconnectionofstraingagetransducerstomeasuringbridgesfor
theindependentmeasurementofforcesandmomentsisshowninFigure6.77.
Anexampleofastraingagebalancewithfloatingframeisshownin
Figure6.88.
1041/1563
09/09/2015
Aforceandacouplecanalsobedeterminedfromthebendingmoments
intwocrosssectionsofthecantileversupportofthem.odel.Thesolution
oftheproblemisobtainedfromthefactthatabendingmomentduetoa
transverseforce(KiorZ,)isproportionaltothedistancebetweenthepoint
ofapplicationoftheforceandtheconsideredcrosssectionoftherod,while
thebendingmomentduetoacoupleisconstantoverthelengthoftherod.
Bymeasuringthestrainsintwodifferentcrosssectionsoftherodwe
obtaintwoindependentequationswhosesolutionyieldstheunknownforce
407
andcouple.Thedesignofbeamtypestraingagebalances(Figure6.78)
isbasedonthisprinciple.
2T2'
Section,4Section8
*Diagramofmoments
Sitingoftransducers
1042/1563
09/09/2015
formeasuringYiandM^
^Measuringofsignals
fc*withsubsequentcal
^culationofYiandMz
Îndependent
Vmeasurement
.ofYiamdMz
FIGURE6.78.Beamtypestraingagebalance.
AprismaticorcircularbeamcarriesatAandBstraingagetransducers
whichrespondtostrainscausedbybendingmomentsactingintheplane
ofthepaper.
IftheoriginofcoordinatesisatO,thebendingmomentsinsectionsA
andBarerespectively
M^=^..îÂ'^B=^z,^l^B
WhenthecrosssectionsAandBareequal,thestrainsofthesensitive
gridsofthetransducersare:
M
fortransducers(1)and(1')Si=j^.
1043/1563
09/09/2015
408
fortransducers(2)and(2')^=^,
M
fortransducers(3)and(3')53=^,
M
fortransducers(4)and(4')s^=^^^,
whereEisthemodulusofelasticityofthebeammaterialandWisthe
modulusofsectionofthebeam.
IfweinsertthestraingagetransducersinsectionsAandBinto
separatemeasuringbridgesa)andb),theoutputvoltagesofthebridges
willbe
Substitutingintheexpressionsforthebendingmomentsthemeasured
valuesofAwândAub,weobtaintwoequationswithtwounknowns;solving
fortherequiredcomponentswefind.
'XX
wherek=WEIus.
Theconstantsenteringintotheseformulas,whichdependontheelastic
propertiesofthebeam,thecharacteristicsofthetransducers,andtheir
siting,aredeterminedbycalibration.Ktheoriginofcoordinatesliesin
1044/1563
09/09/2015
thesectionpassingthroughthecenterofthetransducerbaseatA,then
Xa=andtheindicationsofbridgea)inFigure6.78willdependonly
onM^^.
Inordertoincreasethemeasuringaccuracy,straingagetransducers
canbemountedinm.orethantwosections/22/.Thenumberofequations
thenexceedsthenumberofunknowns;andthemomentandforceare
determinedbythemethodofleastsquares.TheunknownsYiandMj,are
foundfromthefollowingequations:
'"',='",rn=5
nHxj(^x,y
Intheseequationsnisthenumberofsectionswherestraingage
transducersaremounted,whilexiarethecoordinatesofthesesections,and
Au(aretheoutputsignalsofthemeasuringbridges,whichareproportional
tothebendingmomentsinthecorrespondingsections.
Thelastequationscanbetransformedintoasimplerform,whichpermits
theunknownstobefoundbymultiplyingtheknownvaluesofAuibytheconstants
ofthesystem:
r,=A(aAa,la,2aa2+<ii3'^"3+).
Af^,=ft(aAa,fa22A2+a33^3+).
409
where
1045/1563
09/09/2015
n2^(S^,f
Forindependentmeasurementsoftheforceandthemomentwecanuse
themeasuringbridgeasasimplecomputingdevice.Thus,ifallstrain
gagetransducersinsectionsAandBareinsertedrespectivelyintothe
upperandlowerhalfbridgeinsuchawaythatthesignalofonehalf
bridgeissubtractedfromthatoftheother,theimbalancevoltageatthe
outputofbridgec)(Figure6.78)willbeproportionaltothedifferenceof
thebendingmomentsactinginsectionsAandB:
A.=X(">'2+"<'3)=Sft(^^^fl)=^TF^^>
Theimbalancevoltageofbridgec)isthusproportionaltotheforceYtand
doesnotdependonthepitchingmom.entAfj,.InordertomeasureMz,,the
straingagetransducersofthelowerhalfbridgeareshuntedbyequal
resistances/?shThisreducestheimbalancesignalcausedbyachangeinthe
resistanceofthetransducersofthishalfbridgetomtimesitsformervalue
(m<I).Thetotalimbalancesignalofbridged)isthen
i"2=^\h^2+'n(643)!=2;j|M^,(1m)K,(jc^x^m)].
Ifwechoosetheresistanceoftheshuntinsuchawaythat(m=Xa/xb),
thecoefficientofYivanishessothattheimbalancevoltageofbridged)
isproportionaltothemoment:
Byadjustingtheresistanceoftheshunt,theoriginofcoordinatescan
1046/1563
09/09/2015
betransferredtodifferentpointsontheâxis.
InordertomeasurethesideforceZ\andtheyawingmomentMy,,
transducersaremountedonthebeaminplanesparalleltotheplaneof
thepaper,andareinsertedintomeasuringbridgesinamannersimilarto
theabove.
Thedisadvantageofbeamtypebalancesistheircomparativelylow
sensitivity,since,inordertoavoidlargedisplacementsofthemodel
causedbybendingofthebeam,thesignalstrainshavetobelimited.In
ordertoincreasethesignalstrength,thecrosssectionofthebeamiis
locallyreducedatthepointswherethestraingagetransducersaremounted
(Figure6.79).Thetotalrigidityoftherodisthusonlyinsignificantly
reduced.
Whenthecrosssectionofthemodelissufficientlylarge,thesensitivity
canbeincreasedatasmallerlossofrigidity,ifthebeamhasinternal
cutoutsasshowninFigure6.79a.Thetotalnumberofstraingage
transducerscanthenbeincreasedbymountingthemonbothsidesofthe
thinouterplates.
1680
410
a;
c^
1047/1563
09/09/2015
b)
FIGURE6.79.Localreductionsofbeamcross
sectioninordertoincreaseoutputsignal.
Designrequirementsofstraingagebal
ances
Thedesignofaninternalwindtunnelbalanceisdeterminedfirstly
bythecomponentstobemeasuredandtheirlimitvalues,andsecondly,
bythedinnensionsofthetestedmodels.Bycombiningindifferentways
theelasticelementsdescribedabove,weobtainmulticomponent
balances.Themainrequirementsofelasticelementsarelargesignal
strainsatanadequatesafetyfactor,linearity,absenceofhysteresis,and
reproducibilityofthemeasurements.
Inordertoincreasetheelectricalsignalforagivensignalstrain,
theelasticelementisusuallyprovidedwithalargenumberofstrain
gagetransducersconnectedinsuchawaythateacharmofthemeasuring
bridgecontainstwo,three,andsometimesfourstraingagetransducers.
1048/1563
09/09/2015
Themaximumstrainsthatcanbemeasuredindifferenttypesofbalances
varybetween0.03and0.1%.Inorderthatthegreatestpartofthe
componentstobemeasuredbetakenupbythemeasuringelements,the
kinematicelementsmusthavealowrigidityinthedirectionofthis
componentandthehighestpossiblerigidityinthedirectionsofthe
componentsnotmeasured.
Bothlinearityandreproducibilitycanbeincreasedbygivingtomost
orallelasticelem.entsinthebalancestheformofintegralcantilevers.
Ifforsomereasonthisisimpossible,allconnectionsoftheelastic
elementsmustbesuchthatnorelativedisplacementsoccur(exceptthose
causedbyelasticdeformations).Thisrefersalsototheconnections
betweenmodelandbalance.
Inordertoreducehysteresis,theelasticelementsmustbemadeof
highstrengthalloysteelhavinggoodelasticproperties,smallwarpingwhen
heattreated,andahighfatiguestrength.OneoftheSovietmaterialswhich
satisfiestheserequirementsisheattreatedgrade30KhGSAsteelwhichhas
ayieldstrengthof80to90kg/mm^.Thebestmaterialforelasticelements
isberylliumbronze.
Asmallinteractionofthecomponentsandasmalltemperaturesensitivity
arealsoimportantrequirementsforbalances.
Theeffectsontheresultsofothercomponentsshouldanaounttoless
than1%ofthelimitingvalueofthecomponenttobemeasured.Ifthisis
411
IIIINIMill
1049/1563
09/09/2015
notachieved,correctionsareintroducedwhosesummustnotexceed3
to5%ofthelimitingvaluementioned.Interactiondecreaseswith
decreasingdisplacementsofthemodelcausedbydeformationofthe
elasticelementsandthecantileversupport.Ahighrigidityofthebalance
shouldthereforebeaimedat,primarilyinthoseelementswhichdonot
takepartinthemeasurements.
Whentherigidityofthecantileversupportisreduced,theamplitude
ofthevibrationsofthem.odel,duetoloadvariationscausedbynonuniform,
flowaroundthemodel,shockfluctuations,etc.,increases.Vibrationsof
thesupportmayintroduceconsiderabledynamicalerrorsintothe
measurements.Themeasuringinstrumentshouldrecordthemeanvalue
ofthemeasuredparameter.However,ifthevariationsoftheparameter
arelarge,theimbalancesignalamplifieroperatesundersaturation
conditionandwillemitasignalevenwhentheconstantcomponentiszero.
Sometimesitisnecessarytoreducesensitivityinordertoincreaserigidity.
Interactiondependstoalargedegreeonthegeometricalaccuracyand
symmetricaldispositionoftheelasticelementsandonthecorrectmounting
ofthestraingagetransducersonthem.Thisisdoneinsuchawaythat
theerrorsintroducedbythesymmetricallylocatedelementsaremutually
compensated.Inaddition,thedesignofthebalancemustensureaccurate
coincidenceoftheaxesofmodelandbalance.Localdeformationsatthe
jointsbetweenelasticelementsmustbeavoidedonsurfacesonwhichstrain
gagetransducersaremounted.
Temperatureeffectsareduetodynamicandstatictemperaturegradients
betweenindividualstraingagetransducersandelasticelements.These
effectscanbereducedifachangeintemperaturedoesnotaffectthe
symmetryoftheelasticelementsorcausechangesintheirshape.
Temperatureeffectsinwindtunnelswithhighstagnationtemperaturesare
1050/1563
09/09/2015
reducedbyforcedcoolingofthebalancebywaterorairflowinginspecial
channels.Whentheoperatingdurationofthetunnelisshort,coolingcan
bereplacedbyheatinsulation.
Designexamplesofstraingagebalances
Inwindtunnelbalancesofthecantilevertype,thedifferentload
componentsareusuallymeasuredwiththeaidofseveralelasticelements
installedinseries.Thus,inathreecomponentbalance(Figure6.80),
threeelasticelementsarelocatedalongthexaxis,eachofwhichis
intendedformeasuringaseparatecomponent.Theleadingcrossshaped
element(Figure6.71a)isintendedformeasuringAJ^,,thethinelementin
thecenterformeasuringAf^,,andtheelasticparallelogram(Figure6.65),
formeasuringy,.Allelasticelementsareproducedbymillingofa
cylindricalrod.
ThedesignshownschematicallyinFigureP.81permitsthree
componentsofaplanesystemofforces(Qi,y,andM^,)tobemeasured.
Theelasticparallelograminthecenterservesformeasuringthelift,
andtheother,formeasuringthedrag.Inbalancesofthisdesignthe
rigidityofthecantileverbeamisloweredbyreducingitscrosssection
atthejointbetweentheelasticelementmeasuringdragandthemodel.
412
Bendingofthebeam,duetothecomponentYiandAfj,orZiandMy^,causes
changesintheattitudeofthemodel,displacementofthepointofforce
application,andchangesintheshapesoftheelasticelements,whichin
1051/1563
09/09/2015
turncauseadditionalinteractionbetweenthemeasuredcomponents.
FIGURE6.80.Threecomponentstraingagebalance.
Support
a)b)c)
FIGURE6.81.Threecomponentbalancewithelasticparallelograms.
Balancesfordragmeasurementbymeansofanelasticparallelogram
canbeinsertedinamodelwithaminimumheightof40to50mm.When
theheightofthemodelisless,theplatesbecomeveryshort;this
makesitdifficulttomountstraingagetransducersonthemandlimitsthe
accuracyofdragmeasurements.
ThecomponentsKiandM^,(orZiandMy)subjecttheplatesoftheelastic
parallelogramtotensionandcompression.Whenthemovingand
stationarypartsoftheelasticparallelogramundergorelative
413
1052/1563
09/09/2015
displacements^tensionandcompressioncauseeccentricbendingofthe
plates(Figure6.82).ThiscausesthecomponentsYiandAfz,toaffectthe
measurementofQi.
me
nOURE6.82.Interactionofload
componentsinanelasticparallelo
gram.
Inthesixcom.ponentARAwindtunnelbalance(Figure6.83)thiseffect
isreducedbyusingtheelasticparallelogramonlyaskinematicelement
(Figure6.66).Inaddition,therigidityofthecantileverbeamis
increasedinthisbalancebysecuringthemodeldirectlytothe"moving"
partoftheelasticelementwhichmeasuresthedrag/24/.Theother
Tosuppon
FIGURE6.83.SixcomponentARAbalance.
fivecomponentsaremeasuredbyanelasticelement(Figure6.76)which
connectsthestationarypartoftheelasticelem.entmeasuringthedragQi
withtherearofthecantileverconnectedtothesupport.
1053/1563
09/09/2015
InthewindtunnelbalancedevelopedbytheRoyalInstituteofTechnology
Sweden,thecomponentsKi.Af^,,andZ},My,are,incontract,measured
byelasticelementslocatedintwosectionsoneithersideoftheinner
part,usedformeasuringQiandM^c,(Figure6.84).Thisinternalstrain
gagebalanceisintendedforalowspeedwindtunnel(upto100m/sec)with
anopentestsectionmeasuring4.2mX2.7ni/25/.
414
Themaximumloadswhichcanbemeasuredbythebalanceare:lift,
1100kg,sideforceanddrag,225kg,pitchingmom.ent,70kgm,heeling
andyawingmoments,55kgm.Thebalanceconsistsofaninnerpartand
twoequalouterpartsaboveandbelowtheinnerpart.Thecomponents
Yi,M^^,andZi,Afy,aremeasuredinpairswiththeaidofstraingage
transducersmountedontensionandcompressionplatesformedbycuts
intheouterparts(Figure6.79).
Section4A
FIGURE6.84,Elasticelementsofsixcomponentstraingagebalancefor
lowspeedtunnels,aouterpart;binnerpart.
Theheelingmomentandthedragaremeasuredbyelementsofthe
1054/1563
09/09/2015
innerpartformedbymachiningapieceofsteelintotwohalves,
connectedbyfourverticallinksandtwohorizontalstrips.Thedrag
causestensioninoneandcom.pressionintheotherstrip.Twopercent
ofthedragistakenupbythefourlinks,inadditiontotheliftandthe
yawingmoment.Oftheheelingmom.ent,87%istakenupbytwolateral
linksformingelasticelements(Figure6.72)and13%bythecentrallinks.
Whenthemodelissmallthedeviceformeasuringthedragisoften
placedbehin'dthemodelinthecylindricalpartofthesupportstrutwhose
crosssectionmayexceedthatofthemodel(Figure6.69).Thecantilever
beamiscoveredbyashroud,whichimmediatelybehindthemodelformsa
cylinderwhosediameterislessthanthatofthemodel.AtM=1.5to3,
thedistancebetweenthetrailingedgeofthemodelandthebeginningof
415
theconicaltransitionisbetween3and5diametersofthecylindricalpart
oftheshroud.Theconeangleshouldbeassmallaspossible,andthe
cylindricalpartofthestrutmustbelocateddownstreamofthetestsection
whereitcannotaffecttheflowinthelatter.
Anexampleofasixcomponentstraingagebalance,inwhichthedevice
form.easuringthedragiscontainedinsidethestrut,isthebalanceinthe
supersonicONERAwindtunnel/12/atCourneuve(France),whosetest
sectionmeasures0.28mX0.28m(Figure6,85),Thedragismeasuredwith
theaidofthekinematicsuspensionofsupport(1)ontwodiaphragms(2)
locatedinthecylindricalpartofstrut(4).Thespiralshapedcutouts
reducetherigidityofthediaphragmsintheaxialdirection.Thedragis
takenupbyelasticelement(3)forminganeccentricallyloadedbeam.The
rodintheleadingpartofthesupporthasmutuallyperpendicularcutouts
1055/1563
09/09/2015
whichincreasethesensitivityofthesystemsmeasuringthecomponents
Ki,Zi,My,,andM^^.Thesensitivityofheelingm.om.entmeasurements(jM^J
isincreasedbythecrossshapedformofthesectioninwhichthe
transducersareglued.The12mmdiameterrodallowsforcesupto5kg
andmomentsupto15kgcmtobemeasured.
FIGURE6.85.SixcomponentstraingagebalanceONERA,Courneuve.1support;
2diaphragms;3elasticelementformeasuringQj;4strut.
Thesixcomponentbalanceofthetransonicandsupersonic
ONERAwindtunnel(Figure6,86)isintendedformeasuringthe
followingloads:Qi=1.5kg;ri=Z,=5kg;M:.,=My,=jM^,=50kgmm.The
testsectionofthetunnelmeasures0,2m.X0.3m.Inordertoincreasethe
rigidityofthebalancethecomponentsYi,M,,andZ,,^My,arenaeasuredwith
theaidofacantileverbeaminsidethemodel(Figure6.78)whilethe
componentsQ\andM^,aremeasuredbyakinematicmethodwiththeaid
ofadeviceinthecentralpartofthestreamlinedstrut.Inordertoreduce
416
thenumberoftransducersandincreasetherigidityofthesupportthesix
componentsaremeasuredintwostagesbyswitchingovertheelectrical
circuits.TheliftY\andthepitchingmomentAlj,aremeasuredbythree
halfbridgeslocatedinthreereducedsectionsoftheleadingpartofthe
support.OnehalfbridgeisusedincomimonformeasuringY\andAfj,.
1056/1563
09/09/2015
HalfbridgeK','^
Connectedto
thesupport
Connectedto
thestrut
4
FIGUREti.^6.Sixcomponentstraingagebalance,ONERA,1support;
2elasticelementformeasuringqândMj^^(shownseparatelybelow):3
cylindricalpano(strut;4ballbearing;5shroud;6halfbridgeformeasuring
K|andM^^;7halfbridgelormeasuringZândMy^;8halfbridgeformeasuring
9iialfbridgeformeasuringK^;10halfbridgeformeasuringMy;11half
w^,
1057/1563
09/09/2015
bridgeformeasuringz^.
ThetransducersformeasuringthesideforceZ|andtheyawingmoment
Aly,areraountedsimilarly.Theoriginofcoordinatesisat0.Theheeling
momentandthedragaremeasuredbyelasticelement(2).Thelatteris
connectedbypinstothetrailingpartofthesupportandtothecylindrical
partofstrut(3)inwhichsupport(1)iscarriedonballbearings(4)which
permitrotationandaxialdisplacementofthesupport.Elasticelement(2),
shownseparatelyinFigure6.86,ismadeintegralfromberylliumbronze.
ThedragQiismeasuredwiththeaidofanelasticparallelogramwhose
beamsarebentinthex\y^planebytheactionofthisforce.Thewideplate,
onwhichthetransducersmeasuringMx,areglued,isbentinthey\Ziplane.
Asimplifiedelectricaldiagramofthebalance.(Figure6.86)isshown
inFigure6.87.TwohalfbridgesY'andZ',whichconsistoftransducers
417
Illllll
mountedinfrontoftheleadingballbearing,serveforcompensatingthe
effectsofinaccuratemountingofthetransducers,differencesintheir
strainsensitivity,etc.HalfbridgeTsuppliesacompensatingsignalto
thecircuitformeasuringZ\andAfy,,whilehalfbridgeZ'suppliesa
compensatingsignaltothecircuitformeasuringK,andyM^_.Theinfluences
ofK,onMz,andofAIj,onKiarecompensatedbyvariableresistances
1058/1563
09/09/2015
Ki/AIz,andM^JVuwhoseslidersareatapotentialequaltohalfthebridgesupply
voltage.
Internalwindtunnelbalanceswithfloatingframes,whosedesignisbased
onthemeasurementoftwopairsofreactionsintwomutuallyperpendicular
planes(Figure6.77),arenaorecomplicatedthantheabovedesigns.
FIGURE6.87.Simplifiedcircuitdiagramofbalance
showninFigure6.86.
Theadvantageofabalancewithfloatingfram.eisthepossibilityof
obtaininghighertransverserigidity,sincetheelasticmeasuring
elements,whichtakeupthetransversereactions,canbelocatedat
aconsiderabledistancefromeachother.Atgivenstrainsofthe
measuringelements,theangulardisplacementofthemodelisinversely
proportionaltothisdistance.Abalanceofthistype(Figure6.88)consists
ofarigidsupportconnectedbythemeasuringelementswithatubularbody
carryingthemodelundertest.TheU.S.firmofTaskCorporationdeveloped
aseriesofbalanceswithfloatingframeshavingexternaldiametersfrom19
to100mmforloads(lift)from45to1800kg/7/,125/.Allreactionsare
determinedwiththeaidofannularelasticelementswhiletheheeling
momentisdeterminedbyatubularelasticelement(Figure6.70).Four
418
1059/1563
09/09/2015
elasticelementswhichmeasurethetransversereactions(fromwhichKi,
Z\,My,andMz,aredetermined)participateinthestrainoftheelastic
elementmeasuringQ,.Theseelasticelementsmustthereforehaveasmall
rigidityinthedirectionofthexaxis,sinceothenvisetheirtemperature
influenceonthemeasurementofQ,maybelarge.Thetemperature
influencecanalsobereducedbysitingthetransverseelasticelements
symmetricallyinrelationtotheelasticelementmeasuringQ,.Theaxial
forces,duetotemperatureinduceddisplacementsofthetransverseelastic
elementsoneithersideoftheelasticelementmeasuringQi,arethen
mutuallycompensated.
FIGURE6.88.Sixcomponentstraingagebalancewithfloatingframe.1and5elements
formeasuringc,;8and11elementsformeasuringZii2elementsformeasuring,Mj.;3
holeforsecuringmodel;4thermocouple;6internalrod;7connectiontosuppon;9
elementformeasuringQr,10externalcylinder.
Themountingofbalances
Animportantelementinthedesignofwindtunnelbalancesofthe
straingagetypeisthestrutwhichservesforholdingthecantilever
supportandforalteringtheangleofattack(andsometimestheangle
ofyaw)ofthemodel.Thewiresfromthestraingagetransducers,tubes
formeasuringthegroundpressure,and(inhightemperaturetunnels)
pipesforthebalancecoolantarebroughtoutthroughthisstrut.
Whentheangleofattackisaltered,themodelshouldremaininthe
regionofuniformflowoutsidethezoneofreflectedshocks.Forthis
purposeastrutformingacirculararc,whichpermitsthemodeltobe
turnedinsuchawaythatitscenterremiainsonthetestsectionaxis,is
1060/1563
09/09/2015
best(Figure6.28).
419
InthesupersonicwindtunnelofCornellUniversitythemechanism
foradjustingtheangleofattack(Figure6.89)consistsoftwoarcssliding
inguideslotsinthesidewallsofthetunnel.Betweenthesearcsa
horizontalstreamlinedcarryingstrutisfixed,whosecenterhasa
cylindricalelementforsecuringthetailsupportwiththebalanceandthe
model.Thearcsaremovedbyanelectricmotorviaareductiongear.
Thejointsbetweenthemechanismforangleofattackadjustmentandthe
windtunnelwallsaresealedwithrubbertubesintowhichairisblown
aftereachadjustment.
FIGURE6.89.Mechanismforadjustingthe
angleofattackwithtwoarcshapedstruts.
Figure6.90showsthemechanismforsecuringamodelandadjusting
itsangleofattack,usedinthesupersonicwindtunneloftheArmstrong
WhitworthAircraft(AWA)laboratory(U.K.).Thetestsectiondimensions
areapproximately0.5mX0.5m.Inthisbalancetheangleofattackis
adjustedinrelationtoanaxisfardownstreamofthemodel;thebalance
isthereforeequippedwithadevicepermittingsimultaneoustranslational
motionofthemodel.Therearofthecantileversupportishingedinside
theshroudingtotwoverticalstruts.Eachstrutcanbeadjustedvertically
withtheaidofaleadscrewdrivenbyanelectricmotor.Themovement
ofthestrutsisremotelycontrolled.Thebalancewiththemodelis
1061/1563
09/09/2015
adjustedverticallyinthetestsectionbysim.ultaneouslyraisingandlowering
thestruts.Theangleofattackisalteredbyraisingoneandloweringthe
otherstrut.Aseparateleadscrewpermitsthemodelwiththebalancetobe
movedinthetestsectioninthelongitudinaldirection.
Figure6.91showsthemechanismformountingasixcomponentbalance
inatransonicwindtunneloftheAircraftResearchAssociation(ARA)
laboratory(U.K.),whosetestsectionmeasures2.74mX2.44m.Tospeed
upthetests,fiveequaltestsections,mountedoncarriages,areprovided.
Eachcarriageisequippedwithabalanceandallnecessaryinstruntients.
Thecantileversupportishingedtothefinelystreamlinedverticalstrut.
Thelevermechanismforadjustingtheangleofattackislocatedinsidethe
shrouding.Theangleofattackisalteredbyverticallymovingtheleading
partofthestrutwhichcarriestheaxisofrotationofthemodel.
Thekinematicsofthemechanismaresuchthatdisplacementofthemodel
inrelationtothehorizontaltunnelwalls,causedbyachangeinitsattitude,
iscompensatedbytranslationalmotiontogetherwiththestrut.
420
FIGURE6.90.Mechanismforadjustingtheangleofattack
andmovingthebalanceintheAWAlaboratory.
1C5.
1062/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE6.91.Mountingofmodelonatraveling
carriageintheARAwindtunnel.1modelsupport;
2slidingverticalstrut;3stationaryvertical
strut;4leadscrew;5carriage;6reduction
gear;7motor;8and9upperandlower
tunnelwalls.
421
Interactionbetweenloadcomponents
Themaincausesofinteractionbetweentheloadcomponentsinstrain
gagebalancesare:
1)Differencesinstrainsensitivityandinitialabsoluteresistanceof
thestraingagetransducersconstitutingthebridge;
2)Inaccuratemachiningoftheelasticelements;
3)Inaccurateandnonsymm.etricalmountingofthestraingage
transducersontheelasticelements;
4)Displacementsoftheelasticelementscausingchangesintheirshape
andaffectingthesymmetry;
5)Relativeangulardisplacementsbetweenmodelandsupport,causedby
deformationofthelattertogetherwiththebalance.
Inordertoreducetheinfluenceofdifferencesinstrainsensitivity,all
1063/1563
09/09/2015
transducersconstitutingagivenmeasuringbridgemustbeselectedfromthe
samebatch,m.adefromwireofthesamemelt.Inorderthattheresistances
ofthestraingagetransducersbeassimilaraspossible,thetransducers
aredividedintogroupswithinwhichtheresistancediffersbynotmorethan
0.1ohm.
Theinfluenceofinaccuratemachiningoftheelasticelements,orofthe
nonsymmetricalmountingofthestraingagetransducersonit,canbe
deducedfromtheelasticparallelogram(Figure6.92).Letthesubscripty
denotebendingstrainsofthetransducers,causedbythemeasuredforce,
whilethesubscriptmdenotestensilestrainscausedbythemoment.The
imbalancesignalofthebridgewhichservesformeasuringtheforceYis
then
A=f(Ee,AeJ,
where
^Sy=h,+^y,+h;+h,''^^m=e,
,fs,E
Ifatthepointswherethestraingagetransducersaremounted,thecross
sectionalareasoftheplatearenotequal,orlocalnonsymmetricalstrains
exist,Aem=0.ThebridgerespondsthennotonlytotheforceYbutalso
tothemomentM.
1064/1563
09/09/2015
*m
1065/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE6.92.Influenceoferrors.
422
Thesamehappenswhenthestrainsensitivitiesofthetransducers
differ.If
l%,l=|e)..i=Iej.l=l^y.l
and
then
1066/1563
09/09/2015
where
Sm.=e.=s.
lû=^{e^T.SieAs),
IfAs=0,thenAudependsonlyontheforceY.
Inaccuratemountingoftransducersinbeamtypebalancesmayalso
causethebaseaxesofthetransducersmeasuring,e.g.,KiandM^,,notto
lieintheXij/iplane,whichnaustbetheneutralplaneofbendingforthe
forceZ,andthemom.entMactinginthextZiplane.Inthiscasethe
measuringbridges(Figure6.78)respondnotonlytothecomponentsy,
andMi,,whichtendtobendthebeaminthexii/iplane,butalsotothe
componentsZiandM,,whichcausebendingofthebeaminthex^ziplane.
Wheneighttransducersareinsertedintoonemeasuringbridge,the
transducersontheleftandrightofthea:;/planecanbeconnectedintoa
halfbridgeasshowninFigure6.93,theirresponsebeingbalancedina
correctioncircuitwiththeaidofavariableresistancer.Wecan
Tomeasuring
^.
1067/1563
09/09/2015
circuit
FIGURE6.93.Compensatingforincorrectmountinganddifferentsensitivities
oftransducers.
experimentallychoosethisresistanceinsuchawaythattheforceZ,which
tendstobendtherodinthexzplane,causesnoresponseintheentirehalf
bridge.ThecircuitsofthecompensatedbridgesmeasuringViandM^^,
whichconsistoftransducersmountedonthebeamaccordingtoFigure6.78,
423
IIHIIIIIWIIflflllBII
iiiinmillniiiiiKiBi
areshowninFigure6.94.Thismethodofeliminatinginteractions,usedat
theONERAlaboratory/23/,complicatesthedesignofthebalances,since
alargenumberofleadsarerequired.
1068/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE6.94.CircuiidiagramsofcompensatedbridgesformeasuringK,andAi^,
Moreoften,thearmsofabridgemeasuringonecomponentcontain
auxiliarytransducersrespondingtothatcomponentwhichintroducesan
errorintothemeasurementofthefirstcomponent.Thelocationofthese
auxiliarytransducersandtheirresistancearechoseninsuchawaythat
theirsignalisequalandoppositetotheerrorinthemainsignal.This
m.ethodisapplicabletoalltypesofstraingagebalances.
Anothernaethodforreducingtheinteractionofcomponentscausing
bendingofthesupportintwom.utuallyperpendicularplanesconsistsin
feedingcompensatingsignalstothemeasuringbridges.Closetothe
pointwhereitissecured,thesupportcarriestwohalfbridges,oneofwhich
respondstothebendingmom.entinthexyplane(halfbridgeY'in
Figure6.95)whiletheotherrespondstothebendingmomentinthe
FIGURE6.95.Circuitdiagramforcompensatingtheinflu
enceofy,onz,andM,.
horizontalplane.Atthepointwherethetransducersarenaountedfarfrom
wheretheforcesareapplied(theoriginofcoordinatesofthebalance),the
bendingmomentsduetocouplesaresmallincomparisonwiththebending
m.omentsduetotheforces;wecanthusassumetheresponsesofthehalf
bridgestobeproportionaltothecomponentsY,andZ,.Theinfluenceof
1069/1563
09/09/2015
424
thecomponentVionthecoraponentsZ\andjVfy,iscompensatedbyconnecting
theendsofhalfbridge7'tothecornersofbridgesZ\andMy^.The
rheostatsfezandAjfallowthecompensatingcorrectionstobeadjusted.
Similarly,forcompensatingtheinfluenceofthecomponentZjonthe
componentsK]andM^^,theendsofhalfbridgeZ'areconnectedtothe
cornersofbridgesY\andAf^,(seeFigure6.87).
Calibrationofstraingagebalances
Calibrationofstraingagebalancesisbasicallysimilartothecalibration
ofmechanicalwindtunnelbalances.Usingacalibrationdevice,known
loadsareappliedinthedirectionofeachcomponent,andcalibration
curvesareplottedfromtheindicationsoftheinstrumentsofeachmeasuring
channel.Thecalibrationdeviceisinstalledeitherinsteadoronthemodel
insuchawaythatthedirectionsoftheloadscoincidewiththebalanceaxes.
Thebalancesupportisdeformedundertheactionoftheload.Tomaintain
themodelinthepositioncorrespondingtozeroangleofattackirrespectiveofthe
deformationofthesupport,itspositioniscorrectedwiththeaidofa
separatemechanism.
Ifthebalanceistobeoperatedundervaryingtemperatures,itshould
becalibratedatdifferenttemperaturesbetween10and70Cinorderto
determinethezerodrift.
Whereasinmechanicalbalanceswecanalmostcompletelyeliminate
interactionbetweenthecomponents,thisisnotalwayspossibleinstrain
1070/1563
09/09/2015
gagebalances.Specialattentionshouldthereforebepaidduring
calibrationtodeterm.inetheseinteractions.
Inthreecomponentwindtunnelbalances,thetruevaluesofdrag,lift,
andpitchingmomentare
Q,=k^nxkyxly^MX'^M'
^^,=^mnK^YKny~kxM"X'
wheretix,"yandnâretheindicationsofthemeasuringinstruments,
whilekx,kyandkârethecalibrationcoefficientsforthecorresponding
components.Thecoefficientsaccountingfortheinteractionbetweenthe
componentsarekyx,kxr,ftw,wherethefirstsubscriptdenotesthe
componentwhichaffectsthecomponentdenotedbythesecondsubscript.
29.THEERRORSOFWINDTUNNEL
BALANCES.CALIBRATION
Theerrorsof"external"aerodynamicbalancesareintroducedbythe
balanceelementsandthesystemforresolvingtheforcesintocomponents.
Whenthebalanceelementsaresufficientlyisolatedfromtheeffectsof
temperatureandpressurevariations,theaccuracyofthebalancedepends
mainlyonrandomerrors.Thelatterarefoundusuallybycalibratingthe
balanceelementsseparately.
425
1071/1563
09/09/2015
Themainsourcesofintrinsicerrorsofthewindtunnelbalancesare:
1)Inaccurateassemblyofthesystemforseparatingtheforcesinto
components;
2)Displacementsanddeformationsofthelinksduetovariationsinload,
temperature,andpressure;
3)Inexacttransm.issionratiosoflevers;
4)Deformationofthemodelsupports.
Thesearesystematicerrorswhichcanbefoundandeliminatedwhen
calibratingthebalance.Inwindtunnelbalancesthemostcharacteristic
systematicerrorsarethoseexpressedbytheinteractionofthecomponents.
Randomerrorsarecausedmainlybyfrictioninthehingesofthelinksand
canbefoundbyprocessingthecalibrationdatabythemethodexplained
below.
Forcorrectcalibrationofthewindtunnelbalancesthesourcesof
systematicerrorsmustbeknown.Below,thesesourcesarediscussed
intheorderinwhichtheyarebestdiscoveredduringcalibration.For
thesakeofsinaplicity,weshallconsideratwodimensionalsystem,of
forces(Q,YandM^).
Errorsduetoinaccurateassemblyofthebalance
Themaincauseofthistypeoferrorsisthenonparallelitybetween
thedirectionsofthecoordinateaxesandthedirectionsofthelinkswhich
connectthemodelorthefloatingframewiththemeasuringsystemofthe
1072/1563
09/09/2015
balance.
Thus,forinstance,ifrods(1)and(2),bywhichfloatingframe(3)is
suspendedfromtheleversystemwhichmeasurestheliftYandthepitching
momentjWj,areinclinedatanangle<ftothevertical(Figure6.96),the
FIGURE6.96.Effectofinitialinclinationof
rodsondragmeasurement,
forcesactingintheserodshavehorizontalcomponents.Rod(4),which
connectsthefloatingframetobalanceelementBEq,willthentakeup.
426
inadditiontothehorizontalcomponentQ,anadditionalloadwhich,when
9issmall,is
AQ=(P+r)<p,
wherePistheweightofthefloatingframeandthemodel.
ThevalueofPcfisconstantandcanbeeasilyfoundfromtheinitial
indicationofbalanceelementBEq.Inclinationoftherodsthereforecauses
anerrorinthemeasurementofQ,whichisproportionaltotheliftand
totheangleofinclination:
^Q'=r<p.
1073/1563
09/09/2015
Withalowdragmodel,asmallinclinationoftherodscancause
considerableerrorswhenmeasuringQ,Thus,forinstance,inorder
thatthecorrectionAQ'belessthan0.5%ofQwhenY/Q=20,itisnecessary
that
Theangleofinclinationoftherodsshouldthereforenotexceed?=1/4000.
Whenthelengthoftherodsis/,theirupperandlowerhingesshould
lieononeverticalwithanaccuracyof//4000.Thelongertherods,
theeasieritistoobtainthisaccuracy.Theadjustmentmustbemadeby
aweightmethod.Thesupportsofthelevercarryingtheupperhinges
oftherodsaremovedhorizontallytoapositionatwhichtheplacingof
weightsontheframenearhingesAandBdoesnotaffecttheindications
ofbalanceelementBEq.Topreventchangesinthispositionduring
operationofthebalance,thesupportsmustrestonveryrigidbases.
Afteradjustmentthesupportsarefixedbycontrolpins.Adjustmentis
facilitatedifthefloatingframehasadditionalhingesforsuspending
calibrationweightsnearthehingesAandB.
Theinfluenceofdisplacementsofthemeasuring
links.Thependulumeffect
Theforcesactingonthefloatingframecausedeformationofthe
balancelinksanddisplacementsoftheloadsupportinglinksofthe
balanceelements.Thechangesthusintroducedinthegeometryofthesystem
forresolvingtheforcesintocomponentsgiverisetointeractionsbetween
thelatter.Horizontaldisplacementsofthefloatingframe,causingthelift
toaffectmeasurementofthehorizontalcomponents,aremostcritical.
Asystemconsistingofafloatingframesuspendedonverticalrodscan
beconsideredasaload,whoseweightPisequaltothetotalweightofthe
frameandthemodel,suspendedfromastationaryhingeonaverticalrod
1074/1563
09/09/2015
oflength/(Figure6.97).Theelasticityofthelinksconnectingthefram.e
withthesystemmeasuringQcanbesimulatedbytheelasticityofspring
(1)havingaspringratec,,whilethestabilityofthebalanceelementcan
besimulatedbyaspringwhosespringrateiscj.Ifthestability
427
coefficientofthebalanceelement(i.e.,theratiobetweentheforceacting
onthemeasuringlinkofthebalanceelementandthedisplacementofthislink)
isk,thenc^^kP,whereiisthetransmissionratiooftheleversystem.
AAA/VW^
FIGURE6.9T.Thependulumeffect.
Theangleofinclinationofthependulum(Figure6.97),causedbytheaction
offorceQ,is
whereSiandSaarerespectivelythedeformationsofsprings(1)and(2).
SettinguptheequilbriumequationfortheloadPandconsideringthe
horizontalcomponents,weobtain
1075/1563
09/09/2015
whereNqistheforceactinginlinkAbywhichthehorizontalrodis
connectedtothebalanceelementBEq.Expressingthedeformations8iand
82throughthecompressiveforceandthespringrates,weobtain
Sincetheangle9isusuallyverysmall,wecanassumeNq^Qand
AQ=aQf6ry,
whereaand6areconstantsforthegivensuspensionandnaodel.
SincetheweightPofthefloatingframeisconstant,theinfluence
ofthefirsttermontherighthandsideofthelastequationisexpressed
inthechangeofthetransmissioncoefficientofthedragmeasuring
system.Ifthesamesuspensionwerealwaysusedandtheweightofthe
modelwereconstant,thischangecouldeasilybecompensatedbyadjusting
thearmofaleverorbychangingthescaleofthemeasuringelements.The
miagnitudebYQistheabsoluteerrorinmeasuringthedragQandiscalled
428
thependulumeffect.Thependulumeffect,whichinfluencesalso
measurementsofthesideforceZ,causesthelargestsystematicerrors
inwindtunnelbalancesandmustbefoundbycalibration.
ThependulumeffectvariesinverselywithCjandCj.Ifthebalance
elementusedformeasuringQisbasedonthenullmethod,thependulum
effectiscausedonlybytheelasticityoftheconnectinglinks,sincein
1076/1563
09/09/2015
thiscase82=0.Wecanthusreducethependulumeffectbyusingbalance
elementsofthecompensatingtypeandbyincreasingtherigidityofthe
connectinglinksinthesystemformeasuringthehorizontalcomponent.
Theaboverelationshipsforevaluatingthependulumeffectarealso
validforanyothermechanismoftranslationalmotionofthefloatingframe.
Itisonlynecessarytoreplacethelengths/oftherodsbytheequivalent
length/^.q.Thus,fortheantiparallelogrammechanism(Figure6.3a)
/^.q=^^2_When01andaaarerel'itivelysmallandequal/eq=00.Hence,
inthiscasethereisnopendulumeffectandthesystemisneutralwith
respecttothelift.Adjustmentofthebalanceisfacilitatedifthefloating
frameonantiparallelogramshasasmallpositivestability.Forthis,we
takea,>a2,sothat/^q=5to10m.
Sometimesthependulumeffectcanbepreventedwiththeaidof
deviceswhichautomaticallyreturnthefloatingframetoitsinitial
positionbychangingthelengthofthehorizontalrodconnectingthefloating
framewiththebalanceelement.
Inexacttransmissionratios
Theeffectsofinexacttransmissionratiosoftheleverscanbeanalyzed
byconsideringthemomentandforceleversystemshowninFigure6.10a,
Letusassumethatduetoamanufacturingerrorthetransmissionratiosof
theleversarenotexact,i.e..
WeassumeforthesakeofsimplicitythatthelineofactionofYpasses
throughapointmidwaybetweenhingesAandS(/,=2).Writing
=''+12;4j='._rL{2;M^L2L,.
1077/1563
09/09/2015
whereAiandAZ,aresmallincomparisonwith/andL,weobtain
A^,=nî,,(a')
Nm=^1vVIC')^'+^''^^1+^[('/)Ai+ML\.(b')
whichdifferonlyslightlyfromformulas(a)and(b)onpage340.The
secondtermsontherighthandsidesofequations(a')and(b')arethe
errorsduetotheinteractionbetweenliftandpitchingmoment.
429
Theinfluenceofthepitchingmonientontheliftmeasurementis
iit
andisdueonlytotheinequalityofthetransmissionratiosofleversP,
andP2.SinceAiALisamagnitudeofsecondorderofsmallness,the
errorinmeasuringthemomentis
AA.=Â..^^=^(+^).
Thus,theinfluenceoftheliftonthepitchingmomentmeasurem.ent
dependsontheinequalityofthetransmissionratiosofleversPjandP2,
alsoontheinequalityofthearm.sofleverP3,i.e,,onAL.
1078/1563
09/09/2015
and
Deformationsofthesupports
Inthegeneralcase,deformationsofthesupportsundertheactionof
aerodynamicloadsonthem.odelcausetranslationandrotationofthemodel
inrelationtothefloatingframeofthebalance.
Duringtranslationthevectorsofthetotalaerodynamicforceandthe
totalaerodynamicmomentmovetogetherwiththemodelwithoutchanging
inmagnitudeordirection.Iftheoriginofcoordinatesofthebalanceis
fixedinrelationtothefloatingframe,displacementofthepointofforce
applicationfromtheoriginofcoordinatesOtopointd(Figure6.98)
FIGURE6.98.Effectofsup
portdeformations.
causesthepitchingmomentactingonthefloatingframetochangeby
AMz=8iK^5yQ,where5xand8aretheprojectionsofthedistanceOSi
ontheXandyaxes.Withintheelasticlimitthedisplacemêntsofthe
suspensionareproportionaltotheforces:
5,==2and8.,=,
1079/1563
09/09/2015
430
whereciandcaarethe"springrates"ofthemodelsuspensioninthex
and(/directions.Hence
Thus,deformationofthesuspensionaccompaniedbytranslationalmotion
ofthemodelcausesanerrorinmeasuringthepitchingmoment,whichis
proportionaltothecomponentsoftheforces.Ifthemomentaboutthe
measuringhingeonthemodelismeasuredwiththeaidofabalanceelenaent
locatedonthefloatingframe,translationalmotionofthemodeldoesnotaffect
themeasurementofM^.
Inwindtunnelbalanceswithflexiblesuspensionsthewiresortapes
formthelinksofthemeasuringsystem.Theinfluenceofchangesinthe
directionsoftheverticalandinclinedwiresundertheactionofhorizontal
forcesiscompletelyanalogicaltothependulumeffect.Theerrorin
measuringthedragisagainAQ=(a+bY)Q,whereadependsonthe
geometryofthewiresuspension.
Whenthedeformationofthesuspensionisaccompaniedbyachangein
attitudeofthemodel,thecorrectionAafortheangleofattackhastobe
found.Usually,AadependslinearlyonYandAJ,anddoesnotdependonQ.
Aaisdeterminedbyspecialcalibrationofthebalancetogetherwitha
suspension.Thecalibrationresultsareusedtoplotcurvesofthe
dependenceAa=/(Mj)fordifferentvaluesofY.Afterthemodelhasbeen
tested,thecorrectionsfortheangleofattackarefoundfromthemeasured
valuesofYandM^.
