Virginia State History -- WWII Era (1940-1948)

Virginia History Series

#15c 2010

Time-line of Major Events

1940 Pope-Leighey House was built in Falls Church by architect Frank Lloyd Wright and later moved to Woodlawn
Plantation south of Alexandria, VA near Mount Vernon
1940 Expansion of Ft. Belvoir, Virginia to meet anticipated War requirements; ERTC estab. at Ft. Belvoir in March 1941 for
the training of Military Engineers (i.e., the Engineer Replacement Training Center)
1941 First Commercial B&W TV transmission in America
1941 March 11th President Roosevelt Signs Lend-Lease Act Giving Materiel Support to Countries Fighting Axis Powers
1941 95th Engineering Regiment formed at Ft. Belvoir; June 1942 sent to help build the Alcan Hiway to Alaska thru Canada
1941 On 11 Sept. 1941, Construction began on the Pentagon It was completed 15 January 1943
1941 December 7 Japan Attacks US Forces at Pearl Harbor; December 8 US Declares War on Japan; December 11, 1941 US
Declares War on Germany & Italy
1942 Ellen Glasgow of Richmond is awarded the Pulitzer Prize in Literature for In This Our Life
1942 On 8 Nov. 1942, Americans Landed in North Africa to fight with Allies against Axis Powers (Germany & Italy)
1943 Marine officer Lewis Chesty Burwell Puller of West Point, VA becomes a highly decorated soldier
1944 Edward Reilly Stettinius, Jr. - living in Virginia - becomes U.S. Secretary of State in FDRs Cabinet
1944 On 6 June 1944, Allies Landed in Normandy to Fight Germans in Europe
1945 Newport News shipyard workers assembled about 400 ships of over 3,500,000 tons during the War
1945 Virginians Celebrate Victory in Europe (i.e., V-E) Day (May 8, 1945)
1945 On Aug. 6th and 9th, 1945, Atomic Bombs were Dropped on Japan; Japan Surrenders Aug. 14th
1945 USA Representative Stettinius and President Truman Sign UN Charter on June 26 at 1st Meeting in San Francisco, CA
1945 VDOT begins planning 1st Rural Interstate Highway routes in Virginia (e.g., I-81)
1946 In Irene Morgan v. Commonwealth of VA the US Supreme Court ruled that racial segregation in interstate commerce
violated the US Constitution (i.e., was illegal)
1947 George C. Marshall was a 1901 VMI Graduate and US Army Chief of Staff during WWII. As US Secretary of State, he
introduced the American Plan for European Recovery -- called the Marshall Plan. Received Nobel Peace Prize in 1953
1948 April 22nd WTVR-TV (CBS 6) in Richmond began broadcasting

Pope-Leighey House. This "Usonian" house was developed by Frank Lloyd Wright
as a means of providing affordable housing for people of moderate means. Many
innovative concepts, including spacious interiors, corner windows and a
cantilevered roof, began here and were quickly adapted across America. Today the
house can be viewed as an origin of ideas that have influenced modern American
homes. In 1965 the house was relocated from Falls Church, VA to the grounds of
Woodlawn Plantation near Mount Vernon.

An NTSC TV Set
This TV set picked up the first
commercial NTSC TV signal,
which was broadcast in the U.S.
in 1941. The signal was black
and white. In 1954, a new NTSC
standard added color, which
was transmitted as a composite
video signal. (Image courtesy of
www.TVhistory.TV)
[WTVR-TV (CBS 6) -- the first
television station in Richmond -was the first television station in
America south of Washington,
DC (1948)]

1941 GE Model 90 TV Set

NBC began experimental broadcasts in New York on April 30, 1939 with a
broadcast of the opening of the 1939 New York World's Fair. The broadcast was
transmitted by NBC's New York television station W2XBS Channel 1 (now
WNBC-TV channel 4) and was seen by about 1,000 viewers within the station's
roughly 40-mile (64 km) coverage area from their Empire State Building
transmitter location. NBC's experimental New York City station was licensed for
commercial telecasts beginning on July 1, 1941. An actual picture of the 1939
broadcast (above) features President Franklin D. Roosevelt speaking from
the New York World's Fair.

US Rents Naval Bases from Britain

In negotiations with Prime Minister
Winston Churchill, FDR leased naval
bases and airfields in British possessions
across the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic
coast of Canada. These talks ultimately
produced the Destroyers for Bases
agreement in September 1940.

US Rents
Naval Bases

This agreement saw 50 surplus American

destroyers transferred to the British
Royal Navy and Royal Canadian Navy in
exchange for rent-free, 99-year leases on
various British military installations.

Surplus US Destroyers

Antigua - Naval Air Station, Sea Plane Base

British Guiana - Naval Air Station, Sea Plane Base
Jamaica - Naval Air Station, Sea Plane Base
St. Lucia - Naval Air Station, Sea Plane Base
Bermuda - Naval Air Station, Sea Plane Base
Newfoundland - Three Army Air Force Bases
(Pepperell, Goose Bay and Stephenville), Naval
Operating Base Argentia and numerous Marine and
Army Bases and Detachments, 88 in total
Trinidad - Naval Operating Base, Naval Air Station,
Sea Plane Base, Lighter Than Air (Blimp) Base and
Radio Station

Construction programs at Fort Belvoir,

Virginia were accelerated in 1940 with
the outbreak of World War II in Europe
and Japanese expansion in Asia and
the Pacific. The United States decided
to begin preparing for the possibility
of joining the conflict, and one of the
actions performed was the expansion
of Fort Belvoir by adding 3,000 acres
north of U.S. Route 1 (i.e., North
Post,) to make room for the new
Engineer Replacement Training Center
(ERTC), established at Fort Belvoir in
March 1941. This wave of temporary
construction occurred in an attempt to
house approximately 24,000 enlisted
men and officers. Starting in Oct. 21,
1940, the military constructed 643 new
buildings at Ft. Belvoir including a 55building, 800 patient hospital complete
with central heating plant and
enclosed walks connecting the wards
and buildings.

Ft. Belvoir
1941

Training
1943

95th Engineering Regiment

The African Americanmanned 95th Engineer
Battalion (General Service)
was formed in April 1941 at
Fort Belvoir, Virginia as part
of the U.S. Army buildup
preceding World War II.
Unlike many construction
units, the 95th received
considerable training,
participating in the Carolina
Maneuvers and receiving
practical experience at
Camp A. P. Hill, Virginia,
and Fort Bragg, North
Carolina.
Expanded to regimental size
following Pearl Harbor, it
was sent to Canada in June
1942 to assist in building
the Alcan Highway

(Right) 95th in
Training at
Camp A. P. Hill,
VA; (Below)
Alcan Highway
built from
Washington
State To Alaska
thru Canada

First Army Maneuvers in the Carolinas. These nine musicians, and formerly members of leading colored
dance orchestras, were members of the 41st Engineers Regiment, Fort Bragg, N.C., and played with the
Regimental dance orchestra. They are L to R: Pfc. Louis W. Carrington, Richmond, Va; Sgt. Rufus Wagner,
Atlantic City, N.J., formerly with Blanch Calloways orchestra; Pvt. Elmon Simon, Norfolk, Va., formerly
with Tiny Bradshaw; Pvt. Teddy Wood, Richmond, Va., formerly with the Roseland Ballroom orchestra of
New York City; Cpl. Milton S. Bell, Richmond, Va., formerly with Johnsons Happy Pals; Sgt. Wilburn
Pogue, Washington, D.C., formerly with Duke Ellington and Ethel Waters; and Sgt. Frank Wess, formerly
with Blanch Calloway; and in the foreground are (left) Charles L. Anderson of Virginia, formerly with Don
Albert; and Pfc. George Wolfe, Atlantic City, N.J., formerly with Ethel Waters. [South Carolina. October 20,
1941.]

Marine Corp Base Quantico, Virginia

Turner Field 1942

Quantico trained
15,000 Marine
lieutenants and
numerous officers
from other services,
who became leaders
during WWII
Movie star Tyrone Power (below left) enlisted in the
Marine Corps, completed boot camp in San Diego,
and then attended Officer's Candidate School (OCS)
at Marine Corps Base Quantico, VA where he was
commissioned a Second Lieutenant on June 2, 1943.

Marine Corps Base Quantico,

sometimes abbreviated MCB Quantico,
is a major United States Marine Corps
training base located near Triangle,
Virginia, covering nearly 100 square
miles (260 km2) in southern Prince
William County, northern Stafford
County, and southeastern Fauquier
County.
The base is known as the "Crossroads
of the Marine Corps."

Frederick and Peggy Branch (right) 1st African American

Commissioned 2nd Lt. (11.10.1945 at Quantico, Virginia)

Americas Lend-Lease Program

America tried very hard to stay out of World
War II. Many Americans wanted the
nation to remain neutral. In the 1930s,
Congress passed several Neutrality Acts
that prevented sales/shipments of war
materials from going to any fighting
countries. America did this so that none of
the other countries would think that America
was taking sides in the war. The Neutrality
Acts also forbade American citizens from
traveling on ships that belonged to fighting
countries except at their own risk. To get
around the Neutrality Acts and help Great
Britain continue fighting against Germany,
President Franklin Roosevelt signed the
Lend Lease Act, which effectively ended
US neutrality and allowed America to lend
or lease weapons, ammunition, ships, tanks,
airplanes, and other tools of war to allied
forces. If the allied forces damaged any of
the weapons they would replace them or pay
for them after the war.

