Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Scientific methods
Earth scientists:
areas of study within
the Earth sciences
Systems and cycles
in Earth science
Applications of Earth
and Atmospheric
Science
Read:
Blue Planet: Ch. 1 The Earth System
Source: USGS
15-09-04
https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a000000/a003800/
a003868/GlobalSnowNDVIFire.mp4
https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a010000/
a011700/a011719/11719-1920-MASTER.mp4
What makes an
idea scientific?
It can be tested against
observation or experiment
BP 12.18
15-09-04
What makes an
idea scientific?
It can be tested against
observation or experiment
BP 12.18
15-09-04
And steps
4, 5, 6, etc.
15-09-04
And steps
4, 5, 6, etc.
If a hypothesis
passes the tests
Source: www.destination360.com
15-09-04
E = mc2
15-09-04
15-09-04
15-09-04
Huttons unconformity
BP 1.12
Hutton interpreted the contact between the lower rocks and the upper
rocks as an ancient erosion surface, produced by processes similar to
those operating at the present day
Source: exploratorium.com
15-09-04
Principle of actualism
A more moderate
version of Huttons
principle is called
actualism
The natural (i.e.,
physical and chemical)
laws that allowed the
formation of ancient
features of the Earth
are the same ones in
operation today.
Source: USGS
10
15-09-04
Source: NASA
Geologists
Field observations
Geologic maps
Samples
Chemical
analyses
Resource
development and
extraction
Geophysicists
Use variations in the Earths
physical properties to
determine subsurface
structure, composition, etc.
Seismic velocities
Magnetic, electrical properties
Variations in strength of local
gravitational field
11
15-09-04
Biogeographers
Distribution of
living things at
the present day
Atmospheric Scientists
Hurricane Katrina
Meteorologists &
climatologists
Physics of the
atmosphere
Short term changes in
the atmosphere
(weather)
Geographical variation
and long term changes
in the atmosphere
(climate)
Source: University of Washington
12
15-09-04
Glaciologists
Behaviour and
distribution of ice
The impact of glaciers
on the landscape (e.g.,
erosion, deposition)
and downstream
environments
Interactions between
ice masses and
climate
Canine Glacio-hydrologists
Donjek
13
15-09-04
Logan
Logan
14
15-09-04
Types of systems
Systems may be:
Isolated
Closed
Open
BP 1.3
Isolated systems
No matter or
energy lost or
gained
Imaginary concept
BP 1.2
Closed systems
No matter lost or
gained; energy
may be exchanged
with surroundings
The Earth is
approximately a
closed system
BP 1.2
15
15-09-04
Open systems
Matter and energy
exchanged with
surroundings
Examples of open
systems:
An ocean
An island
A forest
A leaf
You
BP 1.2
BP 1.5
Earth is
approximately a
closed system
Note:
Small amounts of
gas are lost to
space
Small amounts of
material are added
by meteorites and
comets
These amounts are
extremely small
compared with the
mass of the Earth
Atmosphere
Geosphere
Hydrosphere
Biosphere
Cryosphere
BP 1.5
16
15-09-04
Cycles
Cycles trace the flow of material or energy through
systems
Examples include:
The energy cycle
The hydrologic cycle
The rock cycle
www.savingadvice.com/images/blog/hello-kitty-bicycle.jpg
The Sun
BP 3.4
17
15-09-04
Energy budgets
Energy flow is measured in Watts per square meter
1 W = 1 J/s
First law of thermodynamics: conservation of energy
Source: http://stephenschneider.stanford.edu
The Energy
Cycle
Tides
Energy losses
Reflection into space
Re-radiation, as radiant heat
Geothermal energy
18
15-09-04
Solar
energy
Where does
solar energy
go? (1)
Reflected
into space
52,000 TW
Where does
solar energy
go? (2)
Reflected
into space
52,000 TW
Short wavelength
Solar radiation
174,000 TW
Long wavelength
radiation
Converted to
heat 81,000
TW
Evaporation
and melting
40,000 TW
Precipitation
19
15-09-04
Where does
solar energy
go? (3)
Reflected
into space
52,000 TW
Long wavelength
radiation
Short wavelength
Solar radiation
174,000 TW
Converted to
heat 81,000
TW
Evaporation
and melting
TW
40,000
Decay
Plant
storage
bank
40 TW
Photosynthesis
Buried
organic
matter
Geothermal
energy
Reflected
into space
52,000 TW
Precipitation
Short wavelength
Solar radiation
174,000 TW
Converted to
heat 81,000
TW
40 TW
Photosynthesis
Evaporation
and melting
40,000 TW
Decay
Plant
storage
bank
Buried
organic
matter
Precipitation
Geothermal energy 32 TW
20
15-09-04
Where does
geothermal
energy
go?
Reflected
into space
52,000 TW
Converted to
heat 81,000
TW
Evaporation
and melting
TW
Photosynthesis
Heat flow 21 TW
Geothermal energy 32 TW
Where does
tidal energy
go?