1080/1563
09/09/2015
Thecalibrationofmechanicalwindtunnelbalances
Therearetwotypesofcalibrationofwindtunnelbalances:adjustment
(primary)calibrationsandcontrolcalibrations.Adjustmentcalibrationis
carriedoutimmediatelyaftermanufactureandassemblyofthebalanceon
aspecialteststandorinthetestsectionofthewindtunnel.Leversand
balanceelementsarefirstcalibratedseparately,andarethenadjustedand
calibratedasacompletebalance.Aftercalibrationadocumentisprepared
settingoutallcalibrationcoefficientsandcorrectionsfortheinteraction
betweenthecomponents.Controlcalibrationsarecarriedoutsystematically
forcheckingtheconditionofthebalanceandintroducing,wherenecessary,
correctionsintothedataobtainedbyinitialcalibration.Theseparatelevers
arecalibratedaccordingtothemethod,suggestedbyD.I.Mendeleev,of
suspensionatconstantsensitivity.
Figure6.99showsadevicepermitingdeterminationofthetransmission
ratioandthesensitivity(asfunctionoftheload)oflever(1)beingcalibrated,
ataconstantsensitivityofcalibratinglever(2).Plate(7)carriesaload
whichisequalto,orapproximatesthemaximumloadtakenupatnormal
operationbytheleverbeingcalibrated.Thisloadisbalancedbyaloadon
theplate(8),sothatthepointeroflever(2)indicateszeroonscale(9).
Lever(1)iscalibratedbyremovingbystagestheloadfromplate(7)and
balancinglever(2)byplacingaloadonplate(6).Thetransmissionratio
oftheleverisequaltotheslopeofthestraightlinepassingthroughthe
431
experimentalpointsonthegraphG=/(P)whereGistheloadremovedfrom
plate(7)whilePistheloadplacedonplate(6).Thenumberof
1081/1563
09/09/2015
experimentalpointsshouldbebetween10and20.Thetransmissionratiois
FIGURE6.99.Deviceforcalibratinglevers.
determinedbythemethodofleastsquares(seepage434)withanerror
notexceeding1/ID,000.Standardweightsareusedforcalibration.
Completewindtunnelbalancesarecalibratedwiththeaidofacalibrating
devicewhichpermitsknownloadstobeappliedindirectionsparalleltothe
coordinateaxesofthebalance,aswellasknownmomentsabouttheseaxes.
Inordertofindsystematicerrors(interactionofcomponents)the
measuringsystemforeachcomponentiscalibratedwithdifferentloads
beingappliedtothesystemsmeasuringtheothercomponents.Itis
sufficientusuallytodeterminetheinfluenceoftheliftYandthepitching
momentMônthesystemformeasuringthedragQ,andtheinfluenceofQ
onyandMz.
Thecalibrationdeviceforthreecomponentwindtunnelbalances
(Figure6,100)isaframe(1)fixedtothesupportinplaceofthemodel.
Theframecarriesknifeedges(2),(3),(4),and(5)totakeupweights.
Thetipofknifeedge(2)coincideswiththezaxis.Thispermitsthe
floatingframeofthebalancetobeloadedbyaverticalforceYbyplacing
weightsonplate(6)withoutapplyingapitchingmomentM^.
Kthemodelistestedinitsuprightposition,knifeedge(2)isinstalled
withitstipdownwardandthebalanceisloadedbyaforcedirectedup
ward.ThesystemformeasuringthedragQiscalibratedbyknifeedge
1082/1563
09/09/2015
(3),whichissubjectedtoahorizontalforcecreatedbyloadingplate(7),
suspendedfromaropepassedoverroller(8).Theropemustlieinthe
xdirection.Inorderthatdeformationofframe(1)willnotcausethe
pointofapplicationofthehorizontalforcetomoveintheverticaldirection,
thetipofknifeedge(3)mustbeasnearaspossibletotheoriginof
coordinates.
Knifeedges(4)and(5)serveforloadingthebalancebythepitching
momentM..Thedistancebetweentheknifeedgesisknownexactly.
432
Plates(9)and(10),whicharesuspendedfromtheseknifeedges,carry
atfirstequalweightswhicharethenpartlymovedfromoneplatetothe
other.ThefloatingframeisthussubjectedtoapuremLOmentwhichis
equaltotheproductofthelength/andthetransferredweight.The
verticalloadonthefloatingframeremainsunchanged.
Balancesupports
FIGURE6.100.Calibrationdeviceforthreecomponentwindtunnel
balances.
1083/1563
09/09/2015
Inordertoreducetoaminimumthedisplacementofthecalibration
deviceinrelationtotheoriginofcoordinatesofthebalance,thedevice
isfixedtothefloatingframebyspecialbracketsduringadjustmentof
thebalance.Thesebracketsaremorerigidthanthemodelsupportand
permittheinteractionbetweenthecomponents,causedbythesuspension
tobeeliminated.Theremainingerrors,duetointeractionofthe
componentsandangulardisplacementofthemodel,aredeterminedwiththe
aidofthecalibrationdevicewhichisfixedtothesupportonwhichthemodel
istestedinthewindtunnel.Ifdifferentsupportsareusedforholdingthe
models,thebalanceiscalibratedforeachsupportseparately.
Processingofcalibrationdata
Themainpurposeofcalibratingmeasuringinstrumentsistoestablish
thedependencebetweenthemeasuredvaluetandtheindicationuofthe
measuringinstrument.Thedependenceisinmostcaseslinearandforits
determinationitissufficienttofindthecalibrationconstantofthe
instrument,i.e.,k^
Todeterminek,themeasuredphysicalmagnitude
isreplacedbyastandard.Thestandardsinwindtunnelbalancesareloads
appliedwiththeaidofweights.Othermeasuringinstruments,suchas
manometers,thermometers,etc.,areusuallycalibratedbycomparing
theirindicationswiththeindicationsofareferenceinstrumentwhose
1084/1563
09/09/2015
errormustbeatmostonethirdoftheassumederroroftheinstrument
beingcalibrated.
Anotherpurposeofcalibrationistodeterminetheaccuracy
characteristicsoftheinstrument,i.e.,tofindtherandomand
systematicerrorsofmeasurement.Knowingtheerrorsofagiven
433
instrument,wecandeterminetheirinfluenceontheaccuracyofthe
experimentasawhole.
Thecalibrationconstantisdeterminedonthebasisofpmeasurements
ofUicorrespondingtostandardvaluesit(ivariesfrom1top).The
m.aximumvalueofttshouldbeascloseaspossibletothelim.itingvalue
whichcanbem.easuredbytheinstrument.IfthevaluesofUjandUare
plotted(Figure6.101),astraightlinecanbedrawnthroughtheexperimental
points,whoseequationis
wherea=^,andoisthenullreadingoftheinstrument.
(1)
1085/1563
09/09/2015
nGURE6.101.Calibrationcurves.
IfUiandiicontainnosystem.aticerrors,themostprobablevaluesof
aandupcanbefoundbythemethodofleastsquares.Thesevaluesare
Theseequationscanalsobewrittenintheform
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
whereu,andttarethemeanvaluesofthevariablesuandt:
P''~p
434
1086/1563
09/09/2015
Theequationofthemostprobablestraightlinepassingthroughthe
experimentalpointscanbepresentedintheform
uu,â{it,),
i.e.,thestraightlinemustpassthroughthepoint("*,if).
Afterdeterm.iningtheparametersaandUoofthemostprobablestraight
line,wecanfindthestandarddeviationofasinglenaeasurementofu,which
characterizestheaccuracyofthecalibratedinstrument.Thestandard
deviationis
1/3
whereU(=<atiuoaretherandomerrorsofmeasurement(Figure6.101).
Thevalueofoisusedfordeterminingtheaccuracyofthevalues
obtainedforaanduo.Suitableexpressionsfordeterminingoaando,
weregivenbyB.A.Ushakov/8/,basedonthehighestfrequencyof
cumulativemeanerrorsintheequationsforaandu,i:
o.=<=/
2(2p0
P(/>+1)
1087/1563
09/09/2015
Whenthenumberofexperimentalpointsislarge(above12to16)wecan
write
8=+_^?s__J_
tt,1/37
"~yj
Atagivenstandarddeviationouofthecalibrationcurve,theerrorina
dependsonthenumberofexperimentalpointsandontheinterval{tp/,).
Inordertoincreaseitsaccuracy,thecalibrationshouldbecarriedoutover
thefullrangeofloads,dividingthelatterintoalargenumberofintervals.
Inordertosimplifythecalculationsnecessaryfordeternainingaanduo,
thevaluesUjin(2)and(3)or(4)and(5)arereplacedbyu]ûât^,
whereaisanapproximatevalueofthecoefficienta.Thevalueofais
determinedastheslopeofthestraightlinedrawnbyeyethroughthe
experimentalpointsplottedongraphpaper.Thevaluefoundfrom(2)
or(4)representsacorrectionoftheapproximatevalueoftheslope,whose
exactvalueis
aa+a'.
Thepointscorrespondingtou\areplottedinFigure6.101b.The
deviationsofthesepointsfromthestraightlineu'=a't+uodetermine
thedeviationsoftheexperimentalpointsfromthelineardependence.
Themissingpointscanthenbefound.
435
1088/1563
09/09/2015
Bibliography
1.Joukowski,N.E.Polnoesobraniesochinerii.Teoreticheskie
osnovyvozdukhoplavaniya(CollectionofWorks.Theoretical
BasesofFlight).ONTINKTP.SSSR.1938.
2.Moller,E.DiemechanischenWaagenimWindkanal.p.162.
ATM,L.1949.
3.Leavy.L.E.andC.G.Saunders.AModernWindTunnel
Balance.J.Roy.Aero.Soc,Vol.57,No.512.1953.
4.WindTunnelOperatingEquipment.SAEJournal(Transactions),
Vol.49,No.3.1943.
5.Pankhurst,R.C.andD.W.Holder.WindTunnelTechnique(an
accountofexperimentalmethodsinlowandhighspeedwind
tunnels).Pitman,London.1952.[Russiantranslation.1955].
6.Hem,H.O.AeroplaneTestingApparatus.AircraftEngineering,
Vol.17,No.192.1945.
7.Allen,H.J.andJ.M.Spiegel.WindTunnelMeasurements,
HighSpeedAerodynamicsandJetPropulsion,Vol.8,Sect.K.
1089/1563
09/09/2015
PrincetonUnivers.Press.1961.
8.TjshakoV,B.A.Opredelenieparametrovlineinoizavismostidvukh
peremennykhposposobynaimen'shikhkvadratov(Determining
theParametersoftheLinearDependenceofTwoVariablesby
theMethodofLeastSquares).Trudy[Translations]No.680.
1949.
9.Midwood,G.F.andR.W.Hayward.AnAutomaticSelfbalancing
CapsuleManometer.ARCC,P.,No.231.1956.
10.Barskii,B.A.Bezkontaktnyeautomaticheskievesovyeelementy
(ContactlessAutomaticBalanceElements).Promyshlennaya
aerodinamika.No.19.Oborongiz.1959.
11.Conard,M.Mesuredeseffortsaerodynamiquesdansles
souffleriesdegrandesdimensionsavitesseelevee.Technique
etScienceAeronautiques,No.4.1949.
12.Rebuffet.P.Quelquesbalancesajaugesextensometriquesdes
souffleriesfranfaises.Notetechn.ONERA,No.31.1956.
13.Eastman,F.S.TheElectromagneticBalance,aHighprecision
MeasurementandControlDevice.Instruments,Vol.14,No.10.
1941.
14.Bratt,J.B.DevelopmentofanAutomaticElectricBalancefor
1090/1563
09/09/2015
ResearchonAerodynamicStability.PhilosophicalMagazine,
Vol.35,No.248.1944.
15.Kinkel,J.F,APrecisionPressureBalance.ISAProceedings,
Vol.7.1952.
16.Turichin,A.M.andP.V.Novitskii.Provolochnye
preobrazovateliiikhprimenenie(StrainGagesandTheirUse).
MoskvaLeningrad,Gosenergoizdat.1957.
17.Perry>C.C.andH.R.Lissner.TheStrainGagePrimer.
McGrawHill.N.Y.1955[Russiantranslation.I960.]
18.Bassierre,M.Mesureetenregistrementdesmesuressurles
balancesaerodynamiquesajaugesafilresistant.Notetechn.
ONERA,No.32.1956.
436
19.Tsapenko,M.P.Avtomaticheskiekompensatorysdekadnym
magazinamisoprotivleniya(AutomaticCompensatorswith
DecadeResistanceBoxes).Priborostroenie,No.1.1957.
20.Tsapenko,M.P.Mnogomostovayaizmeritel'nayaskhema
1091/1563
09/09/2015
peremennogotoka(A.C.MultiBridgeMeasuringSystem).
Izmeritel'nayaTekhnika,No.6.1956.
21.Tiffany,A.PrecisionStrainGaugeTechniques.Electronic
Engng.,Vol,30,No.367.1958.
22.Haneman,V.S.AutomaticReductionofWindTunnelData.
Aeron.Engng.Rev.,Vol.12,No.2.1953.
23.Devacht,M.Balancesdardsa6composants.LaRecherche
Aeronautique,Vol.52.1956.
24.Tiffany,A.WindTunnelInstrumentation.ElectronicEngng.,
Vol.29,No.3.1957.
25.Motsinger,R.N.FlexuralDevicesinMeasurementSystems.
StrainGageReadings,Vol.5,No.2.1962.
26.Gratzer,L.B.DesignofaNewBalanceSystemfortheKirsten
WindTunnel.TrendsinEngineeringintheUniversityof
Washington,July.1952.
437
1092/1563
09/09/2015
ChapterVII
TECHNIQUESANDMETHODSOF
AERODYNAMICMEASUREMENTS
30.ADJUSTMENTOFWINDTUNNELS
Adjustmentoftheflowinthetunnel.Insubsonicwind
tunnelstheadjustmentconsistsofdeternniningthepositionsofvanesand
flaps,andthetypesandnumberofscreensinthetestsection,insucha
waythatthevelocitynonuniformity,flowinclination,andturbulenceremain
withinpermissiblelimits.
Intransonicandsupersonictunnelstheadjustmentconsistsmainly
intheselectionofnozzlesprovidinguniformflowvelocities,indetermining
thepositionofthesupersonicdiffuserprovidingsteadysupersonicflow
inthetestsectionbothinthepresenceof,andwithoutthemodel,andin
selectingthepositionoftheperforatedwallsofthetestsection.Experience
showsthattheadjustmentofthetunnelmustbecarriedoutforeachnew
tunnelevenwhenitwasbuiltaccordingtotheplansofasimilarexisting
tunnel.Theadjustmentofwindtunnelshavingcomplicatedcontoursis
FIGURE7.1.Velocitydistributioninthediffuser
ofadoubletunnel.
particularlydifficult(e.g.,atunnelwithtworeturnductsleadingintoa
singlecommonductatthenozzleinlet;Figure2.116).Insuchatunnel
thediffuserisusuallydividedbyapartitionintotwoparts.Because
theellipticalsectionofthediffuserpassesoverintotwocirclesatthefan,
1093/1563
09/09/2015
theflowvelocityattheouterwallsisreduced,whileatthereturnductinlet
thevelocitydistributionishighlynonuniform.(Figure7.1).
438
Measuringmethodsfordeterminingandadjusting
thevelocitiesinsubsonictunnels
Thevelocitiesaredeterminedwiththeaidoftraversingcradleswhich
permitthesitingandsecuringoftubesmeasuringthemagnitudeanddirection
ofthevelocityatanypointinthetestsection.Thepermissibleinaccuracy
inreadingoffthecoordinatesofthetubeshouldnotexceed1to2mmper
meterlengthofthetestsection,whiletheangulardisplacementsofthe
nozzle,causedbythedeforraationofthetraversingcradlesandthe
inaccuracyofthemechanismitself,shouldnotexceed0.05to0.1degrees.
Thevelocityhead,thestaticpressure,andtheanglesofflowinclination
intheverticalandhorizontalplanesmustbemeasuredsimultaneously.
Thesemeasurementsarebestmadewiththeaidofthespeciallydesigned
TsAGIsixboretube/I/(Figure4.51).First,bycalibrationwith
aspecialdevice,wefind
v_PiPi
(PlP2)+(PiP2)
1094/1563
09/09/2015
PtPs
(/>.P2)+(Ps^'2)
wherepi,p2,andpârethepressuresintheorificeslocatedinthevertical
planewhilep^,p^,andpja^rethepressuresintheorificeslocatedinthe
horizontalplane.Thecalibrationcurve(a=/(}<))foroneofthetubesisgivenin
Figure7.2.
a
3
2
1095/1563
09/09/2015
za
S0
1096/1563
09/09/2015
'{"
OA0.3aX
y^
1097/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE7.2.Calibrationcurve=/()forasix
boretube.
Thepressuredifferencesp,P2,PaP2,etc.arebestmeasuredwith
theaidofafiveboretube(Figure7.3)equippedwithablocking
mechanismwhichpermitsthedifferencesofpressureinthevarious
orificestobedeterminedsimultaneously.Itisseenfromtheformofthe
expressionsforxandothatwhenafiveboretubeisused,the
measuringerrors,duetoinaccuraciesofdeterminingtheinclinationofthe
439
manometer,thedensityoftheliquid,andthetemperature,areeliminated.
Therandomerrorofasinglemeasurementoftheangleofflowinclination
doesnotexceed0.1inthismethod.
Therelativevelocityheadinthetestsectionisdeterminedaccording
1098/1563
09/09/2015
toFigure7.4withtheaidof
V2
2
Ps~P^
=t:1
PiPj
P%Pn
P6
PsP,
1099/1563
09/09/2015
'i\'
wherepsandpearerespectivelythetotalstaticandpressuresmeasuredby
thetube,(psPa)isthedifferencebetweenthepressureinthesettling
chamberandintheroomsurroundingthetunnel,gisthecorrection
coefficientofthetube.Theerrorsinthismethod,whichenables
FIGURE7.3.Connectingasixbarrel
ledtubetoafivebarrelledmanometer
forcalibratingthetube.
FIGUiiE7.4.Connectionsoftubesandmano
metersfordeterminingtherelativevelocity
headinatunnel.
smallcorrectionstobemadefor|x:
from
1.0,arelessthanwhen(iisfound
1100/1563
09/09/2015
V='^~
Ps
and(p2Pe)isdeterminedbyatubeinstalledinthetestsection.Thevalues
of[i,obtainedatdifferentpointsofthetunnel,serveforevaluatingthe
uniformityofthevelocitydistribution.Itsvaluesusuallyvarybetween
0.95and1.05.Theresultsofprocessingthemeasurementsoftheangles
aandg,andalsothevaluesof\xatdifferentpositionsinthetestsection,
areshowninFigures7.5to7.7.
Thebestresultsaftercalibrationareusuallyobtainedbyequalizing
thevelocitydistributioninthereturnductsbehindeachcorner,wherea
nonuniformityofthevelocitiesamountingto10%ispermitted.Theangles
ofinclinationareequalizedbysuitablyselectingtheanglesatwhichthe
guidevanesareinstalled(especiallyinthefourthcorner)andwiththe
aidofbaffles,whichareusuallyplacedalsoonthehorizontalpartitions
ofthefourthcorner.
440
FIGURE7.5.Distributionofanglesofflowinclination,intheverticalplane(distancefrom
nozzleX=1500mmz=transversecoordinate,y=verticalcoordinate).
1101/1563
09/09/2015
Sometimesthereasonsforunsatisfactoryflowcharacteristicsarethe
unevennessoftheaerodynamiccontour(largediffuserangles,small
compressionratios,etc.).Inthesecasesthevelocitydistributioncanbe
equalizedonlybychangingsomeofthetunnelelements.Adjustmentofthe
jr.15^0mm
bLLUJL
j('''if)>'I1'
y,mm\
FIGURE7.6.Distributionofanglesofflowinclinationinthehorizontalplane.
flowinthethetunnelisverytedious,andiscarriedoutbysuccessive
tests.Theflowismoreuniformintheairstreamcorethanatthe
boundariesofthetestsection.Inaddition,theconstantvelocitycore
becomesnarrowerinthedirectionfromthenozzletothediffuser
(Figure7.8).Theturbulencelevelvariesinthedirectionfromthe
1102/1563
09/09/2015
441
^^H
coretotheflowboundaries.Figure7.9givestherelationship
/^ROcr.tun
forasphereatdifferentpositionsonthehorizontalaxisofthetunnel
section.ItcanbeseenfromFigure7.9thatturbulenceisleastinthe
flowcore.
y,mm
FIGURE7.7.Distributionofrelativevelocityheadincontrolsectionoftunnel.
Thehighturbulencelevelismainlyduetothesamereasonsasthe
velocitynonuniformity,andalsotoaninsufficientexpansionratiointhe
nozzle,andcanbepartlyreducedbythegeneralflowadjustmentinthe
tunnelandbyinstallingadditionalsmootheningscreensinthesettling
chamber.
U,Mf1
1103/1563
09/09/2015
Controlsectioninwhich
therelativevelocityhead
isdetermined
FIGURE7.8.Airstreamboundariesinanopentestsection.
1680
442
Becausethetestsectionofawindtunnelhasrestricteddimensions,
noregionsexistinitinwhichtheflowisnotaffectedbythemodel.
FIGURE7.9.Turbulencedistributionacrossthe
testsection(x=constant).
Becauseofthisthevelocityismeasuredasfarupstreamaspossible
fromthetestedbody.However,duetothevelocitynonuniformity
existingeveninacalibratedtunnel,themeanvelocityinthetestsection
1104/1563
09/09/2015
candifferfronathemeasuredflowvelocity.
Weobtainthemeanflowvelocityinthetestsectionnearthemodel
fromthemeasuredvelocitybycalibratingtheemptytunnelanddetermining
Hav.Multiplyingbythistheindicationsofthemeasuringtube,weobtain
thetruefreestreamvelocityforthetestedmodel.
Flowinclination.Inspiteofthefactthattheanglesofflow
inclinationinthetestsectionaresmall,theirinfluenceontheaerodynamic
characteristicsisconsiderable.Thisistrueparticularlyforanglesof
inclinationinthexOi/plane*(anglesofverticalflowinclination).The
correctionsoftheresultsofdeterminingtheangleofinclinationconsist
inconvertingthevaluesoftheaerodynamicforcesorcoefficients,(c^,c'),
measuredinthebalancesystemofcoordinates,intothecorresponding
valuesintheflowsystemofcoordinates{c^,c^):
Cj,=<;^cosa^c^sina^.
whereanisthemeanangleofverticalflowinclination,whichveryseldom
exceeds0.5to1.Takingintoaccountthesmallnessofa,andalsothe
smallnessofCxincomparisonwithc^,wecanwrite
'^x='^'x+V'
c^=c'.
Theangleofattackisthen
a=a'fa,.
1105/1563
09/09/2015
Theangleofinclinationinthehorizontalplane(p),whichusuallydoesnotexceed0.5to1',doesnot
greatlyinfluencetheprincipalaerodynamiccharacteristics,andisusuallyneglected.
443
Theangleaisconsideredpositiveifittendstoincreasetheangleof
attack.Verticalflowinclinationscannecessitateconsiderablecorrections
inthevaluesofthedragcoefficient.
Theflowinclinationisdetermined/2/bymeasuringthemaximumairfoil
efficiencyinbothuprightandinversepositions
ftUPandfc'n
^maxdliu/tmax
Theangleofverticalflowinclinationisthen
^\*mai"max/
Anothermethodoffindingtheangleofverticalflowinclinationisby
thedifferenceindragcoefficientsinuprightandinversepositionfor
differentliftcoefficients/3/:
'^x=^jup")"'^yup'^K'
1106/1563
09/09/2015
Settingc'^.^=c;up=Cy,weobtain
"xinVup
Knowingthepolarsfortheuprightandinversepositions,wefinda,,for
severalvaluesofCy,anddetermineitsmeanvalue,whichissufficiently
accurateforcorrectingthevaluesofthedragcoefficientsofdifferent
airfoils,andalsooftheanglesofattack.
Adjustmentoftransonicandsupersonic
windtunnels
Theflowcharacteristicsattransonicorsupersonicvelocitiesdepend
mainlyontheaerodynamicpropertiesofnozzleandtestsection.The
flowcharacteristicsofsupersonictunnelsaredeterminedforeachMach
numberbymeasuringthepressuredistributionatthetestsectionwalls,*
andbydirectflowmeasurementsinthetestsectionbynaeansofspecial
probesandtubes.Thevariationinstaticpressurealongthetestsection,
whichisveryimportantintunnelswithclosedtestsection,isdetermined
bytubesplacedalongthetunnelaxisandbyorificesinthewallsofthe
testsection.
Directmeasurementoftheturbulencelevelinsupersonictunnels
isdifficult.Wecanindirectlyestablishtherelativeturbulencelevel
bydeterminingthepositionofthetransitionpointindifferenttunnelsorinthe
sametunnelwithandwithoutsmootheningscreensinthesettlingchamber''"''.
Theorificesinthetestsectionofthetunnelareusuallyarrangedintwosectionsoftheverticalwall(for
1107/1563
09/09/2015
determiningtheinfluenceoftheangleofattackofthemodel)andinonesectionofthehorizontalwall.
**Insometests,installationinthesettlingchamberoismootheningscreenshavingaresistancecoefficient
^=10reducestheturbulencenumberinthetestsectionfrom3.5%to1"yeatM3/4/.
444
Withperforatedtestsectionwalls,introducedinrecentyearsin
transonicandsupersonictunnels,boundarylayersuctioneffectedthrough
thetunnelwalls,andothermeasures,permittheflowinthetestsection
tobeuniforminmagnitudeanddirectionintheabsenceofastaticpressure
gradientalongthetestsection.Inthebestmodernhighspeedtunnelsthe
velocitynonuniformitydoesnotexceed(0.015to0.02)Af,theflowinclination
islessthan(0.15to0.2),whilethestaticpressurealongthetestsection
axisusuallyvarieswithinthelimitsof3to5%.
Thus,theflowadjustmentintransonicandsupersonictunnels,while
maintainingtheaerodynannicrequirementsforthesubsonicpartofthese
tunnels(settlingchamber,returnduct,etc.),consistsinselectingthe
correctshapesfornozzleandtestsection.
31.TECHNIQUESANDMETHODSOF
BALANCEMEASUREMENTS
Balancemeasurementsconsistindeterminingtheaerodynamic
coefficientsofforcesandmomentsactingonthemodelatdifferent
anglesofattackandyaw.
1108/1563
09/09/2015
Ingeneralsuchtestsarecarriedoutatvaryinganglesofattackand
yawandconstantvelocity(constantvaluesofReynoldsandMachnumbers),
atdifferentanglesofattackandyawandvaryingReynoldsandMach
numbers,andatdifferentpositionsofthelongitudinalandlateralcontrol
surfacesatvaryingReynoldsandMachnumbers.
Testsofelementsoftheairplanemodel(wings,fuselage,tails,engine
nascelles,radomes,etc.)areintendedfordeterminingthebestshapesby
comparisonofseveralalternatives.Theresultsofthesetestscanonlybe
usedapproximatelyforevaluatingthespecificinfluenceofanyelementin
thegeneraldragorliftbalance.However,insomecaseswecanobtain
sufficientlyaccuratequantitativeresultsforseparatecomponents,for
instance,whendeterm.iningthehingemomentsofthecontrolsurfaces,
whentestingtheisolatedtails,orwhendeterminingtheeffectivenessof
anaileronfittedtoanisolatedwing.
Balancetestsatlargeflowvelocitiesareusuallyaccompaniedbystudies
oftheflowpatternwiththeaidofaToplerinstrum.entorinterferometer.
Inanumberofcasestherearisesthenecessitytoinvestigateground
effectsontheaerodynamiccharacteristicsofanairplane.Suchtestsare
usuallymadewiththeaidofascreenwhichsimulatestheground.
Figure7.10showsthemodelinstalledinthe"tunnel"positionandthe
screen.Thescreenisarectanglewhosehorizontaldimensionscorrespond
tothewidthandlengthofthetestsection.Theleadingedgeofthescreen
hasusuallytheshapeofasemiellipsewithanaxisratioof1:2,while
thetrailingedgehasparabolicshape.
Whentestsarecarriedoutwiththescreen,thedistancebetweenthe
screenandthetrailingedgeofthecontrolsurfaceofthewingisvaried
bymovingthescreenverticallywiththeaidofjacks.
1109/1563
09/09/2015
445
Insomeexperiuientstheinfluenceofthegroundissimulatedbyaribbon
movingatthesamevelocityastheair.Thismethodismoreaccurate
(thereisnoboundarylayerthickeningontheribbon),andreproduces
theconditionsinnaturewherethegroundisstationary,whiletheairplane
movesinrelationtoit;however,becauseofitscomplexity,itisnot
widelyused.Anothermethod,inwhichtheboundarylayeronthescreen
simulatingthegroundissuckedoff,canalsobeusedintestsfor
investigatinggroundeffects.
FIGURE7.10.Installationofamodelandascreen.
Itisalsopossibletotesttwosim.ilarmodels,oneinupright,theotherin
inverseposition(wheeltowheel).Inpractice,despiteitsapproximativeness,
themethodofinvestigatinggroundeffectswiththeaidofastationaryscreen
iswidelyaccepted.
Preparationofmodelsandequipmentfortests
Thepreparationofthemodelsconsistsfirstlyindeterminingtheir
dimensionsbymeasurementonmarkingoffplatesandincomparison
withthedrawingsbymeansoftemplates,i.e.,inestablishingthefull
geometricsimilaritybetweenmodelandfullscaleairplane.Anexample
ofcheckingthedimensionsofanairplanemodelisshowninFigure7.11.
1110/1563
09/09/2015
Theconditionofthemodelsurfaceaffectsgreatlythecharacteristics
ofitsstreamlining.Insubsonictunnelsthemodelsaremadefromwood
andpolishedtoaglosscorrespondingtoaroughnesspeakheightof^p,.
Insupersonictunnelsthemodelseitherhaveametalcoreandahard
coatingofspecialglue,resin,orplastic,orareallmetal.
446
Theroughnesspeakheightisdeterminedwiththeaidofspecialprofilo
graphs,whichpermitroughnesspeaksmorethanto2^hightobemeasured.
Meanchordlength
FIGURE7.11.Checkingthedimensionsofanairplanemodel.
Theequipmentusedinwindtunnelsconsistsofpermanentlyinstalled
instruments(forinstance,instrumentsformeasuringvelocities,pressures,
temperatures,andhumidity,windtunnelbalances,etc.)andinstruments
installedespeciallyforaparticularexperiment(forinstance,manometer
racksfordeterminingpressuredistributions,thermocouplesformeasuring
temperatureswhentestingengines,tubesformeasuringvelocity
1111/1563
09/09/2015
distributionswheninvestigatingbodiesinconduits,etc.).Whenthe
calibrationcurvesofallinstrumentsandtheirerrorsareknown,wecan,
usingthemethodsofthetheoryofprobability,analysetheinfluenceof
errorsofthevariousinstrumentsonthemeasurenaents.
Themeasuringinstrumientsusedinthemostcommonexperimentsshould
havethefollowingstandarddeviationsofmeasurement:
drag
a)inregionofc,,(
b)inregionoflinearvariationc,,=/()
c)c,=f(U)
lift(atsmallanglesofattaclt)
pitchingmoment(rirândm^)
angleofzerolift(jj^)
slopeofcurveCy=/(a)
i0.004
0.002
0.2
0.0025
0.012
0.0004
1112/1563
09/09/2015
0.0008
1.570
atsmallanglesof
attack;for>10
thepermissibleerror
isaboutdouble
flowdirection
propellerefficiency
magnitudeofvelocity
pressurecoefficientp
0.2
0.25
lô
l7o
1%
447
Techniqueofexperimentation
Anexperimentconsistsofthesimultaneousmeasurementofallvalues
necessaryfordeternainingthetestedphenomena.Inadditiontothe
simultaneousmeasurem.ents,specialprocedureshavebeendevelopedfor
1113/1563
09/09/2015
eachtypeofexperinaent,whichpermittheteststobecarriedoutmost
effectivelyfrom,theviewpointofensuringaccuracyandreliabilityof
m.easurements,andalsofromtheviewpointofsavingtime.
Theseprocedurescomprisethetechniqueofexperim.entation.The
experim.entalmethodshouldpermitteststoberepeatedandreproducible
resultstobeobtained.
Itisabsolutelynecessarytomaintainconstantconditionsofthe
experimentandthedifferentphenomenaoccurringduringit.Thisis
particularlyimportantwhentestingnewelementsorlittleknownphenomena,
whentheindicationsofthemeasuringequipmentandthebehaviorofthe
testedobjectdifferfromnormal,althoughanacceptedexperimentalmethod
isapplied.Thetechniqueandmethodsofdifferentdynamictestsare
describedbelow.
Testsonwindtunnelbalances.Beforetheexperiment,a
checkofthebalanceandothermeasuringinstrum.ents,ofthetightnessof
theairlinestothetubesandmanometers,etc.mustbemade.Modeltests
onbalancesinlowspeedtunnelsare,asarule,carriedoutatconstant
velocityandvariableangleofattack.Theangleofattackisvariedfrom
smallnegativevalues,correspondingtoasmallnegativelift,bysingle
degrees(sometimesbyhalfdegrees)uptoanglesexceedingthecritical
anglebyseveraldegrees.Sometim.es,whenthetestsaremadeinupright
andinversepositions,thestepsinanglevariationintheuprightposition
aredoubled.Thereadingsintheinversepositionareacheckofthe
operationofthebalanceandshouldcoincidewiththereadingsintheupright
position.Noncoincidenceofthereadingsinthesetwopositionsindicates
eitherconsiderablefriction,hysteresis,orsomesystematicerrorwhich
mustbeeliminated.
Whentheangleofattackisvariedthevelocityinthetestsection
changesslightly,andshouldbeadjusted.Theinstrumentsarereadoff
onlywhen,accordingtotheindicationsofthecontrolnaanometer,the
1114/1563
09/09/2015
velocityisstabilized,althoughthelevelofthespiritcolumninthemano
meteralwaysfluctuateswithin2mmaboutacertainmeanvalue.Theartof
experimentingconsistsinthiscasenotonlyinchoosingtheinstantof
readoff,butalsointhecorrectaveragingofthecontrolnaanometer
indications.Thisalsoreferstopersonnelrecordingtheindicationsof
thebalance.Inm.anymoderntunnelsinwhichthemeasurementsare
automated,theselectionoftheinstantofreadoffislessimportant.
Intunnelsforlargesubsonicvelocitiesthemodelsaretestedat
varyingvelocitiesandconstantanglesofattack.Thispermitsthe
teststobecarriedoutmorerapidly,whilethefunctionaldependenceof
theforcecoefficientsonthefreestreamvelocity(Machnumber)canbe
plottedm.oreaccurately.Whenthetestsareperformedinvariable
densityandhighspeedtunnels,therelationshipsc^,c,...=/(Re)should
firstbedetermined,andthentherelationshipsc^,Cy=/(M).Thereason
forthisisthatinvariablevelocityexperimentstheleadingedgeofthe
modelmaybecomeslightlydeformed.Testsfordeterminingthe
448
dependenceoftheaerodynamiccoefficientsontheReynoldsnumber
(invariabledensitytunnels)arecarriedoutatdifferentpressures,beginning
atthemaximum.
Foreachpressurethecoefficientsc^,c,etc.aredeterminedas
functionsoftheangleofattack,asforlowvelocities.Silkthreadsare
1115/1563
09/09/2015
gluedtothemodelandtheflowpatternisvisualizedonlyafterthe
balancemeasurements,inordertoavoiddamagingthesurfaceand
affectingthebalanceindicationsbythegluedonsilkthreads.Flow
patternvisualizationconsistsofdrawing,andmoreoftenofphotographing
thepositionsofthesilkthreadsforeachflowconditiondeterminedbythe
angleofattack,pressure,velocity,etc.(Figure7.12).
FIGURE7.12.Flowpatternonadeltawingtowhichsilk
threadshavebeenglued.
Thepressure,temperature,andhumidityoftheatmosphericairare
measuredbeforeandaftereachtest.Thetemperatureofthetunnelair
ismeasuredinlowspeedtunnelsbeforeandaftereachtest,whileinhigh
speedandinvariabledensitytunnelsthisisdoneduringeachmeasurement
onthebalance.Inaddition,invariabledensitytunnelsthehumidityof
airisalsomeasuredwithwetanddrybulbthermometers.
Aftereachexperimentonthebalanceofanytypeoftunnel,thenull
reading(i.e.,intheabsenceofaerodynamicloadsandflowinthetunnel)of
thebalanceiscomparedwiththenullreadingbeforetheexperiment.When
thedifferencebetweenthenullreadingsexceedsthepermissiblevaluefor
thegivenbalance,theexperimentshouldbeconsideredasunsuccessful;
furthertestsareoftenpossibleonlyafterestablishingandeliminatingthe
causesofthediscrepancy.Thisrefersalsotootherinstruments,e.g.,
formeasuringvelocities,temperatures,etc.
Testsofmodelswithdifferenttypesofwings,enginenascelles,ortails,
arecarriedoutsimilarlyasabove.Specialattentionshouldbepaidtothe
dimensionalaccuracyofeachversion(thecrosssectionalareaintheplane
1116/1563
09/09/2015
ofsymmetry,theareaandspanofwingsandtail,thenaeanchordlength,the
distancebetweenthehorizontaltailandthewing,etc.).Inaddition,special
attentionshouldbepaidintunnelsforlargesubsonicvelocitiesto
449
interferencebetweenwingsandsupports.Sometimesadditionaltests
arenecessaryforeachconabination(forinstance,wingandenginenascelle)
inordertodetermineaccuratelytheinterferencebetweenwingsand
model.Thisisparticularlyinnportantwiththinlowdragwings(swept
backanddeltawings)whicharetestedatfreestreamvelocitiesatwhich
zonesofsupersonicflowmayoccurnearthemodel,causingalargeincrease
indragofthesupportsandinterferencebetweensupportsandthemodel.
Frequently,balancetestsareaccompaniedbysimultaneousmeasurement
oftheairflowrateandthevelocityandpressuredistributions(forinstance,
whentestingmodelsinlargetunnelswiththeairflowingthroughintakes).
Inordertoavoidincreasingthenumberoftests,themeasuringtubes
shouldbeinsertedintospecialshrouds,whicharenotconnectedtothe
balanceandwhichinsulatethetubesfromtheeffectsoftheairflow.
Theinfluenceoftheelasticityofthemeasuringtubesontheindications
ofthebalanceistakenintuaccountbycalibration.Thiseffectisnegligible
whenthebalanceisequilibratedbythenullmethod.
OpticalmeasurementswiththeaidoftheToplerinstrumentoran
interferometer,whichaccompanybalancetests,areusuallyperformed
eithervisuallyorbyphotography.
1117/1563
09/09/2015
Theestablishmentoftherequiredflowconditionsinlowspeedtunnels
isrelativelysimple,butisverydifficultinsupersonictunnels.All
operationswithadjustablenozzles,compressors,throttlingvalves,
supersonicdiffuserflaps,ejectors,etc.mustbecarriedoutinastrict
orderwhichisestablishedduringcalibrationandtunneladjustment.This
isnecessarybothinordertoobtainthenecessaryflowconditionsandto
preventdamagetotheequipm.ent.Duringtestsatsupersonicvelocities,
specialattentionshouldbepaidtotheReynoldsnumberwhich,inpractice,
variesslightlyduetochangesinpressureandtemperatureinthesettling
chamber,testsection,etc.TherangeofvariationoftheReynoldsnumber
duringandbetweenexperimentsshouldbecalculated,anditsadmissibility
verifiedbeforetheexperiments.WhentheReynoldsnumbercannotbe
maintainedconstant,thisshouldbetakenintoaccountintheanalysisof
theresults.
Theeffectivenessofailerons(theinfluenceoftheirchordlength
andarea,angleofdeflection,etc.)is,asarule,determinedwhenthe
completemodelistested.Thecontrolsurfacesofmissilesandrockets
equippedwithfins,inwhichproblenasofstabilityandcontrolare
decisiveandcomplex,aretestedonwindtunnelbalancessimilarlyas
above.Thehingemomentsofthecontrolsurfacesoflargemodelsare
measuredonthesamemodelonwhichthegeneralaerodynamic
characteristicsaredetermined.Iftunnelandmodelaresmall,the
correctReynoldsnumbercanbeobtainedifthehingemomentsofthe
controlsurfacesaredeterminedonaseparatelargemodelofthetail.
Themeasurementsarecarriedoutwiththeaidoftheordinaryor
additionalbalanceswhichpermitthehingemomentsofthecontrol
surfacestobedeterminedatvariousanglesofdeflectionfordifferent
anglesofattack(andanglesoftailslip)ofthemodelorthefuselage,
correspondingtotheconditionsoftakeoffandlanding,different
maneuvers,andmaximumvelocity.Thetestmethodsaresimilarto
thoseusedformodelsonwindtunnelbalances.
1118/1563
09/09/2015
450
Theangleofattackofthefuselageorofthetailisadjustedwiththeaid
ofthebalance,whiletheanglesofdeflectionofthecontrolsurfacesare
adjustedmanually;thisrequiresinterruptionofthetunneloperation.
Suchtestsare,therefore,performedbyvaryingtheanglesofattackof
model,fuselage,andtail,thepositionofthecontrolsurfacesbeingkept
constant.
Theoptimumpositionofthetailonthemodelairplanesisbestdetermined*
beforehand,usingspecialcombswithgluedonsilkthreadswhichare
installedinthetailzone.
Bydeterminingopticallyorvisuallytheangleofdownwashinthe
tailzone(withanaccuracyofupto(0.5to1)),wecanfindtheregion
wherethedownwashdownstreamofthewingsorbodyisminimumand
wheretheeffectivenessofthecontrolsurfacesismaxim.um,andcanthen
proceedwiththebalancemeasurements.Sometimesthecombsare
replacedbynetsortightlystretchedthinwirestowhichsilkthreadsare
fixed.Suchnetspermitvisualobservationofthethreedimensionalflow
patterndownstreamofthewingsorbody,determinationofthezonesof
turbulence,etc.
32.DETERMINATIONOFPRESSUREAND
VELOCITYDISTRIBUTIONS
Determinationofthepressureandvelocitydistributionsisoneofthe
mostcommonlyperformedexperimentsinlowandhighspeedtunnels.
1119/1563
09/09/2015
Suchtestsincludeinvestigationsofthepressuredistributionsonthe
surfacesofdifferentbodies,ofthevelocitydistributionsaroundbodies,
insidechannels,etc.Beforetheexperimentsarebegun,theconnections
betweentheorificesonthemodelorofthemeasuringtubesandthe
manometersischecked,inparticular,thecorrespondencebetweenthe
numbersofthemeasuringpointsonthemodeloronthetubeswiththe
numbersonthemanometerrack,andthetightnessofalljoints.The
requireddegreeoftightnesshasbeenobtainedwhenthelevelofthespirit
columndropsby1mmperminuteataconstantnneanpressureinthesystem.
Thetightnessofthemanometersused,theirrigidmountingandfixed
inclination,thereliableattachmentofthemeasuringtubes,andthe
availabilityofcalibrationdataforthemanometersandtubesarethen
checked.
Theconnectingtubesfromtheorificesandmeasuringtubestothe
manometersmustbefreeofconstrictions(especiallywhenrubbertubes
areused).Theabsenceofconstrictionisverifiedbythespeedwithwhich
thelevelofacolumnofliquiddropsinthemanometerwhenthepressure
attheorificeormeasuringtubeisreduced(usuallywiththeaidofpumps).
Theinternaldiameterandthelengthoftheconnectingtubesarechosen
soastoobtainaminimumtransmissionlag.Lagreductionisparticularly
importantinsupersonicintermittentoperationtunnels,where,duetolag,
thetimeavailableformeasurementsmaybeinsufficienttoattainstabilized
conditionsinallnnanometers.
*Atsmallflowvelocities.
451
1120/1563
09/09/2015
Liquidcolumnmanometersandtheirconnectionareselectedsoasto
besuitablefortheentirerangeofpressuresassumedintheexperiment,
theliquidneitherbeingejectedfromthetube,norrecedingintothewell.
Thetypeanddesignofthetubes(PitotPrandtltubes.Tees,etc.)and
them.anneroftheirattachmentshouldbeselectedaccordingtotheir
dimensionsandthoseofthechannelsorthemodel.Stepsshouldbetaken
topreventthetubesfromaffectingtheflowinsidethechannelorinthe
vicinityofthemodel,especiallyatlargevelocities.
Pressureandvelocitydistributionsaredeterminedbysuccessiverecording
orphotographing*ofthemanometerindicationsatdifferentflowvelocities
andanglesofattack.Thepressuredistributionsonthesurfacesof
modelsaredeterminedfromtheforcesactingonthemandthenatureoftheflow
aroundthem.
Aknowledgeofthepressuredistributionoverthebody(withasufficient
num.berofproperlychosenorifices)permitsthetotalpressureforceto
bedetermined.However,thismethodisveryseldomused,sinceinmost
aerodynamicproblems,thetotalforceactingonabodycanbemoresimply,
accurately,andrapidlydeterminedbymeasurementonabalance.In
modernpracticethepressuredistributionisthereforedeterminedmainly
inordertofindthelocaldistributionoftheforcesandthenatureoftheflow
atthesurfaceofthebody.
Studyofthepressuredistributionisparticularlyimportantfor
determiningthepropershapesofwingsandfuselagesintendedforlarge
flightvelocities,ofbladesforcompressorsofjetengines,etc.Such
investigationsarealsoimportantfordeterminingtheloaddistributionsin
thestrengthcalculationsofairplanes,rockets,etc.,andfordetermining
theflowpatternaroundwingsoffinitespan.
1121/1563
09/09/2015
TABLE10.Recommendedpositionsoforificesonanairfoil(infractionsof
thechordlength)
Uppersurface
Lowersurface
0.05
0.05
O.I0,15
0,,
0.2
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.3
1122/1563
09/09/2015
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.6
O.C
0.7
0.7
0.8
0.8
0.0
0.9
0.95
Determinationofthepressuredistributionatlowvelocitiesisofprimary
importancewhendevelopingairfoilsintendedforlargeflightvelocities.