With a Black Band on his Arm, Franklin

D. Roosevelt Signed the Lend-Lease
Act on March 11, 1941 (i.e., morning
his mothers recent passing)

The Lend-Lease Act of March 11, 1941, was the

principal means for providing U.S. military aid to
foreign nations during World War II. The act
authorized the president to transfer arms or any
other defense materials for which Congress
appropriated money to "the government of any
country whose defense the President deems vital
to the defense of the United States." Britain, the
Soviet Union, China, Brazil, and many other
countries received US weapons under this law.
By allowing the president to transfer war
matriel to a beleaguered Britain--and without
payment as required by the revised Neutrality
Act of 1939--the act enabled the British to keep
fighting until events led America into the
conflict. It also skirted the thorny problems of
war debts that had followed World War I.
Lend-Lease brought the United States one step
closer to entry into the war. Isolationists, such
as Republican senator Robert Taft, opposed it.
Taft correctly noted that the bill would "give the
President power to carry on a kind of undeclared
war all over the world, in which America would
do everything except actually put soldiers in the
front-line trenches where the fighting is."

Noteworthy Critics and Opponents

of Lend-Lease Included: former
Governor Alf Landon (R-KS),
Senator Burton K. Wheeler (D-MT),
Senator Robert Taft (R-OH), and
Charles Lindbergh (Member of the
America First Committee i.e., a
pro-neutrality pressure group)

US
Goods

Lend-Lease Goods to
Other Countries 1941-45
(Estimates in $millions)

A critical program for winning

the war, Lend-Lease came to
an abrupt end with its
conclusion. As Britain needed
to retain much of the LendLease equipment for postwar
use, the Anglo-American Loan
was signed through which the
British agreed to purchase the
items for approximately ten
cents on the dollar. The total
value of the loan was around
1,075 million. The final
payment on the loan was made
in 2006. All told, Lend-Lease
provided $50.1 billion worth
of supplies to the Allies
during the conflict, with $31.4
billion to Britain, $11.3 billion
to the Soviet Union, $3.2
billion to France and $1.6
billion to China.

Country/Area Support from Lend-Lease

-----------------------------------------------------Britain
$ 31.4 Billion
Soviet Union

$ 11.3 Billion

France

$ 3.2 Billion

China

$ 1.6 Billion

-----------------------------------------------------Central & So. Am. $ 501 Million

Middle East

$ 68 Million

Yugoslavia

$ 32 Million

Africa
$ 177 Million
Lend-Lease Airplanes in Europe

According to James M. Burns, the U.S.

crossed the threshold from peace to war
in July 1941 as:
the war widened in Europe,
the USs Atlantic lifeline (i.e., lendlease convoys) came under attack,
the British sought more aid,
public opinion changed to favor more
intervention, and
defense production pulled the U.S. out
of the great depression.
US Lend-Lease B-17 Bombers
Arrive in Britain July 24, 1941

FDR and Churchill at Atlantic

Conference in Newfoundland
Aug. 9-12, 1941

1941 Attacks on the USs Atlantic

Life-line
Sept. 11 - FDR radio speech (below
right) declared attack on USS Greer
was "piracy" :
as was the Aug. 17 sinking of USPanama freighter "Sessa" killing 24
of 27 crew
USS Greer
and the Sep. 5 sinking of US
freighter "Steel Seafarer" clearly
flying a US flag
Sep. 11, 1941 - Following the Greer incident
off Iceland, President Roosevelt orders all
US naval vessels to attack any ship that
threatens American shipping or foreign
shipping under American escort.

FDR delivering his radio speech with

black armband mourning the recent
death of his mother Sara Roosevelt

Oct. 31, 1941 - USS Reuben James (DD 245) with a crew of 115 was torpedoed and
sunk by the German submarine U-552 while escorting a convoy to England from Halifax,
Nova Scotia. She was the first U.S. vessel destroyed by the Axis Powers.

Japanese Advances in Asia

Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere

was a concept created and promulgated
during the Sho-wa era by the government
and military of the Empire of Japan. It
represented Japans desire to create a selfsufficient "block of Asian nations led by the
Japanese and free of Western powers".
The Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere
comprised Japan, Manchukuo, China, and
parts of Southeast Asia, that would,
according to imperial Japanese
propaganda, establish a new international
order in Asia for countries that would share
prosperity and peace, free from Western
colonialism and domination

(above left) Map of Japanese occupation of Manchukuo (i.e.,

north-eastern China) in 1940; (below left) Poster of Manchukuo
promoting harmony between Japanese, Chinese, and Manchu.
The caption says: "With the help of Japan, China, and
Manchukuo, the world can be in peace." The flags shown are,
left to right: the flag of Manchukuo; the flag of Japan; and, the
"Five Races Under One Union" flag.

Japans Actions -- Prelude to war

1931 Japan overruns Chinese Manchuria, quits League of Nations.
Aug. 1937 Japanese troops attack Chinese city of Shanghai and face
three months of fierce opposition from Chinese.
July 1939 Japanese troops move into northern
Indochina.
Sept. 27, 1940 Japan signs the Tripartite Pact,
aligning itself with Germany and Italy
(i.e., the Axis Powers signing at right)
Jan. 1941 Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, who
assumed command of the Japanese Combined
Fleet in 1939, proposes an attack on Pearl Harbor.
Preparation of attack plans begins in March.
June 1941 Japan now occupies all of Indochina. In response, the U.S.
freezes Japanese assets and cuts off oil exports to Japan on July 24.
Aug. 1941 Japan negotiates with U.S. for removal of sanctions, but
decides to go to war with U.S. and Great Britain if talks are not successful
by October.
Sept. 24, 1941 U.S. intercepts intelligence between Tokyo and the
Japanese Consulate General in Honolulu, asking spies to report positions
of U.S. ships at Pearl Harbor.
Oct. 17. 1941 General Hideki Tojo, war minister and leader of military
extremists, becomes Prime Minister of Japan.

Japans Actions Prelude to War (Cont.)

Nov. 5, 1941 Admiral Yamamoto orders the attack on Pearl Harbor.
Nov. 26, 1941 The Japanese First Air Fleet leaves Japans Kurile Islands for
Hawai'i. The fleet takes a route rarely used by merchant ships, and avoids radio
transmissions to remain undetected.
Dec. 6, 1941 In Washington D.C., U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt makes a
final appeal to the Emperor of Japan for peace. There is no reply. Late this same
day, the U.S. code-breaking service begins intercepting a 14-part Japanese
message and deciphers the first 13 parts. The Americans believe a Japanese
attack is imminent, most likely somewhere in Southeast Asia.
Dec. 7, 1941 About 9 a.m. Washington D.C. time, U.S. officials decode the last
part of the Japanese message, stating that diplomatic relations with the U.S. are
to be broken off. About an hour later, another Japanese message is intercepted.
It instructs the Japanese embassy to break off talks with the U.S. at 1 p.m.
Washington time. The U.S. War Department then sends out an alert to Hawaii
military officials. Technical delays prevent the alert from arriving until noon
Hawaii time, four hours after the attack has already begun.
Almost at the same time, Japanese warplanes strike the Philippines and two
U.S. islands: Wake and Guam, which are later occupied. The Japanese also
invade Thailand and Malaya. Later that month, Japanese troops invade Burma
and Hong Kong.

Part of the Japanese plan for the attack on Pearl Harbor included breaking off negotiations with the
United States 30 minutes before the attack began. Diplomats from the Japanese Embassy in Washington,
including the Japanese Ambassador, Admiral Kichisaburo Nomura, and special representative Saburo
Kurusu, had been conducting extended talks with the State Department regarding the U.S. reactions to
the Japanese move into Indochina in the summer.

Admiral Kichisabur Nomura (left), the Japanese Ambassador to the United States, and special envoy
Sabur Kurusu (right) smile with reporters (who dont know of their attack) as they leave a brief meeting
with U.S. Secretary of State Cordell Hull on December 7, 1941, just after Japans surprise attack on Pearl
Harbor in Hawaii. [Kurusu was interned by the United States at the Homestead in Hot Springs, Virginia
until an exchange of diplomatic personnel was arranged in June of 1942. On August 20, 1942, Nomura
returned to Japan. ]

Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor,

Honolulu, Hawaii (Dec. 7, 1941)

The explosion in the center of this

aerial photo, taken from a
Japanese airplane, is a torpedo
strike on the USS West Virginia.

USS West Virginia Torpedoed

and Sinking in Pearl Harbor

Pearl Harbor in Hawaii on December 7, 1941, just as the USS Shaw exploded.

Sailors at Naval Air Station, Ford Island Watch the

USS Shaw Exploding from Their Damaged Airfield

188 US Aircraft Were Destroyed in the Attack on Pearl

Harbor (Most of them on the Ground)

USS Arizona burned for two days after being

hit. The wreck remains at the bottom of Pearl
Harbor and is a war memorial to the 1,177
sailors/marines who died in its sinking.

