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3. PWM Converters for DC drives

3.1 Introduction
Controlled power supply for electric drives are obtained mostly by converting the mains ac
supply. Power electronic converter circuits employing switching devices such as thyristors,
transistors, GTOs, diodes, MOSFETSs, IGBTs, diodes and a host of associated control and
interfacing circuits are used. The conversion process introduces controllability to the converters.
It allows fast control of voltage, current or power to the motor via the gate curcuits of the
switches in the converters. In this way the required dynamic response requirements of the drive
can be met. In many cases the control of the converter circuit also takes into account other
performance factors such as power factor, drive efficiency, harmonics, control range and many
others.

vc

Power Supply

Power Supply

Power Converter

Power
Converter

For

IF

ea

va

For
Field

Armature
Figure 4.1

The power supply for the field circuit of a separately excited dc motor is normally a fixed
supply, such as a diode rectifier terminated with a filter or a permanent magnet excitation in
which case no power source is needed. Permanent magnet excitation for low power dc motors,
especially servo-motors, are now almost universal. When field weakening is used to operate a dc
motor to cover a speed range above the base speed, the field dc supply has to be controllable.
Normally only unidirectional dc supply for the field is required for such field weakening
applications.
The power converter for the armature may employ one of many different configurations of
power electronic circuits. There are two broad categories. For smaller dc motors, especially with
servo-like performance, switch-mode PWM converters are used. These converters use gate
turn- off devices such as MOSFETs, or IGBTs. These are normally one, two or four quadrant
PWM DC-DC converters, the dc supply for which is derived from a single- or three-phase diode
bridge rectifier. Larger motors are driven from thyristor power converters which employ phasecontrolled single, three- or higher-phase thyristor converter circuits for making available a
variable dc supply to the motor.
In all of these converter circuits, the power semiconductor switches operate in the swtiched
mode. When the switches are off, they block the voltage of the supply across them without
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current flow. When they are on, the voltage drop across them is low (no more than 1-3V). So
they do not consume much power in either the on- or the off-state. The overlap of turn-on and
turn-off transients are carefully considered in selecting the switching frequency and the
switching deevices so that the power loss due to switching is also low compared to the power
delivered to the motor. The power converter circuits thus operate essentially as a switched mode
amplifier with high efficiency. For this course, we will ignore the switching transients and
overlaps of converter switches and assume that power semiconductor switches turn on or off
instantaneously.
The frequency at which the power converter is switched, e.g., 100 Hz for a single-phase
thyristor bridge converter, 300 Hz for a three-phase thyristor bridge converter, 20 kHz for PWM
MOSFET or IGBT H-bridge converter, and so on, also has a profound effect on the dynamics
achieveable with a motor drive. Power switching devices for low power application tend to have
faster switching capability than for higher power applications, which is convenient, since low
power motors are normally operated with high dynamic response and hence accuracy.
Power converter circuits are ever increasingly required to have high efficiency, lower harmonic
performance both at the output and at the input, have regenerative or bidirectional power flow
capability for certain applications, high power factor, and low EMC properties. In selecting the
power converter for a drive, these issues are also taken into account, as far as practicable.
In the following sections, we will introduce converter circuits for low power dc drives first.
These are the pulse-width modulated (PWM) switching converters (often called regulators)
which utilise MOSFETs and IGBTs. These will be followed by phase controlled thyristors
converters which are mostly used in high power dc motor drives. The advent of IGBTs
(insulated gate bipolar transistors) in recent years has blurred this boundary considerably.
IGBTs now-a-days have voltage and current ratings approaching 2000V and 2000A respecively,
so that the largest dc motor can now be driven from PWM converters. Analysis of the converter
and the separately excited dc motors, and their combined characteristics will be included in the
following sections.