Pressuretroughsneartheleadingedge,andthepressuredistributionon
theupperandlowersurfacesdeternninenotonlytheloadcarrying
1123/1563
09/09/2015
propertiesoftheairfoil,butalsoindicatethezoneswhereatlargeflight
velocitiesshocksm.ayappearandgreatlyaffectalltheaerodynamic
characteristicsoftheairfoil.
Whenthepressuredistributionisinvestigated,theorificesm.ustbe
arrangedinsuchawaythatallpossiblezonesofabruptchangeinpressure
gradientaredetected.Therecommendeddistancesoftheorificesfrom
theleadingedge(infractionsofthechordlength)aregivenforanairfoil
inTable10,whilethearrangementoftheorificesisshowninFigure7.13.
Inmanycasesitissufficienttodeterminethepressurecoefficient
PiPo
Pi=
Pi=/(a)wherep,isthestaticpressureatthesurfacepoint
Orrecordingifrecordingmanometersareused.
452
consideredandq^pîsthedynamicpressureofthefreestreamvelocity
(velocityhead).
1124/1563
09/09/2015
Markingofftheorifices
onthesurfacemodel
SectionYy|||li_KjyjU7I6~
SectionJ
Viewofairfoilafter
machiningthegrooves
'OTT^rT
Section//
Installingthetubes
inthegrooves
SurfaceoftubefiledNitrocelluloseputty
offby0.2mm.
1125/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE7.13.Orificesinanairfoil.
Thevelocitydistributiononthesurfaceofthebodyoutsidetheboundary
layerisgivenby
Thepressureforcesactingonawingelementofunitwidth(Figure7.14),
forwhichthepressuredistributionsontheloweranduppersurfacesare
known(Figure7.15),arefound(forfixedcoordinateaxes)fromthe
followingformulas/3/.Thehorizontalforceactingonthegivenelementis
X=qjpdy;
FIGURE7.14Forcesactingonawingelement.
453
Thehorizontalpressureforceactingontheentirewingis
^w=9/dzfpdy.
1126/1563
09/09/2015
my,
Thehorizontalforcecoefficientis
Thenormalpressureforceactingontheelementis
Y=gJpdx.
Theverticalforceactingontheentirewingis
+1/2X,
K=^rdz(pdx,
IftX,
Theverticalforcecoefficientis
/<
1127/1563
09/09/2015
'5
1128/1563
09/09/2015
'0IIK13M15
FIGURE7.15.Pressuredistributiononanairfoilatdif
ferentanglesofattack.
454
Thedragandliftcoefficientsdeterminedbythepressureforcesare
c_f=csina+f,cosa,
Cy=ccosac,sina,
1129/1563
09/09/2015
whereaistheangleofattackofthewing.
Themomentcoefficientsarefoundsimilarly/3/.
Thevaluesof.YandCxarelessaccuratelydeterminedthanthoseofyand
Cy.Thisisexplainedbythesmallnessofc,:andbythefactthatinthis
methodfrictionisnottakenintoaccount.
Determinationoftheprofiledragby
impulsemethods
ThetotaldragQconsistsoftheprofiledragQj,andtheinduceddragQ,.
Atsmallanglesofattackandmaximumvelocity,i.e..atsmallliftcoefficients,
theinduceddragissmallandtheprofiledragisdecisive.Thelatter
consistsoftheformdrag,causedbythenormalcomponentsoftheforces
actingonthesurfaceofthebody(pressureforces),andoftheskinfriction,
representingthetangentialcomponentsoftheforcesactingonthesurface
ofthebody(frictionforces).
*
^
1130/1563
09/09/2015
/
l"^'>"Outsideofwake
VrôPrPoI
Withinwake
FIGURE7.16.Velocityprofilesupstreamanddownstreamofawing.
Theprofiledragisdeterminedbymethodsbasedontheimpulse
theorem,accordingtowhichthechangeinmomentuminanydirectionis
equaltotheimpulseduetotheforceactinginthesamedirection.Inthe
caseofflowaroundasymmetricalairfoilatzeroangleofattack
(FigureV.16),themomentumchangepersecondofthefluidpassing
455
throughtheplaneOOor//intheflowdirectionisequal/3/tothe
profiledragofthewingelement:
wheredmisthemassoffluidwhichpassespersecondthroughtheelemental
areada.Foranincompressiblefluid
dm=pV'odoo=pVirfo,,
1131/1563
09/09/2015
whence
2
1^
V{y^v^)do.
Inpracticeitisdifficulttoperform,measurementsintheplane//which
isatalargedistancefrom,thewing.Forthisreason,acontrolplane
////(Figure7.16)islocatedatadistanceofabout0.5to1chordlength
downstreamofthewingandtheintegrationisperformedonlyoverthewake.
FIGURE7.17.Intersectingthewakebyavertical
plane.
i,e.,fromato6andfrom6toc(orfrom//2to+//2)(Figure7,17),
Aftersubstituting
weobtain/3/
1132/1563
09/09/2015
VV
da^^=yda!=ydydz
tipb
=li//S.('
)dy
dz.
456
Itisthusnecessarytodeterminethevelocityheadintheundisturbed
flow{Hopo),thevelocityheadinthewake(//p)andthedifferencebetween
thetotalpressureinthewakeandthestaticpressureintheundisturbed
1133/1563
09/09/2015
flow(//po)AllthesemeasurementscanbemadewithtwoPitotPrandtl
tubesandthreemanometers(Figure7.18),orbyonetubeandacomb
(Figure7.19).
,/^,/,,,,,f,y///,/,///r//^^/,^//,,^
FIGURE7.18.Connectionsoftubesto
manometersfordeterminingtheprofile
drag.1tubeformeasuringtheflow
velocity:2microtube;3,4,5
mlcromanometers.
nPo'(npHPirF)
FIGURE7.19.Connectionofacombfordetermining
theprofiledrag.
Theresultsofthemeasurementsareprocessedgraphically.The
verticaldistancebetweenthetubesofthecombmustnotbelessthan
3to5tubediameters,andthecombitselfshouldnotcauseanydisturbances
intheflowaroundthetubesanddownstreamofthewing.Thetubesshould
havelittlesensitivitytodownwashwhentheprofiledragofabodysubjected
1134/1563
09/09/2015
toliftisdetermined.Thismethodofdeterminingtheprofiledraggives
measurementerrorsoftheorderof5%,andisusedmainlyforcomparative
evaluationoftheaerodynamicpropertiesofairfoils,bodiesofrevolution,etc.
FIGURE7.20.Combinstallationforflighttestsbythe
Impulsemethod.
Whenmeasurementsinthewakewiththeaidofacombareimpossible
(forinstance,inflight),thecombisinstalledonthetrailingedgeofthe
wing(Figure7.20)orthebodyofrevolution/5/,andtheprofiledrag
457
coefficientisdeterminedfromtheSquireYoungformula
,,,,,3,2
where6"isthethicknessofthewakeatthetrailingedgeofthewing,bis
thewingchordlength,fkisthevelocityattheouterlimitoftheboundary
layeratthetrailingedge.
1135/1563
09/09/2015
Thepulsemethodcanalsobeappliedtocompressiblegas,aslongas
noregionsofsupersonicflowappearonthebody(Meo<Met).Iîthiscase/6/
+1/2ft1/;^:rr
Ifta
c^=
where
V7L
(^r>]
Itcanbeseenfromtheseexpressionsthatwhencompressibilityeffects
aretakenintoaccount,themeasurementsystemisthesameasatlow
velocities.
1136/1563
09/09/2015
33.TESTINGOFPROPELLERS
Theinstallationsfortestingpropellers.Installations
fortestingpropellersareintendedfordeterminingthefollowingpropeller
characteristicswhichdependonthebladeangle(thepropellerpitch)and
theadvanceratio
^=^^
thethrustcoefficient
thepowercoefficientofthepropeller
theoverallpropellerefficiency
wherePisthethrustofthepropeller,Aîstheshaftpower,nîsthe
numberofrevolutionspersecond,pisthedensityofair,Disthepropeller
diameter.
458
Ininstallationsfortestingpropellersthefollowingvaluesmusttherefore
bemeasured:thethrustofthepropeller,theshafttorque,andtherotational
speed.
1137/1563
09/09/2015
Kinematicsimilarityisprovidedduringtestsofgeometricallysimilar
propellerswhentheanglesofattackofthecorrespondingbladeelements
areequal.Forequalbladeanglesthisrequirementmeanstheequalityofthe
airoutletangles::Pi=P2;substitutingforthetangentsoftheanglesthevelocity
ratios(Figure7.21)weobtain
V^2
or
IlrD
=const=A.
ThedimensionlesscoefficientXplaysthesameroleinpropellersasthe
angleofattackinairfoils.
U,=r,o>,
1138/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE7.21.Velocitytrianglesforcorrespondingblade
elementsofgeometricallysimilarpropellers.
Dynamicsimilaritymeansthattheforcesactingoncorresponding
elementsoftwogeonietricallysimilarpropellersareproportional,and
havethesamedirectionswithrespecttotheblades.Dynamicsimilarity
isprovidedbytheequalityofthedimensionlesscoefficientsofthrustaand
powerp.
OS
0.d
DM
0.2
^r
1139/1563
09/09/2015
1140/1563
09/09/2015
1W^
210^JW'iW^5W'
Re
FIGURE7.22.Dependenceofpropellerefficiency
onReynoldsnumberatx=0.
ViscosityeffectsaretakenintoaccountbyrequiringtheReynolds
numberstobeequalformodelandfullscalepropeller.Theeffectof
1141/1563
09/09/2015
459
theReynoldsnumberonthepropellerefficiencyisshowninFigure7.22.
EqualityofReynoldsnumbersrequiresthattherotationalspeedofthe
modelpropellerbehigherthanthatofthefullscalepropeller.This
maymakeattainmentofequalMachnumbersimpossible.Itisthere
forethepracticetoprovidetestReynoldsnumbersoftheorderof
Re>(4to5)X10*,atwhichtheefficiencyvariesverylittlewithincreasing
Reynoldsnumber.
0.8
as
OA
0.6
0.8
1142/1563
09/09/2015
___
^^^^
1143/1563
09/09/2015
^\
50'
1144/1563
09/09/2015
1.2
"ra
FIGURE7.23.Dependenceof.imaxonthebladetipMachnumber
andonthebladeangleforasubsonicthreebladepropeller.
Thecompressibilityeffectonpropellersbecomesnoticeableat
M(,r==0.'7to0.9anddependson%,theaerodynamiccoefficients,
andtheReynoldsnumber.AtM^r,thethrustcoefficientdecreases,the
powercoefficientincreases,andtheefficiencydrops.Theeffectonthe
efficiencyoftheratiobetweentheresultantbladetipvelocity
U^=VVlV(jîcDfandthespeedofsoundisillustratedinFigure7.23.
Determinationofpropellercharacteristics
oftheaidofwindtunnelbalances
Thethrustofapropellerisveryoftenmeasuredwithwindtunnel
balances.ThesystemformeasuringthecomponentQmustthenbe
adaptedtotakeupaforceopposedtotheusuallymeasureddrag.For
this,preloadingbycounterweightscanbearranged.Whenthewind
tunnelbalancehasasystemformeasuringthecomponentAf^,thetorque
ofthepropellercanbedeterminedfromtheindicationsofthebalance
1145/1563
09/09/2015
elementofthissystem.Ifthewindtunnelbalanceisnotadaptedfor
measuringM:c,orthesystemmeasuringM,îsnotsufficientlyaccurate,
thepropellershafttorquecanbedeterminedwiththeaidofaseparate
dynamometricdeviceoraccordingtothepowerconsumedbyanelectric
motor.
Thus,forinstance,inthehighspeedNASAtunnelatLangleyField,
whichhasatestsectiondiameterof2.4m,thethrustofthepropelleris
naeasuredbythewindtunnelbalanceasanegativedrag,whilethetorque
ismeasuredbyaseparatehydraulicdynanaometer(Figure7.24).For
thispurposethestatorofthemotordrivingthepropellerismountedon
460
bearings.Thereactiontorque,whichactsonthestatorandisequalto
themomentofresistancetorotationofthepropeller,istakenupbythe
hydraulicdynamometerconnectedtoaleversecuredtothestator.
FIGURE7.24.NASAptopellettestinginstallation.1modelof
fuselageorfairing;2statorofdrivingmotormountedinsidefairing;
3hydraulicdynamometertakingupreactiontorque;4levertrans
mittingtorquetohydraulicdynamometer;5receiverconnectedto
balance:6~balance;7compensatorforbalancedisplacement;8
compensatorformaintainingaconstantvolumeinthehydraulicsystem.
1146/1563
09/09/2015
Since,inadditiontothethrustofthepropeller,thewindtunnelbalance
alsotakesupthedragofthefairing,insidewhichthewholedeviceis
installed,thethrustPofthepropellerisdeterminedfromthemeasured
valueQaccordingtothefollowingexpression:
P=Q+^Q^+(^Q,+AQ31AQ,),
whereAQiistheresistanceofthefairingwithoutthepropellerandofthe
supportonwhichthewholedeviceisinstalled,AQ2isthecorrectionfor
thelongitudinalpressuregradient,AQ3isthecorrectionforAQ,onaccount
oftheblockingeffectofthepropeller,AQ4istheincreaseindragof
fairingandsupport,duetothevelocityincreaseinthepropellerwake.
OfthesemagnitudesAQ,isdeterminedbydirectdragmeasurementwhen
thepropellerisremoved.Theothercorrectionsaredeterminedas
functionsofthethrustcoefficientofthepropeller.
Propellerinstruments.Specialinstallationsformeasuring
thrustandtorqueofpropellersarecalledpropellerinstruments.The
mainoperatingprinciplesofpropellerinstrumentsareinmanypoints
similartowindtunnelbalances.Thedesignofapropellerinstrument
dependsconsiderablyonthetypeofpropellerdriveused.Thenatural
tendencyistomountthepropellerdirectlyontheshaftofthemotoror
ofthereductiongearwhichiscoaxialwiththemotor.Thisprovides
thesinnplesttransmissiondesign.Sinceinthisdesignthemotoris
locatedinsidetheairstream,itsdiametershouldbeassmallaspossible
461
inordertoreduceitsinfluenceonthepropelleroperation,and,inhigh
speedtunnels,toincreasethecriticalMachnumberatwhichblockage
1147/1563
09/09/2015
ofthewindtunneloccurs.
Thehighpowerofelectricmotorsinstalledintestsectionsisachieved
byincreasedlength,highersupplyfrequency,andspecialcoolingmethods.
Thispermitsthemotordiametertobegreatlyreduced.Motorsofthis
typearesuspendedinthetestsectionfromspecialstrutsorbraces,while
themeasuringelementofthepropellerinstrumentisplacedinsideacasing
protectingthemotor,orislocatedoutsidetheflowboundaries.
Whenalargeelectricmotorwhichcannotbeplacedintheair
streamisused,thenarmtypeinstrumentsareemployed.Inthe
armtypeinstrumentthepropellershaftismountedinaspecial
bodyinsideacasingshapedlikeabodyofrevolutionandmountedona
shroudwhichisperpendiculartotheflowdirection.Ashaft,which
connectsthepropellershaftwiththeelectricmotor,passesthroughthe
shroud.Allmeasuringelementsortransducersforthethrustandthe
torqueareplacedinsidethecasingandtheshroud.
Propellerinstrumentsofthesuspensiontype.An
exampleofsuchasystemisshowninFigure7.25.Thebodyofelectric
FIGURE7.25.Suspensiontypepropellerinstrument.1electricmotor;
2casing;3braces;4struts;5torquelever;6torque
rod;7intermediateyoke.
motor(1),surroundedbystreamlinedcasing(2),issuspendedatfixed
pointsfromfourbraces(3)placedinpairsintwoverticalplanes.The
bracesarealsousedaselectricleadsforthemotor.Thestreamlined
1148/1563
09/09/2015
462
casingissuspendedfromfixedsupportsbymeansofstruts(4).The
reactiontorqueactingontheframeoftheelectricmotorêqualtothe
torqueonthepropellershaft,istransmittedbylever(5)androd(6)
tobalanceelement(M)whichispreloadedbycounterweightGm
Thesystemofsecuringthebraces(3)totheframeofthemotoris
shownatthebottomofFigure7.25.Thebracesareconnectedtothe
framethroughintermediateyokes(7),supportingtheframebymeansof
pinscarriedinballbearings.Thearticulatedparallelogram,formed
bythebracesandtheframe,permitsfreeaxialmovementoftheframein
ordertotransmitthethrustPtopointAwhereitisresolvedinto
components.Theverticalcomponent,whichata=45equalsthethrust,
ismeasuredbybalanceelementP.Thebracesareconnectedtothe
yokesbymeansofhingeswithballbearings.Theprolongationsofthe
braceaxesintersectthepropellershaft.Theyokestogetherwiththeframe
ofthemotorcanthereforerotateaboutthisshaftwithinthelimitsofthe
measuringdisplacements,inordertotransmitaforcetoabalance
elementwhichmeasuresthereactiontorqueactingonthemotorframe.
Theinfluenceoffrictioninthebearingsistakenintoaccountwhen
calibratingtheinstrumentwiththepropellerremoved.
Thedrawbacksofapropellerinstrumentwithbracesuspensionare
therelativelylowpower,thenecessityoffrequentcalibrationdueto
elongationofthebraces,andalsotheneedforfrequentadjustmentof
theclearancesbetweenthestationarypartsandthoseconnectedtothe
balance.
1149/1563
09/09/2015
Straingagetransducers
formeasuringthrust
Straingage
transducersfor
measuringtorque
'm~
uiIn.
FIGURE7.26.Suspenstontypepropellerinstrumentwithstraingage
elements.
463
1150/1563
09/09/2015
^s
t.o
tyD__j
^^d
Û1
OcI
E5oj
464
1151/1563
09/09/2015
Theuseofinstrumentswithbracesuspensionsintunnelswithclosed
testsections(andsometimesintunnelswithopentestsections)isvery
inconvenientbecauseofthenecessitytoinstallandcalibratethe
instrumentbeforetestingthepropellerandtodismantleitafterthe
tests.
Thesedrawbacksaremostlyeliminatedininstrumentswherethebrace
suspensionisusedonlyforfixingtheinstrumentinthetunnelwhilethe
wholemeasuringsystemisplacedinonecasingwiththeelectricmotor.
Thedesignofsuchapropellerinstrument,inwhichastraingage
measuringsystemisused,isshowninFigure7.26.Fairing(1)isrigidly
fixedinthetestsectionbytapesorwireswhichalsoserveaselectricleads
forthemotor.Theframeofthemotorismountedinsidethefairingon
twoelasticdiscs(2),whosedesignisshownatthebottomofFigure7.26.
Thediscsaremadeofsinglepiecesofsteel.Thethrustcauses
deformationoftheelasticelementAofthedisc,whichhaslowrigidityin
theaxialdirection.
Wirestraingagetransducersaregluedonthewallsoftheseelements
inoneofthediscs.Thetorqueactingonthestatorofthemotoristaken
upinthesamewaybystraingagetransducersgluedontheradialelements
Bwhichhavelowrigidityinthetangentialdirection.Thestraingage
transducersareinsertedintothecircuitsoftwoautomaticbalancing
bridgeswhichmeasureseparatelythetorqueandthethrust.
Propellerinstrumentsofthearmtype.Propeller
instrumentsofarmtypemakefrequentreinstallationandcalibration
unnecessaryandpermitquickchangeoverfromthepropellertests
toothertypesofexperiments.Forthispurposearmtypeinstruments
aremountedoncarriagesorotherdevicesfortransportfromandtothetest
section.Thetypicalexampleofsuchaninstrumentforatunnelwith
opentestsectionistheB5propellerinstrument/7/oftheT5TsAGItunnel
(Figure7.27).Thelayoutformeasuringthethrustofapropellerisshown
inFigure7.28,andthatformeasuringthetorqueinFigure7.29.
1152/1563
09/09/2015
Instrumentsofthearmtypeareusedalsoinhighspeedtunnelsfor
testingpropellershavinglargevaluesofXwhilemaintainingequalityof
Machnumbers.Thepowerrequiredfordrivingthepropellercanbe
considerablyreducedbyloweringthepressureinthetunnel.Theresultant
reductioninReynoldsnumberisnotveryimportant,sincetheinfluence
ofthelatteronthepropellercharacteristicsisinsignificantatlarge
velocities.Anexampleofaninstrumentfortestingpropellersintunnels
withclosedtestsectionsathighsubsonicandtransonicfreestream
velocitiesisshowninFigure7.30oftheNASAtunnelatLangleyField.
Thepoweroftheinstrumentis2000h.p.Thediameteroftheclosed
testsectionis4.88m,andtheflowvelocity,M=1.2.
Propellerstestedathighrotationalspeedsmustbecarefullybalanced.
Inadequatebalancingcausesvibrationsofthepropellerandofthe
instrumentelementsandreducesthemeasuringaccuracy.Forthesake
ofsafety,thepropellersarefirsttestedfortheirstrengthonaspecial
standwheretheyarerotatedataspeedwhichexceedsby10to15%their
maximumrotationalspeedinthewindtunnel.
465
Asimpledeviceforbalancingpropellersisshownschematicallyin
Figure7.31.Thedeviceconsistsofaleverrestingonaknifeedge.
FIGURE7.28.Measuringthethrustofa
1153/1563
09/09/2015
propellerontheB5instrument.
Springdynamometer
FIGURE7.29.Measuringthepropellertorque
ontheB5instrument.
Theweightofthepropeller,mountedononearmofthelever,is
equilibratedbyweights.Iftheunbalancedpropellerisrotatedaboutits
axistheequilibriumoftheleverisdisturbed.Equilibratingthelever
FIGURE7.30.PropellerinstrumentofthehighspeedNASAtunnelatLangleyField.
466
againbyadditionalweight,wecandeterminetheimbalancemoment,
whichisthenequilibratedwiththeaidofweightssecuredtothe
propellerhub.
1154/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE7.31.Deviceforbalancingpropellers.
Thecalibrationofpropellerinstruments
Thesystemformeasuringthethrustofthepropellerinstrumentis
calibratedbyloadingtheshaftwithweights.Athrustplate,fixedtothe
endoftheshaftandrunningonballbearings,transmitstheload.The
stationarypartofthisthrustbearingisfixedtoarodpassingthrough
arollertoapanwithweights.Thesystemofmeasuringthetorqueis
calibratedbyapplyingatorquetotheinstrumentshaftbymeansofa
pneumaticorhydraulicbrakeandmeasuringindependentlythetorque
actingonthebrake.
Afeatureofarminstrumentsisthattheflowperturbationcaused
bythemintheplaneofrotationofthepropellerissmall^'.Thevelocity
decrease,duetotheinstrument,intheplaneofthepropellercausesan
increaseinthethrustmeasured.
Measurementoftherotationalspeed.Errorsinmeasuring
thenumberofrevolutionsricaffectthefinalaccuracyofdeterminingthe
dimensionlesscoefficientsa,pandr|morethanerrorsinmeasuringthe
othermagnitudes.Specialattentionshouldthereforebepaidtothe
measuringoftherotationalspeed.Onlyspecialtjrpesoflaboratory
tachometerscanbeusedinaerodynamicexperiments.
Testsoffullscalepropellers.Thefullscalepropellers
aretestedmainlyintunnelswithopentestsections.Experimentswith
fullscalepropellersareperformedinclosedtestsectionsonlyinvariable
densityfullscaletunnels.Themainpurposeofsuchtestsistoinvestigate
theoperationofthepropellerandenginegroupatdifferentaltitude
conditionsandtemperatures,createdbymeansofcompressors,vacuum
1155/1563
09/09/2015
pumps,andcoolinginstallations.Reducingthepressuretobelow
atmosphericpermitshighvelocities(Machnumbers)tobeattained,while
anincreaseofthepressuretoaboveatmosphericincreasestheReynolds
numberoftheexperiment.
rhecorrectionduetovelocityreductionJoesnotexceed0.5'ôofthemeasuredthrust.
467
Thethrustismeasuredbyawindtunnelbalanceordynamometric
installationlocatedinsideafalsefuselage.Thetorqueappliedtothe
propellershaftismeasuredbydifferentmethodsdependingmainlyonthe
typeofenginedrivingthepropeller.Whenanelectricmotorisused,the
powerabsorbedbythepropellercanbemeasuredverysimplybutnot
accurately,becauseitisdifficulttodeterminetheefficiencyofthemotorand
theeffectsonitoftemperaturechangesinthewindingduringthetests.
Whenanaircraftengineisusedthepowertakenupbythepropeller
canbedeterminedbycalibratingtheengine.Thismethodtooisless
accuratethantorquemeasurem.entsbyspecialdynamometricdevices
operatingontheweighingprinciple.Thetorqueappliedtothepropeller
shaftcanbedeterminedwiththeaidofdevicesinwhichtheangleoftwist
ofaknownlengthoftheelasticshaftismeasuredwiththeaidofstrain
gage,inductive,capacitive,oropticaltransducers.Determinationofthe
powerbytheelectricmethod,fromtheenginecharacteristicsorfromthe
shafttorsion,enablesthetorquetobefoundwithanaccuracyof3to4%.
Thefieldofapplicationofthesemethodsisthereforelimitedmainlyto
comparativetestsandtoflighttestswheretheuseofothertypesof
1156/1563
09/09/2015
equipmentisdifficult.
Methodsoftestingpropellers
Suchtestsaremainlyperformedonpropellerinstruments*.Thebasic
experinaentsaretestsofsingleandcoaxialpropellersbothasisolated
unitsandinthepresenceofelementsoftheairplane.Inthelattercase
theaerodynamicforcesactingontheairplaneelementsmustalsobe
determined;thisdeterminestheinteractionbetweenpropellerandairplane
body.
Measurementsintherangeofmaximumpropellerefficiencyrimaxmust
bemostaccurate.Thisisdifficultbecauseinthisrangethethrustand
thepropellertorquearesmallinabsolutevalue.Measuringaccuracycan
beimprovedbyincreasingthenumberofexperimentalpoints,andalsobyahigh
accuracyofthenaeasuringinstrumentsusedintheloadrangeextending
from1/5tol/lOofthenaaximumload.
Stationarytests(K=0;A,=0)intendedtodeterminetheaerodynamic
characteristicsofpropellers,requiredforinvestigationsofaircraftlanding
andenginestartingontheground(smallpositiveandnegativebladeangles),
canbecarriedoutinwindtunnelswiththefansnonoperative.Stationary
testsintendedtoprovidetheaerodynamiccharacteristicsofpropellers
requiredforinvestigationsofaircrafttakeoff,mustbeperformedout
sidethetunnelor,ifpossible,withthetestinstallationatarightangle
tothetunnelaxis,sinceatlargebladeanglesthepropellersthemselves
createinthewindtunnelanaircirculationcorrespondingto(X=s0.5).
Determinationofthethrustofthepropellerisdifficultinstationary
testsbecausethebladerootsoperateunderstallingconditions.Because
knowledgeofthethrustinstationarytestsisinnportant,ithastobe
determinedbyrepeatedmeasurements(3or4).
1157/1563
09/09/2015
*Theoperationofindividualbladesectionsissometimesanalyzedwiththeaidofmeasuringtubesbydeter
miningthemomentumandthemomentofmomentumoftheairupstreamanddownstreamoftheblade
sectionconsidered.
468
Testingsinglepropellers.Arminstrumentsaremost
suitablefortestingsinglepropellers.Thetestsareperform.edatconstant
bladeangles(<p=constant)anddifferentvaluesofthecoefficientA.,whichis
variedbychangingthefreestreamvelocityfrom1^=toV=Vmxatdifferent
rotationalspeeds.Theminimumnumberofrevolutionsofthepropeller
ischoseninsuchawaythattheReynoldsnumberdoesnotbecometoo
small(Figure7.22).Whenthisconditionissatisfiedthenumberof
revolutionsisselectedbytakingintoaccounttherangeofpossible
measurementsofthrustandpropellertorque,andthelimitingvelocityin
thetestsectionofthetunnel.
Excessiverotationalspeedsatalimitedflowvelocityinthetunneldo
notpermitthefullcharacteristicsofthepropellerstobedeterminedat
largebladeangles(largevaluesofJ,).Reducingthenumberofrevolutions
permitsthepropellercharacteristicstobeobtainedforallbladeangles.
However,duetothesmallnessoftheloadsactingonthebalancedevices,
theaccuracyofdeterminingtheefficiency,andparticularlyitsmaximum
value,isreduced.Testsofpropellersofagivenseries(typeandnumber
ofblades,propellerdiameter)mustthereforebeprecededbyananalysis
oftheexperimentalconditionsandbytheselectionoftherotationalspeedof
thepropellerandoftheflowvelocity.
Thevelocityintervalsarechoseninsuchawaythattheintervalsofthe
coefficientX,areequalto0.1,and,intheneighborhoodofT)max,to0.05.The
highestvelocitiesshouldcorrespondtoavalueofXatwhichthecoefficients
1158/1563
09/09/2015
aandpassumesmallnegativevalues(0.05to0.01).Thispermitsthepoint
ofzerothrusttobefixedmoredefinitely.
Testsofsinglepropellersinthepresenceofthefuselageorengine
nascellewithwingareperformedinthesamewayastestsofisolated
propellers,butinadditiontheaerodynamicforcesactingontheseelements
aremeasuredwithandwithoutthepropeller.Thispermitstheinfluence
ofthepropellerwaketobetakenintoaccountandtheeffectivethrustand
propellerefficiency(ae,Oe)tobedetermined.
Insuchteststheinstrumentsmustbelocatedinsidethemodeland
attentionshouldbepaidtoprovidingsufficientclearancesbetweenmoving
andstationaryparts.Theresultsofpropellertestsareusuallygivenin
theformof"series"characteristics,i,e.,ofthecharacteiisticsofagiven
typeofpropellerfordifferentbladeanglesandoperatingconditions
(o=/'(A),'|3=/(A)),withlinesofconstantefficiency(Figure7.32).Ifthe
freestreamvelocityexceeds70to80m/sec,acorrectionfor
compressibilityeffectshastobeintroduced.
Severalcountriespossesslargewindtunnelsmainlyintendedfortesting
fullsizepropellers.Thesetunnelsarecharacterizedbycirculartest
sections,usuallyoftheopentype,havingdiametersof6to8mand
comparativelyhighflowvelocities(upto100to150m/sec).Theinstalled
powersofsuchtunnelsattainfrom20,000to30,000kw.Insuchtunnelsit
ispossibletoobtainwithpropellerinstrumentscharacteristicslikethose
showninFigure7.32.Whenonlywindtunnelbalancesanddevicesfor
torquemeasurementsorenginecalibrationareused,characteristicslike
thoseshowninFigure7.33areobtained.
Itwasshownbymanyteststhatwiththeaidoftheenginecharacteristics,
thethrustofthepropellerattakeoffconditionsatmaximumairplanespeed
canbedeterminedwithanaccuracyof10kg,andthemaximumairplane
speed,withanaccuracyof1%.
1159/1563
09/09/2015
469
Testingofcoaxialpropellers
Thetestingofcoaxialpropellers,whichwereintroducedasaresultof
theincreasedpowerofaircraftengines,nowadaysplaysanimportantpart
inpropellertests.Forexistingturbopropairplanestheaerodynamic
characteristicsofpropellersmustbeknownforbladeangle90.75*<0up
to90.75=90at0<%<oo,forbothpositiveandnegativethrustsandtorques.
0.5
Wlb2.02.5S.0
FIGURE7.32.Characteristicsofapropellerseries.
15
i.O,i.S
1160/1563
09/09/2015
/I
Testsofpropellermodelsoversuchwideparameterrangesarenot
feasibleinhighspeedtunnels.Investigationsofpropelleroperationunder
takeoffandlandingconditionsaresimplertocarryoutinlowspeed
tunnels(Figure7.34).Inhighspeedtunnelssuchtestsaredifficultto
performbecauseofthelargeloadsactingonthebalancedeviceswhich
mustmeasureevensmallloadsaccurately.
Underflightconditionsthedifferenceinthebladeanglesofcoaxial
propellers,takingupequalsharesoftheenginepower(orinstalledon
similarenginesintandem),is1to2atVmax.Thereasonforthisisthat
intheregionofrimas,atequalbladeanglesandequalapparentflowangles,
duetotheinducedvelocity,bladesectionsofthetrailingpropeller
operateatlargeranglesofattackandathigherfreestreamvelocities
thanthecorrespondingbladesectionsoftheleadingpropeller.Inorder
thatthepowerrequiredtoovercometheaerodynamicresistanceto
rotationbeequalforbothpropellers,thebladeangleofthetrailing
propellernaustbe1to2lessthanthatoftheleadingpropeller.Fortake
offconditionsthedifferenceattains5to6.
<Po.75isthebladeangleatr=0.75i?[where/îsthepropellerradius.]
470
Duringtestsofcoaxialpropellers,thefollowingmagnitudesare
1161/1563
09/09/2015
naeasured:
a)thethrust,torque,andnumberofrevolutionsofeachpropeller,
b)thefreestreamvelocityanddensity,
c)thepressureintheclearancesbetweenthepropellerhubsandthe
instrumentfairing(Figure7.35),
^kg1
I600f4l
noo
wo'SOMO160
y,m/sec
FIGURE7.33.Velocitydcpendcticeoftlirustand
propellerefficiency.
Inordertoanalyzethepropelleroperationathighrotationalspeeds
(forinstance,underconditionsoftakeoff,cruising,maximumspeed,
landing,etc.)theresultsaregivenasvariationsofa,pandXwith<f
(Figure7.32).
1162/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE7.34.InstallationofcoaxialpropellersontheB5instrument
471
Inordertoinvestigateprocessesconnectedwiththereductionofthe
rotationalspeedofthepropellertovaluesclosetozero(forinstance,
thefeatheringofthepropellerstoreducethedragaftersuddenengine
shutdowninflight,ortherestartingoftheengineinflight),thepropeller
characteristicsaregivenascoefficientsCp,c,and^^^=/(9,X).These
coefficientsarerelatedtothecoefficientsa.pandKasfollows;
2t.I'
Iftestsarecarriedoutintherange0<X<oo,onepartofthe
1163/1563
09/09/2015
experimentalresults(usually0<A<4or5)isexpressedbythe
coefficientsa,pandX,whiletheremainderisexpressedbythecoefficients
cp.c,and^.
TuT
m.p.
+++
t.p.
/n
t.b.
"i.b.
1164/1563
09/09/2015
1.h.
nt
m.p.
i.p.
^^f<''l.b.''Lp.*'n,.p.Pl.h.
)f(p+ppP^)
t.b.t.p.m.p.
FIGURE7.35.Forcesmeasuredbythrustbalanceswhentestingcoaxialpropellers.
1165/1563
09/09/2015
Deternniningofthecoefficientsaandcp.Thesecoefficients
arerespectively
andc.=
wherePisthethrustoftheisolatedcoaxialpropellers,givenby
P=Pi+PtiihAPp.
HerePjandPâretheforcesmeasuredrespectivelyonthethrustbalances
oftheleadingandtrailingarmsoftheinstrument,APhisthedragofthe
hubwithoutblades,measuredonthethrustbalance,APpisthetotalforceofthe
pressureintheclearancestransmittedtotheinstrumentbalance:APp=
APi.p.APt.p..Theforceofthepressurebetweenthehubsdoesnot
472
affectthemeasurementofthetotalthrust(Figure7.36).Thepressure
forcesintheleadingandtrailingclearancesare
1
n
1166/1563
09/09/2015
whereS^îsthecrosssectionalareaofthehub,iisthespecificgravity
ofthemanometricfluid,huh^,aretheindicationsofthemeasuring
tubesconnectedtothecorrespondingorificesintheenddiscsofthe
instrumentfairing.Theorificesarelocatedatdifferentradiiinsucha
waythatequalareasareserved,sothatintegrationcanbereplacedby
summation.
^t.h..
m.p.
l.h.
m.p.
t.p.
l.p.
/'bar^^m.p.^h.^l.p.)'(".
1167/1563
09/09/2015
m,p.
^t.h.^^.p.^
FIGURE7.06.Forcesmeasuredbythethrustbalancewhenthehubsate
testedwithoutblades.
Weintroducethedimensionlesscoefficients
where
iah=
APh
1168/1563
09/09/2015
Cp=riiCp
APn
p";
:D'
Aa.=
_."1P
fiD'
iCphAcpp,
APj,
:^<^pii=,iiT3;'^'^
Pt
1169/1563
09/09/2015
APn
"P
Determinationofpandcforcoaxialpropellers.
Thetotaltorqueofcoaxialpropellersis
whereMiisthetorqueoftheleadingpropellerandAJjisthetorqueof
thetrailingpropeller.
Weintroducedimensionlesscoefficients
7itMi
7r:Mt
("Id'
1170/1563
09/09/2015
473
whileCm=c,1+ctwhere
Ml.
Mt
^mlpV2D3<^m^^pV2)3
Theefficiencyofcoaxialpropellersis
7,=^X.
Figures7.37and7.38aretypicalpropellercharacteristicscorresponding
topositivethrusts.Figure7.37givesthecoefficientpforcoaxial
propellersasafunctionofXfordifferentvaluesof90,75,togetherwithcurves
ofconstantefficiencyr\.
1171/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE7.37.Characteristicsofaseriesofcoaxial
propellers
Figure7.38givesthecoefficientaforisolatedcoaxialpropellersasa
functionofXfordifferentvaluesof90.75.Figures7.39and7.40givethe
characteristicsofcoaxialpropellers,expressedbythecoefficientsCm
andCp.Figure7.39givesthecoefficientCmforcoaxialpropellersasa
ticD
functionof^^fordifferentvaluesof90.75,whileFigure7.40givesthe
coefficientCpasafunctionof!^fordifferentvaluesof90.75.
1680
474
FIGURE7.38.Thrustcharacteristicsofcoaxialpropellers.
1172/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE7.39.Totaltorquecharacteristicsofcoaxialpropellers.
475
FIGURE7.40.Coefficientcasfunctionof^.
34.TESTINGOFBLADECASCADES
Themaintypesoftestsonturbomachineelementsarestatictestsof
bladecascadesinspecialwindtunnelsandstandtestsofseparatestages
ofturbinesandcompressors.Thissectiondealswithmethodsof
stationarytestsofbladecascades.
Determiningthemainaerodynanniccharacteristics
ofcascades
Theefficiencyofturbines,compressors,andotherturbomachinesis
determinedlargelybythelossesofkineticenergyinthebladecascades
andimpellers.Ifnoenergyissuppliedtoorremovedfromtheflowing
medium,theenergyloss(ordissipation)inaworkingmediumflowingin
channelsbetweenbladesisdeterminedbythelossintotalpressure.The
1173/1563
09/09/2015
principalgeometricalparametersofbladecascadesareindicatedin
Figure7.41.Theefficiencyofacascadeisdefinedastheratioofthe
energyofagivenmassoftheworkingmediumatthecascadeoutlettothe
energyofthismassatthecascadeinlet.
Theflowdownstreamofthecascadeisnonuniform..Indifferentpartsof
it,thevelocitiesdifferinmagnitudeanddirection;hence,themassflow
ratedistributionisnonuniform.Theamountofkineticenergypassingper
secondthroughunitcrosssectionalareaofthecascadeoutletis
(psi'z)n
(7.1)
476
Imil
whereV2andp2arerespectivelytheflowvelocityanddensityatthe
cascadeoutlet,whileQisthemassflowrateperunitarea.Theefficiency
1174/1563
09/09/2015
ofacascadeelementis
7)=
J2Sin^2rf^r(p^KjSlnPj)Vi*^
</
VljQs\np,dxVljP2VjsinPjdx
(7.2)
whereV^tistheoutletvelocityatisentropicflowthroughthecascade,p2is
theairoutletangle,and;.:ismeasuredalongthebladepitch.
FIGURE7.41.Geometricaland
aerodynamiccascadeparameters.
S,airinletangle;Sjairout
letangle;ybladeangle.
1175/1563
09/09/2015
Wecaneasilyseethat
J(P2l'2Sln?j)Vldx
/(Pa^jSlnWdt
iVî
(7.3)
isthesquareofthevelocity,averagedoverthemassflowrate.Hence
7,=^.(7.4)
ThetheoreticalvelocityVitisdeterminedbythetotalpressurepmat
bladeinletandbythemeanstaticpressurep2avatthebladeoutlet.The
valueofV2isdeterminedbythelocaltotalpressurepo2andstaticpressure
Piatthebladeoutlet.
477
1176/1563
09/09/2015
ill
Themeanoutletvelocityisdeterminedbyaveragingoverthemassflow
rate:
V2av=^j.(7.5)
JCPil/jsmPijcfj:
Theefficiencycanbeexpressedindimensionlessformasafunctionof
X=V/a,and
^w=^=(^)"'^('^)''.(^6)
wherep.isthecriticaldensity.Notingthatthevalueofthecritical
velocitydoesnotdependonthelossesinthecascade(i.e.,upstream
anddownstreamofthecascadeitsvaluesarethesame),wecan,bydividing
thenumeratoranddenominatoroftherighthandpartofexpression(7.2)
bya],replaceVlandvl,respectivelybyxlandxl^.
Dividingthenumeratoranddenominatorbytheunitcriticalmassflow
rateupstreamofthecascade,equaltop*ia*,andusing
1177/1563
09/09/2015
P.ia.^^^'Pot
obtainedfrom^=^^,wedeterminethecascadeefficiencyasafunction
P.2POSP02
ofdimensionlessmagnitudes
t
PaI
(7.7)
4,fg(h)^sln^,djc
Themeanvalueoftheairoutletangleisfoundfrom
JPo]
a
inp2av=
1178/1563
09/09/2015
(7.8)
/9M
i^dx
Pax
Similarly,themassflowcoefficientis
JPqi
,=^=i':.(7.9)
?(^2t)Jslnpjij:
Atlowvelocities(incompressiblefluid)pisconstant.Assumingthe
staticpressureattheoutlettobeequaltotheatmosphericpressurep,
1179/1563
09/09/2015
478
weobtain
1^2=]/îPiaPa);1^21==y^(PoiPj>
JVJV^sinjijdxJ(paiPa)V(P02Pa)sin?2dj:
7,=,=,.(7.10)
Vl^fV^slnPjdjc(p,,p^)f/(/P02Pa)sin?jdr
iJ
WhenwecanassumeP2~const,
J(PmPa)VPO!Padx
n^",.(7.11)
(Pt,\Pa)jVPt>2Padx
Whentheefficiencyisaveragedoverthepitch,weobtain
i
I(PmPa)ix
_i(7.12)
'''(P=,Pa)t
1180/1563
09/09/2015
Thefollowingmagnitudeshavethustobemeasured:
1)thetotalpressurepo,atasufficientdistanceupstreamofthecascade;
2)thetotalpressuredistributionp'f^=f(x)overthepitchdownstreamof
thecascade(bytotalpressuretubeindications);
3)thestaticpiessuredistributionp2'=l{x)overthepitchdownstreamof
thecascade;
4)theairoutletangledistributionp2=/(^)overthepitchdownstreamof
thecascade.
Atsubsonicvelocities,p'^^^=po2whileM2andXjaredeterminedasfunctions
ofpilpmAtsupersonicvelocities,M2andA2havetobedeterminedfrom
Reyleigh'sformula(ChapterIV),sincethevalueoip'^,,asmeasuredby
thetotalpressuretube,isequaltothetotalpressurebehindthenormal
shockformedbeforethetube.Usuallythefollowingdifferencesare
measuredintests:
1)i/û,=/),pwherepîstheatmosphericpressure,
2)/'p^'=Poip'a2(lossoftotalpressure),
3)l^P2=P'2~Pa\
4)ip2=P2Po'
Asarule,Ap2isverysmall,sincecascadetestsareusuallycarried
outwithdischargeintoatraosphere.
ThelayoutfornaeasuringthesemagnitudeswiththeaidofUtube
manometersisshowninFigure7.42.
1181/1563
09/09/2015
Cascadetestinginstallations
Specialwindtunnelsareusedtotestcascadesofcompressorand
turbinebladesunderstaticconditions.Themainrequirementsforsuch
479
windtunnelsistheprovisionofoperatingconditionsinthecentralpartof
thecascade,approachingthoseinaninfinitecascade.Thenumberof
bladesinthecascadeusuallyvariesfrom7to14.Adjustmentofthe
magnitudeanddirectionoftheinletvelocitymustbepossible.Thelay
outsanddesignsofthewindtunnelsdifferaccordingtothevelocities
obtainedinthem..
rTn
^âh
FIGURE7.42.Measuringpressuresduringcascadetests.
1tubeformeasuringtotalpressureupstreamofcas
1182/1563
09/09/2015
cade;2tubeformeasuringtotalpressureandflow
directiondownstreamofcascade;3tubeformeas
tzringstaticpressuredownstreamofcascade.
FullscaleReynoldsnumberscanbeobtainedinlowspeedtunnelsby
increasingthebladechord.Inhighspeedtunnelsthebladechordsare
approximatelyequaltothemeanchordsofbladesusedinaxialcompressors
andturbines.Byvaryingthepressuredownstreamofthecascade,
separateinvestigationofviscosityandcompressibilityeffectscanbe
carriedout.However,suchtunnelsareinconvenientbecauseofthe
difficultaccesstothetestedcascade.
Thesimplestinstallationfortestingcascadesatsmallvelociteshas
theformofanordinaryopencircuitwindtunnel.Theairisaspirated
fromtheroombyafananddischargedintotheroomthroughthecascade.
Toincreasetheflowuniformityatthecascadeinlet,theairisdischarged
throughanozzlewithlargeexpansionratio(from7to12).Bettervelocity
equalizationissometimesobtainedbyboundarylayerremovalthroughthe
tunnelwallsupstreamofthecascade.