President Franklin Roosevelt addresses a joint

session of Congress asking for a declaration
of war against Japan, December 8, 1941

FDR Signs Declarations of War Against Japan 12.8.1941 and Germany 12.11.1941

World War II changed Virginia forever, reshaping its landscape, reconfiguring its
economy, and transforming its people. Where there had been sleepy cities, the war
awakened massive development. Where there had been clearly defined paths for
women, the war opened new opportunities. Where there had been strict segregation
between the races, the war raised questions about such laws and practices. In some
respects World War II accelerated changes already underway in Virginia--the naval
buildup in Norfolk, for example, began well before 1941.
Virginians participated in nearly every aspect of the war. Its soldiers fought across the
Pacific and landed on Omaha Beach on D-Day with the 29th Infantry Division. Virginia
citizens built aircraft carriers, destroyers, submarines, and bombs. Virginians on the
coast--men and women--stood guard in watch towers, patrolled beaches, and spotted
airplanes. The war came remarkably close to home in 1942 when German U-Boats
sunk Allied ships at the opening of the Chesapeake Bay in Virginia.
[From the film "Virginia Fights WWII, there are over 1,600 photographs at the web
site Ground Beneath Our Feet: Virginia Fights WWII. Some of these images are from
the personal collections of the individuals interviewed for the film. Others are from the
National Archives, the Library of Virginia, and other institutions holding World War II
Virginia images.]

Pentagon Construction (1941-43)

Construction commenced on 11
September 1941, and continued
rapidly during the winter of 1941-42
in Arlington Co., VA. Architects for
the project had little or no lead time;
sometimes construction actually
outpaced planning. On 1 December
1941, 4,000 men were laboring on
the building in three shifts. One
section was completed by the end of
April 1942 and the first tenants
moved in. The basic shell and roof
were finished in one year, and the
building was completed by 15
January 1943.
The Pentagon was the largest office
building in the country at that time
covering 29 acres with 17.5 miles of
corridors. At its peak the Pentagon
housed nearly 33,000 workers.

Construction of the Pentagon Completed (1/15/1943)

Homeland Security & Support

for the War Effort

Dedicating New Spotter

Tower at Emporia, VA

The country was on a war footing

meaning that the people and their
industries were mobilized to
produce war materials and to
support the troops overseas. This
mobilization included rationing of
vital materials (e.g., metals,
rubber, food) and minimal use of
everything in domestic activities so
that the maximum amount of
resources were available for use in
the war effort.
On the home front, security
against attack was a vital concern
especially in coastal areas that
might be attacked by sea or air
(e.g., in Tidewater Virginia). Landbased civil defenses and a
network of Coast Guard operations
were organized for security in the
Chesapeake bay area.

Women Air Raid Wardens CG Spotter at Beach

American Red Cross Canteen

Corps, Newport News, VA, 1942

Boy Scouts Recycling Aluminum.

Rationing Food Store

Rubber Tire Recycling Depot

Movie Star
Rita Hayworth
sacrificed her
metal bumpers
for the war
effort

To learn how to shop

with point stamps, these
youngsters in a Fairfax
County, Virginia grade
school have set up a
play store, complete with
point value table and
informational material on
point rationing.

Entertainer Bob Hope Selling War Bonds

with members of the US Coast Guard
Womens Reserve (SPARS)

In 1942, Congress created a new branch of the Coast Guard called the U.S. Coast
Guard Women's Reserve. Eventually known as SPARs, after the Coast Guard motto
("Semper Paratus, Always Ready"), over 10,000 women joined the ranks between 1942
and 1946

People at table in Fredericksburg, VA with movie star Greer Garson (2nd from left)
at a war bond rally

USO Dance at
Norfolk, VA

Elias Codd promotes war bond

sales at his delicatessen (1945)

Bayview School children work on a

Victory Garden (2 April 1943)

Women Flyers
Ferrying
Bombers

Recruitment Posters Extolling Service Opportunities for Women in WWII

German Sailors Abandoning U-Boat Sinking in the Chesapeake Bay

Rescued German POW Sailors

Assembled on Virginias Docks

German U-Boat Prisoners Eating in US Navy Mess Hall

POWs Working at
Eggleston Plantation,
Chesterfield Co., VA
German POWs Working at the
Cavalry Remount Facility in Front
Royal, VA

USS Spencer (a Coast Guard Cutter that saw service on convoy duty in the North
Atlantic) is credited with sinking the German U-225 on February 21, 1943 and
the U-175 on April 17, 1943 with the loss of one crew member due to gunfire
and with the rescue of 22 U-boat survivors.

German U-boat POWs Marching Under Guard on

a Virginia Base as US Sailors Watch

Newport News & Hampton Roads

(HR) Growth & Development
World War II brought boom times to
shipbuilding and military
installations (e.g., Fort Eustis) in
Newport News and Hampton Roads.
This greatly affected all of Warwick
County and the Peninsula. Warwick
County began growing as upper-and
middle-income residents moved from
the urbanized parts of Newport News
to newly forming suburbs.
Commercial development followed the
population movement and small strip
shopping centers sprang up along
Warwick Boulevard, the County's main
transportation artery.

Newport News/HR area map (top)

and Shipyards (below)

The HMS Mauretania (passenger liner turned troop transport ship) is shown here
docked at the C&O Pier, at Newport News, Va. in September 1942. On board, were
2,036 German prisoners of war who were turned over to the Canadian military.

Newport News Ship Building (Left) Hampton Roads Point of Embarkation for Overseas
Deployment of Men and Materials (Top Rt) Troops Boarding Ships at HR (Btm-Rt)

Norfolk Naval Shipyard in Portsmouth, Virginia, is one of the largest

shipyards in the world; specializing in repairing, overhauling and modernizing
ships and submarines. It's the oldest and largest industrial facility that
belongs to the United States Navy

The Emergency Shipbuilding Program (late 1940-September 1945) was

a United States government effort to quickly build Simple cargo Ships
(i.e., Liberty Ships) to carry troops and materiel to allies and foreign
theatres during World War II. Run by the U.S. Maritime Commission,
the program built almost 6,000 ships for WWII.

SS Patrick Henry
Manufactured at
Bethlehem-Fairfield
Shipyard, Baltimore, MD
1st Of the
EC2-S-C1 type
LIBERTY SHIPS
September 1941

Liberty Ships (EC2-S-C1 type):

SS Thomas Nelson

SS Benjamin Harrison
Patrick Henry (1st Liberty Ship), Charles Carroll, Francis Scott Key, Roger B. Taney, Richard Henry Lee, John
Randolph, George Calvert, American Mariner, (AGM-12), Christopher Newport, Carter Braxton, Samuel Chase, George
Wythe, Benjamin Harrison (VA Signer of the US Declaration of Independence), Francis L. Lee, Thomas Stone, Richard
Bland, George Calvert (II), Thomas Nelson (VA Signer of the US Declaration of Independence), John Witherspoon,
Robert Treat Paine, St. Olaf, Jasmine, Esek Hopkins, Peter Minuit, Alexander Macomb, Henry St. G. Tucker, Eleazar
Wheelock, Thomas Ruffin, William Johnson, Richard Bassett, Oliver Ellsworth, Theodore Foster, James Gunn, John
Henry, Samuel Johnston, William Mac Lay, William Patterson, Luther Martin, William Wirt, Reverdy Johnson, John H.
B. Latrobe, Richard H. Alvey, John P. Poe, Bernard Carter, John Carter Rose, Andrew Hamilton, Benjamin Chew,
William Tilghman, Jared Ingersoll, William Rawle, Horace Binney, John Sergeant, Thomas McKean, William Paca,
Benjamin Rush, Joseph Stanton, John Walker, Pierce Butler, Tristram Dalton, Jonathan Elmer, William Few, William
Grayson, John Mitchell, John W. Brown, James M. Wayne, William B. Woods, Joseph R. Lamar, Thomas Todd, Robert
Trimble, John Catron, John McKinley, John A. Campbell, John M. Harlan, Howell E. Jackson, Edward D. White, Horace
H. Lurton, Henry W. Grady, James W. Wetmore, Frederick Bartholdi, John B. Gordon, Edward P. Alexander, Robert
Battey, Patrick H. Morrissey, Samdee, Joe C. S. Blackburn, John B. Lennon, George G. Crawford, David B. Johnson,
Howard E. Coffin, R. Ney McNeely, (YAG-1955), Benjamin H. Hill, Joseph M. Terrell, Robert R. Livingston, Samalness,
Isaac Shelby, Samfairy, Samfoyle, Samfinn, Samvigna, Samselbu, Samleyte, Samaustral, Samingoy, Samlorian,
Samoland, Donald W. Bain, Augustine B. McManus, James B. Duke, W. P. Few, Alexander S. Clay, F. Southall Farrar,
James W. Cannon, Frank Park, Eugene T. Chamberlain, Thomas B. King, R. Walton Moore, Niels Poulson, Arthur J.
Tyrer, Cassius Hudson, Lunsford Richardson, Johan Printz, Charles S. Haight, R. J. Reynolds, Duncan L. Clinch,
Abigail Gibbons, Charles W. Stiles, Murray M. Blum, Laura Bridgman, Richard Randall, Edward R. Squibb, John H.
Hammond, Albert K. Smiley, Nelson Morris, George W. Norris, Arthur M. Hulbert, M. E. Comerford, Felix Riesenberg,
Robert J. Banks, Vadso, William F. Jerman, William Cox, George R. Poole, Harold O. Wilson, James Bennett Moore,
Halton R. Carey, Harold Dossett, Patrick S. Mahony, Richard A. Van Pelt, Belgian Equality, Charles C. Randleman, Roy
James Cole and Patrick B. Whalen.