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3.2 PWM DC-DC Converter (Chopper) for dc drives

3.2.1 DC-DC Converter (Type A)

Ra

Ia
La

Ra

Ia

Vs

Vs
Ea

Va

La

Ea

Figure 2(a)

Figure 2(b)

The above two circuits are equivalent except in the isolation requirements of their gate drive,
motor current and voltage sensor, and gate control circuits. The switch T in each converter
circuit is turned on and off periodically, with a fixed (usually) switching frequency fs and a
variable duty cycle DTs where Ts is the period of switching. The turn-on and turn-off times, Ton
and Toff, respectively, are given by
Ton + Toff = Ts ;

Ton = DTs ;

Ts =

1
;
fs

s = 2 f s

(3.1)

Typically, fs ranges from 300 - 1000 Hz for traction drives and from 10 - 20 kHz for servo and
appliance drives.

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3.2.1.1 Analysis of Type A converter driven S. E. DC motor with continuous

conduction and constant speed (Operation in Quadrant 1)
A. Armature voltage with continuous conduction
We assume that Ea = constant (i.e., constant speed and field excitation). The dc supply voltage
Vs is assumed to be smooth and constant. The switch operates with a duty cycle D and the
voltage and current waveforms of the motor and its back-emf are as given below
va

Vs

Va
Ea
ia

Ia

Imax
Imin

Ton =

Toff =

DTs

(1-D)Ts

Ts

Figure 3
The average dc voltage across the armature circuit is (from Buck converter analysis)

Va =

1
Ts

DTLs

Vs dt =

Vs DTs
= DVs V
Ts

(3.2)

The ripple content of va may cause significant losses leading to motor derating. This also is
partly respnsible for motor torque ripple and audible noise. The converter type (especially for
the phase controlled converter), switching frequency fs and armature circuit inductance La are
selected to alleviate these problems to the extent desired.
The ripple in va are expressed conveniently with RMS values of the harmonic voltage
components and a factor called the Ripple Factor (RF).
The ripple voltage components of the armature voltage va are given by the Fourier series as,

an =
bn =

va cos ( n t ) d ( t ) =

Vs
sin ( 2n D )
n

(3.3)

va sin ( n t ) d ( t ) =

Vs
1 cos ( 2n D )
n

(3.4)

cn = Van = an2 + bn2

Vs
sin ( n D )
n

(3.5)

an
= n D
bn 2

n = tan 1

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(3.6)

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Thus, the RMS ripple voltage of any harmonic number is maximum when D = 0.5.
The total RMS value of va is given by

1
Ts

VaRMS =

DTs

Vs2 dt = D Vs V

(3.7)

The RMS value of the ac voltage across the armature is

VacRMS = V12 + V22 + V32 + V42 + ........ for all n except n = 0

where V1 =

Va1

Va 2

; V2 =

; V3 =

Va3
2

(3.8)

.. and so on. Also,

2
VacRMS = VaRMS
Va2

(3.9)

The Ripple Factor (RF) is expressed as

RF =

V 2 Va2
VacRMS
1 D
= aRMS
=
Va
Va
D

(3.10)

B. Armature current with continuous conduction

Assuming constant back-emf (i.e., constant speed), the solution for the armature current ia can
be obtained as given below:
During interval 0 t Ton

Vs = Ra ia + La

dia
+ Ea
dt

(3.11)

Solving,
ia =
=

(Vs Ea )

Ra

(Vs Ea )
Ra

1 e

(1 e

Ra
t
La

t / a

at
+ I a min e La

)+ I

a min e

(3.12)

t / a

At the end of Ton (i.e., DTs), the ia reaches its maximum value iamax. Thus,
I a max =

(Vs Ea )
Ra

(1 e

DTs / a

Lecture 4 - converters for dc drives

)+ I

a min e

DTs / a

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(3.13)

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During interval 0 t Ts
The armature current free-wheels through the diode and the motor input voltage is zero (the
forward diode drop is neglected). Thus,
di
(3.14)
0 = Ra ia + La a + Ea
dt'
where t' = t Ton = t DTs .
Solving (3.14)

ia =

Ea
1 e t'/ a + I a max e t'/ a
Ra

(3.15)