Testsatlargeflowvelocitiesareperformedintunnelsoperatedwith
airsuppliedbycompressors.Theairfromthecompressorisusually
dischargedthroughthecascadedirectlytoatmosphere.Anexampleof
suchaninstallationistheNGTEhighspeedtunnel/8/,shownschematically
inFigure7.43.
480
IfabackpressureisrequiredinordertoincreasetheReynoldsnumber,
athrottlingdeviceisinsertedbetweenthetunneloutletandthetested
1183/1563
09/09/2015
cascade.Theairfromthecompressorissuppliedtothetunnelthrough
aregulatingvalve.Thiscanbeanordinaryvalveactuatedmanuallybya
t'/.'!v'i(t'ft.?;;ii!i
FIGURE7.43NGTEwindtunnelfortestingcascadesatlargeflowvelocities.1
throttlingvalveforaccurateinlelpressureregulation:2circularsection;3
rectangularsection;4corner;5cascades;6honeycomb;7airdischargeto
atmospherethroughsettlingchamber.
motor.Aspecialrapidactionvalvepermitsbetterregulationand
maintenanceofpressureatthetunnelinlet.Suchavalve,withhydraulicor
electricdrive,connectedtotheautomatictotalinletpressureregulator,
facilitatestunneloperationandpermitsincreasedaccuracyofthe
experiments.
Figure7.44showsschematicallythetestsectionofthewindtunnel
fortestingcascadesattheDresdenTurbineInstitute(EastGermany).
Thisintermittentoperationtunnelispoweredbyanejector.Theair
issuckedintoatestsectionmeasuring300X100or200X100mmînwhich
aflowvelocitycorrespondingtoM=0.85canbeattained.TheReynolds
numbercanbevariedfrom1.10^to810^/9/.
Thesameinstitutehasahighspeedclosedcircuittunnel.Thedrive
isbyanaxial1200kwcompressor(Figure7.45).Thetestsection
measuresSOOmmX100mm,andissuitablefortestingbladeshavingchords
of50mmandlengthsof100mmat0,3<M<1.5.Byvaryingtheinitial
pressurebetween0.3and4atm,theReynoldsnumbercanbechangedfrom
10ûpto210^/lO/.
1184/1563
09/09/2015
481
Theinletangleisadjustedeitherbyrotatingtheentiretestsection,
asshowninFigure7.44,orbyturningthecascade.Intheformercase.
FIGURE7.44.Ejectortunnelforcascadetests.Tunnelelements:1settlingchamberandnozzle,
2intermediatepressurechamber;3segmentsservingforchangingthebladeinletangle;4
mixingchamber;6diffusor;6highpressureairpipe;7tubestomultiplemanometer;8inlet
foradditionalaspiratedair;9injectorthroat.Orificesandtubes:Astaticpressureinsettling
chamber;'B~staticandtotalpressures;Cstaticpressureaicascadeinlet;Dstaticandtotal
pressuresdownstreamofcascade;Estaticpressureandtemperattireofhighpressureair;Ftubes
formeasuringtheflowdirectiondownstreamofthecascade.
thetraversingcradleservingforflowinvestigationsdownstreamof
thecascadeisinstalledonthemovabletunnelwall,whileinthelattercase
itismountedonthedeviceforrotatingthecascade(Figure7.46).
482
v!>i<^/z"///X*/x/y>y/^'^.Z/;y///////^v//^
1185/1563
09/09/2015
^^;x^
FIGURE7.45,Highspeedwindtunnelfortestingcascades.1steamturbine;2axial
compressor;3cooler;4nozzle;6Eiffelchamber;6schliereninstrument;7
diffusor;8~bend;9bypass;10controlpanel.
Measurementmethodsandequipment.Thetotalpressure
atthebladeinletiseasilydeterminedwiththeaidofstationarytubes.
FIGURE7.46.Testsectionofhighspeedwindtunnelfortestingcascades(seeFigure
7.43).1turntableforinstallingthecascade;2verticaladjustablewall;3
nozzleflangeforattachingthetestsection;4scaleforreadoffofbladeangle;5
staticpressuretap;6turntableguides;7bracketforcoordinatingdevice.
483
Theflowparametersatthebladeoutletareusuallydeterminedbytubes
ofthetypedescribedinChapterIV,forinstance,cylindricaltubeswith
centralorificesformeasuringthetotalpressureandlateralorificesfor
measuringtheflowinclination.Sincetheflowdownstreamofthecascade
isnonuniform,thevaluesofApo2iandP20aremeasuredatpointswhose
coordinatesareXiwiththeaidofthetraversingcradle.Thestatic
1186/1563
09/09/2015
pressureisusuallydeterminedwithaseparatetube.Promthemeasured
valuesofApoziandPajweobtainbynumericalintegrationthevaluesoft),sin
P2avandg.
Recordingandintegratinginstruments.Inorderto
determinetheinfluenceofdifferentparametersonthecharacteristicsof
thecascade,andtocomparecascadetests,alargenumberoftestsare
required,eachofwhichconsistsofm.ultiplemeasurements.
Visualrecordingofalargenumberofreadingsandthesubsequent
mathematicalprocessingrequiresmucheffortandtime.Largescale
cascadetestsnecessitate,therefore,automaticrecordingofthe
measurenaents,togetherwithremotecontrolofthetubeswiththeaidof
automaticdevicesdescribedin17.Theadvantagesofautomaticcontrol
andmeasurementsystemsare:
1)increasedaccuracy,becausetheparametersarerecordednotat
distinctpointsbutcontinuouslyoverthewholepitch;
2)speedupofexperimentsandcomputationoffinalresults;
3)improvedworkconditionsduetodistancefromsourcesofnoise.
Autom.ationpermitsprocessingofthemeasurementresultsduring
theexperiment.Forthispurposespecialcomputingdevicesareused,
whichintegrateandaveragethemeasuredmagnitudesoverthepitch.
Anautonaaticcontinuousmeasurementsystemfortestingcascadesin
lowspeedwindtunnelsisshowninFigure7.47/ll/.Thissystem
permitssimultaneousrecordingonatapeofthetotalpressureloss
(poiP02)andoftheanglegs,anddeterminationofthemeanvaluesover
thepitchofthesemagnitudes,withtheaidofmechanicalintegrating
mechanisms.Thecylindricaltube(1),whichmeasuresthetotalpressure
andtheflowdirectiondownstreamofthecascade,isinstalledonthehead
1187/1563
09/09/2015
ofthetraversingcradle.Duringtheexperimenttheheadwiththetube
iscontinuouslymovedalongthecascadebymotorAf,.Themaximum
travelX2Xi,whichisusuallyamultipleofthepitch,isdeterminedby
limitswitches(2)and(2').Drum(3)oftherecordingdeviceisturnedin
proportiontothedisplacementofthetubewiththeaidofaservosystem
whichconsistsofaselsyntransmitterSTjandtheselsynreceiverSRi.
Tube(1)iscontinuouslyturnedintotheflowdirectionbyservomotorM2
whichiscontrolledbyanautomaticanglemeasuringdeviceandby
manometerAaccordingtothesystemshowninFigure4.79.Carriage(7),
withpen(5),ismovedinproportiontotheturningangleofthetubebya
leadscrewwhichisrotatedbyselsynpairSTjandSRj.Thispenmarksoff
ontape(4),paralleltothedrumaxis,thevalueofangleP2.Thetotal
pressurelossism.easuredbymanometerBwiththeaidofaservo
deviceconsistingofaphotoelectriccell,amplifierY2,andservo
motorM3whichmovesthelightsourceandthephotoelectriccellalong
thecolumnofliquid(suchamanometerisshowninFigure5.6).The
measuredpressuredifferenceisrecordedonthetapebypen(6),secured
tocarriage(8),whichisnaovedbyaleadscrewrotatedbyselsynpair
ST3andSR3.
484
Theintegratingdevicewhichservestomeasurethemeanvaluesof
theanglepaandthelossintotalpressureconsistsofdiscs(11)and(12),
andintegratingfrictionrollers(9)and(10).Thediscsarerotatedbythe
selsynpairSTândSRâtavelocityd(^2/dt^kidx/diwherekiisaconstant.
1188/1563
09/09/2015
Coocdinaiin,
device
Integrating
device
h'^/h
FIGURE7.47.Automaticrecordingandintegratingoftotalpressuresandangles.
Therotationistransmittedbyfrictiontorollers(9)and(10)forcedagainst
thediscedges.Therollersaremountedoncarriages(7)and(8),andare
movedtogetherwithpens(5)and(6).Therotationoftherollersis
measuredbycounters(13)and(14),alsomountedonthecarriages.
Theoperatingprincipleoftheintegratingdeviceisexplainedbythe
diagraminthebottomlefthandcornerofFigure7.47.Theintegrating
roller,whoseradiusisr\,ismovedbytheleadscrewalongtheradius
ofthediscinsuchawaythatthedistancebetweentheaxisofthedisc
andthepointofcontactwiththerollerisrz=k2l{x)whereJ(x)isthe
functionaldependenceofthepressuredrop,angle,orothermeasured
magnitude,onthedistancealongthepitch,whilefe(likefti)isa
proportionalitycoefficientwhichdependsonthetransmissionratioof
485
1189/1563
09/09/2015
themechanism.Whenthediscturnsthroughasmallangled<fz=kidxthe
anglethroughwhichtherollerisrotatedis
d<f,=!^d^^=î^k,dx.(7.13)
Integratingthisexpression,weobtaintheanglethroughwhichthe
integratingrollerisrotatedwhenthetubemovesfromXitoX2:
f,=^fAx)dx.(7.14)
"i
Themagnitude9{X2Xi)isproportionaltothemeanvalueoff{x).The
totalnumberofrevolutionsnofthecounter,whichisconnectedtotheshaft
oftheintegratingroller,isproportionaltothismeanvalue
Thustheindicationsofcounter(13)inFigure7.47areproportional
tothemeanairoutletangle:
whiletheindicationsofcounter(14)areproportionaltothemeanlossintotal
pressure;
r"
J(Pt>,Pa2)dx(7_n)
2='*J^ZTT,='*(/'0!Po2)av.
In(7.16)and(7.17),k=feife{x2Xi)/2T:riisaconstantcoefficientwhich
dependsonthekinematicsofeachintegratingmechanismandonthe
integrationinterval.Dividingtheindicationsofcounter(14)by(poiPa),
1190/1563
09/09/2015
measuredbymanometerCjWeobtainthepressurelosscoefficient,
averagedoverthepitch:
J(PatP112)dx
thecascadeefficiencyisthen
TheefficiencycanbedetermineddirectlyifmanometerBisconnectedin
suchawaythatitmeasurespoiPa.Inthiscasetheindicationsof
486
counter(14),areproportionaltothemeantotalgagepressuredownstream
ofthecascade:
^1
J(PmPa)dx
whileby(7.12),theefficiencyis
(PoaPa)s.v"a
''PutPa*(P0|Pa)"
Thefirstmethodofdeterminingtheefficiencyfromthepressureloss
1191/1563
09/09/2015
coefficientisnaoreaccuratefortworeasons:1)thedifferencespoiP02are
smallerthanthedifferencespozPa,andcanthereforebemeasuredbya
moresensitivemanometer;2)thefluctuationsofthetotalinletpressurepoi
affectverylittlethevaluesofpoiP02.butconsiderablythevaluesofpo2Pa.
Whencarryingoutexperimentswiththeaidofthedescribedautomatic
instruments,thevalueofpoishouldremainunchangedwhenthe
traversingdeviceismovedforperiodslastingoneorseveralminutes.
Forthispurposethewindtunnelmustbeequippedwithanautomatic
pressureregulatoratthecascadeinlet.Achangeofp,affectsthe
theoreticalvelocityVztandXr,andtheprocessingoftheexperimental
resultsthenbecomesdifficult.
Instrumentsforinvestigationsoftheflowdownstreamofguidevanes,
rotatingcompressorimpellers,andturbinediscsdonotdifferinprinciple
fromtheinstrumentsusedinstaticcascadetests.Duetoenergysupply
andremoval,thestagnationtemperaturevariesinthedifferentflow
sectionsofthesemachines.Hence,whencompressorsandturbinesare
tested,thetemperaturedistributionisalsoinvestigated.Figure7.48
showsasystemforautomaticplottingandintegratingofpressures,
temperatures,andangles,designedbyPrattandWhitney/12/.
Thecasingofthetestedturbineorcompressorcarriesatraversing
deviceconsistingofacarriagewhichismovedalongthediscperiphery
byelectricmotorG,controlledfrompanelM.Onthecarriageacombined
tubeisinstalledformeasuringthreevariables:totalpressure,stagnation
temperature,andflowdirection.Thetubecanbemovedeitherinthe
directionofthebladepitchtogetherwiththecarriagebymotorG,oralong
thebladeradiusbymotorJ.Thetubeisturnedintotheflowdirectionby
motorH.Severalsimilarmechanismscanbeinstalledonthestanddown
streamoftheindividualbladediscs.Allmovementsofthetubesare
transmittedtotherecordingandintegratinginstrumentsbyservosystems
consistingofselsynswhoseerrorsignalsactonafollowermotorthrough
amplifiers.Theservosystemspermitmovementstobemeasuredwith
1192/1563
09/09/2015
anaccuracyof0.05mm.andangleswithanaccuracyof0.1.
Incontrasttotheothersystems,the"Plottomac"integratingand
computingdeviceisbasednotonakinematicbutonanelectricalprinciple.
Theschematicdiagram,ofthesystemisshowninFigure7.49.The
drawingscovertherecordingandintegratingofonevariable,i.e.,total
pressure.Theothervariablestemperatureandanglearerecorded
andintegratedsimilarly.
487
Connectionsbetweentheseparateunitsinthesystemareprovidedby
selsynpairseachconsistingofatransducerandareceiverwhichoperate
ascontroltransformers(Figure4.76).
FIGURE7.48."Plottomac"automatictraversingdevice.AiAtamplifiers:s,
differentialpressuretransducerofanglemeasuringtube:Atotalpressuretransducer;
cservomotorforautomaticpotentiometerandrecordinginstrument:dservomotor
formovingtapeinsynchronizationwithtubeandgeneratorofasignalproportionaltotube
velocity;integratingmotor,counter,andfeedbackgenerator;Fservosystemfor
tubeangle;omotorandselsyntransmitterformotionoftubealongdiscperiphery;
Hmotorandselsyntransmitterfortuberotation;motorstartsuponreceiptofvoltage
signalfromtransducerb,;/motorandselsyntransmitterlorradialmotionoftube;l
combinedtubeformeasuringangle,totalpressure,andstagnationtemperature;m
controlpanel.
Whenthetubeismovedbythetraversingdevice,theanglethrough
1193/1563
09/09/2015
whichthemotorGhasrotatedisrepeatedwiththeaidofselsynsinthe
excitationunitwhosedutyistotransmittotheintegratingdeviceasignal
whichisproportionaltothetubevelocity.TheshaftofservomotorD
carriesasmalld.c.signalgenerator(1),camdisc(2)ofastroboscopic
contactdeviceforcalibrationoftheintegratinginstrument,andaselsyn
transm.itter.Thecorrespondingselsynreceiveriscarriedontheshaft
ofasecondservomotorDi,whichrotatesthedrumoftherecording
instrument.
Generator(1)intheexcitationunitcreatesavoltagewhichis
proportionaltothetubevelocitydxidiandtotheexcitationvoltageu:
e,=k,u
dx
488
ThesliderofpotentiometerP,oftherecordingdevice,whichisfedby
thevoltagee^îsconnectedwithapenandwiththesliderofpotentiometer
P3ofthemeasuringdevice,whicharebothmovedbyservomotorCThe
Excitationunit
1194/1563
09/09/2015
deviceforoneofvariablesPo2ifii<îi,
Recordingofonevariable
Measuring
device
rT
"'J
FIGURE7.49.Schematicdiagramofthe"Plottomac"traversingdevice.ThedesignationsAtoMcoincidewith
thoseInFigure7.48.1d.c.signalgenerator(ff,=ft,iidx/flr):2camdiscforclosingcontactsofstroboscopic
lamp;3pulselightsource;4feedbackgenerator:5integratingcounter:6stroboscopicdisc:ST
selsyntransmitter:SRselsynreceiver:Pipotentiometerofproduct/{x)nx/iti;Pjzetoadjustmentpotentio
meter:P3potentiometerofmeasuringdevice.
displacementsofpenandslidersfromtheirrespectivezeropositionsare
thereforeproportionaltothemeasuredvaluef(x)(whichmaybethetotal
pressure,theairoutletangle,orthestagnationtemperature).
ThepositionofthesliderofpotentiometerP2,whichisfedbythe
voltageeiinparallelwithpotentiometerPi,isadjustedinsuchawaythat
1195/1563
09/09/2015
thevoltageezbetweentheslidersofthesepotentiometersbecomeszero
whenthemeasuredvariablej(x)isequaltozero.Thevoltage62isthus
proportionaltotheproductofthemeasuredvariableandthetubevelocity:
Thedifferencebetweenthevoltage62andthevoltageoffeedback
generator(4)isfedthroughamplifierAstom.otorEdrivingtheshaft
ofgenerator(4)andcounter(5)oftheintegratingdevice.Thed.c,
voltagecreatedbythefeedbackgeneratoris
where6istheangleofrotationoftheshaftcommontomotor,generator
(4),andcounter(5),
SinceamplifierAshasaveryhighamplificationcoefficientandrequires
onlyavoltageofafewmicrovoltstodrivethem.otoratfullspeed,eican
489
betakentobeequaltoez,andtherefore
Thus,theanglethroughwhichtheshaftofcounter(5)rotateswhenthe
tubemovesadistancexzxtis
=^f/i^)dx.
Themeanvalueofthevariableis
Theconstantskt,k^,andk,determinethenumberofrevolutionsofthe
counterwhichareequivalenttounitareaunderthecurvedrawnbythe
recordingpen.ThevalueofA3canbeadjustedbymeansofvariable
rheostatRinordertochangethescale.Thescaleisadjustedwiththe
aidofastroboscopicdeviceconsistingofatroboscopicdisc(6)andpulse
1196/1563
09/09/2015
lightsource(7),whichisswitchedonbycamdisc(2),rotatedataspeed
proportionaltothetubevelocity.Thetransmissionratiosofthereduction
gearsinthetraversingdeviceandintheexcitationunitaresuchthat
lightsourceisswitchedon3750timeswhilethetubemovesoneinch
(25.4mm).
Therotationalspeedofthemotorshaftoftheintegratingdeviceis
adjustedbytherheostatRinsuchawaythattheshaftturnsoncebetween
twolightflashesatthemaximumvalueofthemeasuredvariablef(x).
Counter(5)oftheintegratingdevicerecordstwounitsforeachrevolution
ofthemotoroftheintegratingdevice;thus,everyinchoftubetravel
correspondsto7500unitsonthecounteratthemaximum,valueoff{x).
Sincethechartoftherecordingmechanismmovestentimesfasterthan
thetube,whileforf(x)=]j(x)]^^y^Vnefulltravelofthepenamountsto
10inches,onesquareinchonthechartcorrespondsto75unitsonthe
counteroftheintegratingdevice.
35.TESTINGOFFANS
Thepurposeoftestingafanistodetermineitsmaincharacteristics
asam.achinecreatingthepressuredropnecessarytoinducegasflow,
i.e.,todeterminethetotalheadHcreatedbythefan,thedeliveryQ,and
thepowerrequired.
Forfanteststhelawofenergyconservation,asexpressedbyBernoulli's
equationfor*anincompressiblefluid,isapplied.Theflowupstreamand
downstreamofthefanisassumedtobesteadyanduniform/13/.
ApplyingBernoulli'sequationtosections/and//upstreamoffhefan
(Figure7.50),sections//and///oneithersideofthefan,and
1197/1563
09/09/2015
490
sections///andIVdownstreamofthefan,weobtain
P<,=^2+P^+Csuc(forsectionsI11),
Vlvl
A'P^=/'3+P^^^t(forsections/////),
/'3+P^=/'4+P~T~"'"'dis(forsectionsIIIIV),
whereP2>Ps.p,Vz,V3,andVoutarerespectivelythestaticpressureand
velocityinthecorrespondingsections,EsucandSduarethepressurelosses
causedbytheresistancesofthesuctionanddischargeductsrespectively,
andHtisthetotalheadcreatedbythefan.Afteraddingtheseequations
weobtainanexpressionforthetotalheadcreatedbythefan:
ôut
^t='^suc+'^dis+Pf^
[whenp4=/)J.
Thetotalheadcreatedbythefanisthususedtoovercomethe
resistancesinthesuctionanddischargeductsandforcreatingavelocity
headattheductoutlet.Fromtheviewpointoftheresultsobtained,the
ratiobetweenthelosses^sycandEdisisimmaterial,buttheirsumis
important.Duringexperimentsitisbettertoinsertaresistanceonlyin
1198/1563
09/09/2015
thesuctionduct,assumingthedischargesectionofthefantobethe
dischargesectionoftheduct.
Thefundamentalequationthenbecomes
H,:
.+P
or
^t=^st+^d'
where//st=^sqci^^^^staticheadcreatedbythefan,H^^=fn"'isthevelocity
headcreatedbythefan.
FIGURE7.50.Operationofafaninaduct.
FIGURE7.51.Oijerationofafaninstalled
1199/1563
09/09/2015
downstreamofanexpansionchamber.
Upstreamofthefanthepressureisbelowatmosphericbecauseofthe
resistanceofthesuctionductandtheflowvelocityinit.Thisnegative
491
Illllll
pressurecanbefoundfromBernoulli'sequationforsections/and//
Kupstreamofthefanthereisalargeexpansionchamber(Figure7.51)
inwhichtheflowvelocityisnegligible,weobtain
P2Pa='^suc=^st
i.e.,thenegativepressuremeasuredinthischamber(forinstancebya
differentialmanometer)isequalinmagnitudetothestatichead
createdbythefan.Forthisreason,infantests,expansionchambers
arepreferabletoductsinwhichtheflowvelocityfluctuatesconsiderably.
Theoutputofthefanisexpressedthroughthetotalhead,theduct
crosssection,andthevelocityattheoutlet:
whereQisthedeliveryinm^/sec.Theratioofthefanoutput(H^Q)tothe
powerrequiredbythefan{Nâi)isthefanefficiency
1200/1563
09/09/2015
'360075A'mot~^SAfmot'
Thecompletecharacteristicofthefanisthusobtainedbydetermining
If,asisgenerallythecase,anexpansionchamberisused,Hîis
determinedbymeasuringthenegativepressureinthechamberupstream
ofthefan,i.e.,thestaticgagepressure,takingintoaccountitssign.
Thesemeasurementsarenriadewiththeaidoforificesinthechamberwalls.
ThedeliveryQcanbedeterininedfromthevelocityinandareaofany
sectionupstreamofthetestedfan.Thesectionshouldbethesamefor
allmeasurements.Thedeliveryisfoundbyaveragingthevelocityoverthe
wholesection.Haisfoundfromthevelocitywhichisobtainedbydividing
thedeliveryQbytheflowareaoftheoutletsection.
Theshaftpowerofthefandriveisdeterminedwiththeaidofabalance
standconsistingofanelectricmotorwhosestatorcanturninbearings
andisconnectedbyalevertoabalancebeam.Fordeterminingthepower
requiredbythefan,frictionshouldbetakenintoaccountthroughcalibration.
Atypicalfancharacteristicatconstantrotationalspeedisshownin
Figure7.52/14/.Toobtainthecharacteristicsofafan,thedeliveryand
ductresistancemustbeadjustable,oritmustbepossibletothrottlethe
flow.Thisisdonewiththeaidofexchangeableorificeplates,screens,
orothertypesofresistances.
Theneedtotestfansoverwidedeliveryandresistanceranges,
includingzeroresistance,andalsoinparallelandseriesconnectionsled
totheuseofpressurechambersasprincipalinstallationsfortestingfans.
1201/1563
09/09/2015
492
SuchachamberisshowninFigure7.53,inwhichthemeasuringpointsare
indicated.Atmosphericairentersthechamberthroughacylindrical
measuringpipewithasmoothinputcollector,Ascreen*beforethe
collectorpreventsobjectsnearthecollectorfromaffectingthevelocity
distributioninthepipeandeliminatesanyturbulenceintheairstream.
Thecylindricalpipeisconnectedtoadiffuseratwhoseendthereisa
butterflyvalve,bymeansofwhichtheresistancetoflowisaltered.
Behindthebutterflyvalve,whichalsoservesasguidevane,thereisa
centrifugalblowerintendedtoovercomepartiallyorfullytheresistance
oftheduct.
^Q,mVsec
FIGURE7.62.CharacteristicsofTsAGImodelTS4
centrifugalfan.o=5m,n=1,450rpmandp=
0.122kgsecVm''.
70
From,theblowertheairflowstoadiffuserwhereitsvelocityis
greatlyreduced(downto1or2m/sec).Screensandhoneycombsbehind
1202/1563
09/09/2015
thediffusersmoothenoutthevelocityandpressuredistributionsattheinlet
tothecylindricalchamber.
Apanelonwhichthetestedfanismountedisinstalledattheoutlet
sectionofthechamber.Specialattentionshouldbepaidtotheair
tightnessofthechamber,sinceentryofairintoitcanreduceconsiderably
theaccuracyoftheexperiments.Themeanvelocityovertheinletpipe
sectiondeterminesthedeliverythroughtheduct.Thevelocitiesarefound
fromtheexpression
V=\fk,^(PaP.).
Ascreenisnecessarywhenthedimensionsoftheroomarerestricted.
493
whereftisthecalibrationcoefficient,whosevalueisusuallybetween
0.96and0.98,whichcharacterizestheuniformityofthevelocity
distributioninthepipe,pnistheatmosphericpressure,andpisthestatic
FIGURE7.53.Pressurechamber.1testedfan;2staticpressuremeasurement;3
chamber;4honeycomb;5screens;6diffuser;7blowerdrive;8blower;9
butterflyvalve;10driveforbutterflyvalve;11drum;12collector;13delivery
1203/1563
09/09/2015
measurement;14cylindricalmeasuringpipe.
pressureinthepipe.Inordertoreducemeasuringerrorstheflow
velocityinthecollectorshouldnotbelessthan8to10m/sec.
Furthercalculationsareperfornaedinthedimensionedmagnitudes
Q,H,N,orinthedimensionlessmagnitudes*
Q=
Q
uH
p4
N=
fF<
1204/1563
09/09/2015
wherepistheairdensityunderexperimentalconditions,fisa
characteristicarea,uristhecircumferentialvelocityofthebladetips.
"Someinstallationsareequippedwithinstrumentswhichpermitthedimensionlesscoefficientstobe
determineddirectlyduringtests.Theseinstruments/15/arebasedonthesameprinciplesasthose
forMachnumberdetermination(see24).
494
Expressingthetestresultsindimensionlessformisveryconvenient,
sincegeometricallysimilarfanshavethesamedimensionless
characteristicsirrespectiveofrotationalspeed,diameter,andairdensity*.
FIGURE7.54.Testingafaninaduct.1orificeplate;2straightening
screen;3fan.
Whenthefanistestedinaduct(Figure7.54),thedeliverycanbe
measuredwiththeaidoforificeplates.Thestaticpressurecanbe
measuredwiththeaidofeitherorificesintheductwallsortubes
installedontheductaxis.Ineithercasethemeasurementmustbemade
atadistancenotlessthan8diametersfromtheorificeplate,butup
streamoftheprotectivenetplaceddirectlyinfrontofthefan.Inthe
fornnermethod,severalorificeslocatedinaplaneperpendiculartothe
ductaxisareconnectedbyacommontubetoamanometer.Theraano
1205/1563
09/09/2015
meterthusindicatesthestaticpressure,towhichthevelocityheadin
thesectionofsaidplanehastobeaddedinordertoobtainthetotalhead
createdbythefan.
non^
^'T^
4tn
Straightening
screen
FIGURE7.55.Measuringtheresistanceofscreens.
Whenastraighteningscreenisinstalledbetweenthemeasurement
sectionandthefan,theresistanceofthescreenhastobeaddedtothe
whenur>80100m/secacorrectionforcompressibilityeffectshastobeintroduced.
1206/1563
09/09/2015
495
statichead.Thisresistanceismeasuredinthesameductinwhichthe
fanistested(Figure7.55).Therelationshipbetweenscreenresistance
anddeliveryisparabolic.Thestaticpressureheadiscorrectedaccordingly
foreachdelivery.
36.EXPERIMENTALDETERMINATIONOP
LOCALRESISTANCES
Inmanypracticalproblemsitisnecessarytodeterminetheenergy
lossesinaflowinggasorliquid.Theselossesresultfromtheirreversible
transferofnaechanicalenergyintoheat.Theydependonthemolecularand
turbulentviscosityofthemovingmediumandarecalledhydrauliclossesor
resistances.
ItwasshowninChapterIIIthattwotypesofhydrauliclosses(resistances)
canbedistinguished:
1)FrictionallossesA//fr.
2)Locallosses(resistances)A//i.
Frictionallossesarecausedinrealgasesandliquidsbymomentum
exchangebetweenmolecules(inlaminarflow)andalsobetweenseparate
particles(inturbulentflow)ofadjacentlayersofthemedium,movingat
differentvelocities.Theselossestakeplacealongthewholelengthof
1207/1563
09/09/2015
theflowpath(e.g.,pipeline),andareinpracticetakenintoaccountonly
overconsiderablelengths(branches,diffuserswithsmalldivergenceangles,
etc.),orwhentheyarecommensurablewiththelocallosses.
Locallossesarecausedbylocalperturbationsoftheflow,itsseparation
fromthewall,vortexformation,orwhereobstructionsareencountered,
(pipeinlets,widening,narrowing,turns,passagethroughmeasuring
devices,airreservoirs,screens,throttlingdevicesetc.)Lossesoccurring
attheoutletfromapipeintoalargevolunne(forinstance,toatmosphere)
arealsoconsideredaslocallosses.Exceptforexhaustlosses,alllocal
pressurelossesoccuroveraflowpathoffinitelength,andarethereforein
distinguishablefromfrictionallosses.Forsimplicityofcalculation,they
areconsideredtobeconcentratedinonesectionandarenotincludedinthe
frictionallosses.Summationofthelossesisaccordingtotheprinciple
ofsuperposition.
kg]
sumirHmM
However,whenexperimentalvaluesofthelocallossesareused,it
shouldberemiemberedthatincertaincasestheyalsoincludefrictional
losses,whichshouldnotbetakenagainintoaccount.
Thelocalresistanceisdeterminedbycausingagasorliquidtoflow
throughthetestedelement*,whichisconnectedtoaline.Thedifferencein
totalpressureattheinletandoutletoftheelement,andalsothevelocityin
acertainsection(usuallytheinlet)aremeasured.Thecoefficientoflocal
*Dataonfrictionalresistance,itsdependenceonReynoldsnumberanddegreeofroughnessforstraightpipes
1208/1563
09/09/2015
andchannelsaregivenin/IG/.
496
resistanceiisdefinedastheratioofthetotalpressurelossA//itothe
7V''
velocityhead|inthesectionconsidered:
whereVpisthemeanflowvelocityinm/secinthesectionconsideredunder
theconditionsoftheexperiment,V'p=^,AAdisthevolumetric
dischargeundertheconditionsoftheexperiment,Fistheflowareaofthe
measuringsection.
Whenthetestconditionsdifferfromstandard(0C,760mm.Hg,drygas)
thespecificgravityofthegasisdeterminedbyintroducingcorrectionsfor
temperature,pressure,andhumidity/16/.
Determiningtheresistancecoefficient
ofadiffuser
Theresistancecoefficientofadiffuserisdefinedastheratioofthe
pressurelossAAjtothevelocityheadpâtthediffuserinlet.Inanideal
1209/1563
09/09/2015
diffusertheincreaseinstaticpressureis,byBernoulli'slaw,equaltothe
differenceofthevelocityheadsattheinletandexit
Inreality,thestaticpressureincreaseisreducedbythelosstih^,
whence
pjPjPg
wherenisthearearatioofthediffuser(=^j.Thisexpressionisused
whenthecoefficientt,îsdeterminedexperimentally,proceedingfrom,the
assumptionofonedimensionalflowinthediffuser.
Testlayoutfordeterminingl,îsshowninFigure7.56/17/.Asmooth
collectorwithashortcylindricalpartisinstalledinfrontofthediffuser.The
resistanceismeasuredwiththeaidoforificesinthewallsbythedifferencein
pressureA//=pipsinfrontofandbehindthediffuser.Thepressurepiis
measuredatthewallofthecylindricalpartofthecollector,andthe
pressurepjatthewallofthestraightdischargeductatadistanceof5or6
diametersbehindthediffuserexit,wherethepressureandvelocity
distributionsaresufficientlyuniform,overthecrosssection.
Thevelocitydistributionintheexitsectionisusuallydeterminedby
meansofatotalpressuretubeinconjunctionwithstaticpressure
497
measurementsatthewall,orwiththeaidofaPitotPrandtltube.The
1210/1563
09/09/2015
meanvelocityatthediffuserinletisdeterminedfromthevelocity
head//=ppibehindthecollector.
Tofan
FIGURE7,56.Testlayoutfordeterminingtheresistance
ofadiffuser,1wallsformingdiffusercontour;2
planesidesofdiffuser;3duct;4collector;5cylin
dricalpartofcollector.
Atlargesubsonicvelocitiestheresistancecoefficientofthediffuser
(Figure7.57)is
^d=4r(î^).
where
g_P<sP<s
Pa
Thus,todetermineZ,înthiscasewehavetom.easurethetotalpressure
1211/1563
09/09/2015
PoandtheMachnumberatthediffuserinletandthetotalpressurepi,atthe
FIGUREl.bl.Diffuser
diffuserexit.However,atthediffuserexitthenonunifornaityoftotal
pressureandvelocityisconsiderable.Thisistakenintoaccountby
averaging8overtheexitsectionF
'=^/
Po~Po
Po
dF.
498
Sometimesitisadvisabletoaverageoverthemassflowinsteadof
overthearea.Themeasuringresultsareusuallygiveninthe
1212/1563
09/09/2015
form,ofdependencesoftheresistancecoefficients^jontheReynolds
andMachnumbersandonthegeometricalparameters(arearatio,etc.).
Determiningtheresistancecoefficients
ofwindtunnelelements
Theresistanceofcertainwindtunnelelements(Figure7.58),in
particularofthenozzle,isbestdeterminedwiththeaidofapressure
chamber(seeabove).ApplyingBernoulli'sequationtosections//
andaa,andneglectingthesmallvelocityinsection//,weobtain
Pa
p^+AH,
whereVistheflowvelocityinsectionaa,andA//isthepressureloss
inthewindtunnelelement.Rememberingthatpip=//jtisthestatic
Chamber
FIGURE7.58.Testlayoutfordetermining
1213/1563
09/09/2015
theresistanceofawindtunnelelementin
apressurechamber.
gagepressureinthechamber,andsubstitutingpV'/2^ff^,weobtainAW=^st^'d
from,whichtheresistancecoefficientoftheelementisfoundtobe
"""St1
Theresultsareusuallygivenintheformiofthefunctionalrelationship
J=/(c)wherecîsthemeanaxialvelocityintheexitsection.The
resistanceofthenozzlecanbedeterminedunder"insite"conditions
fromtheexpression
\^
P\Pi
n'.
1214/1563
09/09/2015
499
wherepiandpârerespectivelythestaticpressuresatthenozzleinlet
andexit,V,isthevelocityatthenozzleinlet,andnisthenozzlearea
ratio{n=p\.Itisassumedthattheflowinthenozzleisonedimensional.
Thepressuredifferencep^p2isusuallymeasuredwiththeaidofamicro
manometerandorificesinthewallatthenozzleinletandexit,whilethe
velocityViisdeterminedbyoneofthemethodsdescribedabove.Bythe
samemethodwecandeterminetheresistanceofthefaninstallation,
ofscreensinstalledacrosstheflow,andofotherelements.Thus,the
resistanceofthescreenscanbedeterminedintheductinwhichafan
istested(Figure7.55),Thescreenisusuallyinstalledatadistanceof
1.5to2diametersfromthecollectorand3to4diametersupstreamof
thefan.
Bymeasuringhy,todeterminethevelocityupstreamofthescreen,and
thedifferenceAAinstaticpressureupstreamanddownstreamofthescreen,
weobtaintheresistancecoefficientofthescreen
rAhAh
wherekxisthecalibrationcoefficientofthecollector,whichcharacterizes
theuniformityofthevelocitydistributionupstreamofthescreen
(*0.96to0.98).
Theresultsaregivenasrelationshipsbetweengandthescreen
parameters(holedimensions,wiregage,flowarea,Reynoldsnumber,
massflowrate,etc.).Atlargesubsonicvelocitiestheinfluenceofthe
1215/1563
09/09/2015
Machnumberhastobetakenintoaccount/16/.
Thetotalpressurelossesinsupersonictunnelsareusuallycausedby
friction.Thetotalpressurelossinthenozzlecanbedefinedas/18/
'Px
n|1id
'^'V
whereXijdefinesthenozzleexitvelocityintheabsenceoflosses,pîs
thetotalpressureatthenozzleinlet,S'=^îsacoefficientbywhichthe
exitvelocitydecreaseduetolossesistakenintoaccount(9=0.97to0.99).
KnowingXiândmeasuringthetrueexitvelocity(seeChapterIV),wecan
determinethetotalpressurelossinthenozzle.Thisbecomesconsiderable
atlargeMachnumbersevenwhen9issmall(Figure7.59).
Inordertocalculatethemassflowratethroughthenozzle,takinginto
accountthelosses,wereplaceintherelevantformulaspocbypocOc.Forair
(x=1.4)weobtain
==0.4^Pcco^.
Determiningtheresistanceofarailcarventilating
1216/1563
09/09/2015
hood.Thelayoutofaninstallationfordeterminingtheresistanceofa
ventilatinghoodisshowninFigure7.60/19/.Theresistancecoefficientis
500
definedas
4Wd
P^d/2
where&Hîsthepressuredropbetweenreceiverandatmosphere(measured
bymicromanometerNo.2),Vjistheairvelocityinthesuctionorifice
/.O
0.8
1217/1563
09/09/2015
0.6
O.it
0.2
0.1
2.0\
^^
1218/1563
09/09/2015
Vm
//
ml
/a
'1
'/.
//,
'
^^zy
1219/1563
09/09/2015
/n
zo/
/.
'/,
/''tO,
V.
1220/1563
09/09/2015
:::^^0<M='
0.92
0.96
1.0
FIGURE7.69.Dependenceoftotalpres
sureratiooncoefficienttp.
oftheventilatinghood,andisdeterminedfromthemassflowratethrough
theventilatinghoodandtheareaofitssuctionorifice(i=7).Themassflow
rateisfoundfromthecrosssectionofthepipebehindtheinletcollector
andfromthevelocityinit,determinedbythepressuredropA//measured
1221/1563
09/09/2015
bymicromanometerNo.1.
Determiningpressurelossesinpipes
Whenagas(liquid)flowsinapipe,thepressurelossAHisusually
determinedfromDarcy'sformula
HH
p.1^2/2lid
where%isthefrictioncoefficientwhichhasdifferentvaluesforlaminar
andturbulentflow.InordertodetermineX,&Hhastobemeasuredbya
501
IIII
nilnilIIIiiiBi
1222/1563
09/09/2015
III
nullIII"
differentialmanometerconnectedtotwopointsatadistance/fromeach
otheronthepipewall,andthemeanvelocityVhastobefound.
Forsteadylaminarflowinapipe,thevelocitydistributionisparabolic
andthemeanvelocityis
whereVqistheflowvelocityinthecenterofthepipeandcanbemeasured
byaPitotPrandtltube.Inthiscasetheexperimentalvalueof%must
correspondtothetheoreticalvalue
X=
64
Re
(Re=i^)
1223/1563
09/09/2015
forRe<2000.
_MicromanometerNo.1MicromanometerNo.2
Testedventilating
hood
FIGURE7.60.Installationfordeterminingtheresistanceofventilatinghoods.
ForsteadyturbulentflowtheexperimentalvalueofImustbecompared
withtheempiricaldatadependingontheReynoldsnumber.Thus,for
Re<50,000.
,0.3164
yRe
etc.
Determiningthecoefficientoflocalresistanceof
bends.Thecoefficientoflocalresistanceis
C=
1224/1563
09/09/2015
iff
whereAHisthedifferenceinpressureattheinletandexitfromthebend,
Vinisthemeanvelocityattheinlettothebend.
502
Determiningthecoefficientsoflocalresistancesin
pipelines.Fororificeplates,cocks,orsimilarelements,the
coefficientoflocalresistanceis
whereVisthemeanvelocityinthepipeandA//isthepressurelosswhich
canbedeterminedfromtheindicationsofadifferentialmanometer
connectedtothepipelineoneithersideascloseaspossibletotheelement
considered(Figure7.61).
Todifferential
1225/1563
09/09/2015
manometer
Todifferential
manometer
FIGURE7.61.Determiningtheresistanceofelementsinpipelines.
37.TESTINGOFWINDTURBINES
"Windturbinesconverttheenergyofanairstreamintomechanicalenergy.
Inallmodernwindturbinestherotationalspeedandoutputisautomatically
limitedbychangingtheiraerodynamiccharacteristics.Hence,laboratory
investigationsofwindturbinesaremainlyconnectedwithdeterminingthe
coefficientofwindenergyutilizationandthecoefficientsoftheaerodynamic
forcesandmomentsactingonthewindturbinewheel.
Generally,theforceactingonthewindturbinewheel,whoseaxisof
rotationformsanangleywiththewinddirectioninthexzplane,canbe
reducedtothetotalaerodynamicforceandmoment.Thevectorofthe
totalaerodynamicforceliesintheArzplaneandcanbeseparatedintoa
componentP,normaltotheplaneofrotationofthewheel,andatangential
componentT.Thevectorofthemomenthascomponentsalongthethree
axes:thetorqueAt^,thebladeturningmomentAf,andtheoverturning
momentM^.
Figure7.62showsthecoordinateaxes,theaerodynamicforces,and
themoments.
1226/1563
09/09/2015
Thecoefficientsobtainedfromtestshavethefollowingform:
Coefficientofwindenergyutilization
E=
=Af.Z.
503
Axis
m'ofrotation
FIGURE7.62.Coordinateaxesandaerodynami
forcesandmomentsactingonawindturbine.
torquecoefficient
1227/1563
09/09/2015
Af,=
1M^
^V'kR'
coefficientofbladeturningmoment
M.
2M^
y~pV=it/?3
coefficientofoverturningmoment
1228/1563
09/09/2015
pressurecoefficient
M.
2M^
B=
2P
'fV'nR^'
coefficientoftangentialforce
2r
Atagivenbladegeometryandfixedbladeangles,allthesecoefficients
arefunctionsoftheadvanceratio
1229/1563
09/09/2015
^V
IntheseexpressionsA'istheshaftpoweroftheturbine!^Ltoisthe
(>\\sec/
j,Ristheradiusoftheturbinewheel(m).
Figure7.63showsschematicallythethreecomponent3KTsPMinstrument
intendedfortestingwindturbinewheelsintheTsAGIwindtunnel*.This
instrumentpermitsdeterminationbydirectmeasurementofAfMy,P,
andtherotationalspeedofthemodel.Simultaneously,themomentMy,
The3KTsPMinstrumentandthemethodofitsuseweredevelopedbyG.I.Sholomovicbfromthe
3KTsPinstrumentdesignedbyI.D.Mogilnitskii/20/.
504
(aboutthei/jaxis)ismeasured,whence
r=^
Af
orindimensionlessform
1230/1563
09/09/2015
M,
Af
canbefound.
Inordertoreduceerrorsarisingfromthedeterminationofthedifference
betweentwoalmostequalmagnitudes,thevalueofa:,=înthe3KTsPM
instrumentislargerthaninfullscalewindturbines.Experimentsshow
thatthemeasuredvaluesofMyandM^dependconsiderablyontheinstrument
support.Inafullscalewindturbinethesupportingstructure(mast,tower,
etc.)hasrelativelysmallerdimensionsthantheinstrumentsupport.Hence,
FIGURE7.63,Instrumentfortestingwindturbines.Icolumn;2wormgear;
3tubularstand;4rod;Sbellows;6intermediateplate;7bellows;8
tubularstand;9rod;10upperplate;11fairing;12and13bellows;14
electrictachometer;15plainbearings;16ballbearings;17followers;18
pins;19generator;20modelofwindturbinewheel.
505
1231/1563
09/09/2015
correctionsfortheinterferenceofthesupportsarenecessaryjparticularly
inwindturbinescausing'considerabledeflectionsoftheflow.
Thebaseoftheinstrumentiscolumn(1),securedbystaystothetest
sectionfloorortoaplatform(inatunnelwithopentestsection).The
topoftheinstrumentcan,withtheaidofwormgear(2),beturnedabout
thecolumninordertochangetheangleofflowinclination.Upperplate(10),
fixedtotubularstand(8),canturnonballbearingsaboutrod(9),rigidly
fixedtointermediateplate(6).Thelattercanturnonballbearingsaboutthe
lowertubularstand(3).
Theinstrumentisdesignedinsuchawaythattheaxisofrod(4)liesin
theplaneofrotationofthemodel.ThemomentU^,whichtendstoturnthe
upperplateinrelationtotheintermediateplate,andMy,,whichtendstoturn
thelatteraboutstand(3),aretakenupbybellows(7)and(5),thepressures
inwhichareusuallymeasuredbystandardmanometers(notshown).The
upperplateoftheinstrurnentcarriesgenerator(19)onwhoseshaftmodel
(20)ismounted.Thegeneratorissupportedonplainbearings(15)which
permitaxialdisplacementofthegeneratorshaft.Thesebearingsare
connectedtothegeneratorbodybymeansoffollowers(17)andpins(18).