The Liberty Ship SS JOHN W. BROWN is one of only two remaining WWII
Liberty Ships, the other one being the SS JEREMIAH OBRIEN which is in SF

In 1941- 42, the Nazis were sinking so many supply ships Allied victory was in
doubt. The Allies decided that ship production would simply have to outpace the
number of vessels sent to the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean. Enter the Liberty
Ships. which were American-made troop transport and cargo ships designed to
make only one solitary ocean voyage from America to overseas. Eighteen
ship yards in America built an astounding 2,742 of the 10,000 ton vessels called
Liberty Ships from 1941 through May of 1945 -- one at the Kaiser shipyard was
built in only 4 days. [Two hundred twenty-nine Liberty ships were lost in WWII]

Building WWII Aircraft

Carriers in Virginia
USS Ticonderoga

USS Boxer
Commissioned/Carrier
8/24/1942 USS Santee
12/31/1942 USS Essex

Class Built at
ACV-29 Norfolk, VA
CV-9
Norfolk, VA

4/14/1943 USS Yorktown

CV-10

8/16/1943 USS Intrepid

CV-11
11/29/1943 USS Hornet
CV-12
1/31/1944 USS Franklin
CV-13
5/8/1944 USS Ticonderoga
CV-14
9/14/1944 USS Shangri-La
CV-38
4/16/1945 USS Boxer
CV-21
6/3//1945 USS Lake Champlain CV-39

Service
North Africa, Layte Gulf, PI
Pacific (e.g., Rabaul, Gilberts, Tarawa,
Kwajalein, Marshall Isl, Marianas, Okinawa, Tokyo)
Norfolk, VA
Pacific (e.g., Midway, Wake Isl., Gilberts,
Tarawa, Kwajalein, Marshall Isl., Marianas, Palau,
New Guinea, Guam, Leyte Gulf, Tokyo)
Norfolk, VA
Philippines
Newport News, VA Saipan
Norfolk, VA
Mainland Japan
Newport News, VA Leyte Gulf, PI, So. China Sea, Tokyo Bay
Norfolk, VA
Okinawa, Mainland Japan
Newport News, VA No Service in WWII; Served in Korean War
Norfolk, VA
No Service in WWII; Brought Troops
Home from Europe

USS Ticonderoga_CV-14_Listing from a Kamakazi Airplane Attack in

Leyte Gulf, PI (21 Jan 1945)

A Kamikaze crashed through her flight deck and his bomb exploded just above her hangar
deck. Several planes stowed nearby erupted into flames. The ship's company fought
valiantly to save the threatened carrier. The Captain ordered magazines and other
compartments flooded to prevent further explosions and to correct a 10 starboard list; and,
he instructed the damage control parties to continue flooding compartments on
Ticonderoga's port side. That operation induced a 10 port list which neatly dumped the fire
overboard. Firefighters and plane handlers completed the job by dousing the flames and
jettisoning burning aircraft. After transferring wounded men to hospital and planes to other
carriers, she left the Pacific for repairs at Puget Sound Navy Yard in Bremerton, WA

Camp LEE, VIRGINIA, was built at the outset of

World War I. Over 134,000 soldiers trained there
during WWI. It was torn down in 1920 and made
into a wildlife sanctuary for the Commonwealth of
Virginia. Camp Lee was reactivated in 1940 and
became a bustling center of activity. Here was
located the Quartermaster Replacement Training
Center, a Quartermaster Board for research and
development, and a Technical Training Center for
producing doctrinal literature and training aids.
By mid-1941, 10,400 trainees were qualifying every
three months in basic military duties and technical
subjects. Over 300,000 soldiers trained here
during the course of World War II.

Camp Pickett, located near Blackstone, Va., was initially the home of the 79th
Infantry Division and other Second U.S. Army units. The terrain at Camp Pickett
was suited to a varied training program. The surrounding countryside was
rolling and wooded, with numerous lakes and streams. The soil was a red clay
that became a quagmire when wet. On 19 June 1942, Camp Pickett became the
base for the Medical Replacement Training Center as trainees were marched
there over the 42 miles from Camp Lee.

In 1942, the War Department authorized the center to expand enrollment by 5,000
trainees per cycle. On 14 December 1942, one white battalion was converted to a Negro
battalion to accommodate the increasing number of Negro trainees assigned to the
training center which continued to enroll trainees until mid-1943. With a declining rate
of activations, the Medical Department's demand for replacement training was reduced
and the Medical Replacement Training Center was ordered to close in October 1943
after the last training class graduated.

Training and Camp Pickett, Va [The official dedication of

Camp Pickett took place July 3, 1942 -- the 79th anniversary
of Pickett's Charge at Gettysburg. In addition to military and
political VIPs, members of the Pickett family attended ]

This stadium at Camp Pickett, VA (i.e., a 41,000+ ac base near Blackstone,

VA) was built by German prisoners of WWII and is still in use by the Army, as
well as by schools that hold football camps there today.

K-9 Training Center, Front Royal, VA

1st Coast Guard and Army Graduation Class

Front Royal Dog Training Center (1942)

Fort Eustis is a US Army

installation located in Newport
News, Virginia
Camp Abraham Eustis became
Fort Eustis and a permanent
military installation in 1923. It
housed a federal prison,
primarily for bootleggers, during
Prohibition. Fort Eustis was
reopened as a military
installation in August 1940 and
became the Coast Artillery
Replacement Training Center.

WWII German POWs being transported to Ft.

Eustis in March 1946 for Re-orientation

POWs at Ft. Eustis, VA (clockwise: going to

theater, attending church, listening to lecture)

Aside from the loss of lives suffered by

the community, arguably the most
significant local impact of the war
occurred in 1944 when the U.S. Defense
Plants Corporation built a factory to
manufacture rayon tire cord in Scottsville,
VA. The plant held its ground-breaking
ceremony in April of 1944. The
cornerstone was laid on May 24 by
Governor Colgate W. Darden, Jr. (19421946), assisted by Scottsville Mayor Percy
Harris. Factory production commenced
late in 1944. Funded in part by the
Scottsville Lions Club, Albemarle County,
and the town of Scottsville, the plant was
operated by the United States Rubber
Company. Within one year of opening, it
employed 350 people. Almost overnight,
Scottsville was transformed from a rural
village to an industrial towna change
that had lasting influence on the character
of the community.
At the end of WWII in 1945, Uniroyal
purchased and operated the plant

The U.S. Naval Torpedo Station in Alexandria, Virginia manufactured Mark III
torpedoes in the 1920s and mostly Mark XIV torpedoes during World War II.

Production on the Mark XIV, a submarine borne torpedo, and the Mark III
aircraft torpedo resumed at an intense rate in WWII; in fact, men and women
worked around the clock and were given only two days off a year. Gradually
as space was needed, ten additional buildings were added to the complex.

U.S. Naval Torpedo Station, Alexandria, Virginia [Heads of departments pose with the final
torpedo manufactured by the Torpedo Station, circa Summer 1945. The Naval Torpedo
Station in Alexandria, Virginia was one of only three United States Navy factories to
manufacture torpedoes during World War II. During World War II, this Torpedo Station
employed 6,000 munitions workers who built the Mark XIV torpedo ]

Patrol Torpedo Boat (PT-109)

John F. Kennedys USS PT-109 (Left) Stowed on board the "Liberty Ship"
Joseph Stanton, at the Norfolk Navy Yard, Virginia, 20 August 1942. Note heavy
bracing at the PT boat's stern and on her deck, to prevent movement as she is
transported to the Pacific. Also note her torpedo tubes, engine mufflers and
20mm gun mount, with "109" painted on it. (Top Rt Crew) (Btm Rt PT 109)

Langley Aeronautical Laboratory was located at Langley Field in Elizabeth City

County, Virginia, just north of the town of Hampton and some 100 miles south of
Washington, D.C. The original east area consisted of 23 acres. The west area,
developed in the early 1940s, consisted of 750 acres, 430 owned by the National
Advisory Committee on Aeronautics (NACA) [currently called NASA] and 320 by
the army air corp. Runways, some utilities, and other facilities (e.g., Huge Wind
Tunnels) were used by the NACA and the military jointly.

U.S. Army Air Corps Curtiss P-40 fighters of the 33rd Pursuit Squadron, 8th
Pursuit Group at Langley Field, Virginia (USA) in 1941.

A giant of the skyways prepares for flight training at Langley Field, Va. The
four powerful engines of the YB-17 bomber are warmed up before a take off
(May 1942)

Art Mack in Four

Leaf Clover, just
back from Berlin,
May 8, 1944

Arthur W. Mack enlisted in the National Guard, was taken into the Army in 1941, and was
sent to Norfolk, VA. There he met a civilian Army typist from North Carolina named Tess.
They married in 1942 and he was accepted for pilot training at Langley. After completing
flight training at Langley, Mack became the captain of a B-17 (with a crew of ten) and flew
25 missions from England over Germany.
In 1944, he won the Distinguished Flying Cross for safely bringing his heavily damaged
B-17 back from a bombing run over Germany.

War in Europe
(Against Germany
& Italy)

North African
Campaign

From Gibraltar, Lt. Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower took command of the Allied invasion of
North Africa. American forces, convoyed directly from the United States, landed along
the Atlantic coast of French Morocco, near Casablanca. Meanwhile, American and
British troops sailing from England landed in Algeria. After some negotiations, French
units in North Africa joined the Allied forces.

Eisenhowers
Headquarters

Major Battles at Tebessa

and Kaserine Passes
(circled)

American Landings in North

Africa - 8th November 1942
(under command of General
Eisenhower from Gibraltar)

While the Allies tightened their grip on

Morocco and Algeria, their troops raced
to reach strategic positions in
neighboring Tunisia. A month earlier
the British in Egypt under Lt. Gen. Sir
Bernard L. Montgomery had mounted a
powerful attack on the Germans at El
Alamein, sending Rommel (leather coat
with staff) and his German-Italian
Panzer Army reeling back into Libya.
Allied forces raced for the coast of
Tunisia hoping to trap Rommel between
the Americans and Montgomery's troops.
The Germans poured troops into Tunisia
by air and sea; and, Instead of catching
Rommel, the Allies faced a protracted
struggle. On 14 February 1943, the Axis
commanders sent German and Italian
forces through the passes, hoping to
penetrate the American positions in
Tunisia and either envelop the British in
the north or seize Allied supply depots.