In the steady-state, ia becomes Iamin when t' = Toff = Ts DTs = ( 1 D )Ts . Thus

I a min =

Ea
1 e ( 1 D )Ts / a + I a max e ( 1 D )Ts / a
Ra

(3.16)

Solving (3.13) and (3.16) symultaneously,

I a max =

Vs 1 e DTs / a

Ra 1 eTs / a

I a min =

Vs e DTs / a 1 Ea

Ra eTs / a 1 Ra

Ea

Ra

(3.17)

(3.18)

I a ripple = I a max I a min

(3.19)

By obtaining Iamin and Iamax, we can determine the current waveform in the motor completely. It
is then possible to find its average value, Ia, and therefore the developed torque ( KT' f I a ).
Recognising that the analysis is started with the assumption of a costant speed (or ), we
therefore find the developed torque for the assumed speed (or back-emf). By repeating this
calculation, we find the complete torque speed characteristic of the motor for the D selected.
While this is trivial for continuous conduction, which the alternative steps below will indicate,
the method is general, and useful for general analysis or modeling.
In the steady-state, the voltage drop across La is zero, so that

Va = DVs = Ra I a + Ea

(3.20)

Ea = K 'E f = DVs I a Ra

(3.21)

Ia =

DVs Ea
Ra

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(3.22)

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DVs I a Ra

K 'E f

DVs I a Ra

(3.23)

K 'E K f I f

The torque-speed characteristic of the motor can be found from equation 3.23, by replacing Ia
with the expression of torque interms of Ia (from Lecture 3). For example for a separately
excited motor with rated field excitation,

I a = Ta / KT , so that

DVs

Ta Ra
KT

(3.24)

KE
Ea or m
D = 1.0
D = 0.75
D = 0.5
D = 0.25
D = 0.0

Ia or Tem

Figure 4

ec

W
M

Circuit
of
Figure
2(a)
or
2(b)

Figure 5(a)

vc

vtri
t
High for T ON

Low for T OFF

Figure 5(b)
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3.2.1.2 Operation with discontinuous current

A. Armature voltage with discontinuous conduction

The armature current can become discontinuous at any speed if the load is light. Note that at
V
zero load, ia is zero and the motor runs at = ' a . During the time when the armature
K E f
current is zero in each switching period , transistor T and the freewheeling diode (refer to figure
2) are both off and the armature voltage va is no longer zero since the back emf appears across
the armature terminals, as indicated in figure 6.

Ra

Ia
La

Vs

Ea

Figure 6(a). Power Circuit

Vs

va

Ea

Ton = DTs

Ia

Toff =(1-D)Ts

ia
t

t
Ts

Figure 6(b). Waveforms

The armature current falls to zero at time t (corresponding to the conduction angle ). The
armature voltage is now
va = Vs for 0 t DTs
= 0 for DTs t t
= Ea for t t Ts

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The average value of the armature voltage is

Va =

1
Ts

Ts

va dt

(3.25)

= DVs + 1 Ea
Ts

The RMS armature voltage is

VaRMS =

1
Ts

DTs

Vs2 dt +

Ts

Ea2 dt
(3.26)

= DVs2 + 1 Ea2
Ts
It can be shown that the Fourier compnents of the armature voltage are:
an =

Vs
E
sin ( 2 nD ) a sin 2 n
n
n
Ts

bn =

Vs
E
1 cos ( 2 nD ) a

n
n

(3.27)

2 nt
1 cos
Ts

cn = Van = an2 + bn2

(3.28)

3.29)

B. Armature current with discontinuous conduction

During 0 t DTs
With discontinuous current, armature current starts in each switching from zero because Iamin is
zero. Thus, from (3.12),

ia =

Vs Ea
1 et / a
Ra

(3.30)

The maximum armature current will occur at t = DTs, so that

I a max =

Vs Ea
1 e DTs / a
Ra

Lecture 4 - converters for dc drives

(3.31)