FIGURE7.64.Testingawindturbinewheelinawindtunnel.
Thisdesignpermitsthetorqueactingonthewindturbinetobe
transmittedalmostcompletelytothegeneratorframeexceptforthe
inconsiderablelossesinballbearings(16).PandMârenxeasuredwith
1232/1563
09/09/2015
1680
506
theaidofbellows(13)and(12),thepressuresinwhicharemeasured
asinbellows(5)and(7).
Allforcemeasuringsystemsoftheinstrumentarefilledwithwater.
Thepresenceofevensmallairbubblescancauseconsiderabledeformations
ofthebellows,andthusalterthepositionofthemodelduringtheexperiment.
Therotationalspeedofthem.odelismeasuredeitherbyelectrictacho
meter(14),orbydeterminingthetimeelapsingbetweenpulsesemitted
afterevery100revolutionsofthemodelbyaspecialcontactdeviceinstalled
insteadofthetachometer.Inordertoincludeallmoments,thetachometer
orcontactdeviceisfixedtothegeneratorbody.
Theentireinstrumenttopiscoveredbyfairing(11),fixedtostand(3)
inordertoavoidtransmissionofaerodynamicforces,causedbytheflow
aroundtheinstrument,totheforcemeasuringsystems.Anexternalview
oftheinstrumentinstalledinatunnelisshowninFigure7.64.Figure7.65
isanexperimentalcharacteristicofawindturbinewheelforaflow
inclinationanglek=45.
0.060.6
1233/1563
09/09/2015
0.3
"
aw0.^0.2
0.020.20.1
f4w
1234/1563
09/09/2015
X^
^
7^
Vj
oy{
0.8
12
1235/1563
09/09/2015
IsZ
FIGURE7,65,Experimentalchdracierislicolawindlurbinewheel.
Sinceallcoefficientsarereferredtotheflowvelocityinthetunnel,
thisvelocitymustbedeterminedreliably,inordertoapplytheresults
oftestsonmodelstofullscalewindturbinesoperatinginthefree
atmosphere.Particularlyimportantaretherelativedimensionsofthe
testsectionandofthewindturbine.Inatunnelwithclosedtestsection,
theheadinducedbythewindturbinecanconsiderablydistorttheflow:
hence,theratioofthediameterofthemodeltothediameterofthetest
sectionshouldnotexceed0.2to0.3.Intunnelswithopentestsections,
thisratiocanbeslightlyincreasedto0.4or0.5.Inwindturbinetests,
attentionshouldbepaidtothecorrectselectionoftheflowvelocityinthe
tunnelinordertoobtaintheappropriateReynoldsnumbers,referredto
thebladechordat70%bladeradius.Windturbinetestsusuallyconsistof
simultaneousmeasurementofallparameters{Mx<My,P,etc.)asfunctions
ofthevariableloadonthemodelshaftatagivenpositionofthewheeland
atconstantflowvelocity.Theloadisadjustedbychangingtheresistancein
thecircuitofthegeneratordrivenbythewheel.
507
38.TESTINGOFEJECTORS
1236/1563
09/09/2015
Gasejectorsareaeromechanicaldevicesforincreasingthetotal
pressureofagasstreambymeansofasecondhighpressuregasstream,
andarewidelyused.
Ejectorsareusedinreservoiroperatedwindtunnelstoincreasethe
operatingduration.Inthiscase,theejectorplaystheroleoftheblower.
FIGURE7,66.Ejectingairthroughateststandforjet
engines.Asuctionshaft:Bejector;Cengine
onteststand;Dexhaustshaft.
supplyingalargequantityoflowpressuregasattheexpenseoftheenergy
containedinasmallquantityofhighpressuregas.
Theejectorcanbeusedasanexhaustertocreatealowpressuredown
streamofthetestsectionofthewindtunnel,orinaclosedspace.Very
oftenanejectorisusedtomaintainairflowinachannelorroom.
Figure7.66showsschematicallyateststandforjetengines.Astream
ofexhaustgasessucksairintoejectorBthroughshaftAthusproviding
ventilationoftheroom,andcoolingoftheengine.
ryipW
1237/1563
09/09/2015
D4
0/bd
FIGURE7.61.Ejector.
Po
Theconstructionalformsofejectorsdiffer,buttheyalwaysincludethe
followingprincipalelements:anozzleforhighpressuregas,anozzleor
chamberforthelowpressuregas,amixingchamber,andadiffuser.
Thedispositionofthenozzles,theirnumber,andtheirshapemayvary,
butthisdoesnotgreatlyaffecttheoperationandcharacteristicsofthe
ejector.
Considerasimpleejectorwithacylindricalmiixingchamber,whose
inletcoincideswiththeplaneexitofahighpressurenozzle(Figure7.67).
508
Theoperatingprincipleofanejectorisasfollows:Lowpressure
(ejected)gasissuckedintomixingchamberDfromreservoirAinwhich
thepressureispo,thedensity,po,andthetemperature.To.Highpressure
(ejecting)gasflowsfromannularchamberCthroughslotBalsointomixing
1238/1563
09/09/2015
chamberD.Thepressureintheannularchamberisp'g,thedensity,Po,and
thetemperature,T'^.Inordertoincreasethecompressionefficiency,a
diffuserwithasmalldivergenceangle(6to8)isusuallyplaceddownstreamof
themixingchamber.ThepressureatthediffuserexitisPp.
FIGURE7.68.Installationfortestingejectors.1pipe;2valves;3thermo
meters;4measuringnozzles;5standardmanometers;6differcprialmano
meters;7chamberforhighpressuregas;8centralnozzle;^chamberfor
lowpressuregas;10mixingchamber;11diffuser.
Atsteadyoperatingconditionsthepressureatthemixingchamberinlet
isalwayslowerthanthetotalpressureofthelowpressure(ejected)gas.
Thepressuredifferencecausesthelowpressuregastoflowintothemixing
chamber.
Forsupersonicflowtooccuratthemixingchamberinlet,aLavalnozzle
hastobeinsertedbetweenreservoirAandmixingchamberD."Whenthe
flowattheendofthemixingchamberissupersonicthediffusermusthave
theshapeofaninverseLavalnozzle.
Themainassumptionmadeintheanalysisofejectoroperationisthatthe
mixingchamberissolongthatthevelocitydistributionatitsend(section
cd)isuniform.
Itisalsofrequentlyassumedthatinsectiona6attheinlettothe
mixingchamberthevelocitiesaredistributeduniformlyacrossthesuction
pipeandthenozzle.
509
1239/1563
09/09/2015
Thetheoryofejectors(cf.e.g.,/18/)showsthatfromtheexperimental
viewpoint,determinationoftheejectorcharacteristicsisreducedtofinding
thepressures/>,/,andp'^,thelosscoefficientnofthesuctionsystem,and
thepressurerestorationcoefficient|ofthediffuser.Thecoefficientsn
and5areinpracticealsodeterminedbypressurem.easurements.
Figure7.68showsschematicallyaninstallationforinvestigatingthe
characteristicsofejectors.Theinstallationconsistsofanejector(orits
model)whosewallshaveorificesconnectedtomanometers.Ifnecessary,
thevelocitiesindifferentsectionsoftheejectorcanbemeasuredwiththe
aidofPitotPrandtltubeswhenthedimensionsofthesectionsaresuitable
Themixingprocessoftwostreams(determinationofthevelocity
distributionsoverthelengthofthemixingchamber,oftheboundariesofthe
ejectingstream,etc.)isstudiedatsubsonicvelocitieswithordinarytubes
mountedonatraversingdevice,or(particularlyatsupersonicvelocities)
byopticalmethodswiththeaidofaToplerinstrumentoraninterferometer.
39.DETERMrNINGROTATIONALDERIVATIVES
Thefactthatvariousflyingapparatusandobjects(rockets,airplanes,
missiles,torpedoes,etc.)undergo,duringcertainperiodsoftheirmotion,
largeaccelerationsandconsiderablevibrations,whilethetrajectories
oftheircentersofmassarecurved,necessitatesspecialexperimental
methods.Thedifficultieswhicharisearebothtechnicalandofprinciple.
Technicallyitisverydifficulttomeasureinstantaneousvaluesofforcesand
momentswhenthemodelvibrates;inprincipleitisalmostimpossibleto
reproduceintheexperimentsthesurroundingsandtheconditions
correspondingtotherealflightormotion.Thisrequiresgreatcautionin
theapplicationofexperimentalresults.
1240/1563
09/09/2015
Theflowpatternaroundanaerodynamicsurface(theshapeofthewake,
itspositioninrelationtothebody,theshape,number,anddisposition
ofshocksatlargevelocities,etc.)andthusitsaerodynamicproperties
dependconsiderablyontheReynoldsnumber,theStrouhalnumber,
andtheMachnumber.Inaddition,theaerodynamicpropertiesofabody
inanonsteadyflowalsodependonthemotionofthebodyduringtheperiod
precedingtheinstantatwhichthekineticparametersweremeasured,i.e.,
onthemotionasawhole.
Modernmethods*permittheaerodynamicpropertiesofbodiesinnon
steadymotiontobedeterminedexperimentally.Thisisdonebyconsidering
asetofparameterswhichdeterm.inethelawsofnonsteadymotionasa
whole,andbyexpressingthecoefficientsoftheaerodynamicforcesand
momentsasfunctionsofthecoefficientsoftherotationalderivatives.
Thedimensionlesscoefficientsoftherotationalderivativeofthefirstorder**
*See,foriiistance,Belotserkovskii,S.M.Predstavlenienestatsionarnykhaerodinami
cheskikhmomentovisilpripomoshchikoeffitsieniovvrashchatel'nykhproizvoliykh(Representationof
NonsteadyAerodynamicMomentsandForcesbymeansoftheCoefficientsofRotationalDerivatives).
IzvestiyaANSSSR,OTN,No.7,1956.
*Thecoefficientsoflinearexpansionsoftheaerodynamicforcesandmomentsbythedimensionlesskinetic
parametersofmotionandtheirderivatives.Forinstance,thecoefficientofliftis
510
takeintoaccount,withanaccuracysufficientinpractice,themainfactors
causedbythenonsteadyflowaroundthetestedbody.
Whenconsideringthenonsteadymotionofanaerodynamicsurface,itis
1241/1563
09/09/2015
assumedthat:
a)Thenaeantranslationalvelocityhasafinitevalue,whiletheother
kineticparameters(e.g.,theangularvelocityofthebody)haverelatively
smallvalues.
b)Thebodymovesinaninfinitespacewhichisatrestininfinityin
frontofthebody;therearenosourcesofdisturbanceexceptthebodyand
itswake.
Undertheseassumptions,theactionofthemediumonabodymoving
initiscompletelydeterminedbythemotionofthebodyinrelationtothe
stationarycoordinatesystemxyz(Figure7.69).Weintroduceacoordinate
FIGURE7.69.Coordinatesystems.
systemOiX]y,Zimovingwiththebodyandprojectonitsaxesthevector
characteristicsofmotion,referredtothestationarycoordinatesystem
(absolutetranslationalvelocityUoandabsoluteangularvelocityQo).We
denotetheprojectionsofQointhemovingsystembyQ^,Q,Q,,andwrite
Uo{i)=U+AU{t),wherethenaeanvelocityUdoesnotdependonthetimet.
Wealsointroducethedimensionlessmagnitudes:
U'
U
=a(0;
1242/1563
09/09/2015
P=?(0;
where6isacharacteristiclineardimensionofthebody,aistheangle
ofattack,andpistheangleofslip*.
Theaerodynamicforcesandmomentsactingonthebodyinnonsteady
motiondependsontheinstantaneousvaluesoftheseparameters,theirtime
Wheninvestigatingthelawsofdeformation,e.g..whenstudyingflutter,additionalparametershaveto
beintroducedinordertotakeintoaccountthetimevariationoftheshape,i.e.,theinstantaneousvalues
ofthatpartofthelocalangleofattackwhichdependsonthedeformationoftheaerodynamicsurface.
Inparticular,inairplanesandrocketswithfins,theseparametersaretherudderandailerondeflection
angles.
511
derivatives*,andalsoonthewholesystemoffactorswhichcharacterize
steadymotion(compressibility,viscosity,density,translational
velocityetc.).
Thedimensionlessforceandmomentcoefficientscanbeexpressed
throughthesocalledrotationalderivativeswhichdeterminethechange
intheforceormoment,duetothetimevariationofanyparameter.By
1243/1563
09/09/2015
introducingthesederivatives,wecanelirainatethetimet,sincethemotion
ofabodyhavingsixdegreesoffreedomiscompletelydeterminedbythe
parametersgivenaboveandtheirtimederivatives.Inthemostimportant
casestheproblemissimplified,sinceseveralparametersandtheir
derivativesvanish.
Therotationalderivativesaremostlydeterminedexperimentally
byinvestigatingthemomentsandforcesactingontheaerodynamic
surfacewhentherudders,ailerons,andsimilardevices,whichaffect
theshapeofthesurface,arefixed.Thecoefficientsofuandit
aredeterminedbymeasuringtheforcesandmomentsactingonthe
aerodynamicsurfaceorbodyatC=constduringtranslationaloscillationsofthe
bodyinthedirectionofthecorrespondingaxis.Thecoefficientsofa>iand
coj,wyand(Hy,MjandWzcanbefoundbym.easuringtheforcesandmoments
actingduringrotationaloscillationsofthebodyaboutthejc,i/,zaxes
respectively.Theeffectsofchangesinpandaduringrotationabouttheyand
zaxesaredeterminedfromtheresultsobtainedininvestigationsofthe
translationaloscillationsofthebody.
Itissometimesnecessarytodeterminethecoefficientsoftherotational
derivativesoftheforcesandmomentsactingontheaerodynamicsurface,
orthecoefficientswhichexpressthehingemoments,whichariseduring
deflectionofthecontrolsurfaces.Thisrequiresmeasuringtheforcesand
naomentsappearingontheentiresurfacewhenthedeflectionsofthecontrol
surfacesaregiven,ordeterm.iningthehingem.om.entsfromtheaero
dynamicforces.
Existingexperim.entalmethodsfordeterminingtherotationalderivatives
canbegroupedasfollows:
1)Balancetests.
2)Useofwhirlingarmmachines.
1244/1563
09/09/2015
3)Methodofdeformedm.odels.
4)Methodofsmalloscillations.
Fornonsteadymotionofthebody(oscillationsaboutthezaxisand[steady]
translationalmotionalongthe;caxis**),weobtain
r=(c,^+c;a+c;i+<:;^<u^+c;ijp^*=,
.'.dûbdab
"dtW"'dtU'
b.
da,b'.dSyb'
dS,
b'
'~dtW"ydtV
"''dt
1245/1563
09/09/2015
Z7
"'dtu"^dt
b
If
Themostimportantcaseofnonsteadymotion.
512
Thedimensionlesscoefficientsofa,a,o)zand(02havetobedetermined
experimentallybythedifferentmethodsdiscussedbelow.
Balancetestsareusuallyundertakeninwindtunnelsatconstantvelocity
anddifferentanglesofattack.Thecoefficientscandm'aredetermined
fromtheslopesofthecurvesc=/(ii),mt=f{a).Inaddition,c^ândm^^
aredeterminedinthebalancetests.
Thewhirlingarmmachineisusedformeasuringtheaerodynamic
forcesandmomentsactingonthemodelduringitsuniformrotationatan
angularvelocitytozandatconstantangleofattack.Theaerodynamicforces
andmomentscanbeexpressedasfollows;
1246/1563
09/09/2015
fj2
^.={"I,,+<"+"J?">JPT*^
Wecanfindc^'andm"'fromtheexperimentallydeterminedstraight
linesY=y(io,)andM^^Miiait).Thismethodalsopermitsothercoefficients
(Cy,mytobedetermined,butallcoefficientsaredeterminedforzero
Strouhalnumber*.
Themethodofdeformedmodelsalsopermitsthecoefficientsc'"'
andm"'tobedetermined.Itconsistsofordinarytestingofadeformedmodelina
tunnel.Thelocalanglesofattackofthedeform.edmodelmustbeequalto
thelocalanglesofattackoftheundeformedmodelwhenitmovesalonga
circle.Figures7.70and7.71showthevectorsofthevelocityat
correspondingpointsoftheundeformedandthedeformedmodel.Wecan
seethat
whence
x'
Themodelmustthusbebentalongthearcofaparabola.Theforcesand
momentsactingonthedeformedandontheundeformedmodelarefound
fromtestsinthetunnel.Thedifferencesbetweentheseforcesand
momentsenablesthecoefficientsm'^'andc^^tobedetermined.
Themethodofsmalloscillationspermits,incontrasttoallthe
abovemethods,allcoefficientsoftherotationalderivativestobedetermined.
Forinstance,thoseenteringintotheexpressionsforYandMârefoundby
subjectingthemodelinawindtunneltosmallharmonictranslational(along
the(/axis**)orrotational(aboutthezaxis)oscillations,andmeasuring
theaerodynamicforceandmoment,orseveralparametersofthemotion.
Intheformercasethemethodiscalleddynamic,inthelatter,kinematic.
1247/1563
09/09/2015
Atuniformrotationofthemodela=const;o)=constanda=Oj=0.
FormoredetailsseeGurztiienko,G.A,Metodiskrivlenyktimodeleiprimenenieegokizucheniukri
volineinogonoletavozdushnyktikorablei(TheMethodofDeformedModelsanditsUseintheStudyof
CurvedFlightofAirships).TrudyTsAGIIssue182.1934.
513
Thedynamicmethodofsmalloscillation.Letthemodel
besubjectedtoforcedtranslationaloscillationsalongtheyaxis:
y=ycospt.
Theangleofattackwillthenvaryaccordingtothelaw
a=^=^sinpt=yp'sinpi,
wherej)=|2isthedimensionlessanaplitudeoftheoscillationsandp':=SL
isthedimensionlesscircularfrequency.
1/
1248/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE7.70.Velocityvectorofrotating
undeformedmodel.
FIGURE7.71.Velocityvectorofadeformed[sta
tionary]model.
Thetimederivativeoftheangleofattackis
a=y^'2cosp<.
Whenojz=0);=0,weobtain
y=~c^f^b^cos(pi+e^)={c^^+c;a\c;i)f>'^/,^
M,=m,?^6'cos[pt+e,)=(m,^+ot>+ma)p^6^*.
Theforceandthemomentthusalsovaryharmonically,withphaseshifts
,/andEn.inrelationtothemotionofthemodel.
Thecoefficientsoftherotationalderivativesarefoundbyequating
thecoefficientsofthetrigonometricfunctions:
1249/1563
09/09/2015
ml==^5sine
yoP
S=^^COSE
ni
yoP
Cy=CyCOS(pi+y),//l^=K^COS(fif).
514
Thecoefficientsoftherotationalderivatives(c"*,c"^,m"^m"')canbe
determinedbymeasuringtheaerodynamicforcesandmomentsduring
rotationaloscillationsofthemodelaboutthezaxis.Letthemodel
undergoharmonicoscillationsaboutthezaxis.Theangleofattackis
then
0l=C((|COS/><
1250/1563
09/09/2015
andtherefore
U
z=0.aP'^COSpt.
'a=m^=:^^sinpt=aoP'Sinpt.
Substitutinga,a=(Szandb>zintheexpressionsfortheliftandthe
pitchingmoment,weobtain
y=:=dy9^b^cos(pt+t,),
M,=m.jf~^l^cos{pt4eJ.
Thecoefficientsoftherotationalderivativesareinthiscase
c;/>*'<=^cose,.
m:/''m>=^coss.
Thus,bydeterminingexperimentallythecoefficientscj,c,mandm
duringtranslationalmotionofthemodel,wecanfindtheothercoefficients
fromarotationtest.Iftheraodeloscillatesaboutthezaxis,andonly
theaerodynamicmomentsaremeasured,wecandetermineonlythe
conabinationsofthecoefficients
m+m"andmp'^rn"'.
1251/1563
09/09/2015
ThecorrespondinginstallationisshownschematicallyinFigure7.72.
Itconsistsofacenteringinstrument*withadynam.ometricmechanism,
ad.c.motor,andasystemforrecordingtheoscillationsofthemodel,
allmountedonacarriage.Theaerodynamicloadsaremeasuredwiththe
aidofstraingages,whoseindicationsarerecordedonanoscillograph
togetherwiththepositionofthemodelandtheperiodofitsoscillations.
Thecenteringinstrumentisadevicewhichconsistsofaverticalshaft,carriedinbearings,towhoseupper
endthemodelisfixed.Thelowerendoftheshaftisconnectedtoadynamometricmechanism.Themodel
canthusoscillateinthehorizontalplane(Figure7.72)or,whenhinged,aboutotheraxes(forinstance,
thejraxis(Figure7.81).
515
Theresultsofthemeasurementsareprocessedbyequatingthegeneral
expressionforthemomentintheform,ofaTaylorserieswithanexpression
forthemomentintheformofaFourierserieswhosecoefficientsare
Centering
instrument
Coupling
1252/1563
09/09/2015
FlywheelElectricmotor
Drive
FIGURE7.72.Layoutofaninstallationfordecermining
therotationalderivativesbythedynamicmethod,
determinedbyharmonicanalysis.Wethusobtain
.//a
whereP^~fisthecircularfrequenceywhileTistheoscillationperiod
whentheangleofattackvariesaccordingtothelaw
a=a*sinp<.
Forpurerotation
a.^w^r=a.*p*cospt,<2=a'p''sinpt,
wherea*andp*arerespectivelythedimensionlessamplitudeandfrequency
oftheoscillation.Setting
^=
Mo
gSb
1253/1563
09/09/2015
M,
qSb
B,=
Ml
qSb'
weobtain
[whereq=p^\.
A<aIania.2a>Bt
Staticcalibrationsareperformedbeforetestinginordertodetermine
theconversionfactorfromthem.om.ent,recordedontheoscillogram
inmm,totheactualmomentinkgm.Theinstrumentisalsosettozero
1254/1563
09/09/2015
516
bycompensatingtheimbalanceofthemodelandtheinertiaforces;
thesensitivityoftheamplifierandtherecordingrangeoftheoscilloscope
arethenchosen.Fordynamiccalibrationtheaerodynamicloadisreplaced
byaspringwhichconnectsthemodeltothestationarybase.Thispermits
conversionfromthefirstharmonicoftherecordingtothefirstharmonic
oftheeffect(amplitudesensitivityiândtimeshiftAt)(Figure7.73).
"dyn
FIGURE7.73.Dynamiccalibrationoscillogram.
TheoscillogramshavetheformshowninFigure7.74.Wecansimilarly
determineonthesameinstallationtheaerodynamiccharacteristicsofthe
modelinthehorizontalplane,i,e.,thecombinationsofthederivatives
(m^y+mj)and(m.yp'm"y),andalsotherelationship'n=m(po)(Figure7.75)
intheabsenceofoscillations.
FIGURE7.74.
calibration.
1255/1563
09/09/2015
Oxcillalionsofamodel,aatzeroflow;bflowtests;cdynamic
Resultsoftestsonadynamicstraingageinstallationtodetermine
thecoefficientsoftherotationalderivativesareshowninFigures7.76
and7.77,whichalsocontainthestandarddeviationsofthemeasurem.ents
517
fordeterminingtherotationalderivatives
m'^'^mlandmP*nil'
Useofaspecialharmonicanalyzerinsteadoftheoscillographpermits
theaccuracyofthemeasurementstobeincreasedbyabout50%.
1256/1563
09/09/2015
0.02
0.0)
1257/1563
09/09/2015
'>^
1258/1563
09/09/2015
1259/1563
09/09/2015
*^
>h
1260/1563
09/09/2015
1261/1563
09/09/2015
"*
1262/1563
09/09/2015
0.!0
0.05
0_
Kw
1263/1563
09/09/2015
0.05
a.w15
1264/1563
09/09/2015
o.
1265/1563
09/09/2015
'
"j
1266/1563
09/09/2015
1267/1563
09/09/2015
>,
1268/1563
09/09/2015
'Dyna.micmtthod
oWindtunnelbalance
FIGURE7.75,Valuesofm=f0)obtainedbydynamicmethodand
byordinarytestsonwindtunnelbalances.
20
1269/1563
09/09/2015
1270/1563
09/09/2015
1271/1563
09/09/2015
1272/1563
09/09/2015
1273/1563
09/09/2015
1274/1563
09/09/2015
005
o.w
1275/1563
09/09/2015
015
P*
0.04
1276/1563
09/09/2015
1277/1563
09/09/2015
fi
1278/1563
09/09/2015
.J^
r,
i^
_P
O.OS
1279/1563
09/09/2015
/<
~^
~h
V~
^n"
S'
4s
P'
1280/1563
09/09/2015
IS
1281/1563
09/09/2015
m'p
^/77,
i).
1282/1563
09/09/2015
'f^
av
FIGURE7.76,Valuesofm'pm"ôbtainedbydynamicmethodandstandard
deviationofmeasurements.
Thekinematicmethodofsmalloscillationspermitsthe
coefficientsoftherotationalderivativestobedeterminedbymeasurementsof
severalparametersofmotion.Thiscanbedonebyeitherfreeorforced
oscillations;Theinstallationfordeterminingtherotationalderivativesis
shownschematicallyinFigure7.78.Itconsistsofasystemwithonedegree
offreedom.Inthemethodoffreeoscillations,themodelisfirstbrought
1283/1563
09/09/2015
518
outofequilibrium.Itwillthen,undertheactionofspringsPiandPj.
performdanapedoscillationsabouttheaxisofthecenteringinstrument,
whicharerecordedonamovingchartbyapenfixedtoapendulum
(Figure7.79).Thischartalsocontainstimemarks,whichperm.itthe
oscillationperiodofthemodeltobedetermined.Inthemethodofforced
OA
0.8
1284/1563
09/09/2015
^^
1285/1563
09/09/2015
r^
~,
i_Si,
\^
1286/1563
09/09/2015
1287/1563
09/09/2015
0.1
0.2
1288/1563
09/09/2015
0.3
P'
brtS
1289/1563
09/09/2015
^.
ici
1290/1563
09/09/2015
r<
y
''*m
FIGURE7.77.Valuesof
ofmeasurements.
1291/1563
09/09/2015
2+mobtainedbydynamicmethodandstandarddeviation
vibrations,anelectricmotoractuatesanoscillatingroller,themodel
beingsubjectedtoharmonicundampedoscillations.Thetapeonwhich
therecordingismadeisfixedonacarriagedrivenbytheelectricmotor
FIGURE7.78.Installationfordeterminingthecoefficientsoftherotational
derivativesbythekinematicmethod.1airfoilmodel;2centeringin
strument;3oscillatingroller;4pendulum;5carriage.
inaharmonicreciprocatorymotion,perpendiculartotheplaneof
oscillationofthependulum.Bysuperposingtheharmonicmotionsofthe
carriageandthependulum,thepenwilldrawanellipseonthetape
519
(Figure7.80).Thecoefficientsoftherotationalderivativesofthe
momentcanthenbedeterminedfromtheparametersandpositionofthis
ellipse.
AAAAAAAA
1292/1563
09/09/2015
VVVl/VfVuuv
~xiuuU~"
FIGURE7.79.Recordingoffreeoscillations.
Thedifferentialequationofmotionofamodeloscillatingaboutthe
zaxiscanbewrittenasfollows:
whereaoistheangleofattackcorrespondingtothem.eanpositionof
themodel,aboutwhichtheoscillationstakeplace,aisthedeviation
a.
î,
y^b\
1293/1563
09/09/2015
/'/:
/^^
y'^^
a,
FIGURE7.80.Recordingofforcedoscillations.
fromao,Jz~;m^^^'^^moment[aboutthezaxis]oftheinertiaforcesof
themodelpendulumsystem,4=4modH(5)/zpend''^sisthemomentexerted
bythespringsandtheweightofthependulum,whichdoesnotdependonthe
angleofattack,A*(ao+a)isthemomentexertedbythespringsandtheweight
ofthependulum,whichdependsontheangleofattack(a+ao):
1294/1563
09/09/2015
A2=(A,+ki,c2+A3(^)';?3*+Qr[^J;
wherekuk,,,kâretheratesofspringsPi,P^,andP3,Qistheweightof
thependulum,rand^3arelineardimensions(Figure7.78),
,da
H^jristhemomentduetoviscousfrictionintheinstrument,which
da
dependsontheangularvelocityjr,Asmptisthemomentduetothe
520
externalforcecausingtheoscillations(a=o.c'Î^\k^\,Miistheaerodynamic
momentonthemodel:
1295/1563
09/09/2015
yVJj=(m^^+ma+n"'^^+ina(m"'(Oj)qSb.
Foroscillationsaboutthezaxis,whenu>t=a;(02=awehave
,.r,a,/ui,i\bda.,i6*d'aTol
^^=Lm.,+'"^+('"z"+JTT"rfT+'"^7F5?rJ^5*
Substitutingthisexpressionintotheinitialdifferentialequationweobtain
where
jir+2njj+m'a+mÂtsinpt,
2re=,;m'=,,
'2'z
Whenthemodeloscillatesabouttheyaxis,theequationofmotionis
4^+2re^+m2p+/=A,s\npt
where
!''('/+'",)77ft=m;?SJ
2n=,;m=^J,",
JyJy
k'?'+M,mgSbA
JyJy
1296/1563
09/09/2015
Sb^
Poistheangleofyawwhichcorrespondstothemeanpositionofthemodel,
andpisthedeviationfromgo.
Asimilarexpressioncanbefoundforoscillationsofthemodelabout
theXaxis.Forthismotion,themodelissuspendedfromthecentering
instrumentbyasupportwhichpermitsoscillationsaboutthea:axis
(Figure7.81).Processingoftheresultsoftherecordingspermitsthe
coefficientsoftherotationalderivativesoftheaerodynamicmomentto
bedeterminedwiththeaidoftheaboverelationships.Thisisdoneby
*Thecoefficienttn^mustbepositive,sinceotherwisetllemotionofthemodelwillnotbeoscillatory.Tiie
Sb'
conditionthatthiscoefficientbepositiveiswhenm^'p5isnegligibleincomparisonwithy,:
k'mlqSb>0.
521
determiningthecoefficientsoftheequationofmotion,whichforoscillations
aboutthez,y,ora;axishasthesameform
"575+?gr+'"^+'"o=^1sinpt,
where6isthevariablepartoftheangleofattack,slip,orheel.
|/Tj5wr>
1297/1563
09/09/2015
Centeringinstrument
J...
co
E
oo
n*'II
nmp^^
1298/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE7.81.Suspendedmodeloscillatingaboutthexaxis.
Thegeneralsolutionofthisequationis
e=60+eie"'sin(x<9)162sin(ptfe),
whereSoistheanglewhichcorrespondstothemeanpositionofthemodel.
Sisin{tit9)e"'isthefreeoscillationterm,and62sin(pt+e)istheforced
responseofthemodel.
Forfreeoscillations(Ai=0)thesolutionis
S=9+9,e'"sin(x<(f),
where9iand9aretheintegrationconstantswhichdependontheinitial
conditions,xisthecircularfrequencyofthefreeoscillationsofthe
system;
Betweentheamplitude6*/"oftheinitialoscillationandtheamplitudee'/'
oftheithoscillationthereexiststhefollowingrelationship:
6',"=9','^'"'",
whereTistheoscillationperiod.
522
Takingthelogarithmsofbothsidesofthisequationandsolvingforn,
weobtain
1299/1563
09/09/2015
1of
ITOS')
Knowingnandx,wecanfindm.Experimentsyieldapproximatelym=~.
Thecoefficientmoisdeterminedfromtheequation
whichisobtainedaftersubstitutingthesolution[6=60+616""'sin(x<9)]
intheequationofmotion.
Forforcedoscillationsthesolutionhastheform
e=eo4ejSin(;)<e)*),
wherepisthecircularfrequencyoftheexcitationforce,and62isthe
amplitudeoftheforcedoscillationsofthemodel.
Y(p'm')\in.'p^
Eisthephaseshiftbetweentheexcitationforcefluctuationsandtheforced
oscillationsofthemodel,
tgefL.
p'~m'
1300/1563
09/09/2015
Thevalueof62andearefoundfromtherecordingsoftheoscillations
(seeFigures7.78and7.80):
6,=If6,andsin=^**).
Knowingthevaluesof82andewecanfindthecoefficientsmandnofthe
equationofmotion:
Henceforth,thecoefficientsoftherotationalderivativesofthe
aerodynamicmomentwillbedeteiminedfromthecoefficients
oftheequationofmotion.Thus,whenthemodeloscillatesabout
Thefactore""'decreasesrapidlysincera>0,sothatafterashorttimetheamplitudebecomesconstant.
Thisexpressionisobtainedbyconsideringtheparametricequationoftheellipsedrawnbythepenonthe
movingtape=iXtsinpt;1=îsln(ptt),wheregandr\arerespectivelythedisplacementsofthe
carriageandthepenfromtheirequilibriumpositions,whilefl]and*,arerespectivelytheamplitudesof
theoscillationofthecarriageandpen.
523
thezaxis,wecanneglectthemagnitudem."'pS^,which,during
testsinanairstream,issmallincomparisonwiththemomentof
inertiaJz.Wethenobtain
Themethodofdeterminingthedampingcoefficientnwasdescribedabove.
1301/1563
09/09/2015
ThemomentofinertiaJîsdeterminedfromtestsatC/=0.First,the
naturalfrequencypoofthesystemisfound;afrequencypiisthenobtained
byaddingtothesystem,aweightwhosemomentofinertiainrelationtothe
axisofoscillationsisA/j.Themomentofinertiaofthesystemisthen
pIpI
Thecoefficientoffrictionintheinstrumentisfoundbyreplacingthe
modelbyanequivalentloadanddeterminingthedampingcoefficient*of
thesystematU=,
where/îsthemomentofinertiawiththeequivalentload.Then
(i>Ia2JU,ww^
m,'+m^=j^(HiJz,/fc/J.
Thecoefficientnuisusuallydeterminedfrombalancetestsofthemodel
bygraphicaldifferentiationofthecurveniz=/(a).Sinceduring
oscillationsthevalueofmjmaydifferfrom,thatfoundinbalancetests,
itisbetterdeterminedfromtestsoftheoscillatingmodel:
wherepoandparerespectivelythecircularfrequenciesoftheoscillations
ofthemodelwithandwithoutflow.
Theothercoefficientsoftherotationalderivativesofthemoments
m^^,mjandm"y+/raj(foroscillationsabouttheyaxis),m^,ot^;'"^"^m^
(foroscillationsaboutthexaxis),andalsotherotationalderivativesofthe
aerodynamicforceandthecomplexrotationalderivatives**areobtained
similarly.Inthelattercasetheinstallationsandtheexperimentsaremore
1302/1563
09/09/2015
complicated*,butinprinciplethemethodisthesame.
'n=nae+"iwhereniisthedampingcoefficientoftheinsuument.AtU=0,/taev=,n=rti.
'"Whenthevectorsofthemomentandoftheangularvelocityofthemodelaremutuallyperpendicular,
tSeeforinstanceA.L.Raikh.Teoriyaimetodikaopredeleniyavrashchatel'nykhproizvodnykh.
(TheoryandMethodofDeterminingRotationDerivatives).TrudyTsAGINo.49.1939.
524
Bibliography
1.MartynoV.A.K.Eksperimental'nayaaerodinamika(Experimental
Aerodynamics).Moskva,Oborongiz.1958.
2.Spravochnikaviakonstruktorat.I."Aerodinamikasamoleta"(Handbook
fortheAircraftDesigner,Volume1:Aerodynamicsofthe
Airplane).TsAGI.1937.
3.Zaks,N.A.Osnovyeksperimental'noiaerodinamiki(Fundamentals
ofExperimentalAerodynamics).Moskva,Oborongiz.1953.
4.Evvard,I.C.,M.Tucker,andW.C.Burges.TransitionPoint
FluctuationsinSupersonicFlow.JAS,No.11.1954.
1303/1563
09/09/2015
5.Pfenninger,W.andE.Groth.LowDragBoundaryLayerSuction
ExperimentsinFlightonaWingGloveofanF94AAirplane
withSuctionThroughaLargeNumberofFineSlots.Boundary
LayerandFlowControl,Vol.2.PergamonPress.1961.
6.Popov,S.G.Nekotoryezadachiimetodyeksperimental'noiaero
mekhaniki(CertainProblemsandMethodsofExperimental
Aeromechanics).Gostekhizdat.1952.
7.Gorlin,S.M.Novyipribordlyaispytaniivintovvtrubakhs
otkrytoirabocheichast'yu(NewInstrumentforTestingPropellers
inTunnelswithOpenTestSections).TekhnicheskieZametki
TsAGI,No.114.1935.
8.Carter,A.D.S.SomeFluidDynamicResearchTechniques.Proc.ofthe
InstitutionofMechanicalEngineers,Vol.163(W.E.P.
No.60).1950.
9.Vogel,R.EinWindkanalmitEjektorantriebzurUntersuchungjyon
EinzelprofilenundSchaufelgittern.Maschinenbautechnik,No.9.
1959.
10.Zindner,E.HochgeschwindigkeitskanalfiirGitteruntersuchungen.
Machinenbautechnik,No.10.1959.
11.Todd,K.W.ApparatusforRemoteRecordingofFlowConditions.
1304/1563
09/09/2015
AeronauticalQuarterly,Vol.4,pt.4.1954.
12.Perley,R.andB.E.Mi11er.InstrumentationforAutomatic
PlottingandIntegratingofAirflowMeasurements.Proc.Instr.
Soc.ofAmerica,Vol.VIII.1952.
13.Ushakov,B.A.,N.V.Brusilovskii,andA.R.Bushel'.
Aerodinamikaosevykhventilyatorovielementyikhkonstruktsii
(AerodynamicsofAxialFansandtheirConstructionalElements).
Moskva,Gosgortekhizdat.1959.
14.Bychkov.A.G.,I.L.Lokshin,andP.O.Mazmanyants.
NovyetipytsentrobezhnykhventilyatorovTsAGI(NewTypesof
TsAGICentrifugalFans).PromyshlennayaAerodinamika.
In:Sbornik,No.12.Oborongiz.1959.
15.Ushakov,K.A.Metodikaneposredstvennogopolucheniya
bezrazmernykhkharateristikventilyatorov(MethodsforObtaining
DirectlytheDimensionlessCharacteristicsofFans).
PromyshlennayaAerodinamika.In:Sbornik,No.15.Oborongiz.1960.
16.Idel'chik,I.E.Spravochnikpogidravlicheskimsoprotivleniyam
(HandbookofHydraulicResistances).Moskva,Gosenergoizdat.
1960.(IPSTCat.No.1505).
525
1305/1563
09/09/2015
17.Ide1'chik,I.E.Aerodinamikapotokaipoterinaporav
diffuzorakh(TheAerodynamicsofFlowandPressureLosses
inDiffusers).PromyshlennayaAerodinamika,In:Sbornik,
No.3.BNTTsAGI.1947.
18.Abramovich,G.N.Prikladnayagazovayadinamika(AppliedGas
Dynamics).Moskva,Gostekhizdat.1953.
19.KhanzhonkoV,V.I.Ventilyatornyedeflektorydlya
zheleznodorozhnykhvagonov(VentilationHoodsforRailcars).
PromyshlennayaAerodinamika,In:Sbornik,No.3.
BNTTsAGI.1947.
20.Sholomovich,G.I.Eksperimental'noeissledovaniemodeleimnogo
lopastnykhvetrokolesvkosompotoke(ExperimentalInvestiga
tionsofModelsofMultibladeWindturbineWheelsinInclined
Airstreams).PromyshlennayaAerodinamika,In:Sbornik,
No.16.Oborongiz.1960.
526
ChapterVIII
PROCESSINGTHERESULTSOF
1306/1563
09/09/2015
WINDTUNNELTESTS
40.INTERFERENCEBETWEENTUNNEL
ANDMODEL
Ithasalreadybeennotedthatinordertoapplytheresultsofthetestson
modelsinwindtunnelstofullscalephenomena,inadditiontomaintaining
geometricalsimilarityandequalityofReynoldsandMachnumbers,certain
correctionshavetobeintroducedtotakeintoaccountthedistortionofthe
flowaroundthemodel,causedbytherestrictedcrosssectionalareaof
thetestsection,andtheinfluenceoftheflowboundaries,supports,etc.
Atsmallvelocities,whentheaircanbeconsideredasincompressible,
thesecorrectionsdifferfromthecorrespondingcorrectionswhentheflow
velocityinthetunnelapproachesthevalueatwhichthetunnelbecomes
blocked.Atsupersonicvelocitiesitisnecessarytoensurethat
perturbationsreflectedfromthewallsdonotreachthemodel,sinceinsuch
casesthedistortionoftheflowarounditcannotbetakenintoaccountby
corrections.
Inaddition,whenanalyzingtheexperimentalresultsitisnecessaryto
takeintoaccounttheturbulencelevel,whichconsiderablyaffectsthe
aerodynamiccharacteristics.Intestsattransonicandsupersonic
velocitiesitisimperativetomaintainconditionsatwhichthebehaviorof
thegas(air)isthesameasunderflightconditions.AtlargeMachnumbers
inthetunnel,thepressuresandtemperaturesdifferfromthoseexperienced
inflightatthecorrespondingvelocities,beingloweredtosuchanextent
thatcondensationofwatervaporandsometimes,intheabsenceofadequate
heating,liquefactionofairmayoccur.
Inordertoreducethenumberandmagnitudeofthecorrectionsapplied
totheresultsoftestsinwindtunnels,toincreasetheaccuracyofthese
tests,andtomaketheresultscorrespondascloselyaspossibletofull
scaleconditions,theeffectsnecessitatingcorrectionsshouldbereduced
totheminimumpossible.Thus,byselectingthecorrectconeangleofthe
1307/1563
09/09/2015
testsection,perforatingthewallsofthelatter,andsuckingoffpartofthe
airthroughthem,wecanpreventtheappearanceofanadversepressure
gradientalongthetestsectionandtheincreaseoftheboundarylayerthickness
alongthewalls.Wecanthusalsopreventthereflectionofshocksfromthetest
sectionwalls,andlocalvelocityincreasesduetoflowconstriction.
Wecanreducetheinterferencebetweennaodelandsupportsbycorrectly
locatingandproperlystreamliningthelatter.Asuitableselectionofthe
relativedimensionsofmodelandtestsectionsometimesenablesthe
527
correctionsfortunnelblockagebythemodelanditswaketobereducedto
valueslessthan0.5to1%ofthemeasuredforces,sothattheycanbe
ignoredaltogether.However,theintroductionofcorrectionstothe
resultsoftestsintunnelsisoftenunavoidable,sincetheirm.agnitudes
becomecomparablewiththosecharacterizingthetestedphenomena.
Forinstance,thedifferenceindragofanairplanemodelwithtwodifferent
wingdesignsisabout10to20%;foratunnelwithopentestsection,the
correctionforinduceddrag,flow,inclination,etc.,isabout15to20%
ofthedragmeasuredbythebalance.
Methodsofintroducingcorrections
Ifthetestsectionwallsweretohavetheshapeofthestreamlinesfor
unboundedflowaroundthebody,nowalleffectswouldbenoticedatany
flowvelocityintheabsenceofboundarylayers.Sincethisrequirement
cannotbesatisfiedevenforonewingatdifferentanglesofattack,wehave
1308/1563
09/09/2015
toconsidertherealconditionsofflowaroundthemodelwithsolidorfree
boundaries.
Thefollowingconditionsmustobtainattheflowboundaries:intunnels
withclosedtestsections(solidwalls)thevelocitycomponentnormaltothe
wallsurfacemustvanish;intunnelswithopentestsections(freeflow)the
pressureoftheflowingmediummustbeconstant,beingequaltothe
pressureintheroomsurroundingthetestsection.Hence,duetothe
constancyofthemassflowrateinallcrosssectionsofthetunnel,the
velocitynearamodelinaclosedtestsectionishigherthanthevelocityup
streamofit(e.g.,atthenozzleexit).Intunnelswithopentestsections,the
positionisdifferent.Thestaticpressureinthenondisturbedflowishigher
thanthestaticpressurenearthemodel.Ontheotherhand,theconditionof
constantpressureattheflowboundarymeansthatthelatterpressureequals
thestaticpressureinthenondisturbedflow.Hence,nearthemodelthe
staticpressurewillincrease.AccordingtoBernoulli'sequation,thisleads
toavelocitydecreasenearthemodel.Thevelocitycorrectionfortunnels
withopentestsectionsisoppositeinsigntothecorrespondingcorrection
fortunnelswithclosedtestsections.
Thesameeffectastheblockageofthetunnelbythemodeliscausedby
thewakebehindthemodelinaclosedtestsection.Inorderthatthem.ass
flowratealongthetunnelremainconstant,thereductioninvelocityinthe
wakebehindthemodelmustbecompensatedbyanincreaseinvelocityout
sidethewake.Thiscausesacertainvelocityincreasenearthemodel.In
tunnelswithopentestsectionswakeeffectsarepracticallyabsent.
Thus,blockageofthetunnelbythenaodelanditswakecauseschanges
invelocitynearthemodel,whichhavetobetakenintoaccountinthetest
resultsbyintroducingcorrectionstothevelocitymeasuredintheempty
tunnelorveryfarupstreamofthemodel.Thiscorrectionhastheform
1309/1563
09/09/2015
where^misacoefficientbywhichtheblockagebythemodelistakeninto
account.Theblockagebythewakeissimilarlytakenintoaccount,mbeing
replacedbyEw.Ifthecoefficientserrandswareknown,thecorrectionscan
beinserteddirectlyintothevaluesoftheforceandmomentcoefficients
528
determinedfromthemeasured(uncorrected)velocityhead.Forthis,the
forceandm.om.entcoefficientsaremultipliedbytheratioofthescjuares
ofthemeasuredandtrue(corrected)velocities:
tr
Since
weobtain
1310/1563
09/09/2015
where
V^=V^me(l+e),
(1+6)21+2e
Hence
P^me
Determiningtheblockagecoefficientsof
themodelanditswake(smandew)
Thewall(flowboundary)effectsandtheblockagecoefficientsare
determinedbyconsideringtheflowaroundanairfoilinaninfinitelattice
systemconsistingofalternatinguprightandinverseimagesofthemainair
foil(model).Inflowaroundtwoequalairfoilsplacedsymmetricallyin
relationtotheline/lyl'whichisparalleltotheflowdirection(Figure8.1),
theaxisofsymmetry/l/l'willbeastreamline.Inanideal(nonviscous)fluid
thislinecanbereplacedbyasolidboundary(wall)withoutaffectingtheflow.