Reflected
into space
52,000 TW
Buried
organic
matter
Precipitation
Submarine volcanoes 11 TW
Tidal energy: 27 TW
Long wavelength
radiation
Short wavelength
Solar radiation
174,000 TW
Tides
27 TW
Converted to
heat 81,000
TW
Evaporation
and melting
40,000 TW
Decay
Plant
storage
bank
40 TW
Volcanoes
Hot springs
0.3 TW
40,000
Decay
Plant
storage
bank
40 TW
Volcanoes
Hot springs
0.3 TW
Long wavelength
radiation
Short wavelength
Solar radiation
174,000 TW
Photosynthesis
Heat flow 21 TW
Geothermal energy 32 TW
Buried
organic
matter
Precipitation
Submarine volcanoes 11 TW
Reflected
into space
52,000 TW
Tides
27 TW
Converted to
heat 81,000
TW
Decay
Plant
storage
bank
Photosynthesis
Heat flow 21 TW
Geothermal energy 32 TW
Evaporation
and melting
40,000 TW
40 TW
Volcanoes
Hot springs
0.3 TW
Long wavelength
radiation
Short wavelength
Solar radiation
174,000 TW
Buried
organic
matter
Precipitation
Submarine volcanoes 11 TW
21
15-09-04
Source: http://stephenschneider.stanford.edu
Laws of thermodynamics
Energy is conserved (1st Law of Thermodynamics)
All energy flows are ultimately converted to heat. This
reflects the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics:
Whenever energy is used to do mechanical work in a system,
some of that energy is dispersed (lost) as heat.
Because heat is an unorganized, random vibration of molecules,
we say that the entropy (a measure of disorganization) of the
system has increased.
The net entropy of the universe always increases.
22
15-09-04
Source: http://www.geocities.com/larkspur10/neo/228/towers.jpg
The Sun
BP 1.9
23
15-09-04
Hydrologic pathways:
Evapotranspiration
BP 1.9
Evaporation
from
surface
water
from land
Transpiration
from plants
Hydrologic pathways:
Condensation and precipitation
BP 1.9
Condensation
Clouds
Precipitation
Rain
Snow
Hydrologic pathways:
Surface and subsurface flow
BP 1.9
Melting
Surface flow
Glaciers
Streams
Rivers
Infiltration
Groundwater
movement
24
15-09-04
Hydrologic reservoirs
BP 1.9
Oceans
(97.5%)
Ice sheets
(1.85%)
Groundwater
(0.64%)
Lakes, rivers,
atmosphere
(.01%)
1015 = 1,000,000,000,000,000
25
15-09-04
Reservoir change
For most of these reservoirs, the rate of flow in
approximately balances rate of flow out.
Volume of water in the reservoir is approximately
constant
When flow in > flow out, reservoir expands
When flow in < flow out, reservoir contracts
The ice sheet reservoir has been getting smaller over
time because melting > snowfall
Residence time
Size of reservoir / flow rate = residence time
A measure of the average time that a water molecule
spends in the reservoir
Typical residence times:
Oceans and ice caps:
Streams and rivers:
Atmosphere:
thousands of years
a few weeks
a few days
Hydrologic cycle
BP 1.9
26
15-09-04
BP 1.12
Magma
Melting point: 800-1200C
(depending on rock type)
Molten rock is magma; at the
surface, its called lava
BP 7.5
Igneous rock
Cooling
Solidification
27
15-09-04
Intrusive Rocks
Magma cools
below surface
Generally have
larger crystals
Phaneritic
(visibly crystalline)
Ansel Adams
Extrusive Rocks
Lava that cools
above surface
Typically have
microscopic
crystals
Aphanitic
(without visible
crystals)
Source: USGS
Intrusive rocks
phaneritic
large crystals
Extrusive rocks
aphanitic
small crystals
Due to differences in rate
of cooling
Slow = large
Fast = small
28
15-09-04
Weathering
Destructive processes that change the physical and chemical
characteristics of rocks at the earth's surface.
Erosion
Transportation
of weathering
products
Source: http://www.truecolorearth.com
Sediment
Deposition Sediment
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McCormick's_Creek_State_Park
29
15-09-04
Sedimentary rock
Results from lithification of sediments
Sedimentary
Rock:
Often Clastic
(made up of
fragments)
Source: http://library.thinkquest.org/05aug/00461/images/sandstone.jpg
Metamorphism
Results from heat and pressure (without melting)
BP 4.22
Metamorphic rocks
New minerals
Change in texture
Fabric
30
15-09-04
Igneous rock
For comparison
Metamorphic rocks
New minerals
Change in texture
Fabric
Sediment
Lithification
Transportation
Erosion
Sedimentary rock
Weathering
Metamorphism
Igneous rock
Cooling
Magma
Melting
Metamorphic rock
31
15-09-04
Other Cycles
Biogeochemical cycles
Nitrogen cycle
Carbon cycle
32