German forces quickly cut off and overwhelmed two battalions of American
infantry positioned too far apart for mutual support, and the experienced panzers
beat back counterattacks by American reserves, including elements of the U.S. 1st
Armored Division.
U.S. troops began evacuating airfields and supply depots on the plain and falling
back to the western arm of the mountains. Dug in around the oasis town of Sbeitla,
American infantry and armor managed to hold off the Germans through 16
February, but defenses there began to disintegrate during the night, and the town
lay empty by midday on the 17th. From the oasis, roads led back to two passes,
the Sbiba and the Kasserine. By 21 February the Germans had pushed through
both and were poised to seize road junctions leading to the British rear.
1st Armored Division turned back German probes toward Tebessa, and British
armor met a more powerful thrust toward Thala, where four battalions of field
artillery from the U.S. 9th Infantry Division arrived just in time to bolster sagging
defenses. On the night of 22 February the Germans began to pull back. A few
days later Allied forces returned to the passes.
The first American battle with German forces had cost more than 6,000 U.S.
casualties, including 300 dead and two-thirds of the tank strength of the 1st
Armored Division.

In March, after the British

repulsed another German attack,
the Allies resumed the offensive.
The U.S. II Corps, now under the
command of Maj. Gen. George
S. Patton, attacked in
coordination with an assault on
the German line by
Montgomery's troops.
American and British forces in
the south met on 7 April as they
squeezed Axis forces into the
northeastern tip of the country.
The final drive to clear Tunisia
began on 19 April 1943.
On 7 May 1943, British armor
entered Tunis and American
infantry entered Bizerte. Six
days later, the last Axis
resistance in Africa ended with
the surrender of over 275,000
Axis prisoners of war.

Patton (lt) Montgomery &

Patton (rt)

General George S. Patton, who

attended VMI in 1907 (cadet picture)
and graduated from West Point in
1909, came from a long line of
soldiers, including General Hugh
Mercer of the American Revolutionary
War.
His great-grandfather, John M.
Patton, was a governor of Virginia.
His grandfather, Colonel George S.
Patton, was killed during the Battle of
Winchester in the Civil War.
A great-uncle, Waller T. Patton, died
of wounds received in Pickett's
Charge during the Battle of
Gettysburg.
Two other great-uncles, John M.
Patton and Isaac Patton, served as
colonels in the Confederate States
Army, while yet another great uncle,
William T. Glassell, was a Confederate
States Navy officer.

Campaign in Sicily & Italy

Landing Troops on Sicily

On the night of 9-10 July 1943, an

Allied armada of 2,590 vessels
launched one of the largest
combined operations of World War
II -- the invasion of Sicily.
Over the next thirty-eight days, half
a million Allied soldiers, sailors, and
airmen grappled with their German
and Italian counterparts for control
of this rocky outwork of Hitler's
"Fortress Europe."
When the struggle was over, Sicily
became the first piece of the Axis
homeland to fall to Allied forces
during World War II. More
important, it served as both a base
for the invasion of Italy and as a
training ground for many of the
officers and enlisted men who
eleven months later landed on the
beaches of Normandy.

Sicily

The Allied invasion of Sicily, code named Operation Husky, was a major
World War II campaign, in which the Allies took Sicily from the Axis (Italy
and Nazi Germany). It was a large scale amphibious and airborne
operation, followed by six weeks of land combat. It launched the Italian
Campaign.

American Landing Area

British Landing Area

Battles in Sicily from Landings in Gulfs of Cela and

Noto to Massina on the Northern Tip of the Island
Taking Palermo

Pattons Americans Won

The Race to Massina

Americans

British

Patton Landing in Gulf of Cela (Left)

Montgomery Landing in Gulf of Noto
(Right)

In this Our Life is the story of Asa

Timberlake. When Asa was 12, his
father lost a battle to keep a big
corporation from buying his successful
family-run tobacco company in their
Virginia town. So the old man killed
himself, and Asa, who had intended to
live a life of comfort, began working in
the stemming room of his father's
former company. He marries the
daughter of a respected family and has
two daughters, although he must have
wanted sons: Ms. Stanley, who marries
Craig, an idealistic liberal lawyer; and
Ms. Roy, who marries Pete, a reckless
doctor who eventually kills himself when
Ms. Roy falls in love with Craig, which
drives her sister Stanley to insanity.
The book is about modern times (in
1942), the loss of the individual, and
the destiny of our lives.

Ellen Glasgow of
Richmond, VA won the
Pulitzer Prize for fiction
with her 1942 Novel In
This Our Life

War in Italy
The invasion of Italy was a sequel to the
conquest of Sicily. When Messina (in
Sicily) fell to the Allies, they had
accomplished the basic aim of clearing
the enemy from Africa and opening the
Mediterranean to Allied shipping.
The invasion of Italy initiated a new and
offensive phase of strategy which
culminated in the invasion of western
France and the final defeat of Germany.
American Invasion Forces Headed to Salerno

US General Mark Wayne Clark on

board USS Ancon during the landings
at Salerno, Italy, 12 September 1943.

Allied invasion of Italy was the Allied

landing on mainland Italy on September
3, 1943, by General Harold Alexander's
15th Army Group (comprising Mark
Clark's U.S. Fifth Army and Sir Bernard
Montgomery's British Eighth Army)
during World War II.
Americans Landing at Salerno

Americans

British
The main invasion force landed around
Salerno on the western coast in
Operation Avalanche, while two
supporting operations took place in
Calabria (Operation Baytown) and
Taranto (Operation Slapstick).

War in Italy
The landing at Salerno got bogged
down and Germans put up a
determined defense which was
finally overcome.
Thereafter, the Americans marched
on Rome as the Germans left and
moved further up the peninsula.
Despite an Italian armistice on
September 8, the Germans
continued to fight on
determinedly. The strategic
failure of the Allied landing at
Anzio was due to low priorities
and other Allied deficiencies.
Meanwhile, the German defense
of Cassino was particularly
tenacious. Nevertheless, the
Allies advanced relentlessly
northward, smashing through the
Gustav Line and the Gothic
Line. The Germans surrendered
in Italy on May 2, 1945.

British
Americans

Eighth Evac Hospital, Aerial Photo at Pietramala, Italy, 19441945 (Founded and
staffed by Univ. of Virginia Physicians and Nurses) [8th EVAC HOSP Service:
MTO 18 Nov 42 21 Nov 42 French Morocco 19 Jun 43 Tunisia 9 Jul 43 Sicily 21 Sep 43 Italy (inactivated 30 Sep 1945)]

8th Evacuation Hospital at Pietramala, Italy (14 Oct 1944 - 1 Apr 1945). This
place was called the 'coldest spot' on the II Corps front (i.e., most forward
Hospital) during the battle for the Gothic Line (i.e., Germanys last defensive
line in northern Italy) and the offensive against Bologna

Central European Campaign

For the Americans, the war in Central
Europe began on 6 June 1944 (known
as D-Day). The Western Allies invaded
northern France with several Allied
divisions reassigned from the
campaigns in Italy and southern
France. These landings were
successful, and led to the defeat of the
German Army units in France and
Germany itself.
Paris was liberated by the local
resistance assisted by the Free French
forces (i.e., led by Charles de Gaulle
circled btm rt) on 25 August and the
Western Allies continued to push back
German forces in Western Europe
during the latter part of the year.
An attempt to advance into northern
Germany spear-headed by a major
airborne operation in the Netherlands
ended with a failure.

Americans heading for Omaha Beach on D-Day 6 June 1944

(above) Charles de Gaulle Liberating Paris (circled below)

Airborne

British Tanks on Nijmegen Bridge

Operation Market Garden (September 17

25, 1944) in the Netherlands (i.e., the
largest airborne operation of all time it
failed to capture bridges over the Rhine)

Allied forces advance over Siegfried Line

into Germany

8th AF Bombing Wulf factory

at Marienburg, Germany

(Above) Synthetic Oil Plant at Zeitz. Germany after

American Bombing (1944)

Effects of Bombing
Hamberg, Germany

Cologne Cathedral (Still Standing

after allied air raids)

German POWs March in Streets of Moscow (1945)

Russians Capture
Berlin May 1945

Russians Who Stormed Berlin (1945)

Russians at German Reichstag

Red Army Guards

with German POWs

Holocaust is the name given to the

systematic persecution and killing
of millions of Jews, other minorities,
and dissidents throughout Europe
by German Nazis.
The policy was carried out in stages:
1.

Legislation to remove the Jews from civil

society before the outbreak of World War II;

1943
Warsaw
Ghetto
Uprising

2. Concentration camps were established in

which inmates were used as slave labor until
they died of exhaustion or disease;
3.

4.

Where the Third Reich conquered new territory

in eastern Europe, specialized military units
called Einsatzgruppen murdered Jews and
political opponents in mass shootings; and,
Jews were confined in overcrowded
ghettos before being transported by
freight trains to extermination camps
where the majority of them were
systematically killed in gas chambers.