Inversely,theeffectsofthe"ground"orthesolidwall{AA')ontheflow
aroundtheairfoilBcanbedeterminedbyreplacingthewallbyamirror
imageB'ofairfoilBandconsideringthenewproblemofflowaroundtwo
airfoils/1/.
1311/1563
09/09/2015
TheflowaroundairfoilB,placedbetweentwowindtunnelwallsAiA[
andA2A2(Figure8.2),canbesiraulatedtotheflowaroundaninfinitelattice
systemconsistingofalternatinguprightandinverseimagesoftheairfoil,
whilethewalleffectsontheflowaroundthemodelarereducedtothe
influenceoftheinfinitenumberofim.ages.Anapproximatesolutionis
obtainedintunnelswithopentestsectionsbythefollowingboundary
conditions:thesurfaceatwhich,inthepresenceofthemodel,thepressure
isconstant(noincreaseinaxialvelocity)coincideswiththeflowboundary
beforeinsertionofthemodel12/.Theblockagecoefficientsarefoundby
replacingthemodelatitssitebyasystemofsourcesandsinks(oradipole
inthecaseofawing),andtheboundariesofthetestsectionbyanequivalent
systemofmirrorimagesofthesesourcesandsinks(ordipolesinthecase
ofawing).Theblockagecoefficientcanbedeterminedbyconsideringthe
velocitiesinducedbytheseequivalentimages.Theimagesshouldnot
529
inducevelocitiesveryfarupstreamofthemodel,wherethemeasurements
areperformed.
Thismethodwasusedbydifferentauthorstodeterminetheblockage
coefficientsofthem.odel(em)anditswake(e.w()fortunnelswithclosedand
opentestsectionsofdifferentcrosssectionalshape.Wepresentseveral
1312/1563
09/09/2015
Figure8.1.Replacing
asolidwallbyamir
rorimageofthemodel.
AA'
FIGURE8.2.Twosolidwallsreplaced
bymirrorimagesofthemodel.
basicformulas/l/fordeterminingernande^forsubsonictunnels.
I.Airfoilsintwodimensionalflow.
Reret=j2=0.822foraclosedtestsection,t=24=0.411foranopen
testsection,tisthethicknessoftheairfoil,histheheightofthetest
section(nofloororceiling,onlysidewalls),1isacoefficientwhich
dependsontheairfoilgeometryforanellipticalairfoil.
^=M'+t)>
1313/1563
09/09/2015
wherecisthechordlength13/.ThevalueofXcanbedeterminedfrom
Figure8.3.
2.Forarectangularclosedtestsection,Glauert/4/suggested
=1
whereT|=/(y]isanem.piricalcoefficient(Figure8.4).Thevalueofe
canalsobefoundfromthedrag:/5/,/6/
1c
c
4Af
whereCxisthemeasureddragcoefficient.
530
1314/1563
09/09/2015
4^
1315/1563
09/09/2015
C^
/J
w^
1316/1563
09/09/2015
"^
^81012
c/t
FIGURE8.3.Coefficientiappearingin
formulafort(twodimensionalflow).
1.0
1317/1563
09/09/2015
7
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
1318/1563
09/09/2015
'^
L^
c/t
1319/1563
09/09/2015
10
FIGURE8.4.Coefficientiappearingin
formulafor*^(twodimensionalflow).
II.Wingsofinfinitespanincircularclosedtest
sections111.
1.^nf='^Se).(4].wheredisthediameterofthetunnel.
2.e^=0.321^c^.
III.Modelsinthreedimensionalflow.
1.Bodyofrevolutionlocatedonthetunnelaxis/3/
wheretisgiveninTable11.
TABLE11.Valuesofthecoefficientxforthreedimensional
flowaroundabody.
Crosssectional
shapeoftest
section
1320/1563
09/09/2015
Circular
Square
Rectangular{b=2h)..
Rectangular{bjh==9/7)
Octangular
Closedtest
Opentest
section
section
0.797
0.206
0.809
0.238
1321/1563
09/09/2015
1.03
0.83
0.75
ThecoefficientX,whichdependsontheshapeofthebody,isfound
fromFigure8.5.
531
1322/1563
09/09/2015
Rankine
ovoid
/^
/yl^
1323/1563
09/09/2015
Spheroid
>
"2^68W
c/t
FIGURE8.5.Coefficient>appearinginfor
mula,forSjjj(forbodyofrevolution).
_1S
whereSistheareatowhichthecoefficientcîsreferred/5/.
2.Wingsoffinitespan,includingsweptbackwings/!/.
1324/1563
09/09/2015
^=(TrM^+'4)7i
whereWisthevolumeofthemodel,ft.s.isthecrosssectionalareaofthe
testsection,andtisfoundfromTable11.
3.Theblockagecoefficientofanairplanemodelisdeterminedby
findingseparatelyz^forabodyofrevolutionandforawing,andadding.
Fortunnelswithclosedrectangulartestsections,wecanusethe
approximateformulaofYoungandSquire/9/:
iO.65
wherehandbarerespectivelytheheightandthewidthofthetestsection.
Thisfornaulagivesacorrectionwithanaccuracyof10%.
Takingintoaccountthepressuregradient.Thestatic
pressurevarieslinearlywith^âlongthetestsectionaxis,wherepisthe
1325/1563
09/09/2015
ratioofstaticpressuretovelocityhead.TheArchimedianforceQ'is
proportionaltothevolumeWofthebody
Q'^^.W.
532
Thecorrectionforthepressuregradientis*
dpW
dxS
whereSistheareaofthewingorthemidsectionofthebody,U7=?^j^jj/t)
isthevolumeofthebody,Iisthelengthofthebody,r\isthecoefficient
offullness.Foranairplanemodel,t|S0.6;forawingmodeltj0.8,
Thegradientîsassumedtobepositiveifthepressuredecreasesin
theflowdirection.For^Ô.OOlm"''thecorrectionisnegligiblysm.all.
Acorrectionforthepressuregradientmustbemadetothedrag
determinedfromthestaticpressuredistributiononthesurfaceofthe
body.Nocorrectionneedbemadetotheprofiledragdeterminedfrom
thetotalpressuredistributioninthewake.Becauseofthesmallnessof
1326/1563
09/09/2015
thepressuregradientalongthetunnelaxis,nocorrectionisordinarily
introducedintunnelswithopentestsections**.
Blockageeffectsatlargesubsonicvelocities
Thecorrectionsfortheblockagebythemodelanditswakeare
considerable,evenatvelocitiesatwhichcompressibilityeffectsare
stillsmall.However,thesecorrectionscanfrequentlybeignored,
becauselowspeedtunnelsareintendedforquantitativetestsofmodels
whosedimensionsaresmallinrelationtothoseofthetestsection.More
over,progressintheaerodynamicdesignofbodiesflyingathypersonic
velocitieshasledtorelativelysmallthicknessesofthemodels,and
smallvaluesofcforthewings.Thisalsoreducestheblockagecorrections
whensuchmodelsaretestedinlowspeedtunnels.
Althoughinprinciplethemethodofimagesisapplicabletomodelsof
anydimensionsatallsubsonicvelocities,theparticularmethodof
introducingcorrectionsforboundaryeffectsatlowMachnumbers,which
isbasedonthelineartheory,isnotsuitableforlargeMachnumbers
whenzonesofsupersonicflowandshocksappear,sincetheequationsof
flowarethennonlinear.However,whenthemodelissmallincomparison
withthetunnel,isnothighlyloaded,andtheperturbationscausedbyitaresmall
incomparisonwiththefreestreamvelocity,theblockagecorrectionsobtained
forsmallMachnumberscanalsobeintroducedatlargesubsonicvelocities.
Accordingtothetheoryofsmallperturbations,thecorrectionsobtained
forsmallvelocitiesmustbemultipliedbythefactor
'==p.
1^1M'
1327/1563
09/09/2015
Wecanalsowrite/I/c^jj=c,^g^XIjCxmewhereXisfoundinthesamewayasinthe
determinationofeande
m^^
*Thecorrectionforthepressuregradientinsuchtunnelsisdeterminedbyhighlyaccuratetests.
533
Theblockagecoefficientsofthemodelanditswakearethen
,__J_
,_1_
ThecorrectionsfortheMachnumber,density,andvelocityheadare/5/
'meTne'
where
Fordimensionlessforceandmomentcoefficients,thecorrectionis
TheblockagecorrectionsgivenaboveareapplicabledowntoMach
numbersatwhichnoblockageoftunnelswithclosedtestsectionsoccurs.
1328/1563
09/09/2015
Lifteffects
Incontrasttoblockageeffectsofthemodel,thelifteffect,which
causesachangeinthevelocitydistributioninthetestsection,appears
evenwhenthedimensionsofthemodelaresmallincomparisonwiththose
ofthetunnel.Thiseffectdisappearscompletelyonlyatzerolift.Inorder
todeterminethelifteffect,thewingis,accordingtoPrandtl,replaced
byasystemofboundvorticesandvorticesshedfromthetrailingedgeof
thewing.Thetestsectionboundariesarereplacedbyanequivalent
systemofimages,asexplainedabove.Theperturbationsoftheflow
aroundthewingareexpressedthroughthevelocitiesinducedbythese
images.
Asystemofimagessimulatingtheboundaryconditionsatthewalls,
withflowaroundauniformlyloadedwingoffinitespaninatunnelwith
closedrectangulartestsection,isshowninFigure8.6.
Itcanbeshown/2/thatinthelimit,whenthespantendstozero,
theperturbationsinatunnelwithopentestsectionareequalandopposite
totheperturbationsoccurringinatunnelwithaclosedtestsectionofthe
sameshapewhenthewingisturnedby90aboutthetunnelaxis.In
otherwords,theflowperturbationsinatunnelwithopentestsectionof
heighthandwidthbareequalandoppositetotheperturbationsinatunnel
withaclosedtestsectionofheightbandwidthh.
534
FIGURE8.6.Asystemofimagessimulatingtheboundary
1329/1563
09/09/2015
conditionsatthewallsofaclosedrectangulartestsection,
withflowaroundawingoffinitespan,
~'~.><^X
Lifteffectsintwodimensionalflow
Inaplanetunnelwithclosedtestsectionthestreamlinesarethesame
asinunboundedflow,curvedinsuchaway(Figure8.7)thatthevelocity
componentnormaltothehorizontalboundaries(floorandceilingofthetest
section)vanishes.Thesamereasoning
appliestothepressuredistributionin
atunnelwithopentestsection.Asmall
curvatureofthestreamlinesisequivalent
initseffectstobendingandalterationof
theangleofattackoftheairfoil.Figure8.8
showsschematicallytheflowaroundanair
foilinatunnelwithclosedtestsection.The
vorteximageslieonthelineyy,whichis
perpendiculartothetunnelaxis.Thelines
PPandQQcorrespondqualitativelytothe
streamlinesoftheinducedflow,which
causesanincreaseintheeffectivecurvature
oftheairfoil.Inaddition,thevertical
componentsoftheinducedvelocitychange
theangleofattackoftheairfoil.The
localchangeintheangleofattackis
1330/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE8.7,Curvatureofstreamlinesin'
ducedbyflowboundaries.1curvature
ofstreamlinesduetolifteffectsinun
boundedflow;2curvatureofstream
linesinducedbytestsectionwalls;the
curvaturemustbesuchthatthewalls
arestreamlines.
\yAwherewistheverticalcomponentof
theinducedvelocityatpointO.Intunnels
withopentestsections,thestreamlines
arecurvedintheotherdirection,andthe
effectivecurvatureandtheangleofattackoftheairfoilarethus
reduced.
AccordingtoGlauert/2/,thelifteffectforathinairfoilisproportional
to(clhY;thisresultcanbeusedwithsufficientaccuracyinmostproblems;
Thechangeincurvatureandangleofattackcanbedeterminedfora
tunnelwithclosedtestsectionfromtheformulas/2/
^T^+Wdr^^yme^
^"=+^(t)'^''vme+'^'^mme)|(inradians);
535
1331/1563
09/09/2015
foratunnelwithopentestsection
'i'='=^(x)'(Cyme+4'^nmeUinradians),
wherecîsthecoefficientofthepitchingmomentaboutthequarterchord
point(Cmispositiveifthem.omentcausesanincreaseintheangleofattack).
FIGURE8.8.Flowpatternaroundairfoilintunnelwithclosed
testsection.
Intunnelswithopentestsectionstheangleofattackisadditionally
reduced,becauseofthegeneraldownwardinclinationoftheflownearthe
airfoil,byanamountdeterminedbyPrandtl/lO/as
Thus,intunnelswithopentestsectionsthetotalchangein+heangle
ofattackis
t/c\2,,,.^1c
^=IJ[if('^yme+4C"ime)"TT^:
yme
1332/1563
09/09/2015
thesecondtermusuallypredominating.Thechangeintheeffectiveangle
ofattackofthemodel,duetotheboundaryeffects,necessitatescorrection
oftheforcecoefficientsmeasuredbythebalance(cândCy).Themeasured
liftanddragarethecomponentsofthetotalaerodynamicforceRandare
respectivelynormalandparalleltotheaxis(Figure8.9).Sincethe
effectiveangleofattackischangedbyAa,themeasuredforcesmustbe
resolvedinthex,andy^directions.Weobtain
pSinia.
536
SinceCxmeS^dAaaresmall,wecanwrite
*'ycor'*^yme*
Also,
Themagnitude(cyme^<i)iscalledtheinduceddragcoefficient.
1333/1563
09/09/2015
XTu,
FIGURE8.9.Componentsoftotalaerodynamicforce
Wecan,accordingtoGlauert/11/,write
c,=2^(a42i),
c='tf
whereTistheconcavityoftheequivalentcirculararc.Assumingthat
ytr
.=2it[a+2(r+Af)l,
=2(a+2r),
=UT,
weobtain
1334/1563
09/09/2015
Cytr=Cyme'I'tATf,
'^ratr='^mme+^^t
Thefinalcorrections/l/forlifteffectsintwodimensionalfloware
giveninTable12.
537
Table12.
Correctionsforlifteffectintwo
dirr
ensionalflow
Correction
Closedtest
section
Opentest
1335/1563
09/09/2015
section
ACy
48\hj^me
u2/c\2
+24iXJ'^'e
ACm
+192UJ'"^^
+^{j)(Cyme+'l'mme*
71
48
ll2/c\2
96[/iI')me
Ad
1336/1563
09/09/2015
(inradians)
(x)(<^yrne+'tcme)
1c
iCx
+AaCyn,e
+Aa(;yrne
Lifteffectsonwingsoffinitespan.Inmostwindtunnel
teststhechordofthewingissmallincomparisonwiththedimensions
ofthetestsection,sothatthecurvatureofthestreamlines,causedby
thetunnelboundaries,canbeignored.Thelifteffectscanthenbesimulated
bytheflowperturbationscausedbytheimagesofvorticesshedfromthe
trailingedge(Figure8.10).Undertheseconditionsthecorrectionsfor
walleffectsbecome
Aa=8
Ac,
1337/1563
09/09/2015
=Aacp=
Fortunnelswithclosedtestsections,5ispositive,sincetheeffective
angleofattackisincreased;fortunnelswithopentestsections,8isnegative.
CA,
B,ii
C^
e,i
FIGURE8.10.Wingoffinitespan
locatedbetweensolidwalls,and
itsimages.
1338/1563
09/09/2015
Comparativevaluesof8fordifferenttypesoftestsectionsaregivenin
Table13/I/.
However,experimentsshowthatthecorrectionsforflowboundary
effectsnotonlydifferfrom,thetheoreticalvaluesbutdependonthe
1680
538
downwashandinduceddrag.Thisdiscrepancyiscausedbythenon
correspondenceoftheboundaryconditionstotheactualphenomena(inopen
testsections),andtheinfluenceofthenozzleanddiffuserwhichareinthe
vicinityofthemodel.Thedifferencebetween8.andS^canbeexplained
bytheinfluenceofthewingchordandthedifferencesindownwashalong
thechord,whichcauseachangeintheeffectivecurvatureofthewing.
TABLE13
Modelspan
1339/1563
09/09/2015
Valuesof6
a)Circulartunnelwithclosedtestsection
Tunneldiameter
Ellipticalloaddistributionover
thespan
Uniformload
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
1340/1563
09/09/2015
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.125
0.125
0.125
0.125
0.125
0.127
0.128
0.131
1341/1563
09/09/2015
0.125
0.125
0.125
0.126
0.126
0.127
0.130
136
0.8
0.137
0,148
1342/1563
09/09/2015
Foranopentestsection6hastheoppositesign
b)Octagonaltunnelwithclosedtestsection
Modelspan
Tunneldiameter
Ellipticalloaddistributionover
thespan
Uniformload
Width
Height,
Closed,
Open.,
0.1
0.2
0.3
1343/1563
09/09/2015
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.126
0.126
0.127
0.127
0.128
0.130
1344/1563
09/09/2015
0.133
0.139
0.126
0.126
0.127
0.127
0.129
0.132
0.138
0.151
0.126
0.126
1345/1563
09/09/2015
c)Rectangulartestsection
0.25
0.5
0.75
1.0
1.66
2.0
4.0
0.524
0.262
1346/1563
09/09/2015
0.176
0.137
0.120
0.137
0.262
0.262
0.137
0.120
0.137
0.196
0.262
0.524
1347/1563
09/09/2015
d)Ellipticaltestsection.Wingtipslocatedatfociofellipse
Width
Height.
Closed.
Open..
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
0.125
0.10
0.084
1348/1563
09/09/2015
0.072
0.125
0.15
0.166
0.178
3.0
0.062
0.188
Forinstance,withachordlengthequalto13%ofthehorizontaldiameter
oftheopentestsection,andcîr^=0.3,thedifferenceininducedangle
^t.s.
ofattackattheleadingandtrailingedgesamountsto1.5;thelift
thereforebecomessmallerandthecorrection5,.isreduced.Forthese
XI
1349/1563
09/09/2015
reasonsitisadvisabletoreducetheratiobetweenthedimensionsof
themodelandthetestsection(_g^),while8.,8,aredeterminedforeach
V^t.s.''"
tunnelexperimentally*.
Thecoefficient8,^canbedeterminedasfollows:Experimentalcurves
c=/(aao)areplottedforgeometricallysimilarmodels,whereaoisthe
angleofzerolift.Allthesecurvespassthroughtheoriginofcoordinates.
Thetabulateddatashouldbeusediftheexperimentalvaluesof8^ând8ârenotknownforthe
tunnelinwhichthetestsareperformed.
539
Therelationshipsaa.o=f(=^jarethenplottedforfixedvaluesofCy{cy0.l;
c=0,2;etc.)theseareextrapolatedtotheintersectionwiththeordinate
5
axis,i.e.,to.=^=0,whichcorrespondstounboundedflow.Thevalues
c
of(aao)forbâretheanglesofattackofthetestedmodelsatthe
1350/1563
09/09/2015
''t.s.
givenvaluesofcinthecaseofunboundedflow,whiletheinducedangleof
attackis
Aa,.=(aao)_5^^(a'>^)s//^ô
Plottingtherelationships
wecandetermine
K
Theprocedurefoidetermining8^^,issimilar.Proceedingfromthe
experinaentalpolarsCx=l{cy)forthemodel,Cyandtherelationships
c^c,,=/(7r^)areplottedforfixedvaluesofCy,whereCxîsthecoefficient
Cxatx=0.Wethenobtainbyextrapolating
iiCxI=(C^Cj,,)^,p(Cj>C:i,)sip.
whicharecorrectionsofcforflowboundaryeffectsatgivenvaluesof
S/f^5andCy.Afterdeterminingh^ândplottingtherelationships
weobtainB^.=|^.Byexperimentswithgeometricallysimilarwings
'y
intunnelswithellipticaltestsection,itwasfoundthat8.=024and8,,=0.17.
1351/1563
09/09/2015
/xi
Correctionsforcmax.Atanglesofattackapproachingthecritical
value,theexpressions
Cy=2Tt(a+2T),
C;=^7.
arenolongervalidbecauseofboundarylayerseparation.Thevalueof
r^becomeslessthan4Tt,andîslessthanit.Hence,nocorrectionfor
at07
flowboundaryeffectsisintroducedincmax,butinthecurveCy=l{a)the
changeintheangleofattackistakenintoaccount.Forthreedimensional
flow
540
^'^=^;p<^yme>
fortwodimensionalflow
'^"^M'u)(Sme+4Cmme)
(inatunnelwithclosedtestsection),
^<^=48"I"a)'^)'e"T4cme'4"a"'^y
(inatunnelwithopentestsection).
1352/1563
09/09/2015
Correctionforblockingeffect
Inclosedcircuittunnelswitheitheropenorclosedtestsectionsthe
influenceofliftonthefreestreamvelocitydistributionhasalsotobetaken
intoaccount.
J/.
om
1353/1563
09/09/2015
'
1354/1563
09/09/2015
1355/1563
09/09/2015
n^
~1
0.01
/)0i
1356/1563
09/09/2015
"^
0!
0.2
0.3
1357/1563
09/09/2015
a*
"v
*s
=.
1358/1563
09/09/2015
1359/1563
09/09/2015
1360/1563
09/09/2015
_.
FIGURE8.11.Blockingeffectinatunnelwithopenellipticaltestsection.
Thedownwashinducedbyliftisconsiderable,particularlyintunnels
withopentestsections,andthevelocitydistributionatthediffuserinlet
ishighlynonuniform.Despitetheuseofstraighteningdevicesinthe
1361/1563
09/09/2015
tunnelandthestreamlineconvergenceinthenozzle,theflowinthetest
sectionwillstillbenonuniform.Atunnelcontainingamodelsubjectedto
liftthushasasmallervelocitycoefficientthananemptytunnel
(Figure8.11).
Thechangeinthevelocitycoefficient,whichdependsonthelift,is
calledblockingeffectandmiustbetakenintoaccountwhendeterm.ining
theaerodynamiccoefficientsreferredtothevelocityhead.Thecorrection
hastheformi
Ctr'^me^î^.
wherethecorrectionfortheblockingeffectAnisfoundbyaveragingthe
resultsofexperimentswithdifferentwings.Intunnelswithclosedtest
sectionsorwithsinglereturnductsthecorrectionfortheblockingeffect
issmallandismostlyneglected.Intunnelswithdualreturnductsthis
correctionisconsiderable.
541
Differentmethodsofintroducingcorrections
forthelifteffect
Inpractice,correctionsforthelifteffectcanbeintroducedbytwo
methods:allcorrectionscanbereducedeithertoachangeintheangleof
attackatconstantlift(c^j.=Cyms),ortoachangeintheliftatconstant
angleofattack(atr=ame).
Inordertoreduceallcorrectionstoachangeintheangle,the
latterhastobecorrectedtwice:firstlybyAai,whichdependsonthechange
1362/1563
09/09/2015
inflowdirection,secondlybyAa2,whichdependsonthechangeinconcavity
oftheairfoil:
Ado
'(~(tiTme)'2^('^yU"^jme)
Thetotalangle,towhichtheexperimentalvaluec^êshouldbereferred,
is(Figure8.12)
"=='me+^"i+'^='2=''me+^^'
Whenallcorrectionsarereducedtoanequivalentchangeinthelift,
acertainslope,validinthelinearregion,hastobeassum.edforcurve
^B=/(i)*.ThetotalchangeinliftwillthenbeequaltothesumofAcj,,,
FIGURE8.12.Differentmethodsofcorrecting
thecurvec=/ia);Apointonuncorrected
curveobtainedbydirectmeasurementintunnel;
Bcorrectionforchangeinangleofattackand
lift;Callcorrectionsreducedtochangein
lift(citf=:cijjj^;Dallcorrectionsreducedto
changeinangleofattackic,^c)
1363/1563
09/09/2015
dCv
Strictlyspeaking,theslopeis3^,buttheerrorisnegligible.
542
duetothechangeinconcavity(A;),and
dCvr
ACy,=
duetodownwashinducedbytheflowboundaries:
Cy=CymeACy,ACj,,=CymsSACy.
Similarcorrectionsshouldbeintroducedintheexperimentalcoefficients
ofdragandpitchingmoment,butbecauseofthesmallnessoftheensuing
changes,thesecoefficientscanbeleftunchanged,beingreferredtothe
changedangleofattack.Similarly,forawingoffinitespan,thecorrection
fortheangleofattackia=8^Lc^^canbereducedtoanequivalentchange
1364/1563
09/09/2015
inliftwiththeaidoftherelationship
ThecorrectedcurveCy=/(a)isthenobtainedbyplottingtherelationship
(Cj,me+2ACy)=/(ctrne)
Influenceofliftontheflowaround
thehorizontaltail
Theinduceddownwashnearthehorizontaltailofamodelinatunneldiffers
fromthedownwashnearthewing.Thisnecessitatescorrectionsinthe
measuredvalueofthepitchingmomentcoefficientot^.Thedifferencebetween
thepitchingmomentsinunboundedflovsfandinatunnel(atequalvaluesofCy)
isequaltothedifferenceinthemomentsduetothehorizontaltail:
Am^h.t.='"''n^tu
ThevalueofAmjh.t.canbefoundbytestinggeometricallysimilarmodels
andusingthemethodsdescribedabovefordeterminingS,and
where5h.t,istheareaofthehorizontaltail,ij,jisthedistancefrom,the
wingtothehorizontaltail(usuallyfromthecenterofgravitytothehinges
oftheelevator),6îsthemeanaerodynamicchord,and
(accordingtoexperimentaldata).
543
1365/1563
09/09/2015
ExperimentsshowthatStcanbeassumedequalto0.08.Hence
^h.t.
and
Wecanalsouseexpression
^^'"^.1.=0.061^~^Cy,
A
wherer=ffih.t)isacoefficientwhichcharacterizestheinfluenceofthe
flowboundariesonthedownwashnearthetailincomparisonwiththedown
washnearthewing.
ih.t.
0.6
0.16
08
0.27
1366/1563
09/09/2015
1.0
0.395
1.2
0.535
14
0.685
1.6
83
1.8
0.98
2.0
1.12
Withcorrectlyselecteddimensionsofthemodel,A'n,j^j.inmosttunnels
is1to1.5%ofthemeanaerodynamicchord.
1367/1563
09/09/2015
Influenceofliftatlargesubsonicvelocities
Theinfluenceoftheliftatlargesubsonicvelocitiesistakenintoaccount
bymultiplyingtheexpressionsforAt(seepage535)byp=;=^.We
thusobtain:
M=+^m^:
192(hi'""^VT^nvf'
foraclosedtestsection.
At=I](rrne7radiansforanopentestsection
'96\A/*^/lM'
^''='+îi;)'''<'y'^^+'^''
1368/1563
09/09/2015
Aa=
96\h
4H\hl
I'^yme+'^m'me)^/jz^f^p
radiansforaclosedtestsection
radiansforanopentestsection.
Intheseformulasitisassumedthat
^.=,rarM(^+2r)'
1369/1563
09/09/2015
T.
VIM^
544
whichistrueforathinairfoil.Theadditionalcorrectiontotheangle
ofattackAa=yyCyj^g.necessitatedbythegeneralflowinclinationinan
opentestsection,shouldnotbemade;neithershouldtherebeachange
inthecorrectionfortheinduceddrag(Ac^,=cAai).
Applicabilityofcorrections
Inmostcasesthedimensionsofthemodelaresmallincomparison
withthoseofthetestsection(ir^<0.1502landtheabovecorrections
givesufficientlyreliableresultsatsmallvelocitieswhencompressibility
effectsareabsent.
Withincreasinglift,themethodofintroducingcorrectionsbecomes
lessreliableforsmallmodels,sincethevelocitiesinducedbytheflow
boundaryeffectsmustbedeterminednotonlyonthetunnelaxisbutatall
pointsofthemodel.Suchcalculationsareverydifficult.Itistherefore
1370/1563
09/09/2015
bettertointroducecorrectionsbasedontheresultsoftestsof
geometricallysimilarmodelsinthesametunnel,orofthesamemodelin
geometricallysimilartunnelshavingdifferenttestsectiondimensions.
Forexample,aseriesofsimilarwings,rectangularinplane,were
testedinatunnelwithanopentestsectionofellipticalshape(Figure3.18).
Thewingshadarelativethicknessof12%andaspectratioX=6;theratio
ofthespantothehorizontaltestsectiondiameterwasapproximately
0.75.Theaerodynamiccharacteristicsobtainedwerecorrectedfor
downwash,dragofsupports,blockingeffect,andlifteffect.The
sameseriesofwingswastestedinasimilartunnelwhoselinear
dimensionswereseveraltimessmaller.Practicallythesamecorrection
coefficients8.==0.25and8^^^=0.17wereobtainedinbothtunnelsforallwing
dimensions.Onthebasisofexperimentsinlowspeedtunnels,itwas
establishedthatforthefollowingrelativedimensionsofmodelsandtest
sections,itispossibletoneglectblockagebythemodel,itswake,andthe
boundarylayer:
ratioofspanto75formodelswithrectangularwings,
testsectionwidthO.iiformodelswithsweptbackwings.
Whentheseconditionsobtain,thereremaincorrectionsforlift
effect(Af.vi,Aai;Amznt).blockingeffect,downwasheffectofthesupports
(ondragandpitchingmoment),andpressuregradient.
Whenwingssupportedonthesidewallsofthetunnelaretested,the
pressuredistributionisusuallydeterminedinthemidsection.The
lifteffectcanthenbeignored,onlyblockagecorrectionsbeing
introducedinthevelocitywhenquantitativeresultsarerequired.Whenonly
comparativedataonthepressuredistributionareneeded,thecorrections
canbeomitted,butequalityofReynoldsnumbersmustbemaintained.
1371/1563
09/09/2015
545
Whenbalancemeasurementsofahalfwingsupportedonthewallofa
closedtestsectionareperformed(suchtestsenablethespanofthem.odel
andtheReynoldsnumbertobeincreased),itcanbeassumedthattheflow
perturbationscausedbytheboundaries,andthus,therelevantcorrections,
willbethesameaswhenacompletemodelistestedinatunnelhavinga
testsectionofdoublethewidth.
Theinfluenceoftheboundarylayeratthetunnelwallonwhichamodel
supportedcanbeignoredif,onbothsidesofthetunnel,falseendsections
ofawingofthesameprofileareplacedwithaclearancebetweenthewall
andthemodelwing.Theseendsectionsshould,oneachside,extenda
distanceaintothetunnelwherei=tglO,cbeingthechordlengthofthe
wing.ThisisIllustratedinFigure8.13.Theinfluenceoftheboundary
layeronthewallissometimeseliminatedbyplacing,withclearances,
profileplatesbetweenthemodelandthewall.
Tobalance
Clearance
1372/1563
09/09/2015
Endsections
FIGURE8.13.Installationofawingwithfalseend
sections.
Thecorrectionsforblockagebythemodelanditswakecanbeestimated
fromtheexperimentallydeterminedincreaseinvelocity(orpressure)on
thetunnelwalloppositethemodel.IfAViistheincreaseinvelocityatthe
wall,duetoblockagebythemodelanditswake,whileAV2isthevelocity
increasefardownstreamofthemodel,thenforsmallmodels/5/
^=^w+^n,=j(AV,+AV,).
Theblockingeffectcanbedeterminedfromthepressuredistributions
ontheupperandlowertunnelwallsbymeansoftherelationship
AV,
546
Thismethodcanbeusedaslongasthetheoryofsmallperturbations
isapplicable,i.e.,forvelocitiesatwhichthesupersonicregiononthe
airfoilissmallandshocksdonotextendtothetunnelwalls.Atthese
velocitiesmoreaccurateresultsareobtainedfromtheexpressions/12/.
e=i(AK,+2Al/2).
1373/1563
09/09/2015
Thesemethodsarealsousedinhighspeedtunnels.Largesubsonic
velocitiesarecorrectedforblockagebymeasuringthechange
inpressureonthetunnelwalls,andreferringtheresultsofthebalance
measurementstothecorrectedfreestreamvelocity.
Inmoderntransonictunnelsitispossibletoomitcorrectionsforflow
boundaryeffectsbyperforatingthetestsectionwalls,orbysuckingoff
theboundarylayerthroughthewallsinsupersonictunnels.Becauseofthe
aerodynamicperfectionofpresentdaymodels(airplanes,rockets,etc.),
correctionsforflowboundaryeffectscanalsobeomittedinsupersonic
tunnels,ifnoshocksarereflectedfrom,thewallsontothemodel.Inboth
casesthereremainexperimentallydeterminedcorrectionsfortheinfluence
ofthennodelsuspensionsandsupports.
41.INTERFERENCEBETWEENMODEL
ANDSUPPORTS
Thetestedmodelismountedinthetunnelwiththeaidofdifferent
typesofsuspensions,supports,struts,etc.Theirinfluenceontheflow
patterninthetunnelandaroundthetestednnodelisconsiderable.Inthe
generalcase,theseeffectsareexpressedinchangesinthevelocityand
pressuredistributions,whicharenoticed:
a)aschangesintheaveragevelocityinthetestsection,which
necessitatescorrectionsinthevelocitycoefficientofthetunnel;
b)aschangesinthepressuregradient,whichcreateahorizontal
Archimedianforceaffectingthedrag,thusnecessitatingacorrectionin
thepressuregradient;
c)aschangesintheflowinclinationintheverticalplanenearthe
1374/1563
09/09/2015
supports,whichaffectthedistributionofthedownwashoverthespan
ofthem.odelandnearthetail,andnecessitatecorrectionsintheangle
offlowinclinationandinthedownwashnearthetail;
d)aschangesinthedownwashalongthechordofthewing(along
theflowdirection),whichaffecttheliftandthepitchingmoment,and
necessitatecorrectionsintheinducedcurvatureofthestreamlines;
e)aschangesinflowvelocitynearthetail,whichnecessitatecorrections
inthelongitudinalstabilitycharacteristics;
f)asdifferentlocalinfluencesaffectingboundarylayerflow,vortex
formation,localflowseparation,etc.
547
Figure8,14showstheinfluenceofsupportsofthetypeshownin
Figure8.15onthestaticpressureandthedownwashinthetestsection
ofthetunnel.Immediatelybehindthetailstrut,thestaticpressureis
reducedbyanamountequalto8%ofthevelocityhead.Infrontofand
lu.
1375/1563
09/09/2015
a'
1376/1563
09/09/2015
0.02
0.01
w
0.5
_,
<
1377/1563
09/09/2015
P"
p.
om
0J02
^/r
1378/1563
09/09/2015
^^
Im
1379/1563
09/09/2015
tZJ
v^
1380/1563
09/09/2015
1381/1563
09/09/2015
<'
1382/1563
09/09/2015
FIGCJRii8.14.Influenceofsupportsonstaticpressureanddownwashin
testsection(z=0,y0).
abovethetailstrutastaticpressureincreaseofthesameorderisobserved.
Localpressuregradientsofdifferentsignsareobservedinvariousparts
ofthetestsection,wherethepressuredifferencesattain1to2%ofthe
FIGURE8.15.Wingsupportsinalargetunnel.
1383/1563
09/09/2015
velocityhead.Thedownwashanglechanges,sometimesbyupto2.5%,
nearthetailstrut.Theseeffectscausetheforcesandmomentsmeasured
bythebalancetodifferfromthoseactingontheisolatedmodel.
ThesystemofsupportsshowninFigure8.15hasadragwhichisequal
toabout30to50%oftheminimumdragofafighterplane[model].The
sameistrueforthesupportsshowninFigure8.16.Atthesametime,
thedragofandthemom.entsactingonthesesupportswhenisolated,differ
548
considerablyfromthecorrespondingvaluesinthepresenceofthemodel
becauseofitsinfluenceontheflowaroundthesupports.Determination
oftheeffectsofinterferencebetween
themodelanditssupportsisthere
foreimportantinaerodynamic
measurements,particularlyinhigh
speedtunnels,wherethesupportscan
radicallychangetheflowpattern
aroundthemodel.
Duetothelargedifferencesinthe
supportsused,andthecomplexity
ofthephenomena,itisdifficultto
performageneralizedanalysisofthe
interferencefordifferentmodels
testedintunnelsofvariousdimensions
andtypes.Inpractice,ineachwind
tunnelthisproblemissolved
1384/1563
09/09/2015
individuallybycollectingexperimental
dataonwhichcorrectionsinthetest
resultsarebased.Thecorrections
areobtainedbyseveralgeneral
methods.Insocalledcomparative
tests,atvelocitiesatwhich
compressibilityeffectscanbe
neglected,itissufficienttotakeinto
accountthedragofthesupportsby
testingthelatterwithoutthemodel.
Thisprocedureiscorrectwhenthe
overallchangeinvelocityaroundthemodel,causedbytheflowconstriction
atthesupports,isnegligible,asinlowspeedtunnels,wherewireandtape
supportsareused.Whenthechangesinvelocitycannotbeneglected,
tunnelblockagebythesupportscanbetakenintoaccountbythemethods
describedabove(similartotheeffectsofblockagebythemodelitself).
Thus,asufficientlyaccuratecorrectionfactoris/5/
FIGURE8.16.Modelofanairplanewithswept
backwingsinafullscaletunnel.
^~4bh
wherecîsthedragcoefficientofthesupports,SistheareatowhichCi
isreferred,band/;arerespectivelywidthandheightofthetestsection.
Thecoefficientcîseitherdeterminedexperimentallyorcalculatedon
thebasisoftestsofthesupportelements(wires,tapes,cylinders,etc.).
Whentheaerodynamicpropertiesofthemodelmustbedeterminedvery
accurately,interferencebetweenthemodelandthesupportmustbefully
1385/1563
09/09/2015
takenintoaccount.Thisinterferenceisdeterminedexperimentally,mostly
bythemethodof"doubling",bytestingthesupportswiththemodel,andby
themethodoffalsesupports.
Themethodof"doubling"consistsofsuccessivetestsofthemodelon
themainsupportsandadditionalsimilarsupportswithdifferentpositions
ofthem.odel.Thedifferenceinthebalanceindicationspermits
theinfluenceofthesupportstobedetermined.Thereafter,theforces
549
actingonthemainsupportsatagivenpositionofthemodelarededucedfromthe
testresults,andtheforcesactingonthemodelalonearethusfound.
QTobalance
Shroud
Leadingmain
support
1386/1563
09/09/2015
Leading
mai.
iny
\support'f\
1Leading
Xmain
support
TrailingmainShroudTrailingmainsupport
support
FlGUilE8.17.Interferencedeterminationbymeansof
falsesupports.
Testingofsupportsinthepresenceofthemodel
Thismethodconsistsofdeterminingtheforcesactingonthesupports
inthepresenceofthemodel.Forthisthemodelmustbemounted
independentlyofthebalance,insuchawaythatthepositionofthesupports
connectedtothebalancecorrespondstotheirpositionduringtestsofthe
model(Figure8.18).Theforcesactingonthesupportsatdifferentangles
1387/1563
09/09/2015
Tobalance
Tobalance
FIGURE8.18.Determininginterferencebetweenmodelandsupportsbymeansof
calibratingsupport.Thecorrectedresultis"a"+"c"'b".
ofattackofthemodelaremeasuredandthendeductedfromthecorresponding
valuesobtainedatthesameanglesofattackintestsofthemodel.The
forcesactingonthemodelalonearethusfound.
Themethodoffalsesupportsconsistsintestingthem.odelinthepresence
ofanadditionalfalsesupport,notconnectedtothebalance,andlocated
closetothemodelinthesamemannerasthemainsupportwhoseinfluence
istobedeterihined(Figure8.17).Iftheforcesactingonthefalsesupport
aremeasuredonanindependentbalance,theinfluenceofthemodelonthe
supportcanbedetermined.Falseoradditionalsupportsmustbeplaced
atpointswheretheinterferencebetweenthemandthemodelcanbeassumed
550
tobeequaltotheinterferencebetweenthemainsupportsandthemodel.
Thefalsesupportsshouldthereforenotbelocatedatthewingtips,close
1388/1563
09/09/2015
totheenginenascelles,etc.
Itispossibletocombinethesemethods,andalsoothermethodsof
takingintoaccounttheinterferencebetweenthemodelandthesupports.
Inparticular,inhighspeedtunnelstheinfluenceofthesupportsis
determinednotonlybymeansofbalancesbutbymeasuringthepressures
beneaththemodel,whereitisconnectedtothesupports.Thedifficulty
ofaccuratelydeterminingtheinterferencebetweenthemodelandthe
supportsmakesitnecessarytoreduceitseffectstominimumwhenthe
balanceandthemodelsupportsaredesigned.Thiscanbedoneby
reducingthenumberofsupportsandtheircrosssections,andbysuitably
selectingthepointwheretheyarefixedtothemodel.Thesepointsshouldnot
beintheregionofmaximumwingthickness(especiallyontheuppersurface)
neartheleadingedgeorenginenascelles,atthewingtips,etc.
Symmetricalsweptbacksupportsareusedinhighspeedtunnels.The
angleofsweepbackexceedsby5to10theangleofsweepbackofthewings
usuallytestedontliesesupports.Rigidshroudedtailsupportsare
successfullyusedinsupersonictunnels.Itismostlypossiblebyrepeated
tests,todetermineaccuratelytheinterferenceeffectsofthesupports
selectedforagiventunnelandtotakethemintoaccountintheresultsof
theaerodynamicmeasurements.Whendesigningthesupports,special
attentionmustbepaidtotheirrigidity.Thisisparticularlyimportant
fortailsupportsinsupersonictunnels.
InfluenceofturbulenceandReynoldsnumber
Thedirectinfluenceofthesefactorsontheaerodynamiccharacteristics
isnottakenintoaccountduringpreliminaryprocessingofthetestresults.
However,forfurtheranalysisandcomparisonoftheaerodynamic
propertiesofthetestedmodelwiththoseofothermodels,theturbulence
level,andtheReynoldsnumberatwhichthetestresultswereobtained,
1389/1563
09/09/2015
havetobetakenintoaccount.Thisismostimportantwhenthedrag
characteristicsofmodelswithlaminarflow(lowdrag)wingsections
(cxmin)andthevaluesofthemaximumlift(c,,max)arebeingdetermined.Inorder
toavoidinaccuraciesindeterminingthevalueofcmax,thetestsshouldbe
performedatthemaximumpossibleReynoldsnumberoroverthewhole
possiblerangeofReynoldsnumbers.
Forthepurposesofcoraparisonthetestresultsaresometimesconverted
tootherReynoldsnumbers.Thisisdoneonthebasisofsimilartestsof
aerodynamicallyrelatedairfoilsandmodels,performedatvariousReynolds
numbers.Theresultsarenotrecalculatedforotherturbulencelevelssince
notestsareperformedfordifferentvaluesofe.Onlyapproximative
corrections,basedontheresultsoftestsofsimilarmodelsinlowturbulence
tunnelsorinfreeflight,areintroduced.
Themaincriterionoftheappropriatenessofthecorrections,asofthe
experimentalprocedureasawhile,istheagreementbetweentheresultsof
experimentsonmodelsinthetunnelandoftestsonfullscaleobjects*.
Comparisonofinvestigationsinsmalltubeswiththeinvestigatedmodelinlargernaturaltubesmakesit
possibletosolvemanyproblemsofthereliabilityofusingsomeofthecorrections.Suchcomparisons,
arecarriedoutinallpossiblecases.
551
1390/1563
09/09/2015
era
Tfi
1391/1563
09/09/2015
H^
1392/1563
09/09/2015
s
+1
""t:
1393/1563
09/09/2015
o^jV''
1394/1563
09/09/2015
icia
1395/1563
09/09/2015
1396/1563
09/09/2015
1397/1563
09/09/2015
S_j
Li
|_
552
1398/1563
09/09/2015
Becauseofthedifficultiesandexpenseinvolved,suchcomparisonscannot
bemadeformosttests(differentversionsofmodels,etc.),butare
performedsystematicallyinallcasesinwhichtheresultsoffullscale
testsareavailable.Suchcomparisonsincludealsoanevaluationof
differentmethodsfordeterminingtheaerodynamiccharacteristics.Thus,
forinstance,whenthedragcoefficients,obtainedbyexperimentonthe
modelinthetunnelandinflight(referredtothemaximumairspeedVmax),
arecompared,theaccuracywithwhichthevalueofcîscalculatedforthe
nonsimulatedairplaneelements,theinfluenceonCxoftheReynoldsnumber,
andotherfactorsarealsoconsidered.
1399/1563
09/09/2015
1400/1563
09/09/2015
aC
K
21
1401/1563
09/09/2015
'
'
'
>Mi.
htti
9H
_,
1402/1563
09/09/2015
0.1
1403/1563
09/09/2015
\.
î
1404/1563
09/09/2015
rtri
n&
IS.
1405/1563
09/09/2015
~~'
'
"
1406/1563
09/09/2015
1^^
u*
r^
i^l
1407/1563
09/09/2015
1408/1563
09/09/2015
VM
CK
1409/1563
09/09/2015
20
1410/1563
09/09/2015
u,
ti
MH
Uj
onf^.