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During freewheeling (i.e., diode conducting)

From (3.15)

ia =

Ea
1 e t'/ a + I a max e t'/ a
Ra

Ea
V Ea
1 e ( t DTs ) / a + s
1 e DTs / a e ( t DTs ) / a
Ra
Ra

(3.32)

The armature current ia becomes zero at t = t, so that,

0 =

Ea
V Ea
( t DT ) /
( t DT ) /
1 e s a + s
1 e DTs / a e s a
Ra
Ra

V Ea

t = a ln e DTs / a 1 + s
1 e DTs / a
Ea

(3.33)

The boundary between continuous and discontinuous conduction is defined when Iamin in
equation (3.18) just falls to zero, giving the condition,
t' /

Ea e a 1
=
Vs eTs / a 1

(3.34)

where t' is the time when discontinuous conduction sets in for a given Ea, i.e., if

DTs > t' , then conduction is continuous

or if

DTs < t' then conduction is discontinuous

Equation 3.24 gives the dotted boundary between continuous and discontinuous conduction in
figure 4, for a given motor for various D and back-emf. Note that for a stalled motor, Ea = 0, and
the above condition is satisfied only when t' = 0. The armature inductance La, or rather the time

L
constant, a = a , has important role in determining the conduction of current in the
Ra
armature. Higher the inductance the lower is the likelyhood of discontinuous current. Once t is
found from (3.33), the dc value of armature voltage Va, is then easily calculated from (3.25). It
should be noted that with discontinuous conduction, motor speed drops more easily with load
implying poor speed regulation. The rise of voltage and speed during discontinuous conduction
also implies loss of gain of the converter supplying the armature. Hence discontinuous
conduction should be avoided by proper selection of a and switching frequency, fs. The motor
inductance and switching frequency are normally so chosen that the armature current remains
continuous for the lightest load.

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Ea or m
D = 1.0
D = 0.75
D = 0.5
D = 0.25
D = 0.0

Ia or Tem

Figure 7. Torque-speed characteristic of S. E. dc motor with continuous conduction

3.2.1.3 Further analysis of armature current waveform

The armature current waveform contains ripples which causes additional motor heating and
torque pulsation. The additional (i2R) heating effect is more conveniently shown in terms of the
RMS armature current given by,
I aRMS =

I a2 + I 12 + I 22 + I 32 + .......

(3.35)

where I1, I2, I3, and so on are the RMS values of ripple components of current in the armature.
These can be found by dividing each component of the ripple voltage by the armature
impedance to the corresponding ripple frequency. Thus
In =

Van / 2
Ra2 + ( n La )

(3.36)

where Van is the peak value of the sinusoidal ripple component of frequency n. It is given by cn
in equations 3.5 (for continuous conduction) or 3.29 (for discontinuous conduction).
The input power to the motor can be written as
Pin =

1
Ts

Ts

2
va ia dt = I aRMS
Ra + Ea I a

(3.37)

Note the dc power input to the motor is given by

P = I a2 Ra + Ea I a

(3.38)

The second terms on the RHS of equations 3.37 and 3.38 represent the developed power which
includes mechanical power to load and friction and windage. The iron losses (hysteresis and
eddy-current) are not represented by these descriptions.
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3.2.2 Regenerative PWM DC-DC (Type 2) converter driven S. E. dc motor.

(Operation in Quadrant 2)
Regenerative (Type 2) are used to drive the dc motor in quadrant 2 for efficiently braking the
motor in the forward direction. Recall that operation in quadrant 1 is for forward motoring while
operation in quadrant 2 if forward braking. In this quadrant, the motor has positive back emf and
its armature is made to flow in the reverse (negative) direction using the back emf to force it.
This is indicated in figure 8.

D
Ea
La

Ra
Vs

Ia

Figure 8. Regenerative (Type 2) converter drive.

