MAKING INFERENCE

Inference
- Observations occur when we can see something happening. In contrast,
inferences are what we figure out based on an experience. Helping students
understand when information is implied, or not directly stated, will improve their
skill in drawing conclusions and making inferences. These skills will be needed for
all sorts of school assignments, including reading, science and social studies.
Inferential thinking is a complex skill that will develop over time and with
experience.
Why teach inference?
Inference is a "foundational skill" a prerequisite for higher-order thinking
and 21st century skills (Marzano, 2010)
Inference skills are used across the curriculum, including English language
arts, science and social studies.
Because inferring requires higher order thinking skills, it can be difficult for
many students. However, it can be taught through explicit instruction in
inferential
How to teach inference
One simplified model for teaching inference includes the following
assumptions:
We need to find clues to get some answers.
We need to add those clues to what we already know or have read.
There can be more than one correct answer.
We need to be able to support inferences.
Marzano (2010) suggests teachers pose four questions to students to facilitate a
discussion about inferences.
What is my inference?
This question helps students become aware that they may have just made
an inference by filling in information that wasn't directly presented.
What information did I use to make this inference?
It's important for students to understand the various types of information
they use to make inferences. This may include information presented in the
text, or it may be background knowledge that a student brings to the
learning setting.
How good was my thinking?
According to Marzano, once students have identified the premises on which
they've based their inferences, they can engage in the most powerful part of
the process examining the validity of their thinking.
Do I need to change my thinking?
The final step in the process is for students to consider possible changes in
their thinking. The point here is not to invalidate students' original

inferences, but rather to help them develop the habit of continually updating
their thinking as they gather new information.
One model that teachers can use to teach inference is called "It says, I say,
and so" developed by Kylene Beers (2003). Take a look at these graphic
organizer examples from Goldilocks and the Three Bears, as well as the steps
to solving a math problem about area and diameter.

Examples
Language Arts
The Question-Answer Relationship strategy helps students understand the different
types of questions. By learning that the answers to some questions are "Right
There" in the text, that some answers require a reader to "Think and Search," and
that some answers can only be answered "On My Own," students recognize that
they must first consider the question before developing an answer.
Into the Book has an interactive activity that helps young children learn about
inferring. In the interactive, students try to infer meaning in letters from virtual pen
pals. They try to answer two questions: "WHERE is your pen pal?" (inferences
about location) and "WHO is your pen pal?" (inferences about personality).
Students search for clues in the text, then choose from three possible inferences
for each clue.
Riddles are one way to practice inferential thinking skills because successful
readers make guesses based on what they read and what they already know. The
object of this online riddle game is to infer what is being described by the clues
you read.
Because so many stories contain lessons that the main character learns and grows
from, it is important for students to not only recognize these transformations but
also understand how the story's events affected the characters. This lesson from
ReadWriteThink uses a think-aloud procedure to model how to infer character traits
and recognize a character's growth across a text. Students also consider the
underlying reasons of why the character changed, supporting their ideas and
inferences with evidence from the text.
See lesson plan >
Math
The Math Standards from the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM)
identify standards for PreK-12 students that include developing and evaluating
inferences and predictions that are based on data. For young students, the
standards specifically state the following:
Pre-K2 Expectations: In pre-K through grade 2, all students should discuss
events related to students' experiences as "likely" or "unlikely."
Grades 35 Expectations: In grades 35, all students should propose and
justify conclusions and predictions that are based on data and design studies
to further investigate the conclusions or predictions.
Science

Science teachers spend time helping students develop their

observation skills. Inferring and observing are closely related, but they
are not identical. Observation is what one sees, inference is an
assumption of what one has seen. Observation can be said to be a
factual description, and inference is an explanation to the collected
data. It's not a guess. If an observation can be termed as a close watch
of the world around you through the senses, then inference can be
termed as an interpretation of facts that has been observed.
Teachers can start out providing simple observations:
Observation: The grass on the playground is wet.
Possible inferences: It rained. The sprinkler was on. There is morning dew on
the grass.
Observation: The line at the water fountain is long.
Possible inferences: It's hot outside. The students just came in from recess.
As you're working to develop these skills, encourage your students to incorporate
their scientific vocabulary into their statements. "From what I observe on the grass,
I infer that"
Learn more about how to use inference, and other science process skills, to help
students understand our water resources.
This strategy guide from Seeds of Science introduces an approach for teaching
about how scientists use evidence to make inferences. The guide includes an
introductory section about how scientists use evidence to make inferences, a
general overview of how to use this strategy with many science texts, and a plan
for teaching how scientists gather evidence to make inferences.
See teaching inference strategy guide >
This lesson from Read Write Think uses science to engage students in the process
of making inferences. First, students work through a series of activities about
making inferences. Then they read a booklet of descriptions of a series of mystery
objects that are placed under a microscope. Finally, they look through each
microscope and use the formula of schema + text clues = inference to make their
own inferences about the identity of each mystery object.
See science lesson plan >
Social Studies
In this Teacher Guide from the National Portrait Gallery at the Smithsonian,
students use clues in a portrait to infer things about George Washington and his
life. They work to identify visual clues the artist used, they compare various
portraits of George Washington, and discuss the importance of the different
portraits as visual records.
See teacher guide >
Often, inferring is introduced to students by using familiar symbols, activities, and
environments from which they automatically draw inferences or make predictions
(an inference about the future). For example, suppose you are about to begin a
unit on the Great Depression. You might have students view a picture of the

exterior of a mansion and then of a soup line. Then, through questioning, students
focus on details, making inferences about the people who live in both places, their
socioeconomic status, the kinds of food they eat, the kinds of activities they
pursue.
Parents can help to build these skills at home. For ideas to share with parents, see
our Growing Readers tip sheet, Making Inferences and Drawing Conclusions (in
English and Spanish).
Differentiated instruction
for second language learners, students of varying reading skill, students
with learning disabilities, and for younger learners
Use graphic organizers like the It says, I say, So one to make the steps from
observation to inference more explicit.
Model the observation to inference process over and over again, using as
many real-life examples as possible.
Recognize that the background knowledge upon which inferences are drawn
will be different for each student. Reassure students that answers can be
different, but all should be made based on some sort of collected data.