1411/1563
09/09/2015
1412/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE8.21.Typicalpresentationofmeasurementresultsof
of'"^=7(P.2j,)(fi^=angleofrudderdeflection).
a=
1413/1563
09/09/2015
')
01
1414/1563
09/09/2015
,e,^20
JO
ETS^
^>^
1415/1563
09/09/2015
p^^
1416/1563
09/09/2015
^1
1417/1563
09/09/2015
\^
'/
1418/1563
09/09/2015
F^
td
x^
*.
1419/1563
09/09/2015
/^
1420/1563
09/09/2015
4^
20
1421/1563
09/09/2015
\<t
'20fi
1422/1563
09/09/2015
^fKH
1423/1563
09/09/2015
K.
l^f^.1
FIGURE8.22.Typicalpresentationofmeasurementresultsofm=/(p,i\.
XD'
20
1424/1563
09/09/2015
'^
"fc
'z
11
1425/1563
09/09/2015
02
S^20
r'
1426/1563
09/09/2015
0.1
//
1427/1563
09/09/2015
//
1428/1563
09/09/2015
0.1
0.2
1429/1563
09/09/2015
f^
>^
20J3'
^^
1430/1563
09/09/2015
'^
^^
1431/1563
09/09/2015
b^
^k
1432/1563
09/09/2015
1433/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE8.23.Typicalpresentationofmeasurementresultsofc=fK,s).
553
illllll
TABLE14.Exampleofprogramforprocessingtheresultsoftestsonasixcomponentwindtunnelbalance
inalowspeedtunnelwithopentestsection
Number
10
11
12
13
14
15
1434/1563
09/09/2015
16
17
18
19
20
Orderofcalculation
>'=*.(>'c
yco)
ia;=1.88SCy
/COsr.Oa?)^
1435/1563
09/09/2015
.=.î.C0sK_4)
'"^tr='".'^'"^.
Z^
'^me~qS
Afx
Dimensions
degrees
kg
degrees
degrees
ka
1436/1563
09/09/2015
kg
Remarks
Angleofattack.Theanglebetweenthepro
jectionofthevelocityvectorontheplane
ofsymmetryofthemodel,andthemodel
axis
*yCoefficientofcounterofliftbalanceY
KcIndicationsofcounterofliftbalanceY
SWingareaofmodel
?Velocityheadcorrectedforblocking
effect?=?nie*
iO!CyS'=2b=1.022,
forCyS=+2*=1.032,
forCj,S=6=1.0
Indicationsofdragbalance
Cx^Dragofsupports
Ic=0.17,F=7.32m^
Dragcorrectionforlifteffect:
Ad;=8jrc\8
iiÎ
1437/1563
09/09/2015
0.24
Correctioninangleofattackforlift
effects
Indicationsofmomentbalance
/^Longitudinalbalancebase
&^Meanaerodynamicchord
a"Ânglebetweenchordandlongitudinalbase
Momentaboutbalanceaxis(theaxiswhich
passesthroughthefrontlinks)
CxOMomentaboutthecenterofgravityduetodrag
Sh.t.
Am^^=0.061TtCj,
Momentcorrectionfordownwashattail
Indicationsofsideforcebalance
o
Cjs=^,/?2sisthesideforceofthesupport
1438/1563
09/09/2015
referredtothevelocityhead,anddependson
theangleofslip.
B=26/?2s=0.0138,
P=zs=0,
p=26;?z5=+0.0138
554
TABLE14(cont'd)
Number
21
22
23
24
Olderofcalculation
1439/1563
09/09/2015
Dimensions
kgm
Remarks
"/njfs
mjrss7.
whereKm^sistheheelingmomentotthesupports
referredtothevelocityhead,anddependsonpo;
r^cîsthemoment,duetothesideforce,about
thecenterofgravity,iisthewingspan
Yawingmomentofsupportsreferredtovelocityhead
s~St
Rmys~yawingmomentofsupportsreferredto
1440/1563
09/09/2015
velocityhead
tyC^=dimensionlessmoment,duetosideforce,
aboutcenterofgravity
Programforprocessingtestresults.Theresultsoftests
onthebalanceshowninFigures6.34and6.35inatunnelwithanelliptical
opentestsection(Figure3.18)areprocessedintable14.Theresultsof
testsinlowspeedtunnelsareusuallypresentedintheformofdiagrams
asshowninFigures8.19to8.23.Theresultsoftestsinsupersonic
tunnelsareusuallygivenintheformofdependencesoftheforceand
momentcoefficientsontheMachnumberatfixedanglesofattack,which
canthenbepresentedintheformofrelationshipsCx=i{a)etc.forfixed
Machnumbers.
42.ACCURACYANDREPRODUCIBILITYOFTESTS
Accuracyandreproducibilityofaerodynamicexperimentsareconsidered
fromthefollowingangles:
1.Accuracyofsingletestsofthesametype.
2.Reproducibilityoftestsperformedatdifferenttimesandunder
differentconditions.
3.Agreementbetweentheresultsoftestsindifferenttunnels.
4.Agreementbetweentheresultsobtainedintunnelsandbyfullscale
tests.
1441/1563
09/09/2015
Accuracyandreproducibilityofexperiments.In
laboratorytestsbothrandomandsystematicerrorsareencountered.
RandomerrorshaveaGaussiandistribution/13/.Systematicerrorsobey
certainlawswhichcanbefoundandtakenintoaccountwhenthetestresults
arebeingprocessed.Inordertoestimatethecorrectnessofthevalues
oftheaerodynamiccoefficients,whicharealwaysobtainedbyindirect
measurements,theaccuracyofthesemeasurementsmustbetakeninto
account.^Thism.ustbedonebothwhensettingupanexperimentand
designingtheexperimentalequipmentandaftertheexperiment.
Whensettinguptheexperiment,itisnecessarytoconsidertheeffects
ofrandomerrorsofthedifferentmeasuringinstrumentsontheaccuracy
ofdeterminingtherequiredcharacteristic.Thishasalreadybeen
mentionedinChapterII.Hereweshallconsiderspecificallytheinfluence
555
oferrorsofthemeasuringinstrumentsontheaccuracyofmeasuringthe
powercoefficientofapropeller(seeChapterVII)
Comparisonofresultsoftestsinsmallandinfullscaletunnelspernaits
manyquestionsonthereliabilityofcorrectionstobesolved.Such
comparisonsaremadewheneverpossible.
Inthisformulathemeasuredm.agnitudesarethepropellerresistance
torqueM,thenumberofpropellerrevolutionspersecondn^,andthe
airdensityp.Usingthecurveforthedistributionoferrors,wecan
expressthestandarddeviationopofthemeasurementsofpthroughthe
standarddeviationsofthem.easurementsofM,n,andp,whichare
respectivelyo^,aanda,.Weobtain
1442/1563
09/09/2015
i/(Sv(^r+(y'
or,notingthatthedensitypisalsodeterminedindirectlybymeasuringthe
temperature7"andthebaronaetricpressureB(see15):
(Weareconsideringmeasurementsinalowspeedtunnelwhere
compressibilityeffectsareneglected).Wethusobtain
^/()'+(^rH(;)V(4r
Inthisexpressiontherandomerrorsarebestconsideredtobethe
errorsofsinglemeasurements,determinedbystaticcalibrationofthe
respectiveinstruments.Thisdoesnotpermitconclusionstobedrawnon
theaccuracyoftheexperimentasawhole,whichdependsonthedynamic
characteristicsoftheinstruments,thenumberofmeasurements,the
variationofpwithX,etc.Nevertheless,thelastexpressionenablesus
toestimatetheinfluenceoferrorsofthedifferentinstrumentsonthe
totalerroroj.Ifallrelativeerrorswereequal,theinfluenceofeach
ontheerrorinmeasuringgwouldbethesame,exceptfortheinfluence
oftheerrorinmeasuringthenumberofrevolutions,whichwouldbedouble
theinfluenceoftheothererrors.Hence,thetachometerusedfor
m.easuringthenumberofpropellerrevolutionsmustbemoreaccurate
thantheotherinstrum.ents.Ontheotherhand,therelativeerrorofeach
measurementincreaseswhenthemeasuredmagnitudeitselfdecreases.
Thetestsshouldthereforebecarriedoutinsuchawaythatthemeasured
1443/1563
09/09/2015
magnitudesareaslargeasisperm.ittedbytheinstrumentused.For
instance,ifapropelleristestedinavariabledensitytunnel,the
maximumpossiblemeasuredtorquecanbeobtainedbyvaryingthepressure
inthetunnel.Thismethodofexperimentationisinthiscasepermissible,
sincetheinfluenceoftheReynoldsnumberonthepropellercharacteristics
issmall.Thepossibilityofintroducingcorrectionsforsystematicerrors
hastobeconsideredbeforetheexperiment.Themagnitudeofthe
remainingsystematicerrorswhicharenottakenintoaccountandarelater
treatedasrandomerrors,hastobedeterminedapproximately.Afterthe
experim.ent,theaccuracyoftheresultsmustbeevaluatedbythedeviations
oftheexperimentalpointsfromthemostprobablelinedrawnthroughthem.
556
Thislinecanbedrawnbyeyeorbetter,byusingthemethodofleast
squares(see29).
Animportantcharacteristicoftheprecisionoftheexperimentisthe
accuracyofthe"singletest".Usuallythetestresultsarepresentedasa
seriesofcurves(e.g.,Cj=/(a)fordifferentMachnumbers;p=/(^)for
differentbladeangles,etc.).Itisveryimportanttofindthedeviation
ofthepointsfromthesmoothedcurves(whichcanarbitrarilybemade
byadditionalmeasurementsofCs,p,etc.)foroneexperiment(singletest).
Thisisusuallydonebyadditionaltests,whichareperiodicallycarried
outformethodologicalpurposesandareincludedinmultipletestsofany
model.
Multipletestsofanaodelareusuallyperformedafteradjustingthe
tunnelanditsequipmentanddevelopingtheexperimentalmethod.In
ordertoreducetheinfluenceofsystematicerrors,thesetestsshouldbe
1444/1563
09/09/2015
carriedoutunderequalconditionsasregardsthetunnel,themeasuring
equipment,andthemodel,andatshortintervals.Theresultsofeach
testareprocessedbythesamemethod,andcurvesplotted.Forany
valueoftheargument,thearithmeticmeanoftheordinatesisthen
foundforeachmeasuredvalue.Thedeviationofthepoints(forafixed
valueoftheargument)oneachcurvefromthemeanvalueoftheordinate
(forinstancep=^)determinesthestandarddeviationofthemeasurement
ortheprobableerror
AtypicalexampleofthevariationoftheprobablerelativeerrorJi%
inpropellertestsonaB5instrumentisshowninFigxire8.24.''''
Multipletestsfordeterminingtheerrorsinsingletestsareinlargeaero
dynamiclaboratoriesperformedonsocalledcontrolmodels,whosemain
purposeistoenablethereproducibilityoftestresultstobeverified.Thisisa
criterionforthecorrectnessoftheexperimentaltechniquesandforthe
stateofthemeasuringequipmentandthetunnel.Periodically(usually
onceanaonth)thecontrolmodelistestedunderthesameconditionsat
whichtheordinarytestsareperformed.Deviationsofthecurvesfrom
thecorrespondingcurves,obtainedduringprevioustestsofthemodel,
indicatesystematicerrorswhosecausescanbeestablishedfromthe
natureofthedifferences.Controlmodelsareusuallymadefromsteel
orduraluminum,andtheyareverycarefullymaintainedinaproper
condition.
1445/1563
09/09/2015
Resultsofmultipletestsofgeometricallysimilarairplanemodelsin
differentwindtunnelsyieldedthefollowingstandarddeviationsofthe
measurementsoftheaerodynamiccoefficients:
0.0005.0,^=00010.0015,
=00040.005,o,^=0.00020.0003,
=0.0020.003,o,=0.00030.0005.
557
Themainsourcesofrandomerrorsinaerodynamictestsarein
accuracies,understaticconditions,ofthemeasuringequipment(about
20%oftheerrors),differencesintheinitialinstallationofthemodelin
thetunnel(ttinsi)(about30%oftheerrors),andthenonsteadycharacterof
theaerodynamicloads(about50%oftheerrors).Therandomerrorsalso
dependontheaerodynamicpropertiesofthemodel:forhighliftmodels
(largevaluesofthederivativec)thevaluesofaândowillbelarge.
Av
1446/1563
09/09/2015
cm
1447/1563
09/09/2015
0.05
1448/1563
09/09/2015
^f.,
1449/1563
09/09/2015
OM
1450/1563
09/09/2015
A,
0.03
1451/1563
09/09/2015
1452/1563
09/09/2015
1453/1563
09/09/2015
0.0!
Av
1454/1563
09/09/2015
1455/1563
09/09/2015
0.5
1.0
FIGURE8.24.Probablerelativeerrorinmeasurementsof
thepowercoefficientofapropelleronaB5instrument.
especiallyintheregionofc^max.Thevalueofaîncreaseswiththe
angleofattack,usuallyinproportiontoV~c^.Theaccuracyofdetermining
theabsolutevaluesoftheaerodynamiccoefficientsforairplanes,airfoils,
etc.bym.ultipletestsvariesaccordingtotunneltypeanddimensions,flow
velocity,relativedimensionsofmodelandtunnel,andbalancesused.
Withcorrectlyusedequipmentandappropriatetestmethods,themeasuring
errorsshouldnotexceedthevaluesgivenonpage447.
1456/1563
09/09/2015
Agreementbetweenresultsoftestsindifferent
tunnels.Agreementbetweentheresultsoftestsofgeometricallysimilar
modelsindifferentwindtunnelsisnotonlydesirableasadditional
confirmationofthecorrectnessoftheexperimentaltechniquesappliedin
thetunnelconsidered,butisimportantforthecontinuityoftestsin
differenttunnelsatvariousrangesofReandM.Thisappliesespecially
tojetaircraft,rockets,etc.
Thus,productionofanriodernsupersonicairplaneisprecededbylengthy
andsystematicexperimentalresearchbothinlowspeedtunnels(conditions
oftakeoffandlanding,etc.)andinsupersonictunnels(conditionsof
maximum,velocity,etc.).Theanalysisoftheresultsofsuchtests
558
frequentlyrequirescomparisonandcompilationoftheaerodynamic
characteristicsdeterminedindifferenttunnels.Althoughsuchcomparisons
aremainlypossibleforoverlappingconditions,(e.g.,atavelocitywhichis
themaximumpossibleinalowspeedtunnel,theminimumpossibleina
highspeedtunnel,oratequalReynoldsnumberswhencompressibility
effectsareneglected),agreementbetweentheresultsoftestsindifferent
tunnelspermitstherangeofinvestigationstobeextended.Thepossibility
ofusingresultsobtainedindifferenttunnelspermitssuperfluousexpensive
teststobeavoidedinmanycases.
0.D7
0.06
1457/1563
09/09/2015
0.05
aTunnelA"^;
/(2
o"/f3
H"i
"K'5
Ri,.!10'^
10
FIGURE8.25.Valuesofrfc/J;,obtiiinedindifftrenttunntls.
Verifyingtheagreementbetweentheresultsoftestsindifferent
tunnelsisacomplicated,lengthy,andexpensiveprocess;nevertheless,
dataaresystematicallycollectedinallaerodynamiclaboratoriesforthis
purpose.Forsuchcomparativeanalysis,thespecificconditionsunder
whichthetestsareperformedineachtunnelmustbekeptinmind
1458/1563
09/09/2015
1.0
FIGURE8.26.Valuesofcôbtainedindifferenttunnels.
(boundarylayereffects,interferencebetweenmodelandsupports,errors
inmeasuringloadsandflowvelocity,precisionofmodel,etc.).
Figures8.25to8.27showtheresultsoftestsperformedinsixdifferent
windtunnels,oftheprincipalaerodynamicpropertiesofarectangular
ClarkYsectionwinghavinganaspectratioA,6andamaximumrelative
thicknessc=11.7%.Theoomiparisonwasmadeforthefollowing
559
aerodynamicpropertiesasfunctionsoftheeffectiveReynoldsnumber;
Cymaxandac^.o.
TheeffectiveReynoldsnumber
dCy
1459/1563
09/09/2015
Reef=^r'^'
wherebisthelengthofthechord,and
Recrforsphereinfreeatmosphere
Recrforsphereintunnel
0
6.0
'5.0
't.a
1460/1563
09/09/2015
<
;:.
i"
t^.
1461/1563
09/09/2015
HTunnelA*/
om1
Re^f10
FIGURE8.27.Valuesofangleofzeroliftobtainedindifferenttunnels.
ThecriticalReynoldsnumberforasphereinthefreeatmosphere
isusually385,000.ValuesofRecrand"^fforthetunnelscomparedare
giveninTable15.
TABLE15.Comparativecharacteristicsofdifferenttunnels
Typeoftunnel
1462/1563
09/09/2015
Number
of
lunnel
Opentestsection,closed
circuit,tworeturnsducts
Ditto
circuit,singlereturnduct
circuit,tworeturnsducts
Ditto
Opentesrsection,closed
circuit,singlereturnduct
Dimensionsoftestsection
Elliptical
1463/1563
09/09/2015
Elliptical,dimensionsone
sixthoftunnelno.1
CircularD~1m
Oval18.3mX9.1m
Circular>~6.1m
CircularD=6.8m
"Vr
ntunnelaxis
354.000
1.09
1464/1563
09/09/2015
348.000
1.11
365.000
1.06
360.000
1.10
321.000
1.20
150.000
1465/1563
09/09/2015
2.6
560
Figures8.25and8.26showthatthevaluesofjândCymaxobtainedin
differenttunnelsagreewithanaccuracyof2to3%.
Figure8.28showscomparativeresultsofmultipletestsofthesame
modelinatunnelwithanopenellipticaltestsectionandinatunnelwith
aclosedcirculartestsection.Notingtheagreenaentbetweenthe
aerodynamicpropertiesdeterminedindifferenttunnels,wecanassume
thatthecorrectionsintroducedaresufficientlyaccurate.Thus,forinstance.
'n
1466/1563
09/09/2015
1I1
r<
^1
1467/1563
09/09/2015
0.5
1468/1563
09/09/2015
yw
HE
J5=
>
1469/1563
09/09/2015
n6
1470/1563
09/09/2015
0.2
1471/1563
09/09/2015
1U.\
\_D.2
20
1472/1563
09/09/2015
0.3
/:,
30x'
02
1473/1563
09/09/2015
L=
m^.r^(x)
1474/1563
09/09/2015
1475/1563
09/09/2015
/.
'y
M0.15
0.1
>
fie=2.210^
1476/1563
09/09/2015
""^
7\
^J
in
zL
1477/1563
09/09/2015
iljy
Figure8.28.Multipletesisofanairplanemodelintwo
differenttunnels.1tunnelwithopenellipticaltest
section;2tunnelwithclosedcirculartestsection.
dcy
theagreementbetweenthevaluesofy^showsthatthecorrections
introducedinthevelocitymeasurementsforthelifteffectandthe
blockingeffectareappropriate,asarethecorrectionsdependingonthe
angleofattack,thereceiverpressure,etc.Comparisonofnr=oas
functionoftheReynoldsnumberfordifferenttunnelsshowsthatthe
errorsinmeasuringtheanglesofattackandtheflowinclinationinthese
tunnelsdonotexceed0.1to0.15.Comparisonsofdifferenttunnels
arebasednotonlyontheresultsobtainedintestsofmodelsofairplanes,
airfoils,propellers,etc.,butalsoofspheres.Thispermitstunnelsto
becomparedaccordingtotheirturbulencelevel.
Agreementbetweentunnelandfullscaletests.The
comparisonofresultsoftunnelandfullscaletestsisthefinalstage
andthemosteffectivemethodofevaluatingthereliabilityofaerodynamic
measurementsintunnels.Thesuitabilityofanyexperimentalmethod
mustbefinallyprovenbytestingitsresultsundernaturalconditions.
Ontheotherhand,moderndevelopmentsinhighspeedjetplanes,
rockettechnology,etc.,makeitparticularlyimportanttoensuresafety
andflightstabilityoffullscaleobjectsbypreliminarytestinginwind
tunnels.
1478/1563
09/09/2015
561
Figure8.29showstheresultsoftestsoftheNACARM10modelin
differentwindtunnelsandinflight,asfunctionsoftheMachnumber/14/.
A1860mmlongmodelwastestedinatunnelwhosetestsectionm.easured
2.44mX1.83m.Thetotaldragwasmeasuredbyabalance.Twomodels,
of229m.mand186mmlengthweretestedinatunnel,whosetestsection
measured0.23mXO.19m,bymeansofstraingagebalanceslocatedin
thesupportoutsidethemodel.Ninemodelsweretestedinflight:five
were3720mmandfourwere1860mmlong.Thetotaldragwasdetermined
X
0.3
D.2
0.1
1479/1563
09/09/2015
~~~
^ssst
1480/1563
09/09/2015
y.
^m
^j
L^
^...
1481/1563
09/09/2015
18
2.2
aTunnelt.221.22m'^t'(2.?^'l.5)W
OTunnel0.2J0.f9m''Re=2.6SW^
Totaldragcoefficient
Coefficientofbottomdrag
FIGURE8.29.ComparativeresultsoftestsintunnelsandinflightofaNACARM10model.
1modellength3720mm,intunnel;2modellength3720mm,inflight;3model
1482/1563
09/09/2015
length1860mm,inflight;4
Re=30X10'.
modellength1860mm;in2.44my1.83mmtunnel.
from,thedecelerationofthemodels(afterburnoutofthegunpowder
rocketsinsertedinthem)bymeansoftheDopplereffect,radar,and
telemeteringequipment.Thegroundpressurewasdeterminedasthe
differencebetweenthepressurebeneaththemodelandthestaticpressure
inthenondisturbedflow,multipliedbythebottomareaofthem.odel.
Despitethedifferencesintunnels,models,measuringdevices,etc.,
comparisonoftheresultsoftheseexperimentsshowedthattestsofa
modelinatunnelpermittheaerodynamicpropertiesofthefullscale
objecttobesufficientlyaccuratelypredictedunderflightconditions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.Pankhurst.R.C.andD.W.HoIder.WindTunnelTechnique(an
accountofexperimentalmethodsinlowandhighspeedwind
tunnels).Pitman,London.1952.[Russiantranslation.1955.]
2.Glauert,H.WindTunnelInterferenceonWings,Bodiesand
Airscrews.R.andM.1966.1933.
3.Lock,C.N.H.TheInterferenceofWindTunnelonaSymmetrical
1483/1563
09/09/2015
Body.R.andM.1275.1929.
562
4.Glauert,H.TheInterferenceofaWindTunnelonaSymmetrical
Body.R.andM.1544.1933.
5.Thorn,A.BlockageCorrectionsandChokingintheRAEHighSpeed
Tunnel.R.andM.2033.1943.
6.Allen,H.I.andW.G.Vincenti.WallInterferenceinaTwo
DimensionalFlowWindTunnelwithConsiderationoftheEffect
ofCompressibility,NASA,T.R.782.1944.
7.Vincenti,W.G.andD.I.Graham.TheEffectofWallInterference
upontheAerodynamicCharacteristicsofanAerofoilSpanning
aClosedThroatCircularWindTunnel.NASA,A.C.R.5D21.
1945;T.R.849.1946.
8.Batchelor,G.K.InterferenceonWings,BodiesandAirscrewsin
aClosedTunnelofOctagonalSection.ASA5.1944.
9.Young,A.D.andH.B.Squire.BlockageCorrectionsinaClosed
RectangularTunnel:PartI.SimpleApproximateFormulaefor
1484/1563
09/09/2015
GeneralApplication.R.andM.,1984.1945.
10.Prandtl,L,.DerEinflussdesKennwertesaufdieLuftkraftevon
Tragfliigeln.ErgebnissederAerodynamischenVersuchsanstalt
zuGottingen,Vol.'l,No.54.1920.
11.Glauert.H.Osnovyteoriikryl'evivintaiFundamentalsofthe
TheoryofWingsandAirscrews)[RussianTitleofTranslator].
GNTI,MoscowLeningrad.1931.
12.Mair,W.A.andH.E.Gamble.TheEffectofModelSizeon
MeasurementsintheHighSpeedTunnel.PartI.DragofTwo
DimensionalSymmetricalAerofoilsatZeroIncidence.R.and
M.2527.1944.
13.Malikov.M.F.Osnovymetrologii,Ch.I.uchenieobizmerenii
(FundamentalsofMetrology.PartI.TheoryofMeasurem.ents).
Komitetpodelammeriizmeritel'nykhpriborovpriSovete
MinistrovSSSR,Moscow.1949.
14.Evans,A.I.TheZeroLiftDragofaSlenderBodyofRevolution
(NASARM10reserchmodel)asDeterminedfromTestsin
SeveralWindTunnelsandaFlightatSupersonicSpeeds.
ReportNASA,1160.1954.
563
1485/1563
09/09/2015
ChapterIX
AUTOMATICDATARECORDINGANDPROCESSING
OFWINDTUNNELMEASUREMENTS
AftertheSecondWorldWarmanylargewindtunnelsforintermittent
andcontinuousoperationwereconstructedinanumberofcountries.
Manyofthesetunnelsareuniquestructures,requiringlargecapital
outlayandtakingupenergymeasurablefromafewtothousandsofkilowatts.
Toincreasethenumberofexperimentsm.adeinthesetunnels,newmethods
hadtobedeveloped,formeasuringdifferentparameters.Thesemethods
enablethelengthoftimerequiredfortheexperimenttobeconsiderably
reduced.
However,thesubsequentmathematicalprocessingoftheexperimental
resultswiththeaidofsimpledeskcalculatorstookupconsiderablymore
timethanthattakenupbytheexperiment,andveryoftenitwasfoundthat
theresultsoftheexperimentwereavailabletothedesigneronlymany
weeksaftertheendoftheexperimentitself.Ftarthermore,aconsiderable
partofthistimewasconnectedwiththereductionoftherecorded(orhand
written)informationintoaformsuitableforcalculations.Anexampleof
suchalaborconsumingoperationisthemakingupofnumericaltablesfrom
photographsofmanometers,whichrecordthedistributionofpressureon
themodel.
Therefore,thenecessityaroseforusingfastoperatingautomatic
computersforspeedinguptheresearchanddesignoperationsconnected
withthedevelopmentofaviationandrockettechnology.Thedevelopment
ofthesecomputersparalleledthedevelopmentofnewmethodsofmeasuring
inwindtunnels.
1486/1563
09/09/2015
43.METHODSOFAUTOMATICALLYPROCESSING
MEASUREDDATA
Therearetwotypesofautomaticcomputersinmoderncomputer
technology,analoganddigital.Analogcomputersreceivesignalsfrom
measuringinstrumentsascontinuous,changing,physicalvalues,most
oftenaselectricalvoltages.Byoperatingonthesevalues,calledanalog
signals,thecomputersproducesignalswhosevaluesareproportionalto
thesoughtfunctionofthemeasuredvaluesandvariousparameters.
Thereareanalogcomputersacceptingsignalsfrom,measuring
instruments,andpracticallyinstantaneouslyprocessingandgivingthe
computedresults.Incomparisonwithdigitalcomputers,analogcomputers
arelessaccurate,buttheyaresuitableforinsertinginitialdataduring
564
tests(forinstance,insertingthevaluesofaerodynamicalcoefficients
fromabalancetestofthemodelwithouttakingintoaccounttheinfluence
ofsuspensions,interference,etc.).
Duringthelast10years,electroniccomputershavebeenusedfor
processingexperimentaldata.Notwithstandingthefactthatelectronic
digitalcomputersareexpensiveandrequirecomplexsystemsfor
convertingthemeasurementsintodigitalform,theyareusedinmostlarge
modernaerodynamiclaboratories.
Asthereisalargeamountofliteratureontheuseofelectronic
computers(see,forinstance.III,/2/),onlythemainprinciplesoftheir
1487/1563
09/09/2015
operation,necessaryforunderstandingthemethodsofpreparingthe
measuredresultsforfeedingtothecomputers,areexplainedhere.
Electronicdigitalcomputersconsistofthefollowingmainparts:
1)arithmeticunit,foroperatingondigits;2)memory,forreception,
storage,andoutputofthedigits;3)controlunit,forcontrollingthe
automaticoperationofthecomputer;4)datainputandoutputdevice,
(Figure9,1).Theprocessofsolvingaproblemonthecomputer,aswith
Displayedresult
Signalsto
operator
*
ofoperation
Arithmetic
unit
Controlby
operator
1488/1563
09/09/2015
Operation
code
Instruction
Address
Numbers
and
instructions
Memory
Input
device
Output
of
results
1489/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE9.1.Blockdiagramofadigitalômputcr.
manualcalculations,consistsofdoingacertainseriesofoperationsonthe
initialdigits.Eachoperationiscarriedoutbythecomputerwhenacted
uponbyaspecialinstructionsignal.Thesequenceoftheinstruction
signalsiscalledtheprogramofoperationofthecomputer.Theinstructions
oftheprogramareputintothecomputerincodeandarestoredinthe
memoryaswords.Eachinstructionwordisdividedintoseveralparts
havingdifferentfunctionalpurposes.Onepart,calledtheoperation,
determinesthetypeofoperationwhichmustbemadebythecomputer.
Anotherpart,calledtheaddress,showswherethewordsarestoredon
whichtheoperationmustbemade,andwheretheresultmustbesentIn
additiontoarithmeticinstructions,thereareinstructionsnecessaryfor
theautomaticoperationofthecomputer.Theprogramforeachproblem
ismadebeforehandandisfedintothecomputertogetherwiththebasic
data.
565
Whenprocessingbasicdatarecordedonpaper,thedataareatfirst
transferredbytheoperator(manually,withpushbuttondevices),topunch
cards,punchtape,ormagnetictape.Fromthelatter,thesedataare
automaticallytransferredtothecomputermemory.
Modernwindtunnelsareequippedwithinstrumentsforrecoringthe
measureddataonpunchcards,punchtapes,ormagnetictapeswithoutthe
participationoftheoperator,andevenfortransferringthem,directlyto
1490/1563
09/09/2015
thememoryofthecomputer.
Theoutputofthecomputedresultsfromthecomputerismadein
reverseorder,Apuncherconnectedtothecomputerrecordstheresult
onpunchcardsorpapertapes.Atthesametimethesedatacanbe
tabulatedbyspecialelectrict5?pewriters.
Inelectronicdigitalcomputers,thebinarysystemisusedtorepresent
numbersandinstructions.Thissystemrequiresonlytwodigits,and1.
Themainadvantageofthebinarysystemisthepossibilityofusinga
physicaldevicehavingonlytwostableconditions,i.e.,adeviceusingthe
m.ostsimpleprincipleofoperation,onandoff.Suchdevicesare,for
instance,electromechanicalorelectronicrelays.Onestableconditionof
therelay(forinstance,energized)denotesa1andtheothera0.Each
relaycanstoreonlyonebitofabinarynumber.Inordertostoreanumber
consistingofseveralbits,acorrespondingnumberofrelaysisrequired.
Themaincellforshorttermstorageofabitisafastactingelectronic
relay.Electromechanicalrelaysarethousandsoftimesslowerthan
electronicrelaysbutareusedindeviceswhichconvertanalogsignals
fromthemeasuringinstrumenttodigitalvaluesforrecordingthemon
punchcardsorpapertape.Thenumbers(representedbythebinary
digitsand1)arerepresentedbydefinitepunchedholesonthecardor
tape.Thepunchedpositionindicatesa1inthenumber,whereasan
unpunchedpositionrepresentsa0.
Innewwindtunnels,themeasureddataareprocessedbothinseriesand
parallel.Whenusingtheparallelmethodallthemeasureddataarefed
directlytotheinputofthecomputer.Thefinalprocessedresultcomes
intabulatedformorgraphs,givingtheaerodynamiccoefficientsonanxy
plotter,referredtodesiredcoordinateaxes,andareobtainedduringthe
experiment.Theserialmethodprocessesthemeasuredresults,atthe
endoftheexperiment,andisusedinaerodynamicallaboratorieshaving
conaputingcentersequippedwithgeneralpurposecomputers.Data
processingonsuchcomputers,whichareusuallysituatedsomedistance
1491/1563
09/09/2015
fromthewindtunnelstakeuponlyaverysmallpartoftheworkingtime.
However,theprocessedresultsfromthesecomputersbecomeavailable
totheexperimenteronlyafteracertainperiodoftime.Theoutputofthe
processedresultsisconsiderablyspeededupwhenusingthedigital
convertersdescribedbelow.
Inwindtunnelsnotequippedwithdigitalcomputersoperatingduringthe
experiments,simpleanalogcomputingdevicesaresometimesused,which
givetheoperatortheopportunity,duringtheexperiment,tocancelbad
measurementsbeforetheyarefedtothecomplexcomputingprocess.When
therearenomethodsofsupervisingtheexperiment,badorunreliabledata
mustbecheckedbyadditionalexperimentsafterthefirstseriesof
experimentshasveenprocessed.Thiscausesconsiderabledelaysbetween
thebeginningofaseriesofexperimentsandthegivingoutoftheresults.
566
Windtunnelexperimentsconsistofmeasuringalargenumberof
differentparameters.Thus,forinstance,whentestinganairplane
modelonsixcomponentbalances,thefollowingvaluesmustbemeasured:
threecomponentsofforce,threecom^ponentsofmoment,thefulland
staticpressureintheworkingpart,andthebrakingtemperature.Some
times,additionalparametersaremeasured,forinstance,thehinge
momentsofthecontrolorgans,andthepressureatdifferentpointson
themodelandwallsofthetunnel.Thesearenecessaryforinserting
suitablecorrectionswhensubsequetlycomputingthedynamiccoefficients.
Oneexperimentalpointwhentestingthemodeliscalculatingaseriesof
theabovementionedvaluesatthemomentwhenthesequantitiesare
constant.Sinaultaneously,theparametersgivenbytheexperimenter
mustbecalculated,forinstance,theangleofattackandtheangleofslip.
1492/1563
09/09/2015
Theresultsofonetest(orasisoftensaid,oneblowingofthemodel)
consistofanumberofexperimentalpointsreceivedwithoneindependent
parameter,forinstance,angleofattackorstreamvelocity.Testingan
airplaneorarocketinawindtunnelconsistsofseveralseriesoftests,
forexample:aseriesoftestsaccordingtovelocity,accordingtothe
angleofinstallationofthecontrolsurfaces,withamodelhavingdifferent
geometricalparameters,etc.
Thus,thefulltestingcycleofanairplanemodelconsistsoflarge
numbersofmeasurements,whosetotalcanreachthousands.Other
typesofexperimentsarenolesslaborconsumingas,forinstance,
testingaseriesofwingorpropellerprofiles.Whentestingturbojet
enginesinwindtunnels,theprincipalparametersmeasuredarepressure
andtemperature.Sometimeshundredsofvaluesarerecordedinoneread
off,andafullcycleoftestscancontainseveralthousandmeasurements.
Themanualrecordingofmeterreadingsisconnectedwithsubjective
errorsanderrorscausedbynonsimultaneousreaddownsfromdifferent
instruments.Toreduceerrorsandtospeedupexperiments,the
indicationsoftheseparatebalancesandinstrumentsarereaddownby
differentoperatorsaccordingtoanaudioorvisualsignalfromthechief
operator.Thismethodisusedatpresentonlyinwindtunnelswithvery
lowloads.Toimprovetheutilizationofmodernpowerfultunnels,the
accuracyandspeedofexperimentsareincreasedbyautoraaticallyrecording
allthemeasuredvalues.
Therearetwopossiblemethodsofautomaticallyrecordingprimary
measurements:1)graphically;2)numerically.
Byobservinggraphicallyrecordeddata,theseniorexperimentercan
easilyfindanymaladjustmentinthemeasuringsystemortunnel.From
thetendencyandshapeofthecurve,theexperimentercanthenplanthe
nextpartoftheexperiment.
1493/1563
09/09/2015
Theuseofgraphsforfurthercomputationisconnectedwithadditional
errorsandlossoftimewhenmeasuringandrecomputingthecoordinates
intodigitalform.Forthisreason,graphsareveryseldomusedfor
prinnarymeasurementsinmodernwindtunnels,butrather,digitalforms
ofrecordingdata.However,asthepossibilityofobservingtheprocess
oftheexperimentfromgraphsisveryimportant,manywindtunnelsuse,
inadditiontodigitaldevices,allsortsofautomaticgraphrecorders,
placedonapanelbeforetheseniorexperimenter.Itisparticularlyuseful
567
tousegraphsif,insteadofrecordingtheprimarymeasureddata,the
valuesofdimensionlesscoefficientsautomaticallycomputedduringthe
experimentarerecorded.
Pressures
and
temperatures
1494/1563
09/09/2015
[ij^|(^(&
/IRegister^|
GraphicalrecordingIi
ofthemeasuredvalue.^
Geometryofthemodel,
modelno.,date,record^,^
no.,etc.
Program
^1Longtermmemory*
H(p
51(punchcards,etc.)
j:
1495/1563
09/09/2015
Digital
computer
Punchcard,
punchtape.
Graphicrecording
ofdimensionless
coefficients
^1
Tableswith
finaldata
FIGURE9.2.Typicalatrangementforautomaticdatarecordingand
processinginawindtunnel,Ttransducers;Cautomaticcompen
sators;Ddigitalconverters;Vvisualdisplay.
1496/1563
09/09/2015
Digitaldatainwindtunnelsarerecordedusingtwooperations.The
firstoperationistheconversionofthemeasuredsignalsintodigitalor
binaryform;thesecondoperationisthestoringofthenumbers
representingthemeasuredvaluesinashorttermmemory(register),
fromwhichthedigitsarerewrittenontospecialforms.Columnsof
decimalnumbersareprintedontheseformsafterpassingthroughsim.ple
manualcalculators.Theprimarydataarerecordedindigitalcodeon
punchcards,papertapes,ormagnetictapesforprocessinginanelectric
computer.Asim.plifiedblockdiagramofatypicalautomaticdata
recordingandprocessingsysteminawindtunnelisshowninFigure9.2.
Thephysicaldataaremeasuredbytransducerswithautomaticcompensators,
convertedbymeansofdigitalconvertersintodigitalform,andarethenfed
viaaregistertoalongtermimemiory,whichrecordsthesenumberson
punchcards,papertape,ormagnetictape.
568
Inadditiontothemeasureddata,someauxiliaryquantitiesarerecorded
(forinstance,thepointnumber,recordnumber,modelnumber,etc.).The
punchcardsareputintothecomputerwhichmakesallthenecessary
computationsaccordingtoagivenprogram,whichisusuallyrecordedon
punchcards.Thecomputeddataarepunchedoutbythecomputeronto
punchcardsorpapertape.Thesedataaretransferredtoaprinterwhich
printstheresultsinthetabulatedform,ortoaplotter.
Veryoften,thephysicalvaluesmeasuredduringtests,suchaslinear
andangularmovementsandvoltages,mustbeconvertedintodigitalform.
1497/1563
09/09/2015
Thus,forexample,compensatinginstruments(automaticlevertype
balances,automaticbridgesandpotentiometers)haveastheoutputsignal
theangularmovementofashaft.Straingages,resistancethermometers,
andthermocouplesinsertedintoanunbalancedbridgeproducesignalsin
theformiofvoltages.
44.DIGITALCONVERSIONOFMEASUREDVALUES.
DIGITALCONVERSIONOFANGLES
Thesimplestdeviceforcontinuouslyregisteringangularmovements
indigitalformisamechanicalcounter,consistingofasystemofwheels
numberedfromto9.Thelowestorderwheeloftheregisterednumber
isfixeddirectlytotheshaftofthecounter,andthedigitsonitrepresent
Counter
Ribbon
FIGURE9.3,Recordingcounterindications
withanelectromagnet.
tenthsofaturnoftheshaft.Whenthiswheelmakesonerotation,the
wheelofthenextorderispushedaheadbyastepchangeof0.1turn.
Thus,thenumberofturnsmadecanbereadoffthecounterasadecimal
numberto0.1ofarotation.
1498/1563
09/09/2015
Decimalcountersaresuitable,inmostcases,forthemaximumnumber
ofturnsmadebythebalancingmotorofaninstrument.Thiscanreach
hundredsofturns,asinautomaticlevertypebalances.
Theindicationsonthecounterscanberecordedusingdecimalwheels
withprotrudingnumbersandanelectromagneticdevice,asshownin
Figure9.3.Suchadeviceisusedforrecordingtheindicationsofautomatic
bridgesinstressbalances.
569
Amultichanneldigitalprinter(Figure9.4)isusedforrecording
simultaneouslytheindicationsofallinstrumentswhentestingamodel
withmechanicalwindtunnelbalances.
FIGURE9,4.Aprintingmechanismforwindtunnels.
Thisdevicehas11countersconnectedbyselsyntransmitterstothe
balancingservomotorsofthemeasuringinstrument,andonecounter
forrecordingthereaddownnumber.Therecordingismadebyprinting
thedigitalindicationsofall11countersinonerowonawidepapertape.
Atthesametime,electricalpulsescanbefedtoapuncherforstoring
thedataoncards.Theselsynreceiversaresynchronizedwiththeselsyn
transmittersofthemeasuringinstrumentbyvisiblecountersinstalledin
1499/1563
09/09/2015
theupperpartofthesynchronizingmechanismandrotatingsynchronously
withthebuiltincounters.
AdevicewhosesimplifieddiagramisshowninFigure9.5consistsof
specialcounterswherethedecimalwheelsarereplacedbyspiraltype
cams,aprintingmechanism,apulsefeedingmechanismdrivingapuncher,
andadistributionmechanism.Theedgeofthespiraltypecan(1)is
formedof10equidistantradialsteps.Duringreaddown,theendsof
levers(2)arepressedontothesesteps.Theleversturnaboutpoint0,
throughwhichpassesashaftcommontoallthelevers.
Thenumberofleversforeachcounterequalsthenumberofdecimal
wheelsonit.Aprintingsector(4),onwhoseperipheryprotrudenumbers
to9,isconnectedbyhingedlink(3)toeachlever.Whenmeasuring,
theshaftofthecounter,withtheaidofselsynreceiver(5),rotates
synchronouslywiththeshaftofthebalancingdeviceofthemeasuring
instrument.
1680
570
Areaddownismadebydepressingaprintpushbuttonswitchingon
motor(6).Themotor,viaacamdistributionmechanism(7),first
lowersallleverstothecorrespondingspiralcams(1).Simultaneously,
theprintingsectors(4)areturnedbyananglecorrespondingtothe
radiusoftheprotrusiononthespiralcam,onwhichispressedthegiven
lever.Thedigitsofthesectors,equaltothedigitsineachofthedecimal
1500/1563
09/09/2015
protusionsofthecounter,areplacedoppositethecenterofrubberroller(8),
Asthelevers(2)turn,thetoothedsector(9)closescontact(10),which
sendspulsestothepuncher.Thenunnberofpulsesequalsthenumber
recordedonthecounter.Thedistributionmechanismthenfreesstriker
(11),whichundertheactionofprestressedspring(12)strikesthebase
ofalltheprintingsectors.Thelatter,movingbyinertia,striketherubber
roller,makinganimpressionbymeansofcopyingpaperonpapertape(13).
Theregistersareplacedinonerow,andthereforeonestrikeofrod(11)
onthetapeprintstheindicationsofallthemeasuringinstrumentsasfour
digitnumbers.Theangleofattackandthereaddownnumberarerecorded
bythreeordercounters.Thereaddownnumberonthecounterchanges
automaticallywitheachmeasurement.
Frommeasuringinstrument
FIGURE6.5.Arrangementofaprintingdevice.1
spirals;2countinglevers;3rodsturningtheprint
ingsectors;4printingsectors;5selsynreceivers;
6motor;7distributor;8rubberroller;9toothed
sectors;10contact;11~striker;12forcespring:
13papertape.
Figure9.6showsablockdiagramofasystemforrecording
measurementsinahighspeedwindtunnelusingmechanicalbalances
withautomaticlevertypebalancingelements.Adigitalprinter(2)is
installedontheleftsideofthecontrolpanel(3).Ontherighthandside
ofthepanelisconcentratedtheequipmentcontrollingtheunitsofthetunnel
1501/1563
09/09/2015
571
andtheiroperation.Inthecenterisagraphrecorder(5),anindicator
displayingtheMachnumberofthestream(4),andanangleofattack
indicator(6).Thisplacingofthedisplayinstrumentsenablesthe
experimenttobeoverseenby2operators,oneforrecordingthe
measurementswhiletheotherchangestheconditionsinthetunnel,A
panel(7),containingtheselsynreceiversoftheautomaticbalancing
elements,isplacedinsidethedesk,undertheprinter.Thebalancing
elementsmeasuresixcomponentsoftheforcesonawindtunnelbalance
(1),thestaticpressurepintheworkingpartofthetunnel,andthe
pressuredropApbetweentheworkingpartandtheforechamber.In
addition,theselsynreceiversoftheautomaticbalanceareinstalledon
panel(7).Thisbridgemeasuresthestreamtemperaturewitharesistance
thermometer.Anotherselsynreceiverisconnectedtothem.echanism
changingtheangleofattack.
Signal
control
oftube
operation
1502/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE9.6,Recordingmeasurementsinawindtunnelhavingmechanicalbalances.1wind
tunnelbalancewithlevertypebalancingelements:2printer;3controlpanel;4visualdis
playoftheMachnumberofthestream;5chartrecorder;6angleofattackindicator;7
selsynreceivers;8analogdevicesformeasuringtheMachnumberofthestream;9puncher.
Alltheselsynsareconnectedwiththeinputshaftsofthecamsand
displaycountersoftheprinter.Theanalogcomputingdevice(8)for
automaticallydetermining,duringtheprocess,theMachnumberofthe
stream.,thevelocitypressureQ,andoneofthewindtunnelcoefficients
572
Rheostat
Transducer
Digital
converter
FIGURE9.7.Diagramofanautomaticbridgewithadigitalconverter.