Every arm of Nazi Germanys bureaucracy

was involved in the logistics of the
mass murders, turning the country
into what one Holocaust scholar has
called "a genocidal state"

Executions of Russian Jews by German

army mobile killing units (Einsatzgruppen)
Hungarian Jews arrive at Auschwitz (1944)

On April 30, 1945, as Russian troops fought to within yards of his subterranean
bunker, Adolph Hitler put a pistol to his head, pulled the trigger and closed the curtain
on the Third Reich. Before his death, Hitler married Eva Braun and anointed Admiral
Karl Donitz as his successor with orders to continue the fighting. Hitler was unaware
that the German surrender had already begun.
Hitler Outside His Bunker Eva
Brauns photo taken in better
times at Berchtesgadenn

The last official photo of Adolph Hitler prior to

his suicide (April 30, 1945). He is shown
greeting and decorating one of the boy soldiers
used in the last days of the defense of Berlin.

The Russians say they buried Eva Braun and Hitler, later digging them up and moving
them. Then in the 1970s, digging them up again and destroying the remains to prevent
Hitler from becoming a martyr.

General Wilhelm Keitel

(center) Surrendering to the
Allies in Berlin, Germany
(May 7, 1945)

Keitel Signing Surrender

Victory in Europe (i.e., V-E Day Celebrated on May 8, 1945)

VE-Day on The
Streets of Virginia

Sailors Celebrating V-E Day

in Virginia

Truman at Potsdam. The

Potsdam Conference was held at
Cecilienhof, the home of Crown
Prince Wilhelm Hohenzollern, in
Potsdam, occupied Germany,
from 17 July to 2 August 1945.
Seated Participants: British
Prime Minister Clement Attlee,
President Harry S. Truman, and
Communist Party General
Secretary Joseph Stalin gathered
to decide how to administer
punishment to the defeated Nazi
Germany, which had agreed to
unconditional surrender nine
weeks earlier, on May 8 (V-E
Day).
The goals of the conference also
included the establishment of
post-war order, peace treaty
issues, and countering the
effects of war in Europe.

Occupation zone borders in Germany

(after 1945). The territories east of the
Oder-Neisse line are under Polish and
Soviet administration/annexation -- are
shown as white -- as is the likewise
detached Saar protectorate. Berlin is
the multinational area within the Soviet
zone (Circled)

Asia-Pacific War (Against Japan)

For Americans World War II in Asia
began only after the Imperial
Japanese forces attacked Pearl
Harbour on December 7, 1941. But
in fact, war had already been
raging in Asia for a decade.
Most scholars agree that the war in
Asia began on September 18, 1937
when the Imperial Japanese Army
attacked and occupied Manchuria,
in northern China. Japan later
launched an all-out invasion of
China on July 7, 1937. The term
Asia-Pacific War can be used to
embrace both the Asian phase of
the war, from 1931 to 1941, and the
Pacific phase of World War II, from
1942 to 1945.

Battles in the Pacific

The Battle of Midway is

widely regarded as the
most important naval
battle of the Pacific
Campaign. Early in the
War from 4-7 June 1942,
approximately one month
after the Battle of the Coral
Sea and six months after
Japan's attack on Pearl
Harbor, the United States
Navy decisively defeated
an Imperial Japanese Navy
attack against Midway
Atoll, inflicting irreparable
damage on the Japanese
Navy.
USS
Yorktown

Planes on USS
Enterprise Prepare
for the Attack

US Dive Bombers
Attacking Mikumi

Mikumi
Before
Sinking

Midway Atoll, several months before the battle.

Eastern Island (with the airfield) is in the
foreground, and the larger Sand Island is in the
background to the west.

Pacific Campaigns
There were two major offensive
campaigns in the Pacific theater
of the War. The first drove from
Tarawa up the Gilbert and
Mairana Islands to Iwo Jima and
Okinawa. The second drove from
the Solomon Islands (e.g.,
Guadalcanal) thru New Guinea
up thru the Philippines and into
Malaysia.
As islands nearer mainland Japan
were conquered, the allies built or
repaired and used former
Japanese airfields to launch
attacks on Japanese positions
closer to their mainland and on
the Japanese homeland itself
(e.g., Tokyo).
The Japanese were a tenacious
foe and many of the battles had
heavy casualties on both sides.

1st Marine Division on

Guadalcanal

Tarawa

Close Combat on Tarawa

The Battle of Tarawa was fought in

the Pacific Theatre of World War II
from November 20 to November 23,
1943. It was the second time the
United States was on the offensive
(the Guadalcanal Campaign in the
Solomon Islands had been the first),
and Tarawa was the first offensive in
the critical central Pacific region.
The fighting was fierce, bloody, and in
close combat many GIs were
wounded or killed.
The 4,500 Japanese defenders were
well-supplied and well-prepared, and
they fought almost to the last man,
exacting a heavy toll on the United
States Marine Corps.
Very few Japanese surrendered and
were taken as prisoners.

Japanese Prisoners of War

Pilots pleased over their victory during the Marshall Islands attack, grin
across the tail of an F6F Hellcat on board the USS LEXINGTON, after
shooting down 17 out of 20 Japanese planes heading for Tarawa. Comdr.
Edward Steichen photo, November 1943

Mariana Islands Campaign

(Rota, Tinian, Saipan -- Circled)

Tinian was captured by the United States in

July 1944 in the Battle of Tinian. The island
was transformed into the busiest airbase of
the war, with two B-29 airfields (West and
North) having six 8,500 foot (2700 m)
runways. North Field is overgrown; but, the
West Field runways are still in use as the
Tinian International Airport.
West Field on Tinian (8 July 1945)

From Tinian, B-29 bombers from the

509th Composite Group carrying the
atomic bombs Little Boy and Fat Man
were launched against Hiroshima and
Nagasaki. [The atomic bombs had been
delivered to the island by the USS
Indianapolis on 26 July 1945]

The Battle of Saipan was fought on the island of Saipan in the Mariana Islands
from 15 June 1944 to 9 July 1944. In fierce fighting to the last man, the US Marines
and Army Infantry, commanded by Lt. General Holland Smith, defeated the 43rd
Division of the Imperial Japanese Army, commanded by Lt. Gen. Yoshitsugu
Saito.
Marines at Red Beach and
behind a tank fighting up the
island

Philippines
In July 1944, President Roosevelt summoned MacArthur to meet with him in Hawaii
"to determine the phase of action against Japan." Nimitz and MacArthur agreed that
the next step should be to advance on the southern and central Philippines.
MacArthur emphasized the moral and political issues involved in a decision to
liberate or bypass Luzon. Although the issue was not settled, both Roosevelt and
Leahy were convinced of the soundness of MacArthur's plan. In September,
Halsey's carriers made a series of air strikes on the Philippines. Opposition was
feeble and Halsey concluded that Leyte was "wide open" and possibly undefended,
and recommended that projected operations on Luzon be skipped in favor of an
assault on Leyte Gulf.
MacArthur Landing in Leyte Gulf
Said: I have Returned (10/20/1944)

New Guinea
In early November 1944, MacArthur's plan for a westward advance along the coast of
New Guinea toward the Philippines was incorporated into plans for the war against
Japan approved at the Cairo Conference. These landings along the Northern Coast of
New Guinea took place from Feb July of 1945.

On December 18, 1944, Douglas MacArthur (left) was promoted to the new five
star rank of General of the Army one day later Chester W. Nimitz (right) was
promoted to Fleet Admiral, also a five star rank

On December 26, 1944, MacArthur issued a communiqu announcing that "the

Philippine campaign can now be regarded as closed except for minor mopping up.

MacArthur recieved the Medal of

Honor "For conspicuous leadership in
preparing the Philippine Islands to
resist conquest, for gallantry and
intrepidity above and beyond the call
of duty in action against invading
Japanese forces, and for the heroic
conduct of defensive and offensive
operations on the Bataan Peninsula.
He mobilized, trained, and led an army
which has received world acclaim for
its gallant defense against a
tremendous superiority of enemy
forces in men and arms. His utter
disregard of personal danger under
heavy fire and aerial bombardment,
his calm judgment in each crisis,
inspired his troops, galvanized the
spirit of resistance of the Filipino
people, and confirmed the faith of the
American people in their Armed
Forces."

Iwo Jima is an uninhabited island of the Japanese Volcano Islands chain. It is

located 650 nautical miles south of Tokyo. It is famous as the site of the
FebruaryMarch 1945 Battle of Iwo Jima where the iconic photograph Raising
the Flag on Iwo Jima (2/23/1945) was taken. The U.S. occupied Iwo Jima until
1968, when it was returned to Japan; and, a flag raising sculpture stands at
the Marine memorial site in Washington, DC.

The Marine invasion of

Iwo Jima was to capture
airfields on the island
which could then be
used in the impending
invasion of the
Japanese mainland.

Okinawa Island Campaign

March 31, 1945 Marines Reinforcing

their Beach-head on Okinawa

Japanese
Prisoners

The Battle of Okinawa, was the largest amphibious assault in the Pacific War.
The 82-day-long battle lasted from early April until mid-June, 1945.
The battle has been called the "Typhoon of Steel" referring to the ferocity of
the fighting, the intensity of gunfire involved, and to the sheer numbers of
Allied ships and armored vehicles that assaulted the island. The battle
resulted in some of the highest casualties of any World War II engagement.
As the Allies got closer to the Japanese mainland, the fighting got bloodier.