With regenerative drive in quadrant 2, the motor speed is positive (i.e., in forward direction).
When the switch T is ON, the voltage applied to armature is zero and the armature current
reverses and becomes more negative (i.e., falls). When the switch is OFF, the armature
inductance La forces the armature current to flow through diode D back to dc source against Vs,
becomes less negative (i.e., rises) with time, and returns some of the rotational energy of the
motor back to the dc source. These transients are indicated in figure 9.

Vs

va
Va
Ea

Ts
Ton = DTs

Toff = (1-D)Ts

0
ia
Ia

Imax
Imin

D is ON

D is OFF

Figure 9

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3.2.2.1

Electric Drive Systems

Analysis of armature current with continuous conduction and

constant speed (back emf).

With the ON and OFF times defined as mentioned above and shown in figure 9,
for

0 t Ton

La

and for t - Ton t Ts,

dia
+ ia Ra = Vs Ea
dt

0 = Ra ia + La

(3.39)

dia
+ Ea
dt

(3.40)

Equations 3.39 and 3.40 are the same as equations 3.11 and 3.14 for the same conditions of
operation, so their soultions should be identical. Thus, from equations 3.17 - 3.19,

I a max =

Vs 1 e DTs / a

Ra 1 eTs / a

I a min =

Vs e DTs / a 1 Ea

Ra eTs / a 1 Ra

Ea

Ra

(3.41)

(3.42)

I a ripple = I a max I a min

(3.43)

With continuous conduction and steady-speed operations in quadrant 2, equations 3.20 - 3.24
will also apply, so that staright-line T- characteristics of figure 4 will extend into quadrant 4
unchanged in slope.
Ea or m
D = 1.0

Q2

Q1

D = 0.75
D = 0.5
D = 0.25

Ia or T em

Figure 10 T- characteristics in quadrants 1 and 2

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3.2.3 Two-quadrant PWM DC-DC converter drive

T1

D1
Ia

Ra

La
Ea

Vs
T2

D2

Figure 10

T1

T2
va

Vs
ia

is

Figure 11

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3.2.3 Two-quadrant (Type 3) converter for field circuit

T1

D2
If

Rf

Lf

Vf
T2

D1

Figure 12

Vf

If

Figure 13

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3.2.4 Four Quadrant Converter

Four quadrant choppers are normally used for driving servo motors bidirectionally with a fast
response. Driving and regenerative braking are obtained in both directions through the same
converter. Two switching schemes are normally used. The switching frequency is generally in
the band from 10 to 20 kHz to reduce audible noise.

T1

D1
Ia

Ra

T3

D3

T2

D2

Lf

Vs
T4

D4

Figure 14. Four quadrant drive

Bipolar switching scheme

In this scheme, diagonal transistor pairs are switched together in each switching cycle. The two
transistors in each arm are switched in a complementary manner. When a pair of transistors is
turned off, the armature current previously flowing through the transistors is forced to flow back
to the dc mains via the feedback diodes.
Unipolar Scheme

In this scheme, only one transistor in a diagonal path may be turned off at any one time to
regulate the current through the motor. The other transistor is kept on to free-wheel the armature
current . Because the armature current now has a freewheeling path without having to throgh the
dc source, this switching scheme reduces the amplitude of current ripple in the motor.

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3.2.5 PWM Switching frequency

The following should be considered before selecting the switching frequency.

for the switching frequency the following should be satisfied

2foLa >> Ra
This limits the current ripple , i.e., I a max I a min reduces motor losses, and
avoids discontinuous conduction.

fo should be much higher than the speed control bandwidth. Thus fo > 10
speed control BW.

fo should be higher than any significant resonant frequencies

fo should be sufficiently high to avoid audible noise

Too high a switching frequency will result in excessive switching losses in the
switching devices (transistors).

Too high fo limits the range of output and introduces offset into the power converter
input-output characteristics. The finite delay times of gate switching circuits and
dead- times for device protection become comparable to the switching period at high
switching frequencies.

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