1503/1563
09/09/2015
(forinstance,c,),isconnectedtotheinstrumentsformeasuringpA/5andQ
withtheaidofparallelselsyns.Thecomputedvaluesofc,arerecorded
onagraphrecorderasafunctionof
thecomputedvaluesoftheMach
number.Thepuncher(9)canbe
installednexttothedeskorinthe
computingcenter.
Infastactingmeasuringcompensa
tioninstrumentselectromechanical
orelectronicdevicesareusedinstead
ofmechanicalregisters.Theseconvert
theangletoabinarycodednumber,
suitableforinputtoelectronicdigital
computers.Anexampleofasimple
electromechanicalconverterfor
convertingtheangularpositionofa
shaftisadevice(Figure9.7)usedin
Englishwindtunnelsforreadingdown
digitallytheindicationsofstraingage
windtunnelbalances/3/.Theoutput
shaftoftheinstrumentbearsa
switching(coding)diskconsistingof
anumberofconcentricringswith
conductingandnonconductingsegments.
Aseparatebrushslidesoneachring,
andrespondstoadefinitebinarybit.
Thebrushwipingaconductingsegment
producesanelectricalpulse,
representinga1,whilethebrushwiping
1504/1563
09/09/2015
anonconductingsegmentrepresents
ainthebinarycode.Toobtaina
readoutcapabilityequalto0.001ofa
completerotationoftheshaft,itis
necessarytohave10rings,whichallowsthecircumferencetobedivided
by2lo=1024parts.
Whenadecimalnumberchangesbyoneunit,thedigitsinausualbinary
numberchangeinseveralorders(seethefirsttwocolumnsofFigure9.8).
Decimal
number
Hinary
number
Reflected
code
Numberof
path
6511321
00^'
1505/1563
09/09/2015
000000
000000
01
000001
Sfi
OB
oooow
ll
03
1506/1563
09/09/2015
00001!
omto
It
Oi
000100
OOOIIO
05
ODOIOI
0001It
1507/1563
09/09/2015
OB
OOOIIO
OOOIOI
'1
0?
ooom
ooom
08
OOtOOB
OOIIOO
1508/1563
09/09/2015
09
OOWO!
OOIWI
10
OOWW
OOltll
1509/1563
09/09/2015
00lotJ
OOlltO
12
OOIIOO
OOWW
13
OOIWI
OOIOII
1510/1563
09/09/2015
ll
ft
OOlltO
00100}
tB
15
OOll/l
OCWDO
tB
1511/1563
09/09/2015
DIOOOO
OIIOOO
IIJ
t?
010001
OIIOOI
ly
IS
DtOOlO
OltOlt
1512/1563
09/09/2015
19
OlOOtt
OtIOlO
In
ZO
oiotoo
OIIIIO
inj
1513/1563
09/09/2015
OIOIOI
Olllll
22
OtOIIO
OlttOI
OIIIOO
'1
23
oioin
1514/1563
09/09/2015
24
OIIOOO
OIOIOO
25
OIIOOI
OtOIOl
26
OIlOW
1515/1563
09/09/2015
DIOItl
27
OllOlt
OtOIIO
In
26
O'.IOOO
otoow
29
1516/1563
09/09/2015
OtIfOI
OtOOII
ly
30
onito
010001
31
oinii
010000
1517/1563
09/09/2015
32
wmo
wooh
110000
33
ttoooi
Hi
yy
FIGURE9.8.Reflectedbinarycodeandthecor
respondingpositionofthepathonthecodingdisk.
1518/1563
09/09/2015
573
Toincreasetheoperationalreliabilityoftheconverter,thesegmentson
thecodingdiskareplacedsoastoproduceareflectedbinarycode,as
showninthethirdcolumnofFigure9.8.Thiscodediffersfromthe
normalbinarycodeinthatineachsubsequentnumberthedigitchanges
inonlyoneorder,thusreducingthepossibilityofanerrorinreaddown.
ThefourthcolumnoiFigure9.8showsthelayoutofasixbitcoding
disk.Thedarkenedsegmentsaretheconductingones.
Numbers,readofffromacodingdisk,codedaccordingtothereflected
binarycode,arenotsuitableforfurtheruseinelectroniccomputersand
mustbeconvertedtonormalbinarycodes.Forconversion,switching
devicesconsistingofelectromagneticrelaysareswitchedintothebrush
circuitsofthecodingdisk(Figure9.9).
9SSSs
^tioq^.oa^
FIGURE9.9.Reflectedbinarycodetonaturalbinarycodeconverter.
1519/1563
09/09/2015
Whenabrushmakescontactwithaconductingsector,corresponding
toa1inthereflectedbinarycode,thecoiloftherelayisenergized,
openingonecontactandclosinganother.Eachbitofthenaturalbinary
numberhasadefiniteoutputterminal.Binaryonesinthenaturalbinary
numbercorrespondtothoseoutputterminalswhereapositivevoltage
appears.Thus,forinstance,whenthepositionofthebrushescorresponds
todecimalnumber27,therelaysofthesecond,third,andfifthbitsofthe
reflectedcodeareenergized,andthisisreadofffromthediskinreflected
codeas0010110.Thecontactsoftheserelaysfeedapositivevoltageto
theoutputterminalsofthefirst,second,fourthandfifthbitsofthe
naturalbinarynumbersandfromtherelaysisreadoffnumber0011011in
thenaturalbinarysystem,i.e.,number27inthedecimalsystem..
574
Thisrelayconverterservesatthesametimeasashorttermmemory
(register).Theraeasuredvaluesarestoredinalongtermmennory(the
machineforpunchingcards)duringaperiodoftimenecessaryfor
providingstabilizedconditionsinthestreambeforethenextreaddown.
Duringthereaddownoftheregisterbythelongtermmemory,the
balancingmotorsofthecompensatinginstrumentscanbeeitherstationary
orrotating,watchingthechangingconditions.Thesecondmethodisbetter,
asitreducesm.easuringtime.Tomakethismethodpossible,therelay
registerisequippedwithanadditionalblockingcontact,whichmaintains
thecurrentsintherelaycircuitsuntilthenextreaddown.
Digitalconversionofvoltages
1520/1563
09/09/2015
Anexampleofthedigitalmeasurementofvoltagesisthedecadea,c.
compensatordescribedinChapterVI.Thevoltagemeasuredacrossthe
diagonalofthetransducerbridge(Figure6.58)isreadoffasadecimal
Microamperes
o6
Measured
voltage
o/
FIGURE9.10.Diagramofahighspeeddigitalpotentiometer
numberwiththeaidofanaechanicalcounterconnectedtotheshaftofthe
balancingmotorofthecompensator.InthesystemshowninFigure9.7
themeasuredvoltagefromthecompensatinginstrumentisfirstconverted
intoanangularshaftposition.Theangularpositionisthenconvertedby
acodingdiskintodigitalform.
Therearesystemswherethevoltagesaredigitallymeasuredwithout
conversionintoangularmotion.Theadvantageofthesesystemsistheir
considerableincreaseinspeedofoperation.Thisisachievedbyreplacing
thebalancingnnotorbyasystem,ofelectromechanicalorcontactlessrelays.
1521/1563
09/09/2015
575
Acircuitdiagramofahighspeeddigitalpotentiometerisshownin
Figure9.10.ThissystemwasdevelopedbytheLewisAeronautical
Laboratory(NASA)forthemultipointmeasurementofthermocouple
signals,butisalsosuitableformeasuringsignalsfromstraingages/4/.
Theinstrumentisdesignedformeasuringvoltagesrangingfrom10
and40millivoltsin72channelsduring48seconds.Thetemperature
isreadbycomparingacompensatingvoltagewiththemeasuredvoltage.
Thedifferencebetweenthesevoltagesisamplified,andtheoutputvoltage
fromtheanaplifierisusedforchangingthecompensatingvoltageuntilit
equalsthem.easuredvoltage.Twelvefastactingrelaysswitchon12
resistorsinthecompensatingcircuit,forbalancingthepotentiometer.
ThefiguresinFigure9.10denotethecurrentinmicroamperespassing
throughthecorrespondingresistorswhentherelaycontacts,inserieswith
theresistors,close.Thesumofthesecurrentspassthrougha10ohm
resistorforproducingthecompensatingvoltage.
Differentrelayswitchingcombinationsgiveanycompensatingvoltage
betweenand9.99millivoltsinstepsof0.01millivolts.Toobtainthe
necessaryvoltagebalance,theresistorsareswitchedfromlefttoright
byastepselectorincorporatedinacircuitconsistingof12thyratrons.
Immediatelyafterthefirst[selector]contactisclosed,therelaycontacts
totheinputoftheamplifierarebroken,givingapositivepulseifthe
balancingvoltageislessthantheunknownvoltage,andanegativepulse
ifitisgreaterthantheunknownvoltage.Apositivepulsefiresthe
thyratronconnectedbytheselectortotheoutputoftheamplifier,and
switchesinviaanintermediaterelaythefirstresistor.Ifthebalancing
voltageisgreaterthantheunknownvoltage,thefirstthyratronisnotfired
1522/1563
09/09/2015
andastheswitchpassestothenextcontact,thefirstrelayremainsde
energized.Thesameprocesstakesplaceforeachofthe12steps.Atthe
endofthecycle,somethyratronsareconducting,thecontactsofthe
relaysconnectedwiththemareclosed,andthepotentiometerisbalanced.
Thevoltageisreadfrom,theconductingornonconductingconditionofeach
ofthe12thyratrons,whichserveasaregister.
Therelayintheplatecircuitofthethyratrongivestheinformationtoa
papertapepuncher.Forthepunchertobeoperatedconstantly,two
thyratronassembliesareprovided,oneforobtainingtheinformationfrom
thepotentiometer,andthesecondforsimultaneouslytransmittingtothe
punchertheinformationreceivedinthepreviousreaddown.Thethermo
couplesareswitchedsuccessivelyintothecircuitviaaseparatestep
selectorswitch.Figure9.11showsthesimplifiedblockdiagramofthe
system.Themomenttheamplifiertransmitstheinformationtotheupper
thyratrons,thelowerthyratronregistertransmitstotherelayregister
theinformationrecordedduringthepreviousreaddown.Theinformation
intheregistersiserasedbymomentarilyshortingtheplatesupplyvoltage
ofthethyratrons,therebyenablingthelowerregistertoreceivenew
informationfromtheamplifier.Therelayregisterdecodestheinform.ation
recordedonthethyratronregisterasa1,2,2,4codeintoanatural
binarycode.Theprogrammertransmitstothetape,inthenecessary
sequence,theinformationfronatherelayregisterandfromthechannel
coder.Thechannelcoderpunchesonthetapethenum.berofthechannel
correspondingtothegivenreaddown.
576
Methodofdynamiccompensation
1523/1563
09/09/2015
Anothermethodofdigitalconversionistocomparethemeasured
valuewithacompensatingvaluechanginglinearlywithtime.The
compensatingvalueisgivenasasumofacertainnumberofpulses,each
correspondingtoagivenintervalofchangeinthemeasuredvalue.Usually
thisintervalistakenequaltotheresolvingcapabilityofthemeasuring
instrument.Thenumberofintervalscorresponding(toanaccuracyof1
interval)tothemeasuredvaluearereadoffbyanelectronicpulsecounter
andrecordedinamemorydevice(forinstanceonamagnetictapeordrum).
1524/1563
09/09/2015
Sourceof
compensating
voltage
Thyratron
register
Relay
register
~l
1525/1563
09/09/2015
Comparator
Amplifier
iJ^
1526/1563
09/09/2015
J^
i\
1527/1563
09/09/2015
1A
Thyratron
register
Relay
register
ii
Scanner
1528/1563
09/09/2015
II
Coder
1529/1563
09/09/2015
,"l,,r,,,^1M^
1530/1563
09/09/2015
Thermocouples
Programmer
'*
Control
device
Tapepuncher
1531/1563
09/09/2015
FIGUI?E9.11.Systemfortransmittingdatafromanautomaticpotentiometertoapuncher.
Anexaxnpleofadynamiccompensationsystemformeasuringvoltage
isgiveninFigure9.12.Thevoltagefromoneofthetransducers(2)
isfedthroughamplifier(3)tozeroindicator(4),whichissuppliedwith
asawtoothvoltagefromsawtoothvoltagegenerator(10).Thegenerator
isstartedbyapulsefromcontrolcircuit(1).Zeroindicator(4)compares
theamplifiedvoltageuifromamplifier(3)withthemomentarysawtooth
voltageU2.Whenvoltageu,anduiareequal,thezeroindicatorproduces
apulse,whichisfedtogate(5)anddataoutputpulsegenerator(6).Until
apulseappearsfromthezeroindicator(4),gate(5)issetbyacontrolpulse
toastatewhereclockpulsesfromgenerator(9)passthroughthegateto
binarycounter(8).Apulsefromthezeroindicator(4)closesgate(5),
inhibitingthepassageofthesepulsestocounter(8).Atthesametime,the
samepulsefromzeroindicator(4)startsdataoutputgenerator(6)for
transmittingthepulsesrecordedbycounter(8)tothememorydevice(7),
andsubsequentlyresetsthecountertozero.Whenthenextcontrolpulse
appearsthesawtoothgenerator(10)startsagain,gate(5)passesclock
pulsestocounter(8),andthemeasuringcycleisrepeated.
Thusthenumberofpulsesrecordedbycounter(8)isproportionalto
thevoltagefromtransducer(2).Therecordinginthelongterm
577
memory(7)takesplacebetweentwomeasurem.ents.Eachpulse
correspondstoaknownsmallintervalofvoltage,andthereforeknowing
thetotalnumberofpulses,itiseasytodeterminethemeasuredvoltage.
1532/1563
09/09/2015
";
Control
"t
K,
in
1533/1563
09/09/2015
rt
Gate
Clockpulses
Clockpulsespassing
throughgate
_|1^Closed
"jiiiijt
'"'
FIGURE9.12.Systemformeasuringavoltageasanumberofpulses.1controlcircuit;
2transducers;3amplifiers;4zeroindicator;5gate;6dataoutputpulsegenera
tor;7longtermmemory;8electroniccounter;9clockpulsegenerator;10saw
toothvoltagegenerator;11scanner.
Theelectronicbinarycounterconsistsofseriesconnectedcells
(triggers)eachcorrespondingtoabinarybit.Theonconditionofeach
cellrepresentsa1,whiletheoffconditionrepresentsa0.Aspulses
arefedtotheinputofthecounter,theyaretransmittedfromonecell
1534/1563
09/09/2015
totheother,changingtheirconditioninasetsequence.Thenumberof
pulsessenttothecountercanbereadofffromthestateofthecells.
Thus,forinstance,ifanoncellisrepresentedbyadarkrectangleand
/?512256128Bit32id821
1111111111
1011101101=1261
FIGURE9.13.Electroniccounter.
anoffcellbyawhiteone,thenthedisplayofthebinarycounter,asshown
schematicallyinFigure9.13,willbe10011101101,i.e.,thedecimal
number1261.Formultipointmêasurement,itisnotrequiredtocount
578
thenumberofpulsesineachmeasuringchannelwithseparateelectronic
counters.Duetotheirhighspeedofoperation,onecountercansuccessively
countthenumberofpulsesineachchannelandgivethisnumberasabinarycode
1535/1563
09/09/2015
toalongtermmemoryforinputtoacomputer.Withaclockpulsefrequency
of10^cycles,itispossiblebydynamiccomputationtorecordonmagnetic
tape,duringonesecond,1000valuestoanaccuracyof0.1%.Toaccomplish
this,ahighspeedelectronicswitch(11)shouldbeplacedattheamplifier
input(Figure9.12).Electromechanicalswitchescanbeusedformeasuring
upto100channelspersecond.
Compensating
pressure
FIGURE9.14.Convertingcompensatingpressure
intoapulsetrain.1pressureswitchdiaphragm;
2reservoir;3bellows;4spring;5induc
tivepickup;6amplifier;7servomotor;8
micrometricscrew;9nut;10supportforsprings;
11,12levers;13unloadingpistons;14light
source;15photoelement.
ThepulsemethodwasspeciallydevelopedintheLewisAeronautical
Laboratory,NASA(U.S.A.),whereseveralthousandmeasurementsare
madedailyinwindtunnelsdesignedfortestingturbojetengines.Inthis
laboratory,naultipointmeasurementsaremadebycomparingwithone
commonconapensatingpressure,whichiscyclicallychangedfromzero
tomaximum.Thecompensatingpressure,initsturn,isaccurately
measuredbyoneoftwomethods:1)withtheaidofacompensating
manometerproducingapulsetrain,eachpulsecorrespondingtoafixed
smallintervalofmovementofthemanometerbalancingelement,or,
whichisthesame,toafixedintervalofchangeinpressure/5/;2)by
usingequipmentprovidingapressurechanginglinearlywithtime.Inthis
case,thenumberofpulsesgeneratedbyaclockpulsegeneratorduring
1536/1563
09/09/2015
579
anintervaloftimearecounted.Theserepresentchangeinpressure
fromafixedinitialvalueuptothemeasuredquantity/6/,
Anarrangementformeasuringpressureusingthefirstmethodisshown
inFigure9.14.Theprimarypressuremeasuringelementispressure
switchwithasensitivediaphragm(1)(Figure5.56,ChapterV).For
simplicity,onlyoneswitchisshowninthefigure,buttheactualnumber
equalsthenumberofpressuresmeasured.Themeasuredpressurep,is
appliedtoonesideofthediaphragm.Theothersideofthediaphragmis
connectedwithreservoir(2),inwhichiscreatedavaryingcompensating
pressure.Initially,avacuumiscreatedinreservoir(2).Asthemeasured
pressureisgreaterthanthepressureinthereservoir,thediaphragmis
deflectedandclosesanelectricalcontact.Thereservoirisconnectedto
anaccuratemanometer,whichsendselectricalpulses,withincreasing
pressureinthereservoir,toacircuitclosedthroughthediaphragm.
Eachpulsecorrespondstoanincreaseinpressureof0.25mmHg.The
pulsesarecounteduntilthepressureinthereservoirequalsthemeasured
pressure.Atthismoment,thediaphragmopensitscontact,andthepulses
stopreachingthecounterwhichisconnectedtothediaphragm.The
measuredpressureinmmHgiseqaulto0.25n,wherenisthenumberof
recordedpulses.Thepressureinthereservoircontinuestorisetoavalue
slightlyhigherthanthehighestmeasuredpressure,afterwhichavacuum
isagaincreatedinthereservoir.Ameasuringcyclelasts10seconds.
Anullinstrumentisusedformeasuringthecompensatingpressureand
forsendingpulses.Itconsistsofabellows(3),whosemovablecoveris
connectedwithtwoflatcantileveredsprings(4),andadifferentialtrans
former(5),sensitivetomovementsofupto0.00025mm.Asthepressure
1537/1563
09/09/2015
increasesinthereservoir,thecoverofthebellowsandthecantilevered
springsmoveupward.Asaresult,asignalisinducedintransformer(5),
whichisamplifiedinamplifier(6),givingavoltagetoservomotor(7).The
latterrotatesmicrometricscrew(8).Nut(9)movessupport(10),on
whicharefixedsprings(4),untiltheforceexertedbythespringsequalsthe
pressureonthecoverofthebellows.Thisiscarriedoutwiththeaidof
levers(11)and(12),whichform,togetherwiththemovingsupport(10),a
parallelogram.Thisarrangementmovessupport(10)towardsthebellows
byabouttheamountofdeformationofthespring,andpreventsthebellows
from,movingsideways.Apiston(13)relievesnut(9)fromtheforces
actingonthebellows.
Servomotor(7)rotatesthemicrometricscrewthroughapairofgear
wheels.Thegearwheelontheaxisofthescrewhas180teeth.The
stiffnessofsprings(4),theareaofbellows(3),thetransmissionratio
oflever(11),andthepitchofthescrewarechoseninsuchawaythata
turnofthescrewby2correspondstoachangeinpressureof0.25mmHg,
Eachofthe180teethofthegearwheel,whenturning,interruptsarayof
lightbetweensource(14)andphotoelement(15).
Figure9.15showsablockdiagramofapressurerecorder,the
measuredpressurespiparefedbytubestothediaphragmheads.
Theelectricalpulsesgeneratedbythephotoelementsofpressuremeter(3)
arefedsimultaneouslyviatheclosedcontactsofallthediaphragmheads
(2)totherecordingheads(4)ofashorttermmagneticmemory.The
latterisabronzedrumwithanexternaldiameterof300mmandalengthof
100mm.Duringthechangingpressurecycleinthereservoir,thedrum.
580
1538/1563
09/09/2015
rotatesuniformly.Recordingsaremadebymagnetizingtheferromagnetic
coatingonthesurfaceofthedrumwhichisatthegivenmomentunderthe
recordinghead.Theclearancebetweentherecordingheadanddrum
surfaceis0.025ixun.
L,
JtfTl
^LLTl
I^Bell
Bellows
7
Throttlingvalve[ÎI
1539/1563
09/09/2015
5^
Shortterm
memory
10
~o
IE
1540/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE9.15.Diagramofamultipointpressuremeasuringsystem.1reservoirinwhichis
createdthecompensatingpressure;2diaphragmpressureswitch;3pressuremeterwithpulse
generator;4magneticrecordingheads;5magneticdrum;6scannei;7electroniccounter;
8codinganddecoding;9printer;10tapepuncher;11controlpanel;12pressureand
vacuumcontrol.
Therecordingheadisanopenpermalloycore,woundwithacoilhaving
asmallnumberofturns(toreduceinductance).Duringthepassageofa
pulse,afieldiscreatedinthecoregapwhichmagnetizestheferro
magneticcoating.Therecordingheadsareuniformlyplacedaroundthe
drumin21rowswith5headsineachrow.Thus,thedrumcanrecord
pressurefrom105measuringchannels.Thepulsesarerecordedon85%
ofthecircumferenceofthedrumasseparatetracksforeachmeasured
pressure.Themaximumnumberofpulsesis400.Thedrumhastwo
speeds:alowspeedofonerotationper12secondsforrecordingpulses;
ahighspeedof1.5secperrevolutionforreadingdownthepulsesfromthe
drumtotheelectroniccounter.Thecounterisinturnswitchedbya
scannertotherecordinghead,whichisswitchedbeforehandforreadings.
Thepulsesarereaddowninreverseorderfromthatinwhichtheywere
recorded.Asthemagnetizedsectionsofthedrumpassunderthehead,
avoltagepulsfeisInducedintheheadwhichisamplifiedandfedtoan
electroniccounter.
Thedatafromtheelectroniccountersarefedtoaspecialrelay
register,wherethenumbersareheldforpunchingonpapertapeand
forbeingprintedinaformsuitableforacomputer.Atthesametime.
581
1541/1563
09/09/2015
suchdataasthechannelnumber,computerinstructions,experiment
number,recordnumber,date,andothernecessarydataarealsorecorded.
Acharacteristicexampleofusingdynamiccompensationmethodsisthe
centralizedmeasuringsystemattheLewisAeronauticalLaboratory(NASA)
/6/.Thissystemistheintermediatelinkbetween9windtunnelsand
electroniccomputers.Thedatapreviouslyrecordedonintermediate
memorydevicesaretransmittedaspulsesovertelephonewirestoa
centralencoderandarerecordedonmagnetictapeduringthetimethe
necessarystreamconditionsareestablishedforthenextmeasurement.
Fourtypesofdataarerecordedonthemagnetictape:
1)datacommontothegivenjob,e.g.,readdownnumber,record,
number,barometricpressure,date,etc.;
2)thepressureat300pointsmeasuredwithpressureswitches;
3)voltagesfrom200channelsmeasuredwiththermocouples,and
voltagesfromstraingagesofwindtunnelbalancesandpotentiometers.
13
1542/1563
09/09/2015
/;
10
1543/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE9.16.CentralizeddatacollectionsystemLewisAeronauticalLaboratory
(NASA).1pressures;2voltages;3frequencypulses;4magneticcorematrix;
5,6electroniccounters;7centralencoder;8magnetictaperecorder;9electro
niccomputer;10printer;11graphplotter;12commoninformation(modelno.,
testno.,etc.);13encodercontrol.
indic?atingshaftpositions.Thevoltagesarerecordedataspeedof20
channels/secusingasystemsimilartothatshowninFigure9.12;
4)pulsefrequenciesproducedbynaagneticpickupsontachometers
measuringther.p.m.ofthetestedengine,andmagneticpickupson
flowmetersmeasuringtheamountoffuelenteringtheengine.
1544/1563
09/09/2015
Theblockdiagramoftheconnectionsbetweenthemeasuringinstruments,
thecentralencoder,andoutputdevicesisshowninFigure9.16.
582
Theconnectionsaremadewithrelays,whichautomaticallyswitchthe
differentcircuitsduringdatarecording.Thedynamiccompensationmethod
usedinthegivensystemdiffersfromithesystemshowninFigure9.15in
thatinsteadofusingamanometricinstrumentforcontrollingthe
compensatingpressureinthereservoir,adeviceprovidingapressure
changinglinearlywithtimeisused.Amagneticmatrixisusedfor
recordinginsteadofadrumandthepulsesrecordedrepresentfixedintervals
oftimeinsteadoffixedintervalpressure.Thelinearlychangingpressure
isobtainedbyusingathrottlingnozzlewhichgivesaconstantcriticalflow.
FIGURE9,17,Arrangementformeasuringpressureandrecordingthepulsesinamagneticcore
memory,1reservoirwiihlinearlychangingpressure:2diaphragmpressureswitches;3
clockpulsegenerator;4readoutpulser;5inputfrombinarydecimalelectroniccounter;
6matrix;7outputregister;8~gates.
Byrecordingthemomentscorrespondingtotheknownlowestpressurep,,
andtheknownhighestpressurepj,itispossibletodeterminethepressure
pîatanyinternaediatemoment.Thetimeismeasuredusinga1000cps
clockpulsegenerator.Thenumberofpulsesfromthemomentthepressure
beginstochangeinthereservoirtomomentsft,txuhiscountedbyelectronic
counter(5)(Figure9.17).Amagneticcorennatrixisusedforstoringthepulses
1545/1563
09/09/2015
583
accumulatedduringtime/,iineachofthe300m.easuringchannels.Each
magneticcoreconsistsofaminiatureceramicbobbinwoundwithatapeof
m.agneticmaterial0.12mmthick.Throughaholeinthebobbinthreewires
passforthevoltagepulses.
Thememoryqualitiesofthecoresarebasedontheirmagnetic
rectangularhysteresisloop.Aminimumcurrent/throughoneofthe
wiresisrequiredtochangethemagneticpositionofthecore.Witha
currentofij/,thecoreremainsinitsinitialmagneticcondition.How
ever,iftwocurrentpulsesof^/passthroughtwowires,themagnetic
fluxcausedbythesetwocurrentsissummedandthemagneticconditionof
thecorechanges.Thus,thecorewillrememberthecoincidenceby
changingitsmagneticcondition.Thecoresareplacedinhorizontaland
verticalrowsintheformofamatrix.Sixteencoresinonevertical
columnformoneinformationchannelandcanstorea4digitdecimalnumber
(a16digitbinarynumber).Tostorethedataof300channels,300vertical
columnsarerequired.
Avacuumtubeisconnectedtoeachverticalcolunan.Thetubepasses
currentonlywhenapositivevoltageisappliedtothecontrolgrid.The
tubeiscontrolledbythediaphragmpressureswitchofthegivenmeasuring
channel.Ahorizontalwirepassesthrougheachofthe16coresofone
column,andthecurrentthroughthewireiscontrolledbythe16bitsfrom
thebinarydecimalelectroniccounters.Thefunctionofeachbitfrom,the
counteristocontrolthetransmissionofapulseof^/alongthehorizontal
1546/1563
09/09/2015
wiretothecorrespondingcore.Ifthecounterpositioncontainsaunitof
information,itwillpassapulseofg/intoonecoreofeachofthe300
channels.
Atthemomentthemeasuringcyclestarts,the1000cpsclockpulse
generatorswitcheson.Thegeneratorsendspulsestotheelectronic
counterandtoeachofthe300tubesconnectedwiththediaphragm
pressureswitches.Whenthepressureinthereservoirequalsthepressure
measuredbythegivenpressureswitch,thediaphragmopensitscontact
andasignalistransmittedtothetubeconnectedtothispressureswitch.
Withthenextpulsefromthegenerator,thistubepassesacurrentpulse
ofg/intothe16coresofthecorrespondingchannel.Simultaneously,
theelectroniccountersendspulsesofsâlongthehorizontalwires
connectedtothosepositionsinthecounterstoringbits.Thosecores
ofthegivenchannelreceivingcoincidentpulsesalongthehorizontaland
verticalwireschangetheirmagneticcondition,andthusrememberthe
numberofpulsesstoredbytheelectroniccounterwhenthetubewas
switchedon.
Thosecoresnotreceivingcoincidentpulsesremainunchanged.After
thecontacts'ofallthediaphragmpressureswitcheshaveoperated,a
signalisautomaticallysenttoreaddowntheinformationstoredinthe
matrixmemory.Theinformiationisreaddownofaspeedof20channels
persecondbysendingacurrentpulselargerorequalto/througheach
verticalcolumnviapulser(4).Asecondelectroniccounter(outputregister)
(7)recordsthevoltagepulsesappearingonthethirdwireofeachhorizontal
1547/1563
09/09/2015
584
rowofthematrix.Thesepulsesareinducedbychangesinthemagnetic
fluxofthecoreandpasstherecordedvaluestothecentralencoder.At
theendofreaddownthesystem,isresettoitsinitialconditionandis
readytoreceivethenextmeasurement.
Enginer.p.m.andfueloutputarerecordedbyelectroniccounters
countingthenumberofpulsesproducedbymagnetictranducersfrom
tachometersandflowmeters(Figure9.18)duringanintervalof10seconds.
FIGCJRE9.18.Measuringr.p.m.andflow.
1~pulsetransducersconnectedtoarotatingelement;2gates;
3electroniccounters;410secintervalgenerator;5~central
register;6readdowncontrol;7magnetictaperecorder.
Alltheinstrumentindicationsarerecordedafterestablishingthe
conditionsinthetunnel.Whentheoperatorpressesareaddownbutton,
alltheinstrumentsofthegiventunnelareautomaticallyswitchedtothe
correspondingoutputdeviceforrecordingonmagnetictape.Thecycle
continuesfor10seconds,andwhenterminated,alightsignalisswitched
oninthecontrolroomofthegivenwindtunnel,allowingconditionstobe
changed.
Thetimerequiredtofinishtherecordingcycleandpreparethe
necessarycircuitsforrecordingthenextpointisabout15seconds.Ifduring
thistimetheoperatorofanotherwindtunnelpressesacorresponding
button,thebeginningofrecordingsignalsfromthistunnelisdelayed
1548/1563
09/09/2015
untiltheendofrecordingfromthefirsttunnel.Duetotheshort
recordingperiod,suchdelaysremainunnoticedbytheoperator.
Dependingonthetypeofexperimentandthenumberofwindtunnels
workingsimultaneously,thedatameasuredcanbeeitherdirectlyfed
toelectroniccomputersoraccumulatedonmagnetictapeforfurther
processing.Inaddition,theprimaryvaluesrecordedonmagnetictapes
areprintedonelectrictypewritersandrecordedonhighspeedgraph
plottersplacedinthewindtunnelcontrolrooms.
585
45.PROCESSINGTHEMEASUREDDATA
ONCOMPUTERS
Dataprocessingonananaloginstallation
Figure9.19showsablockdiagramofanelectronicanaloginstallation
attheWrightBrothersScientificResearchCenter(U.S.A.)forautomatically
processingthedatafromstraingagesusedformeasuringstressesand
pressures111.
Channel
Transducersamplifiers
1549/1563
09/09/2015
Load
Model
>3
Scale
factors
Torque
Signinverter
andAdders
discontinuities
Stress
1550/1563
09/09/2015
FIGURE9.19.Blockdiagramofasystemforcontinuouslyprocessingstraingageindications
attheWrightBrothersResearchCenter.
TheleastsquaresmethodisusedtodeterminethetorqueAJ,,andthe
stressy,actingonthemodelinstalledonpivotedstraingagebalances.
ThedevicecomputesaccordingtotheformulasdiscussedinChapterVT
(page409)
AJi,=fljiAui)anCiU2+ajsAua+...,
whereAui,Au2,arethevoltagesfromthestraingagebridgesplacedin
differentsectionsofthebeam.Themeasuringsystemofeachtransducer
operateswithana.c.carrierfrequency.Filtersattheoutputofthe
informationchannelsfilteroutthecarrierfrequencyandd.c.signals
arereceivedproportionaltothemeasuredvaluesofAu,.Thed.c.signals
aresummedinoperationalamplifiers.Beforesummation,thesignals
fromdifferentchannelsaremultipliedby"weight"coefficientsas
determinedbytheconstantsoftheequation.Thesecoefficientsdepend
onthedesignofthebalancesandthemodel,insertedbypotentiometers
attheinputoftheoperationalamplifiers,andareeasilycontrolled.
Correctionfactorsarealsoinsertedintotheadders.
Thepressurefactorisdeterminedby
^Pa
Pa
1551/1563
09/09/2015
2^P.^lPc"'
1680
586
whichisconvertedto
wherepisthemeasuredpressureatagivenpoint,pisthestatic
pressureintheincomingstream,pîsthebarometricpressure.
mi=canchangeduringthedaybutisconstantforthegiventest.
Pa
nii=ITisaconstantforthegiventunnel,mi=îsacombination
"MPa,
ofvariablevaluesconstantforthegivenseriesoftests.
Theaboveequationissolvedbymodulatingthevoltageofthecarrier
withtheamplitudeofthesignalfromthepressuretransducer.The
modulatedsignalisrectified,multipliedbycoefficientsm,andmjinthe
informationchannel,andthensummedintheoperationalamplifierwith
avoltageproportionaltonij.Attheoutputoftheadder,avoltage
proportionaltothepressurefactorisobtained.
1552/1563
09/09/2015
Thissystemhasanaccuracyofabout1%andcantestdynamic
processeshavingafrequencyupto500cps.
Processingthemeasureddataondigitalcomputers
Theprocessingofdatafromwindtunnelmeasurementsdiffersbytwo
specificcharacteristics.Firstly,thetotalamountofprocesseddatais
large.Consequently,thedatainputandoutputdevicesofthecomputer
musthavealargethroughputcapacity,andtheinternalmem.orymust
havealargestorgecapacity.Secondly,thenecessarycomputationsare
sim.plerthanthoserequiredbymostanalyticalproblems.Therefore,high
computingspeedisnotamajorrequirement.Becauseoftheabove
mentionedreasons,inadditiontouniversalelectroniccomputers,special
machinesarefoundwithfixedprograms,adaptableforsolvingproblems
ofadefinitetype.Specialmachinesareusuallysimplerandlessexpensive.
Thedrawbackofcomputerswithfixedprogramsisthatevensmallchanges
inthecomputingsequence(whicharesometimesmetwhenprocessingdata
from,differenttypesofmeasurements)callforreadjustingthecomputer.
Whererelativelysimplecomputationsarerequired,butthecomputing
programcannotbegivenbeforehand,smallcomputersareused.Thus,
forinstance,intheLewisAeronauticalLaboratory(NASA),asmall
IBM604computerisusedforprocessingthedataofm.ultipolntpressure
andtemperaturemeasurenaentsofjetengines/8/.Thebasicdataand
instructionsarefedfrompunchcards.Theresultsareproducedonpunch
cardsataspeedof100cardsperminute.
Apropertyofthesystemisthatthecomputerinstructionsare
automaticallyfedindirectlyduringthetests.Witheachreaddownof
temperatureandpressure,separateinstructionsaregiventothe
computerintheformofanoperationalcode.Operationalcodesare
1553/1563
09/09/2015
automaticallyputintoeachmeasuringchannelbymeansofadigital
recorder,simultaneouslywithreaddown.Thus,thecomputercan
automaticallychangethecomputingsequenceinaccordancewiththe
1680
587
instructionstransferredtothecomputorfollowingeachreaddown.This
simplifiestheprocessingofdataobtainedfromdifferentexperimental
objectsandinstruments.
ThemethodofprocessingthemeasureddataonanIBM604computer
usingpunchcardscanbeseeninFigure9.20,wherepressuresare
measuredwiththeaidofamultipointdigitalrecorder.
FIGURE9.20.AutomaticdataprocessingwithadigitalcomputerintheLewisAero
nauticalLaboratory.1referencepressure;2testedengine;3pressureinengine;
4papertape:5reader;6codex;7puncher;8blankpunchcards;9punch
cardswithadditionalpunchings;10sorter;11computer;12digitalpressurerecorder.
Therecorderwritesonamagneticdrumthedigitalvaluesofthefull
pressureat6pointsinfrontoftheengine,thestaticpressureat6points
onthewindtunnelwalls,thepressureat6pointsontheengine,and
3referencepressuresagainstwhichthefullpressureiscompared.
1554/1563
09/09/2015
Thecomputerdeterminestheaveragevalueofthefullpressure,
correctsforthelossesbetweenthesectionswherethepressuretranducers
areplacedandtheinputsectiontotheengine,findstheaveragevalueof
staticpressure,anddividesthestaticpressureandeachofthepressures
measuredintheenginebythecorrectedfullpressure.
Thedatafromthedigitalrecorderarepunchedontopapertapeand
containthecodeddigitalvaluesmeasured,thechannelnumber,andthe
operatinginstructions.Thesedataaretransferredforeachmeesurement
fromthepunchertoaseparatepunchcard.Thepunchcardsarefedvia
asortertothecomputer.
Additionaldata,forinstance,thecalibrationcoefficientsandcorrections,
areputintothecomputerwiththeaidofadditionalpunchcards.Thesorter
comparesthenumberspunchedonthemainpunchcardswiththenumbersin
588
theauxiliarypunchcardsandautomaticallyputsthelatterintothe
appropriateplacesbetweenthemainpunchcards.
Figure9.20showsthesequenceoffeedingthemainauxiliarypunch
cardstothecomputerandthemarkingofthecodeoftheoperational
instructions.Thefirstpunchcardisanauxiliaryoneandcontains
informationonthecalibrationcoefficientandsupportpressure.Thecode
punchedonthiscardinstructsthemachineastotheuseofthisinformation
forfurthercomputation.Thenextpunchcard,referringtochannel01,is
punchedwithacode1,3,andonthosepunchcardsreferringtochannels
02and03,withcode3.Code1,3instructsthemachinetobeginthe
1555/1563
09/09/2015
summationofthecomputedpressure,whilecode3instructsthisprocesstobe
continued.Thecardinchannel03isfollowedbyanauxiliarycard,coded
8,9.Code8instructsthemachinetodividethesummedpressuresfrom
channels01,02,and03,bythree,andtopunchouttheresults.Code9
instructsthemachinetorecordthecomputedaveragepressurefromall
thefollowingpunchcards.Thisisnecessarybecauseatthispointthe
completelimitedcapacityofthememoryisusedup.
Thenextcardisanauxiliarycard,codedX,12,1,2,3,8,and9.The
machinedoesanoperationcorrespondingtothelogicalsumofthe
instructionsofthiscompoundcode.Code12instructsthemachineto
operatewiththeaveragepressureofchannels01,02,and03.The
appropriatecorrectionsareinsertedintotheaveragevalue,andthenew
pressureiskeptforcomparingwiththesubsequentpressureaccordingto
instructioncode2.Thevaluesofthefullpressuresarecorrectedbythe
correctedvalueofthesupportpressureasgivenonthepunchcard,and
thenextpunchcardwiththecodeXgivesanewcalibrationcoefficientfor
channels04to09.Thecodeonsubsequentcardsinstructsthemachineon
makingfurthercomputationsinthedescribedorder.
Jj
1556/1563
09/09/2015
\7\\S\
12
.CDzn
Compu
ingcenter
FIGURE9.21,Systemforautomaticdataprocessingduringanexperiment.1windtunnel
balances;2digitalconvertersforwindtunnelbalances;3multipointmanometer;4
digitalconverterformanometer;5auxiliarydatainput;6controller;7punchers;
8readers;9buffermemory;10printoutofprimarydata;11graphrecorderofadvance
data;12Datatroncomputer;13printoutofprocesseddata;14distributor;15graph
plotteroffinaldata.
589
1557/1563
09/09/2015
IIJIIIIUIII
Figure9.21showsanautomaticsystemforprocessingdataduringthe
experimentintendedforservingtwosupersonicwindtunnelsatthe
CaliforniaInstituteofTechnology(U.S.A.).Inthesetunnels,theforces
actingonthemodelaremeasuredbysixcomponenthydraulicandstrain
gagebalancesusingautomiaticcompensators.Theoutputvaluesofthe
balancesrepresenttheangularpositionofshafts.Theangularpositions
areconvertedtodigitalformbyrelayconverters.
RegisterVReadout
device
FIGURE9.22.Systemforautomaticallyplottinggraphsfromdigitaldata.1tablewith
papersheet;2guide;3carriage;4leadscrewforpen;5pen;6leadscrewfor
carriage;7,8servomotors;9analogtodigitalconverters.
Thedistributionofpressuresinthemodelismeasuredbyasystem
describedinChapterV.Selectorvalvesconnect,inturn,alltheopenings
inthedrainedmodelwithonemanometer,whoseindicationsaremeasured
byanautomaticcompensatorandconvertedintodigitalform.
Thevaluesoftheforcesandpressures,togetherwithdatareferring
tothepositionofthemodel,theMachnumber,experimentnumber,and
1558/1563
09/09/2015
theinstructionsforprocessingonthecomputer,arepunchedonpapertape
ataspeedof60digitspersecond.Thepunchedtapeisfedatoncetothe
computerreader.
Thecontrolroomofthewindtunnelisplacedremotelyfromthe
computingcenter,andthedatareadfrornthepunchtapearefedtothe
computerthroughwires.Thedataprocessedbythecomputerarerecorded
onpunchtapesandfedbacktothecontrolroomwheretheyaretabulated.
Atthesametime,graphsareplottedfromthedata.Thereaders,punchers,
graphplotters,andprinterscanbeinterconnectedbydifferentmethods
dependingonthetestprograms.Forinstance,withforcemeasurements,
whentheamountofmeasureddataiscomparativelysmall,butthe
processingismorecomplicated,itispossibletopreparetwoidentical
590
punchtapeswithprimarydata.Oneisimmediatelyfedtothecomiputer,
whiletheotherisusedforoperatingatabulatororanXYplotter.With
combinedtests,wheretheforcesandpressuresaremeasured
simultaneously,onetaperecordstheindicationsofthebalance,whilethe
otherrecordstheindicationsofthemanometer.
Theprintingoftablesandplottingofgraphsareoperatedbythegiven
systemduringtests,thusallowingtheseniorengineertomonitorthe
experiment.Thisisveryimportantwhendoingbasicresearchofnew
phenomena.
(f
1559/1563
09/09/2015
Cs^
br
o^^p
r_L_2
1560/1563
09/09/2015
Don
T7
FIGURE9.23,AdigitaltoanalogconverterforanautomaticXYplotter.
1amplifier;2balancingmotor;3rheostat:4potentiometercon
trolledbyrelays.
Figure9.22showsanarrangementofanautomaticXYplotterfor
convertingthedigitalnumberscodedonpapertapetoacontinuouspen
motion.TheXYplottercanchoosedatafromdifferentmeasuring
channelsandplotseveralofthemasafunctionofaparametermeasured
inanychannel.Abovethepaper(1),paralleltotheXaxis,acarriage(3)
movesonguides(2),Thecarriageisdrivenbyscrew(6),Thecarriage
movingalongtheYaxis,carriesapen(5),withanelectromagneticmarker.
Therulerandthepenaredrivenbybalancingservomotors(7)and(8),
connectedtodigitaltoanalogconverters(9),Thedigitalvaluesreadfrom
thepapertapearetransmittedaspulsestotheXYregistersfromwhere
theyarefedtotheconverters(9),
Eachconverter(Figure9,23)consistsofabalancedWheatstonebridge,
twobranchesofwhichareformedbyagroupoffixedresisters.The
resistersareswitchedintothebranchesbyasysteniofelectromagnetic
1561/1563
09/09/2015
relays.Thebalancingmotorofthebridgeisconnectedwiththe
correspondingleadscrewoftheXYplotter.Whenbothbridgesreach
591
balance,theelectromagneticmarkerfreesthepen,whichfallsfora
momientonthepaper,makingadot.Thepenisthenraised,theYrelay
registerreceivessignalsfromtheotherchannel,andthepenismovedto
anewposition,makinganotherdot.
BIBLICX3RAPHY
1.Kitov,A.N.andN.A.Krinitskii.Elektronnyetsifrovie
vychislitel'nyemashiny(ElectronicDigitalComputers).Moskva,
Fizmatgiz.1961.
2.Lebedev,S.A..Elektronnyevychislitel'nyemashiny(Electronic
Computers).Izd.ANSSSR.1956.
3.Scholes,J.F.M.TheAutomaticHandlingoftheExperimentalDatain
WindTunnels.BritishCommunicationsandElectronics,Vol.4,
No.10.1957.
4.Smiith,R.L.AHighSpeedPotentiometerforRecordingonPunched
1562/1563
09/09/2015
PaperTape,ISAProc,Vol.7.1952.
5.Sharp,E.M.ADigitalMultiplePointPressureRecordingSystem.ISA
Proc,Vol.7,1952.
6.Sharp,E.M.AnAutomaticDataRecordingSystemforAeronautical
ResearchIRETrans.Instrum.,Vol.6,No.7.1957.
7.Haneman,V.S.AutomaticReductionofWindTunnelData.Aeron.
Engns.Rev.,Vol.12,No.2.1953.
8.Rawlings,J.H.MechanizedDataHandling.ISAProc,Vol.7.1952.
592
$9.00
NASATTF346
CoverprintedinJerusalem,IsraelTT6651026
1563/1563

Full Text of - Wind Tunnels and Their Instrumentation

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Full Text of - Wind Tunnels and Their Instrumentation

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

09/09/2015

You might also like