Lewis Chesty Burwell Puller of West Point, VA was the only Marine to be
awarded five Navy Crosses. (The Navy Cross being second only to the Congressional
Medal of Honor) During his career, he fought in World War 2 and the Korean War, and
participated in some of the bloodiest battles in Marine Corps history. Puller is also
attributed with the quote: "All right, they're on our left, they're on our right, they're
in front of us, they're behind us..[So,].they can't get away this time." [Left:
Chesty; Top Middle: Young Bad-ass; Col. Chesty; Gen. with MacArthur in Korea]

WWII Congressional Medal of Honor Winners from Virginia

STREET, GEORGE LEVICK, III
Rank and organization: Commander, U.S. Navy, U.S.S. Tirante.
Place and date: Harbor of Quelpart Island, off the coast of Korea,
14 April 1945. Entered service at. Virginia. Born: 27 July 1913,
Richmond, Va.
Citation: For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his
life above and beyond the call of duty as commanding officer of
the U.S.S. Tirante during the first war patrol of that vessel against
enemy Japanese surface forces in the harbor of Quelpart Island,
off the coast of Korea, on 14 April 1945.
VANDEGRIFT, ALEXANDER ARCHER
Rank and organization: Major General, U.S. Marine Corps,
commanding officer of the 1st Marine Division. Place and date:
Solomon Islands (Guadalcanal), 7 August to 9 December 1942.
Entered service at: Virginia. Born: 3/13/1887, Charlottesville, Va.
Citation: For outstanding and heroic accomplishment above and
beyond the call of duty as commanding officer of the 1st Marine
Division in operations against enemy Japanese forces in the
Solomon Islands during the period 7 August to 9 December 1942.

In 1945, Corporal Desmond T. Doss

of Lynchburg, Virginia, was
presented the Medal of Honor by
President Truman for outstanding
bravery as a medic, during the
conquest of Okinawa earlier that
year.
Doss was a pacifist based on his
religion, 7th Day Adventist, and
refused therefore to kill or carry a
weapon; but, he served as a medic
and was very brave.
He saved at least a dozen lives at
the extreme risk of his own despite
multiple wounds, including a
compound fracture of his arm that
he bound to the broken stock of a
rifle while helping others. Doss was
the first conscientious objector to
win the Medal of Honor. He served
with the 77th Infantry Division.

Desmond T. Doss pictured

atop Okinawa cliff where he
saved lives

The Land War Elsewhere in

Asia [i.e., the China,
Burma, India (CBI) Theater]

Flying Tigers Flew Supplies

to China Over the Hump

Between 1942 and 1945,

there were four main areas
of conflict in the Pacific
War:
China,
Central Pacific,
South East Asia, and the
South West Pacific.
U.S. sources refer to two
theaters within the Pacific
War: the Pacific Theater of
Operations (PTO) and the
China, Burma, India
Theater (CBI)

China, Burma, India Theater (CBI) refers to US

forces operating in conjunction with British and
Chinese Allied air and land forces in China,
Burma, and India. Well-known US units in this
theater included the Flying Tigers, transport and
bomber units flying over the Himalayas (i.e., the
Hump), the 1st Air Commando Group, engineers
who built the Ledo Road, and the 5307th
Composite Unit (i.e., Merrill's Marauders)

The Ledo Road from the railhead at Ledo in

India to the Mong-Yu road junction with the
Burma Road where trucks could continue to
the Chinese frontier and Kunming, China.
The road was built by 15,000 American
soldiers [60 percent of whom were AfricanAmericans with over 1,100 Americans dying
during the roads construction]

After Rangoon was captured by the Japanese and before the Ledo Road was
finished, the majority of supplies to the Chinese were delivered via airlift (i.e.,
Flying Tigers) over the eastern end of the Himalayan Mountains known as the
Hump. (Above) U.S.-built Army trucks wind along the side of a mountain on the
Ledo supply road when it opened from India into Burma.

Merrill's Marauders or Unit Galahad, officially named the 5307th Composite

Unit (provisional), was a United States long range penetration special
forces unit in the South-East Asian Theater of World War II which fought in
the Burma Campaign.
The unit became famous for its deep-penetration missions behind Japanese
lines, often engaging Japanese forces superior in number. Along with six
Ranger Battalions, they are considered the only World War II-era Army light
infantry unit comparable to the present-day United States Army Rangers.
The 5307th composite unit just prior to departing Ledo, India for Burma in
February 1944.

Ledo Burma Road 1944-45 to Chen-Yi

and Kweiyang, China. A Convoy is
shown ascending the famous twentyone curves at Annan, China (3/1945)

Merrill's Marauders using

Army pack mules on Road
to Burma from Ledo, India

Edward R.
Stettinius (left)
Stettinius with
Anthony Eden
(British Foreign
Minister) and
Averell
Harriman (US
Ambassador to
Russia) at Yalta
Peace Conference,
Feb. 1945 (below)

On August 28, 1941, Harry Hopkins asked

Edward Reilly Stettinius to take over from him
the administration of the governments LendLease program, which was rapidly growing in
scale. On September 2, 1941, Stettinius became
the Administrator of Lend-Lease Aid to the Allies.
In 1943, he wrote a book, Lend-Lease: Weapon
for Victory
In 1943, Roosevelt appointed Stettinius Under
Secretary of State. In that capacity, he headed the
U.S. delegation to the Dumbarton Oaks
Conference with representatives of the other
Great Powers in the summer of 1944 and is
credited with succeeding in brokering an
agreement on the structure of the future United
Nations Organization. In November 1944, the U.S.
Senate confirmed Stettinius as the replacement
for Secretary of State Cordell Hull, who had to
retire due to ill health. In Feb. 1945, he attended
the Yalta Conference with FDR.

After the War, Stettinius served as the US

Representative to the UN, retired to his
family estate on the Rapidan River in
Culpeper Co., Virginia, and served as rector
of the Univ. of Virginia in Charlottesville.

The conference at Yalta held in the Crimea on February 4-11, 1945 brought together the
Big Three Allied leaders. During this conference, Stalin, Churchill, and Roosevelt
discussed Europe's postwar reorganization. The main purpose of Yalta was the reestablishment of the nations conquered and destroyed by Germany. Behind the Big
Three are their foreign ministers (Boxed Lt to Rt): Stettinius, Eden, and Molotov)

According to Stettinius, American

Foreign Policy Goals were:
1. Support for our armed forces
to win the world war ASAP;
2. Prevent Germany and Japan
from ever again acquiring the
power to wage war;
3. Establish a United Nations
organization capable of
maintaining the peace;
4. Promote a great expansion of
our productivity and trade
throughout the world in order
to maintain full employment
and higher standards of living
in America and the world;
5. Encourage development
everywhere of the institutions
of a free and democratic way
of life.

Stettinius & French General de Gaulle (1944);

Signing Pan Am Pact; Meeting with FDR & Advisors
on Cruiser Quincy after Yalta Conference (1945)

FDR Dies Suddenly

After Yalta on March 29,
1945, Roosevelt went to
Warm Springs, Georgia to
rest before his anticipated
appearance at the
founding conference of
the United Nations in SF.
On the afternoon of April
12, Roosevelt said, "I
have a terrific pain in the
back of my head." He
then slumped forward in
his chair, unconscious,
and was carried into his
bedroom. The president's
attending cardiologist, Dr.
Howard Bruenn,
diagnosed a massive
cerebral hemorrhage
(stroke). At 3:35 p.m. that
day, Roosevelt died.

FDR suffered from Polio; but, was

rarely seen in his wheelchair

FDR supported charity events to

fight polio and created the
National Assoc. for Infantile
Paralysis to find a cure

FDR frequently took to the water as

treatment for his polio

Eddie Cantor came up with the idea

to name FDRs fight against polio
the successful March of Dimes
(which later bore FDRs likeness.)

Franklin Roosevelt built this little cottage near the warm

springs where he sought treatment for his polio, before and
during his administrations. He died there of a stroke in 1945.

The Roosevelt dime was first issued in

1946, the year after FDR's death in 1945.
Before 1946, the
dime featured the
head of Lady
Liberty wearing a
Phrygian cap. The
Winged Liberty
Head on the dime
was replaced by
the head of FDR in
1946.

Q So why is President Franklin Delano Roosevelts image on the face of the

US dime (10 cent piece)?
A After Roosevelts death, the US Mint and US Government decided to
commemorate his life on a coin. The reason the dime was chosen was two
fold. First, the country wanted to honor the late President by remembering
that he had served his country for 12 years and successfully brought them
through the Great Depression and World War II. The second reason was
to celebrate FDRs efforts to find a cure for polio through the March of
Dimes campaign. (Dr. Jonas Salk developed the first polio vaccine in 1955)

President Harry S. Truman and the

Bombs

To end the war in the summer of 1945,

Harry S. Truman, with the concurrence
of Britain and Canada, decided to drop
atomic bombs on Japan.
The first fell on Hiroshima on August
6; the second on Nagasaki on August 9.
Meanwhile, the Soviet Union entered
the war against Japan, moving its troops
against Japan's army in northern China.
On August 15, Japan surrendered.
For some people, such as the POWs
interned in Japan and troops set to
invade mainland Japan, the atomic
bombs seemed like lifesavers.
To some, however, the dropping of
atomic bombs on mainly civilian
populations seemed like a war crime.

Little Boy (left) dropped on Hiroshima

Fat Man (right) dropped on Nagasaki

The crew and their Enola Gay, the B-29 bomber that dropped the atomic
bomb on Hiroshima, Japan, August 6, 1945

Bombing of Hiroshima (8/6/1945)

Little Boy

Enola Gay

B-29 named Bockscar whose nose art: the "fat man" silhouettes
represent four pumpkin bomb missions (black) and the atomic bomb
dropped on Nagasaki (a red symbol, fourth in the line of five symbols)

Crew C-15. front row: Dehart, Kuharek,

Buckley, Gallagher, Spizer; back row:
Olivi, Beahan, Sweeney, Van Pelt, Albury
Art painted on
the aircraft after
its mission

Fat Man

Bombing of
Nagasaki
(8/9/1945)

President Truman Announces Japans Surrender

Norfolk, VA Celebrates End of WWII V-J Day (August 14, 1945)

MacArthur Accepts Japans Formal

Surrender Aboard USS Missouri and
Signs for Allied Forces (9/2/1945)

The World War II

Memorial honors the 16
million who served in the
armed forces of the U.S.,
the more than 400,000
who died, and all who
supported the war effort
from home. Symbolic of
the defining event of the
20th Century, the
memorial is a monument
to the spirit, sacrifice,
and commitment of the
American people. The
Second World War is the
only 20th Century event
commemorated on the
National Malls central
axis." [Photo from the
Washington Monument
looking toward Virginia]

E.R. Stettinius
Addressing 1st
UN Meeting

US Representatives (Mrs. Roosevelt and

Stettinius) arrive at 1st UN Meeting in SF

Truman and Stettinius

Signing UN Charter at 1st
Meeting in SF, CA (June 26,
1945)

Members of the United Nations (1945)

Members

Non-Members

On June 26, 1945, the finished UN Charter was open for signatures. The US,
China , France , the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom ratified the charter
while a majority of the other Countries signed and agreed to it. The United
Nations was officially Chartered on October 24, 1945.

Building the Rural Interstate Highways (1945) [The Federal Aid Highway Act,
approved December 20, 1944 authorized a Federal appropriation of $500,000,000 for
each of the first three post-war years. The Federal Public Roads Administration
requested each State Highway Department to proceed at once with recommendations of
routes for inclusion in the system without any limitations upon their freedom of action]

Irene (Morgan) Kirkaldy (b. 4/9/1917 d.

8/10/2007), was an important predecessor
to Rosa Parks in the successful fight to
overturn segregation laws in the United
States. Like the more famous Parks, but
eleven years earlier, in 1944, the 28-yearold African-American woman was
arrested and jailed in Virginia for refusing
to give up her seat to a white person on
an interstate Greyhound bus.
In a 1946 landmark decision, the U.S.
Supreme Court ruled 6-1 that Virginia's
state law (i.e., a Jim Crow law) enforcing
segregation on interstate buses was
illegal. The ruling did not end segregation
in intrastate commerce.
The bus driver stopped in Middlesex
County, Virginia, and summoned the
sheriff, who tried to arrest Morgan. She
tore up the arrest warrant, kicked the
sheriff in the groin and fought with the
deputy who tried to drag her off the bus.

Irene Morgan was arrested and fined ten

dollars. At 90, she died of Alzheimers
disease at her home in Gloucester, Va.

Morgan v. Commonwealth of Virginia

(June 1946)
Significance: Court Finds That Mandatory
Segregation On Public Motor Carriers
Traveling Between States Violates the
Commerce Clause of the US Constitution
Appellant's Claim:
That forced segregation on buses traveling
between states is unconstitutional.
Chief Lawyers for Appellant:
William H. Hastie and Thurgood Marshall
Justices for the Courts Finding:
Hugo Lafayette Black, William O. Douglas,
Felix Frankfurter, Frank Murphy, Stanley
Forman Reed (writing for the Court), Wiley
Blount Rutledge
Justices Dissenting:
Harold Burton (Robert H. Jackson and
Harlan Fiske Stone did not participate)

Morgan v Commonwealth of VA
was a significant step on the road
to overturning the rule of "separate
but equal" that had been the law of
the land ever since Plessy v.
Ferguson (1896). Irene Morgan,
an African American woman, got
on a Greyhound bus in Gloucester
County, Virginia, bound for
Baltimore, Maryland. Morgan was
asked to sit at the back of the bus,
as the laws of Virginia dictated she
must. When she refused, she was
taken off the bus and arrested.

The Women's Armed Services Integration Act of 1948, signed into law by
President Harry Truman on June 12, 1948, gave women permanent status in the
Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corps and made them entitled to all veterans
benefits. The act placed a two percent ceiling on the number of women in each of
the services, restricted promotions to one full colonel or Navy captain as Chief of
the Nurse Corps and/or Service Director, and limited the number of female officers
who could serve as lieutenant colonels or Navy commanders.

Charles McGee, a Tuskegee

Airman, Retired as an AF Colonel

On July 26, 1948, Truman issued a then-controversial Executive Order that called
for "equality of treatment for all persons in the armed services, without regard to
race, color, religion or national origin. Though African Americans in uniform
had fought and died for the United States throughout its history, rarely had they
been treated as equals to whites. Trumans Integration Order was a milestone.

George C. Marshall was born into a middleclass family -- the son of George C. Marshall,
Sr. and Laura Bradford Marshall. Marshall
was a descendant of an old Virginia family, as
well as a distant relative of former Chief
Justice John Marshall. George C. Marshall
graduated from the Virginia Military Institute
(VMI) in 1901.
Nominated by President Franklin Roosevelt to
be Army Chief of Staff, Marshall was
promoted to full General and sworn in on
September 1, 1939, the day German forces
invaded Poland, which began World War II.
He would hold this post until the end of the
war in 1945.
As Chief of Staff, Marshall organized the largest military expansion in U.S.
history, inheriting an outmoded, poorly-equipped army of 189,000 men and, partly
drawing from his experience teaching and developing techniques of modern warfare
as an instructor at the Army War College, he coordinated the large-scale expansion
and modernization of the U. S. Army. Though he had never actually led troops in
combat, Marshall was a skilled organizer with a talent for inspiring other officers.

In early 1947, President Truman appointed Marshall

Secretary of State. He became the spokesman for
the State Department's ambitious plans to rebuild
Europe. On June 5, 1947 in a speech at Harvard
University, he outlined the American plan. The
European Recovery Program was its formal name;
but, President Truman insisted that the recovery
program be called the Marshall Plan.
The Marshall Plan would help Europe quickly rebuild
and modernize its economy along American lines.
The Soviet Union forbade its satellite states to
participate. Marshall was again named TIME's Man
of the Year for 1947, and received the Nobel Peace
Prize for his post-war work in 1953.
As Secretary of State, Marshall strongly opposed
recognizing the State of Israel. Marshall resigned
from the State Department because of ill health on
January 7, 1949, and the same month became
chairman of American Battle Monuments
Commission. In September 1949, Marshall was
named president of the American National Red Cross

Map of Cold-War era Europe

showing countries that
received Marshall Plan aid.
The blue columns show the
relative amount of total aid
given per nation.

Marshall
Receives 1953
Nobel Peace
Prize

While serving as Secretary of State between 1947 and 1949 under President
Harry Truman, Marshall coordinated the European recovery plancalled the
Marshall Planthat sped European economic recovery after the war. In
December 1953, he received the Nobel Peace Prize for his leadership in that
effort and for his work to promote world peace. Marshall remains the only
soldier ever to receive this award. (Marshall Foundation, Lexington, VA)

[WTVR-TV (CBS 6) in Richmond

began broadcasting]
WTVR-TV, CBS 6 is a CBS affiliate
owned by Local TV Holdings, LLC
and licensed through Community
Television of Virginia, LLC. WTVRTV was located, on West Broad
Street in Richmond, VA and is the
South's First Television Station.
WTVR signed on April 22, 1948. Its
the first TV station granted a
license south of the Mason/Dixon
line. At 1,049 feet above sea level,
the WTVR tower was the tallest
freestanding structure in the
country at that time, and now the
tower stands as a familiar historic
Richmond landmark. WTVR-TV
now broadcasts solely in digital
(DTV) from its transmitter on
Sesame Street in Richmond, Va.

References:
Ballard, Robert D., National Geographic: The Search For Kennedy's PT 109 (DVD - 2002)
Benedict, Terry (Director) The Conscientious Objector - A True Story of an American Soldier -- Desmond T.
Doss (DVD -- 2004)
Burns, James M., Roosevelt: The Lion and the Fox. New York: Harcourt, 1956.
Center of Military History, A Brief History of the U.S. Army in World War II, US Army, Wash., DC (1992)
Federal Highway Administration, Paintings by Carl Rakeman at [www.fhwa.dot.gov/interstate/artgallery.htm]
Gilliam, George H. Ground Beneath Our Feet: Virginia Fights WWII (2001) Images at
[http://www.vahistory.org/WWII/image_archive/index.php]
Gray, Cindy, Japanese Internment at the Homestead in Hot Springs, VA, Bath County Chamber of Commerce
Honolulu Advisor Web Site at [http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/specials/pearlharbor60]
National Archives (WWII Photos) at [http://www.archives.gov/research/ww2/photos/]
Navy Military Web Site (i.e., Navy.mil) at [http://www.navy.mil/navydata/ships/destroyers]
Stettinius, Jr., E. R. , Lend-Lease: Weapon for Victory, The Macmillan Co., NY, (1944)
Stettinius, Jr., Edward R., Roosevelt and the Russians: The Yalta Conference, Edited by Walter Johnson, Garden
City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1949
Walker, Richard L., The American Secretaries of State and Their Diplomacy, Vol. 14, E. R. Stettinius, Jr.,
(Ferrell, Robert H., Editor), Cooper Square Publishers, Inc., 1965
Walker, Richard L., The American Secretaries of State and Their Diplomacy, Vol. 15, John Marshall, (Ferrell,
Robert H., Editor), Cooper Square Publishers, Inc., 1965
Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia