Zinc Oxide Topical paste

What is this medicine?

ZINC OXIDE (zingk OX ide) is used to treat or prevent minor skin irritations such as burns, cuts, and diaper rash. Some products may be used
as a sunscreen.

How should I use this medicine?

This medicine is for external use only. Do not take by mouth. Follow the directions on the prescription or product label. Wash your hands
before and after use. Apply a generous amount to the affected area. Do not cover with a bandage or dressing unless your doctor or health
care professional tells you to. Do not get this medicine in your eyes. If you do, rinse out with plenty of cool tap water.
Talk to your pediatrician regarding the use of this medicine in children. While this drug may be prescribed for selected conditions, precautions
do apply.

What side effects may I notice from receiving this medicine?

There have been no side effects reported this medicine. If you experience any unusual effects while using zinc oxide, contact your doctor or
health care professional right away.

What may interact with this medicine?

Interactions are not expected. Do not use other skin products at the same site without asking your doctor or health care professional.

What if I miss a dose?

If you miss a dose, use it as soon as you can. If it is almost time for your next dose, use only that dose. Do not use double or extra doses.

Where should I keep my medicine?

Keep out of reach of children.
Store at room temperature. Keep closed while not in use. Throw away an unused medicine after the expiration date.

What should I tell my health care provider before I take this medicine?
They need to know if you have any of these conditions:

an unusual or allergic reaction to zinc oxide, other medicines, foods, dyes, or preservatives

pregnant or trying to get pregnant

breast-feeding

What should I watch for while using this medicine?

Tell your doctor or health care professional if the area you are treating does not get better within a week.

SEMISOLID DOSAGE FORMS

Syllabus

Ointment bases: oleaginous bases, hydrocarbon and silicon containing bases.

Absorption bases, emulsion bases, water soluble bases.
Preparation and preservation of these ointments with industrial equipment used for processing.

Questions:
1.

Define and differentiate between Ointment and creams, lotion and liniment. (98) [4+4]

2.

Give different ointment bases with examples. (98)[8]

3.

Discuss various methods for manufacturing of ointments.

4.

Write a note on different types of raw materials that are used in the manufacture of semisolid
dosage forms. What are the factors that affect skin penetration of drugs from semisolids (96)[16]

5.

Preservative in ointment. (95) [4]

6.

How do you select the ointment base for a water soluble and insoluble drug to be incorporated
for a medicinal preparation. Discuss on the selection of ointment base
(94) [16]

7.

Discuss on the importance of packing materials for ointments. What is the influence of packing
materials for ointment storage? (94) [16]

8.

Write in brief the factors governing the selection of ointment bases. (93) [6]

9.

Give the characteristics and examples of oleaginous bases. (93)[6]

[8]

10. Discuss the different methods of ointment preparations. (93) [4]

INTRODUCTION
Pharmaceutical semisolid dosage preparations include ointments, pastes, cream, emulsions, gels
and rigid foams.

Ointments are soft semisolid preparations meant for external application to the skin or mucous
membrane. They usually contain medicament, which is either dissolved or suspended in the base.
They have emollient and protective action.

Creams are semisolid emulsions for external application and are generally of softer consistency
and lighter than ointments.
They are less greasy and are easy to apply.
Pastes are semisolid preparations for external application that differs from similar products in
containing a high proportion of finely powdered medicaments. They are stiffer and are usually
employed for their protective action and for their ability to absorb serous discharges from skin
lesions.
Thus when protective, rather than therapeutic action is desired, the formulation
pharmacists will favor a paste, but when therapeutic action is required, he will prefer ointments
and creams.
Jellies are transparent or translucent, non-greasy, semisolid preparation mainly used externally.
In these systems the liquid phase is entrapped within a three-dimensional polymeric matrix in
which a high degree of physical cross-linking has been introduced.
The polymers (gelling agents) used include:
Natural Polymers :
gelatin.

nthetic polymers:

Tragacanth, pectin, carageenan, agar, alginic acid nd

Methyl cellulose, hydroxymethyl cellulose, carboxymethyl cellulose and Carbopols.

STRUCTURE OF SKIN
The skin has three main layers: the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis.
Epidermis is the outermost layer. It consists of:
(a) The basal layer (innermost) is one cell thick layer. Its cells divide constantly and the daughter
cells are steadily pushed towards the surface.
(b) The prickle cell layer: The cells in this region are linked by tiny bridges or prickles.
(c) The granular layer: When they reach this region, the upwardly moving cells become granules and
begin to synthesize the inert protein keratin.
(d) The horny layer (stratum corneum). This is the outermost layer and the cells are heavily
keratinized and dead. The dead cells sloughs off gradually.
Dermis is the middle and the main part of the skin. The dermis is made up of protein collagen and
elastin. The collagen is in the form of gel that is reinforced by a framework of elastin.
Dermis contains the following structures:
(a) Blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves.
(b) Epidermal appendages e.g. hair follicles, sebaceous glands and sweat glands.

Hypodermis, the innermost layer, consists of adipose tissues. It gives physical protection and
thermal insulation to underlying structures.
N.B.
Epidermis is non-granular but is penetrated by hair follicles, sebaceous glands and sweat glands.
Sebum is the secretion of sebaceous glands. Sebum is a mixture of fatty substances and emulsifiers; it
mixes with water producing a fluid of pH 5.5 that covers the skin surface and permeates the upper layer of
keratinized cells this is called the acid-mantle of skin.
Keratin is hydrophillic, the stratum corneum normally contains about 20% w/w of water, the amount varying
with atmospheric humidity. This moisture keeps the skin supple and if its level falls below about 12% the
cells becomes dry and brittle and then shrink and curl at the edges, making the skin feel rough.
Cracking may follow, causing discomfort. Loss of water may be the result of excessive evaporation, overusage of detergents (which removes sebum) and cold weather (which inhibits sebum production).

PERMEABILITY OF DRUG THROUGH EPIDERMIS

Most dermatological preparations belong to one of tw classes:
1. Preparation intended to remain on the surface
e.g. products for penetration or for emollient action.
2. Preparations intended to penetrate the skin but will not enter into blood stream
Drugs penetrate the epidermis by two man routes:
(a) Through the keratinized cells of the stratum corneum.
The keratinized cells are fused together so drug molecules directly diffuse through them. These
cells contains keratin which is hydrophilic and phospholipids which is hydrophobic, so drug
molecules having solubility in both water and oil have good permeability through this route.
(b) Via hair follicles
Although the hair follicles occupy only a small area of the total epidermis, they provide a very important route of
penetration. The fat soluble drugs dissolve in sebum, diffuses in to the sebum-filled follicles and passes to dermis.

FACTOR AFFECTING PERMEABILITY OF A DRUG THROUGH SKIN

A. Factor associated with the skin
(a) Hydration of the horny layer
The hydration of keratinized cells is raised by covering the area with a moisture-proof plastic film to prevent evaporation of
perspiration. Hydration increases the drug penetration.

(b) Thickness of the horny layer

The horny layer is thickest on palms and soles and thinnest on the face; penetration rate increases with decreased
thickness of horny layer.

(c) Skin condition

The permeability of the skin is affected by age, disease, climate and injury. For xample, absorption occurs rapidly in
children and if the dermis is exposed by a wound or burn.

B. Factors associated with the medicament

(a) Solubility of the drug
Highly lipid soluble molecules enters through hair follicles. Moderately lipid soluble molecules penetrates directly across
the horny layer.

(b) Dissociation constant (pKa)

If a drug is ionized in the surrounding pH of the dermis then the penetration of the ionic species
are restricted by electrostatic interactions. Degree of ionization depends on the pKa of the drug.
e.g. Methyl salicylate and methyl nicotinate penetrate much faster than salicylic acid and nicotinic
acid respectively.
(c) Particle size
Reducing the particle size increases the dissolution of a poorly soluble drug in suspension and thus increases the release
rate from the vehicle.

(d) Crystal structure

The metastable polymorph is much more soluble than its stable form, so the release of drug in metastable state is much
more faster than stable form.

C. Factors associated with vehicles

The rate of release of a drug from a vehicle to stratum corneum is governed by vehicle-to-stratum
corneum partition coefficient. The thermodynamic activity of the drug in the vehicle is the product
of the concentration of the drug and the activity coefficient () of the drug in the vehicle. Drugs
held firmly by the vehicle exhibit low activity coefficient, hence slow rate of release from that
drug-vehicle combination. Drug held loosely by the vehicle shows higher activity coefficient,
hence shows faster rate of release.
The vehicles may enhance the penetration of a drug in one or more of the following ways:a)

By ensuring good contact with the surface of the body

b) By increasing the degree of hydration of the stratum corneum

c)

By penetrating the epidermis

d) By directly altering the permeability of the skin

(a) Contact with body surface
Sticky bases such as soft paraffin, Paraffin ointment B.P.C., Simple ointment B.P. etc. adheres well to the skin but are
difficult to apply evenly and remove completely.

Creams are easier to apply and remove. Oil in water (o/w) creams mix with sebum and are more
suitable for weeping or wounded surface.
(b) Hydration of stratum corneum
An occlusive layer reduces evaporation of water from skin, increasing hydration of the horny layer
and, therefore, promotes penetration of medicament.
e.g. hydrocarbons, wool fat and isopropyl myristate containing ointments produce occlusive films
on the skin. Water in oil (o/w) type creams have some occlusive effects.
Humectants like glycerols are not good for retaining water because at low atmospheric
humidities, because they tend to increase loss of water by absorbing it from the skin.
(c) Penetration of the epidermis
Bases miscible with the sebum penetrate into the regions of the skin in which sebum is found.
e.g. Woolfat (originating from sebaceous glands of sheep) penetrates into the skin.
Vegetable oils penetrate more slowly and liquid paraffin does not penetrate at all.
(d) Alteration of skin permeability
Penetration can be improved by dissolving the medicament in an organic liquid such as ethanol,
dimethylformamide(DMF), dimethyl acetamide, dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) and propylene glycol.
They increases the hydration of skin.

OINTMENT
Definition: Ointments are semisolid preparations for application to the skin or mucosae. The
ointment bases are almost always anhydrous and generally contains one or more medicaments in
suspension or solution.

Characteristics of an ideal ointment:

1.

It should be chemically and physically stable.

2.

It should be smooth and free from grittiness.

3.

It should melt or soften at body temperature and be easily applied.

4.

The base should be non-irritant and should have no therapeutic action.

5.

The medicament should be finely divided and uniformly distributed throughout the base.

Classification of ointments
According to their therapeutic properties based on penetration of skin.

(a) Epidermic, (b) Endodermic, (c) Diadermic

(a) Epidermic ointments

These ointments are intended to produce their action on the surface of the skin and produce local
effect.
They are not absorbed.
They acts as protectives, antiseptics and parasiticides.
(b) Endodermic ointments
These ointments are intended to release the medicaments that penetrate into the skin. They are
partially absorbed and acts as emollients, stimulants and local irritants.
(c) Diadermic ointments
These ointments are intended to release the medicaments that pass through the skin and produce
systemic effects.

NT BASES
The ointment base is that substance or part of an ointment preparation which serves as carrier or
vehicle for the medicament.
An ideal ointment base should be inert, stable, smooth, compatible with the skin, non-irritating
and should release the incorporated medicaments readily.
Classification of ointment bases:
1.

Oleaginous bases

2.

Absorption bases

3.

Water-miscible bases

4.

Water soluble bases

OLEAGINOUS BASES

These bases consists of oils and fats. The most important are the
Hydrocarbons i.e. petrolatum, paraffins and mineral oils.
The animal fat includes lard.
The combination of these materials can produce a product of desired melting point and viscosity.
(a) Petrolatum (Soft paraffin)
This is a purified mixture of semi-solid hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum or heavy
lubricating oil.
Yellow soft paraffin (Petrolatum; Petroleum jelly)
This a purified mixture of semisolid hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum. It may contain
suitable stabilizers like, antioxidants e.g. -tocopherol (Vitamin E), butylated hydroxy toluene
(BHT) etc.
Melting range : 38 to 560C.
White soft paraffin (White petroleum jelly, White petrolatum)
This a purified mixture of semisolid hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum, and wholly or
partially decolorized by percolating the yellow soft paraffin through freshly burned bone black or
adsorptive clays.
Melting range : 38 to 560C.
Use: The white form is used when the medicament is colourless, white or a pastel shade. This
base is used in
Dithranol ointment B.P.
Ammoniated Mercury and Coal tar ointment B.P.C.
Zinc ointment B.P.C.
(b) Hard paraffin (Paraffin)
This is a mixture of solid hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum.
It is colourless or white, odorless, translucent, wax-like substance. It solidifies between 50 and
570C and is used to stiffen ointment bases.
(c) Liquid paraffin (Liquid petrolatum,; White mineral oil)
It is a mixture of liquid , hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum. It is transparent, colourless,
odourless, viscous liquid.
On long storage it may oxidize to produce peroxides and therefore, it may contain tocopherol or
BHT as antioxidants.

It is used along with hard paraffin and soft paraffin to get a desired consistency of the ointment.
Tubes for eye, rectal and nasal ointments have nozzles with narrow orifices through which it is
difficult to expel very viscous ointments without the risk of bursting the tube. To facilitate the
extrusion upto 25% of the base may be replaced by liquid paraffins.
Advantages of hydrocarbons bases:
(i) They are not absorbed by the skin. They remain on the surface as an occlusive layer that restricts
the loss of moisture hence, keeps the skin soft.
(ii) They are sticky hence ensures prolonged contact between skin and medicament.
(iii) They are almost inert. They consist largely of saturated hydrocarbons, therefore, very few
incompatibilities and little tendency of rancidity are there.
(iv) They can withstand heat sterilization, hence, sterile ophthalmic ointments can be prepared with it.
(v) They are readily available and cheap.
Disadvantages of hydrocarbon bases;
(i) It may lead to water logging followed by maceration of the skin if applied for a prolonged period.
(ii) It retains body heat, which may produce an uncomfortable feeling of warmth.
(iii) They are immiscible with water; as a result rubbing onto the surface and removal after treatment
both are difficult.
(iv) they are sticky, hence makes application unpleasant and leads to contamination of clothes.
(v) Water absorption capacity is very low, hence, these bases are poor in absorbing exudate from
moist lesions.

ABSORPTION BASE
The term absorption base is used to denote the water absorbing or emulsifying property of these
bases and not to describe their action on the skin.
These bases (some times called emulsifiable ointment bases) are generally anhydrous
substances which have the property of absorbing (emulsifying) considerable quantity of water yet
retaining its ointment-like consistency.
Preparations of this type do not contain water as a component of their basic formula but
if water is incorporated a W/O emulsion results.
Wool Fat (anhydrous lanolin)
It is the purified anhydrous fat like substance obtained from the wool of sheep.

It is practically insoluble in water but can absorb water upto 50% of its own weight. Therefore it
is used in ointments the proportion of water or aqueous liquids to be incorporated in hydrocarbon
base is too large.

Due to its sticky nature it is not used alone but is used along with other bases in the preparation
of a number of ointments.
e.g. Simple ointment B.P. contains 5% and the B.P. eye ointment base contains 10% woolfat.
Hydrous Wool Fat (Lanolin)

It is a mixture of 70 % w/w wool fat and 30 % w/w purified water. It is a w/o emulsion. Aqueous
liquids can be emulsified with it.

It is used alone as an emollient.

Example:- Hydrous Wool Fat Ointment B.P.C., Calamine Coal Tar Ointment.
Wool Alcohol
It is the emulsifying fraction of wool fat. Wool alcohol is obtained from wool fat by treating it with
alkali and separating the fraction containing cholesterol and other alcohols. It contains not less
than 30% of cholesterol.
Use:-

It is used as an emulsifying agent for the preparation of w/o emulsions and is used to absorb
water in ointment bases.
It is also used to improve the texture, stability and emollient properties of o/w emulsions.
Examples :- Wool alcohol ointment B.P. contains 6% wool alcohol and hard, liquid and soft
paraffin.
Beeswax
It is purified wax, obtained from honey comb of bees.
It contains small amount of cholesterol. It is of two types: (a) yellow beeswax and (b) white
beeswax.
Use:Beeswax is used as a stiffening agent in ointment preparations.
Examples:-Paraffin ointment B.P.C. contains beeswax.
Cholesterol
It is widely distributed in animal organisms. Wool fat is also used as a source of cholesterol.
Use:- It is used to increase the water absorbing power of an ointment base.
Example:- Hydrophilic petroleum U.S.P. contains:
Cholesterol
Stearyl alcohol

3%
3%

White beeswax
White soft paraffin

8%
86%

Advantages of absorption bases:

(i)

They are less occlusive nevertheless, are good emollient.

(ii) They assist oil soluble medicaments to penetrate the skin.

(iii) They are easier to spread.
(iv) They are compatible with majority of the medicaments.
(v) They are relatively heat stable.
(vi) The base may be used in their anhydrous form or in emulsified form.
(vii)They can absorb a large quantity of water or aqueous substances.
Disadvantages: Inspite of their hydrophilic nature, absorption bases are difficult to wash.

WATER MISCIBLE BASES

They are miscible with an excess of water. Ointments made from water-miscible bases are easily
removed after use.
There are three official anhydrous water-miscible ointment bases:Example:Emulsifying ointment B.P.

contains anionic emulsifier.

Cetrimide emulsifying ointment B.P.

contains cationic emulsifier

Cetomacrogol emulsifying ointment B.P.

contains non-ionic emulsifier

Uses: they are used to prepare o/w creams and are easily removable ointment bases
e.g. Compound Benzoic Acid Ointment (Whitfields Ointment) used as antifungal ointment.
Advantages of water miscible bases:
(i) Readily miscible with the exudates from lesions.
(ii) Reduced interference with normal skin function.
(iii) Good contact with the skin, because of their surfactant content.
(iv) High cosmetic acceptability, hence there is less likelihood of the patients discontinuing treatment.
(v) Easy removal from the hair.

WATER SOLUBLE BASES

Water soluble bases contain only the water soluble ingredients and not the fats or other greasy
substances, hence, they are known as grease-less bases.
Water soluble bases consists of water soluble ingredients such as polyethylene glycol polymers
(PEG) which are popularly known as carbowaxes and commercially known as macrogols.
They are a range of compounds with the general formula:
CH2OH . (CH2OCH2) n CH2OH
The PEGs are mixtures of polycondensation products of ethylene and water and they are
described by numbers representing their average molecular weights. Like the paraffin
hydrocarbons they vary in consistency from viscous liquids to waxy solids.
Example:Macrogols 200, 300, 400

viscous liquids

Macrogols 1500
Macrogols 1540, 3000, 4000, 6000

greasy semi-solids
waxy solids.

Different PEGs are mixed to get an ointment of desired consistency.

Advantages of PEGs as ointment base:
(a) They are water soluble; hence, very easily can be removed from the skin and readily miscible with
tissue exudates.
(b) Helps in good absorption by the skin.
(c) Good solvent properties. Some water-soluble dermatological drugs, such as salicylic acid,
sulfonamides, sulfur etc. are soluble in this bases.
(d) Non-greasy.
(e) They do not hydrolyze, rancidify or support microbial growth.
(f) Compatibility with many dermatological medicaments.
Disadvantages:
(a) Limited uptake of water. Macrogols dissolve when the proportion of water reaches about 5%.
(b) Reduction in activity of certain antibacterial agents, e.g. phenols, hydroxybenzoates and
quaternary compounds.
(c) Solvent action on polyethylene and bakelite containers and closures.

Certain other substances which are used as water soluble ointment bases include tragacanth,
gelatin, pectin, silica gel, sodium alginate, cellulose derivatives, etc.

FACTORS GOVERNING SELECTION OF AN IDEAL OINTMENT BASE

1. Dermatological factors
2. Pharmaceutical factors
1. Dermatological factors
(a) Absorption and Penetration:
Penetration means passage of the drug across the skin i.e. cutaneous penetration, and
absorption means passage of the drug into blood stream.

Medicaments which are both soluble in oil and water are most readily absorbed though the skin.

Whereas animal and vegetable fats and oils normally penetrate the skin.

Animals fats, e.g. lard and wool fat when combined with water, penetrates the skin.

o/w emulsion bases release the medicament more readily than greasy bases or w/o emulsion
bases.
(b) Effect on the skin

Greasy bases interfere with normal skin functions i.e. heat radiation and sweating. They are
irritant to the skin.

o/w emulsion bases and other water miscible bases produce a cooling effect due to the
evaporation of water.
(c) Miscibility with skin secretion and sebum
Skin secretions are more readily miscible with emulsion bases than with greasy bases. Due to this the drug is more rapidly
and completely released to the skin.

(d) Compatibility with skin secretions:

The bases used should be compatible with skin secretions and should have pH about 5.5 because the average skin pH is
around 5.5. Generally neutral ointment bases are preferred.

(e) Non-irritant
All bases should be highly pure and bases specially for eye ointments should be non-irritant and free from foreign particle.

(f) Emollient properties

Dryness and brittleness of the skin causes discomfort to the skin therefore, the bases should keep the skin moist. For this
purpose water and humectants such as glycerin, propylene glycol are used. Ointments should prevent rapid loss of
moisture from the skin.

(g) Ease of application and removal

The ointment bases should be easily applicable as well as easily removable from the skin by simple washing with water.
Stiff and sticky ointment bases require much force to spread on the skin and during rubbing newly formed tissues on the
skin may be damaged.

2. Pharmaceutical factors
(a) Stability
Fats and oils obtained from animal and plant sources are prone to oxidation unless they are
suitably preserved. Due to oxidation odour comes out. This type of reactions are
called rancidification. Lard, from animal origin, rancidify rapidly. Soft paraffin, simple ointment
and paraffin ointment are inert and stable. Liquid paraffin is also stable but after prolonged
storage it gets oxidized. Therefore, an antioxidant liketocopherol (Vit -E) may be incorporated.
Other antioxidants those may be used are butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT) or butylated hydroxy
hydroxy anisole (BHA).
(b) Solvent properties
Most of the medicaments used in the preparation of ointments are insoluble in the ointment bases therefore, they are
finely powdered and are distributed uniformly throughout the base.

(c) Emulsifying properties

Hydrocarbon bases absorbs very small amount of water.
Wool fat can take about 50% of water and when mixed with other fats can take up several times its own weight of aqueous
solution.
Emulsifying ointment, cetrimide emulsifying ointment and cetomacrogol emulsifying ointment are capable of absorbing
considerable amount of water, forming w/o creams.

(d) Consistency
The ointments produced should be of suitable consistency. They should neither be hard nor too soft. They should
withstand climatic conditions. Thus in summer they should not become too soft and in winter not too hard to be difficult to
remove from the container and spread on the skin.
The consistency of an ointment base can be controlled by varying the ratio of hard and liquid paraffin.

PREPARATION OF OINTMENTS
A well-made ointment is
(a) Uniform throughout i.e. it contains no lumps of separated high melting point ingredients of the
base, there is no tendency for liquid constituents to separate and insoluble powders are evenly
dispersed.
(b) Free from grittiness, i.e. insoluble powders are finely subdivided and large lumps of particles
are absent. Methods of preparation must satisfy this criteria.
Two mixing techniques are frequently used in making ointments:
1. Fusion, in which ingredients are melted together and stirred to ensure homogeneity.

2. Trituration, in which finely-subdivided insoluble medicaments are evenly distributed by grinding

with a small amount of the base or one of its ingredients followed by dilution with gradually
increasing amounts of the base.
1. Ointments prepared by Fusion method:
When an ointment base contain a number of solid ingredients such as white beeswax, cetyl
alcohol, stearyl alcohol, stearic acid, hard paraffin, etc. as components of the base, it is required
to melted them. The melting can be done in two methods:
Method-I
The components are melted in the decreasing order of their melting point i.e. the higher m.p.
substance should be melted first, the substances with next melting point and so on. The
medicament is added slowly in the melted ingredients and stirred thoroughly until the mass cools
down and homogeneous product is formed.
Advantages:
This will avoid over-heating of substances having low melting point.
Method-II
All the components are taken in subdivided state and melted together.
Advantages:
The maximum temperature reached is lower than Method-I, and less time was taken possibly due
to the solvent action of the lower melting point substances on the rest of the ingredients.

Cautions:
(i) Melting time is shortened by grating waxy components (i.e. beeswax, wool alcohols, hardparaffin, higher fatty alcohols and emulsifying waxes) by stirring during melting and by lowering
the dish as far as possible into the water bath so that the maximum surface area is heated.
(ii) The surface of some ingredients discolors due to oxidation e.g. wool fats and wool alcohols and
this discolored layers should be removed before use.
(iii) After melting, the ingredients should be stirred until the ointment is cool, taking care not to cause
localized cooling, e.g. by using a cold spatula or stirrer, placing the dish on a cold surface (e.g. a
plastic bench top) or transferring to a cold container before the ointment has fully set. If these
precautions are ignored, hard lumps may separate.
(iv) Vigorous-stirring, after the ointment has begun to thicken, causes excessive aeration and should
be avoided.
(v) Because of their greasy nature, many constituents of ointment bases pickup dirt during storage,
which can be seen after melting. This is removed from the melt by allowing it to sediment and
decanting the supernatant, or by passage through muslin supported by a warm strainer. In both
instances the clarified liquid is collected in another hot basin.

(vi) If the product is granular after cooling, due to separation of high m.p. constituents, it should be
remelted, using the minimum of heat, and again stirred and cooled.

Example:
(i) Simple ointment B.P. contains

Type of preparation:

Wool fat

50g

Hard paraffin

50g

Cetostearyl alcohol

50g

White soft paraffin

850g

Absorption ointment base

Procedure:
Hard paraffin and cetostearyl alcohol on water-bath. Wool fat and white soft paraffin are mixed
and stirred until all the ingredients are melted. If required decanted or strained and stirred until
cold and packed in suitable container.
(ii) Paraffin ointment base
Type of preparation: Hydrocarbon ointment base
(iii) Wool alcohols ointment B.P.
Type of preparation: Absorption base
(iv) Emulsifying ointment B.P.
Type of preparation: Water-miscible ointment base.
(v) Macrogol ointment B.P.C
Type of preparation: Water soluble ointment base
Formula:

Macrogol 4000
Liquid Macrogol 300

Method: Macrogol 4000 is melted and previously warmed liquid macrogol 300 is added. Stirred
until cool.

2. OINTMENT PREPARED BY TRITURATION

This method is applicable in the base or a liquid present in small amount.
(i) Solids are finely powdered are passed through a sieve (# 250, # 180, #125).
(ii) The powder is taken on an ointment-slab and triturated with a small amount of the base. A steel
spatula with long, broad blade is used. To this additional quantities of the base are incorporated
and triturated until the medicament is mixed with the base.

(iii) Finally liquid ingredients are incorporated. To avoid loss from splashing, a small volume of liquid
is poured into a depression in the ointment an thoroughly incorporated before more is added in
the same way. Splashing is more easily controlled in a mortar than on a tile.
Example:
(i) Whitfield ointment (Compound benzoic acid ointment B.P.C.)
Formula:

Benzoic acid, in fine powder

Salicylic acid, in fine powder
Emulsifying ointment

6gm
3gm
91gm

Method: Benzoic acid and salicylic acid are sieved through No. 180 sieves. They are mixed on the
tile with small amount of base and levigated until smooth and dilute gradually.
(ii) Salicylic acid sulphur ointment B.P.C.

3. OINTMENT PREPARATION BY CHEMICAL REACTION

Chemical reactions were involved in the preparation of several famous ointments of the past, e.g.
Strong Mercuric Nitrate Ointment, of the 1959 B.P.C.
(a) Ointment containing free iodine
Iodine is only slightly soluble in most fats and oils but readily soluble.
Iodine is readily soluble in concentrated solution of potassium iodide due to the formation of
molecular complexes KI.I2, KI.2I2, KI.3I2 etc.
These solutions may be incorporated in absorption-type ointment bases.
e.g. Strong Iodine Ointment B.Vet.C (British Veterinary Pharmacopoeia) is used to treat ringworm in
cattle. It contains free iodine. At one time this type of ointments were used as counter-irritants in
the treatment of human rheumatic diseases but they were not popular because:
They stain the skin a deep red color.
(i) Due to improper storage the water dries up and the iodine crystals irritate the skin, hence glycerol
was some times added to dissolve the iodine-potassium iodide complex instead of water.
Example: Strong Iodine Ointment B. Vet.C.
Iodine
Woolfat
Yellow soft paraffin
Potassium iodide

Water
Procedure:
(i) KI is dissolved in water. I2 is dissolved in it.
(ii) Woolfat and yellow soft paraffin are melted together over water bath. Melted mass is cooled to
about 400C.
(iii) I2 solution is added to the melted mass in small quantities at a time with continuos stirring until a
uniform mass is obtained.
(iv) It is cooled to room temperature and packed.
Use: - Ringworm in cattle.
(b) Ointment containing combined iodine
Fixed oils and many vegetable and animal fats absorb iodine which combines with the double
bonds of the unsaturated constituents, e.g.
CH3.(CH2) 2.CH = CH.(CH2) 7.COOH + I2 CH3.(CH2) 2.CHI CHI.(CH2) 7.COOH
Oleic acid

di-iodostearic acid

Example: Non-staining Iodine Ointment B.P.C. 1968

Iodine
Arachis Oil
Yellow Soft Paraffin
Method:
(a) Iodine is finely powdered in a glass mortar and required amount is added to the oil in a glassstoppered conical flask and stirred well.
(b) The oil is heated at 500C in a water-bath and stirred continually. Heating is continued until the
brown color is changed to greenish-black; this may take several hours.
(c) From 0.1g of the preparation the amount of iodine is determined by B.P.C. method and the amount
of soft paraffin base is calculated to give the product the required strength.
(d) Soft paraffin is warmed to 40 0C. The iodized oil is added and mixed well. No more heat is applied
because this causes deposition of a resinous substance.
(e) The preparation is packed in a warm, wide-mouthed, amber color, glass bottle. It is allowed to
cool without further stirring.
4. PREPARATION OF OINTMENTS BY EMULSIFICATION
An emulsion system contain an oil phase, an aqueous phase and an emulsifying agent.

For o/w emulsion systems the following emulsifying agents are used:
(i) water soluble soap
(ii) cetyl alcohol
(iii)glyceryl monostearate
(iv) combination of emulsifiers: triethanolamine stearate + cetyl alcohol
(v) non-ionic emulsifiers: glyceryl monostearate, glyceryl monooelate, propylene glycol
stearate
For w/o emulsion creams the following emulsifiers are used:
(i) polyvalent ions e.g magnesium, calcium and aluminium are used.
(ii) combination of emulsifiers: beeswax + divalent calcium ion
The viscosity of this type of creams prevent coalescence of the emulsified phases and helps in
stabilizing the emulsion.
Example:
Cold cream:
Procedure:
(i) Water immiscible components e.g. oils, fats, waxes are melted together over water bath (70 0C).
(ii) Aqueous solution of all heat stable, water soluble components are heated (70 0C).
(iii) Aqueous solution is slowly added to the melted bases with continuous stirring until the product
cools down and a semi-solid mass is obtained.
N.B. The aqueous phase is heated otherwise high melting point fats and waxes will immediately
solidify on addition of cold aqueous solution.

MANUFACTURE OF OINTMENTS / CREAMS IN INDUSTRIAL SCALE

1. Preparation of oil and aqueous phase
Oils + Fats
+ Purified water
Equipment:
Mechanicalstirrer

Water soluble ingredients

Steam

jacketed

Equipment:

kettle

Melted and mixed

Dissolved

Strained through several layers of cheese

cloths to remove foreign matter

Filtered

Heated to the melting

point of oil phase

Cakes, flakes or powdered waxes are directly weighed in a physical balance.

Semisolid petrolatum is melted in the container supplied by an immersion heater, the liquid
petrolatum is then transferred by a metering pump through metal reinforced inert plastic hoses
and insulated pipes.

2. Mixing of oil and water phases

Mixing temperature is 70720C for proper mixing.
Three methods of mixing are there:
(C) Addition of continuous phase
(B) Addition of disperse
to disperse phase
phase to continuous phase

(A) Simultaneou

s blending

For an emulsion having low

volume of dispersed phase.
Equipment:

For an emulsion formed by

phase inversion method.
Equipment:

Simple metering pump

Simple metering pump.

For continuous or large batch

operation
Equipments
Proportioning pump
Continuous mixer

Batch sizes are on weight basis. For weighing a hydraulic load cell is fitted under one of the leg
of the mixing kettle.

3. Cooling the semisolid

Cooling should be slow to prevent crystallization of high m.p. waxes. Perfumes are added at 43 to
450C.
Equipments: Kettle fitted with heating / cooling arrangements, agitator and sweep blades (for
scrapping the wall).

Cooled to 43 to 450C

Kettle with agitator and sweep blades

Addition of perfume

Addition of drug powder

Dispersed or dissolved

4. Homogenization
Creams or ointments

Equipment: Low-shear gear pump and

roller mill / colloid mill / valve type homogenizer
Homogenization

5. Storage of semisolids
Stored before packaging. In the mean time Q.C. report comes. Stored in a tight-fitting
stainless steel (SS#316) container.

6. Transfer of materials for packaging

Equipment: Ointment filling machine
Washing of the equipments with high-pressure (up to 1000psi), low-volume pumps and hot water
and detergents should be done.
To sterilize the equipments, containers, pumps and other accessories are flushed with chlorinated
water or formalin followed by rinsing them with bacteria free water.

STABILITY OF OINTMENTS

The ointments should remain stable from the time of preparation to the time when the whole of it
is consumed by the user.
(i) To stop microbial growth preservatives are added. Preservatives for ointment includes : phydroxy benzoates, phenol, benzoic acid, sorbic acid, methyl paraben, propyl paraben, quaternary
ammonium compounds, mercury compounds etc.
(ii) The preservatives should not react with any of the component of the formulation. Plastic
containers may absorb the preservative and thereby decreasing the concentration of preservative
available for killing the bacteria.
(iii) Some ingredients like wool fat and wool alcohols are susceptible to oxidation. Therefore, a
suitable antioxidant may be incorporated to protect the active ingredients from oxidation.
(iv) Incompatible drugs, emulsifying agents and preservatives must be avoided. The drugs which are
likely to hydrolyze must be dispensed in an anhydrous base.
(v) Humectants such as, glycerin, propylene glycol and sorbitol may be added to prevent the loss of
moisture from the preparation.
(vi) Ointment must be stored at an optimum temperature otherwise separation of phases may take
place in the emulsified products which may be very difficult to remix to get a uniform product.

Preservatives in ointments

DOWN LOAD------ORIGINAL------SEMISOLID DOSAGE FORM

FOR

PHARMACEUTICS

THEORY

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well,here is some details:
1-Pastes:paste is a substance that behaves as a solid until a sufficiently large load or stress is applied,at which point it flows like a fluid,paste typically
consists of a suspension of small particles in a background fluid,the small particles are jammed together like grains of sand on a beach,forming a

disordered,glassy or amorphous structure, and giving pastes their solid-like character,in pharmacology,paste is basic pharmaceutical form,it consists of
fatty base (e.g. petroleum jelly) and at least 25% solid substance (e.g. zinc oxide).
2-Ointments:an ointment is a viscous semisolid preparation used topically on a variety of body surfaces.these include the skin and the mucus
membranes of the eye (an eye ointment),vagina,glans and nose,an ointment may or may not be medicated.
3-creams:Cream is semi-solid emulsion,that is mixtures of oil and water,they are divided into two types:oil-in-water (O/W) creams which are composed
of small droplets of oil dispersed in a continuous aqueous phase,and water-in-oil (W/O) creams which are composed of small droplets of water
dispersed in a continuous oily phase.
Viscosity?
Paste - Thick, almost solid form.
Ointment - Not as thick, like grease
Cream - Even less thick, like a thick oil.

definitions - zinc oxide

zinc oxide (n.)
1.oxide of zinc; a white powder used as a pigment or in cosmetics or glass or inks and in zinc ointment

Zinc Oxide (n.)

1.(MeSH)A mild astringent and topical protectant with some antiseptic action. It is also used in bandages, pastes, ointments, dental cements, and as a

sunblock.

definition (more)
definition of Wikipedia
Advertizing

synonyms - zinc oxide

Zinc Oxide (n.) (MeSH)
Lassar's Paste (MeSH)

zinc oxide (n.)

flowers of zinc, philosopher's wool, philosophers' wool
Advertizing

analogical dictionary
Inorganic Chemicals - Anions - Oxygen Compounds[Hyper.]
Zinc Compounds - Oxides[Hyper.]

Zinc Oxide (n.) [MeSH]

oxide; hydroxide[ClasseHyper.]
compos d'oxygne (fr)[Classe]
(enamel)[termes

lis]

chemistry[Domaine]
CompoundSubstance[Domaine]
chemical compound, compound - pigment[Hyper.]
oxidate, oxidise, oxidize[Driv]
oxide[Hyper.]
Chinese white, cover white, zinc white[Element]

zinc oxide (n.)

Wikipedia
Zinc oxideupdate

Zinc oxide

Other names
Zinc white, Calamine, philosopher's wool, Chinese white, flowers of zinc
Identifiers
CAS number
PubChem
ChemSpider
EC number
ChEBI
ChEMBL
RTECS number
ATCvet code

1314-13-2
14806
14122
215-222-5
CHEBI:36560
CHEMBL1201128
ZH4810000
QA07XA91
InChI

InChI=1S/O.Zn
Key: XLOMVQKBTHCTTD-UHFFFAOYSA-N
Properties
Molecular formula
Molar mass
Appearance
Odor
Density
Melting point
Boiling point
Solubility inwater
Band gap
Refractive index(nD)

ZnO
81.408 g/mol
White solid
odorless
5.606 g/cm3
1975 C (decomposes)[1]
2360 C
0.16 mg/100 mL (30 C)
3.3 eV (direct)
2.0041

Std enthalpy of
formationfHo298
Standard molar
entropy So298

-348.0 kJ/mol

MSDS
EU Index
EU classification
R-phrases
S-phrases
NFPA 704

ICSC 0208
030-013-00-7
Dangerous for the environment (N)
R50/53
S60, S61

Thermochemistry

43.9 JK1mol1
Hazards

1
2
0
W
Flash point

1436 C

Other anions

Zinc sulfide
Zinc selenide
Zinc telluride
Cadmium oxide
Mercury(II) oxide

Related compounds

Other cations

(verify) (what is: / ?)

Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 C, 100 kPa)
Infobox references

Zinc oxide is an inorganic compound with the formula ZnO. ZnO is a white powder that is insoluble in water, which is widely used as an additive in numerous
materials and products including plastics, ceramics, glass, cement, lubricants [2], paints, ointments, adhesives, sealants, pigments, foods (source of
Zn nutrient), batteries, ferrites, fire retardants, and first aid tapes. It occurs naturally as the mineral zincite but most zinc oxide is produced synthetically.[3]
In materials science, ZnO is a wide-bandgap semiconductor of the II-VI semiconductor group (since oxygen was classed as an element of VIA group (the 6th
main group, now referred to as 16th) of the periodic table and zinc, a transition metal, as a member of the IIB (2nd B), now 12th, group). The native doping of
the semiconductor (due to oxygen vacancies) is n-type. This semiconductor has several favorable properties, including good transparency, high electron
mobility, wide bandgap, and strong room-temperatureluminescence. Those properties are used in emerging applications for transparent electrodes in liquid
crystal displays, in energy-saving or heat-protecting windows, and in electronics as thin-film transistors and light-emitting diodes.

Contents

1 Chemical properties

2 Physical properties

2.1 Structure

2.2 Mechanical properties

2.3 Electrical properties

3 Production

3.1 Indirect (French) process

3.2 Direct (American) process

3.3 Wet chemical process

3.4 Laboratory synthesis

3.5 Nanophase ZnO

4 Applications

4.1 Rubber manufacture

4.2 Concrete industry

4.3 Medical

4.4 Cigarette filters

4.5 Food additive

4.6 Pigment

4.7 Coatings

4.8 Corrosion prevention in nuclear reactors

5 Potential applications

5.1 Electronics

5.2 Zinc oxide nanorod sensor

5.3 Spintronics

5.4 Piezoelectricity

6 History

7 Safety

8 In popular culture

9 See also

10 References

11 Reviews

12 External links

Chemical properties
ZnO occurs as a white powder. The mineral zincite usually contains manganese and other impurities that confer a yellow to red color.[4] Crystalline zinc oxide
is thermochromic, changing from white to yellow when heated and in air reverting to white on cooling. [5] This color change is caused by a small loss of oxygen
to the environment at high temperatures to form the non-stoichiometric Zn 1+xO, where at 800 C, x = 0.00007.[5]
Zinc oxide is an amphoteric oxide. It is nearly insoluble in water, but it is soluble in (degraded by) most acids, such as hydrochloricacid:[6][7]
ZnO + 2 HCl ZnCl2 + H2O
Bases also degrade the solid to give soluble zincates:
ZnO + 2 NaOH + H2O Na2[Zn(OH)4]
ZnO reacts slowly with fatty acids in oils to produce the corresponding carboxylates, such as oleate or stearate. ZnO forms cement-like products when mixed
with a strong aqueous solution of zinc chloride and these are best described as zinc hydroxy chlorides.[8] This cement was used in dentistry.[9]

Hopeite

ZnO also forms cement-like products when treated with phosphoric acid; related materials are used in dentistry.[9] A major component of zinc phosphate
cement produced by this reaction is hopeite, Zn3(PO4)24H2O.[10]
ZnO decomposes into zinc vapor and oxygen only at around 1975 C, reflecting its considerable stability. Heating with carbon converts the oxide into the
metal, which is more volatile than the oxide. [11]
ZnO + C Zn + CO
Zinc oxide can react violently with aluminium and magnesium powders, with chlorinated rubber and linseed oil on heating causing fire and explosion hazard. [12]
[13]

It reacts with hydrogen sulfide to give the sulfide. This reaction is used commercially in removing H2S using ZnO powder (e.g., as deodorant).
ZnO + H2S ZnS + H2O
When ointments containing ZnO and water are melted and exposed to ultraviolet light, hydrogen peroxide is produced.[7]

Physical properties

Wurtzite structure

A zincblende unit cell

Structure
Zinc oxide crystallizes in two main forms, hexagonal wurtzite[14] and cubic zincblende. The wurtzite structure is most stable at ambient conditions and thus
most common. The zincblende form can be stabilized by growing ZnO on substrates with cubic lattice structure. In both cases, the zinc and oxide centers
are tetrahedral, the most characteristic geometry for Zn(II).
In addition to the wurtzite and zincblende polymorphs, ZnO can be crystallized in the rocksalt motif at relatively high pressures about 10 GPa.[15]
Hexagonal and zincblende polymorphs have no inversion symmetry (reflection of a crystal relative to any given point does not transform it into itself). This and
other lattice symmetry properties result in piezoelectricity of the hexagonal and zincblende ZnO, and pyroelectricityof hexagonal ZnO.
The hexagonal structure has a point group 6 mm (Hermann-Mauguin notation) or C6v (Schoenflies notation), and the space group is P63mc or C6v4. The lattice
constants are a = 3.25 and c = 5.2 ; their ratio c/a ~ 1.60 is close to the ideal value for hexagonal cell c/a = 1.633.[16] As in most group II-VI materials, the
bonding in ZnO is largely ionic (Zn2+O2) with the corresponding radii of 0.074 nm for Zn 2+ and 0.140 nm for O2. This property accounts for the preferential
formation of wurtzite rather than zinc blende structure, [17] as well as the strong piezoelectricity of ZnO. Because of the polar Zn-O bonds, zinc and oxygen
planes are electrically charged. To maintain electrical neutrality, those planes reconstruct at atomic level in most relative materials, but not in ZnO its
surfaces are atomically flat, stable and exhibit no reconstruction. This anomaly of ZnO is not fully explained yet. [18]

Mechanical properties
ZnO is a relatively soft material with approximate hardness of 4.5 on the Mohs scale.[2] Its elastic constants are smaller than those of relevant III-V
semiconductors, such as GaN. The high heat capacity and heat conductivity, low thermal expansion and high melting temperature of ZnO are beneficial for
ceramics.[19] ZnO's most stable phase being wurtzite, ZnO exhibits a very long lived optical phonon E2(low) with a lifetime as high as 133 ps at 10 K [20]
Among the tetrahedrally bonded semiconductors, it has been stated that ZnO has the highest piezoelectric tensor, or at least one comparable to that
of GaN and AlN.[21] This property makes it a technologically important material for many piezoelectrical applications, which require a large electromechanical
coupling.

Electrical properties
ZnO has a relatively large direct band gap of ~3.3 eV at room temperature. Advantages associated with a large band gap include higher breakdown voltages,
ability to sustain large electric fields, lower electronic noise, and high-temperature and high-power operation. The bandgap of ZnO can further be tuned to ~3
4 eV by its alloying withmagnesium oxide or cadmium oxide.[15]
Most ZnO has n-type character, even in the absence of intentional doping. Nonstoichiometry is typically the origin of n-type character, but the subject remains
controversial.[22] An alternative explanation has been proposed, based on theoretical calculations, that unintentional substitutional hydrogen impurities are
responsible.[23] Controllable n-type doping is easily achieved by substituting Zn with group-III elements such as Al, Ga, In or by substituting oxygen with groupVII elements chlorine or iodine.[24]
Reliable p-type doping of ZnO remains difficult. This problem originates from low solubility of p-type dopants and their compensation by abundant n-type
impurities. This problem is observed with GaN and ZnSe. Measurement of p-type in "intrinsically" n-type material is complicated by the inhomogeneity of
samples.[25]
Current limitations to p-doping does not limit electronic and optoelectronic applications of ZnO, which usually require junctions of n-type and p-type material.
Known p-type dopants include group-I elements Li, Na, K; group-V elements N, P and As; as well as copper and silver. However, many of these form deep
acceptors and do not produce significant p-type conduction at room temperature. [15]
Electron mobility of ZnO strongly varies with temperature and has a maximum of ~2000 cm2/(Vs) at 80 K.[26] Data on hole mobility are scarce with values in the
range 530 cm2/(Vs).[27]

Production
See also: Zinc smelting
For industrial use, ZnO is produced at levels of 105 tons per year[4] by three main processes:[19]

Indirect (French) process

Metallic zinc is melted in a graphite crucible and vaporized at temperatures above 907 C (typically around 1000 C). Zinc vapor reacts with the oxygen in the
air to give ZnO, accompanied by a drop in its temperature and bright luminescence. Zinc oxide particles are transported into a cooling duct and collected in a
bag house. This indirect method was popularized by LeClaire (France) in 1844 and therefore is commonly known as the French process. Its product normally
consists of agglomerated zinc oxide particles with an average size of 0.1 to a few micrometers. By weight, most of the world's zinc oxide is manufactured via
French process.

Direct (American) process

The direct process starts with diverse contaminated zinc composites, such as zinc ores or smelter by-products. The zinc precursors are reduced (carbothermal
reduction) by heating with a source of carbon such as anthracite to produce zinc vapor, which is then oxidized as in the indirect process. Because of the lower
purity of the source material, the final product is also of lower quality in the direct process as compared to the indirect one.

Wet chemical process

A small amount of industrial production involves wet chemical processes, which start with aqueous solutions of purified zinc salts, from which zinc
carbonate or zinc hydroxide is precipitated. The precipitate is then filtered, washed, dried and calcined at temperatures around 800 C.

Laboratory synthesis

Synthetic ZnO crystals. Red and green color are associated with different concentrations of oxygen vacancies. [28]

A large number of specialised methods exist for producing ZnO for scientific studies and niche applications. These methods can be classified by the resulting
ZnO form (bulk, thin film, nanowire), temperature ("low", that is close to room temperature or "high", that is T ~ 1000 C), process type (vapor deposition or
growth from solution) and other parameters.
Large single crystals (many cubic centimeters) are usually grown by the gas transport (vapor-phase deposition), hydrothermal synthesis,[18][28][29] or melt growth.
[1]
However, because of high vapor pressure of ZnO, growth from the melt is problematic. Growth by gas transport is difficult to control, leaving the
hydrothermal method as a preference.[1] Thin films can be produced by chemical vapor deposition, metalorganic vapour phase
epitaxy, electrodeposition, pulsed laser deposition, sputtering, sol-gel synthesis, atomic layer deposition, spray pyrolysis, etc.
Ordinary white powdered zinc oxide can be produced in the laboratory by electrolyzing a solution of sodium bicarbonate with a zinc anode. Zinc hydroxide and
hydrogen gas are produced. The zinc hydroxide upon heating decomposes to zinc oxide.
Zn + 2 H2O Zn(OH)2 + H2
Zn(OH)2 ZnO + H2O

Nanophase ZnO
Nanophase ZnO can be synthesized into a variety of morphologies including nanowires, nanorods, tetrapods, nanobelts, nanoflowers, nanoparticles etc.
Nanostructures can be obtained with most above-mentioned techniques, at certain conditions, and also with the vapor-liquid-solid method.[18][30]
Rodlike nanostructures of ZnO can be produced via aqueous methods, which are attractive for the following reasons: They are low cost, less hazardous [citation
needed]
, and thus capable of easy scaling up; the growth occurs at a relatively low temperature, compatible with flexible organic substrates; there is no need for
the use of metal catalysts, and thus it can be integrated with well-developed silicon technologies. In addition, there are a variety of parameters that can be
tuned to effectively control the morphology and properties of the final product. Wet chemical methods have been demonstrated as a very powerful and
versatile technique for growing one dimensional ZnO nanostructures. [31]The synthesis is typically carried out at temperatures of about 90 C, in an equimolar
aqueous solution of zinc nitrate and hexamine, the latter providing the basic environment. Certain additives, such as polyethylene glycol or polyethylenimine,
can improve the aspect ratio of the ZnO nanowires. [32] Doping of the ZnO nanowires has been achieved by adding other metal nitrates to the growth solution.
[33]
The morphology of the resulting nanostructures can be tuned by changing the parameters relating to the precursor composition (such as the zinc
concentration and pH) or to the thermal treatment (such as the temperature and heating rate). [34]
Aligned ZnO nanowires on pre-seeded silicon, glass and gallium nitride substrates have been grown in aqueous solutions using aqueous zinc salts such as Zinc
nitrate and Zinc acetate in basic environments.[35] Pre-seeding substrates with ZnO creates sites for homogeneous nucleation of ZnO crystal during the
synthesis. Common pre-seeding methods include in-situ thermal decomposition of zinc acetate crystallites, spincoating of ZnO nanoparticles and the use
of physical vapor deposition methods to deposit ZnO thin films.[36][37] Pre-seeding can be performed in conjunction with top down patterning methods such
as electron beam lithography and nanosphere lithography to designate nucleation sites prior to growth. Aligned ZnO nanowires can be used in dye-sensitized
solar cells and field emission devices.[38][39]

Applications
The applications of zinc oxide powder are numerous, and the principal ones are summarized below. Most applications exploit the reactivity of the oxide as a
precursor to other zinc compounds. For material science applications, zinc oxide has high refractive index, high thermal conductivity, binding, antibacterial
and UV-protection properties. Consequently, it is added into materials and products including plastics, ceramics, glass, cement, rubber, lubricants, [2] paints,
ointments, adhesive, sealants, pigments, foods, batteries, ferrites, fire retardants, etc. [40]

Rubber manufacture
About 50% of ZnO use is in the rubber industry. Zinc oxide along with stearic acid is used in the vulcanization of rubber[19][41][42] ZnO additive also protect rubber
from fungi (see medical applications) and UV light.

Concrete industry
Zinc oxide is widely used for concrete manufacturing. Addition of ZnO improves the processing time and the resistance of concrete against water.[41]

Medical
Zinc oxide as a mixture with about 0.5% iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) is called calamine and is used in calamine lotion. There are also two
minerals, zincite and hemimorphite, which have been historically called calamine. When mixed with eugenol, a ligand, zinc oxide eugenol is formed, which has
applications as a restorative and prosthodontic in dentistry.[9][43]
Reflecting the basic properties of ZnO, fine particles of the oxide have deodorizing and antibacterial [44] properties and for that reason are added into materials
including cotton fabric, rubber, and food packaging.[45][46] Enhanced antibacterial action of fine particles compared to bulk material is not intrinsic to ZnO and is
observed for other materials, such as silver.[47] This property is due to the increased surface area of the fine particles.
Zinc oxide is widely used to treat a variety of other skin conditions, in products such as baby powder and barrier creams to treat diaper
rashes, calamine cream, anti-dandruffshampoos, and antiseptic ointments.[48][49] It is also a component in tape (called "zinc oxide tape") used by athletes as a
bandage to prevent soft tissue damage during workouts. [50]
Zinc oxide can be used in ointments, creams, and lotions to protect against sunburn and other damage to the skin caused by ultraviolet light (see sunscreen). It
is the broadest spectrum UVA and UVB reflector that is approved for use as a sunscreen by the FDA, [51] and is completely photostable.[52] When used as an
ingredient in sunscreen, zinc oxide sits on the skins surface and is not absorbed into the skin, and blocks both UVA (320400 nm) and UVB (280320 nm) rays
of ultraviolet light. Because zinc oxide (and the other most common physical sunscreen, titanium dioxide) are not absorbed into the skin, they are
nonirritating, nonallergenic, and non-comedogenic.[53]
Many sunscreens use nanoparticles of zinc oxide (along with nanoparticles of titanium dioxide) because such small particles do not scatter light and therefore
do not appear white. Although there has been concern that they might be absorbed into the skin, [54][55] comprehensive reviews of the medical literature have
not uncovered any risk.[56]

Cigarette filters
Zinc oxide is a constituent of cigarette filters for removal of selected components from tobacco smoke. A filter consisting of charcoal impregnated with zinc
oxide and iron oxide removes significant amounts of HCN and H2S from tobacco smoke without affecting its flavor.[40]

Food additive
Zinc oxide is added to many food products, including breakfast cereals, as a source of zinc,[57] a necessary nutrient. (Zinc sulfate is also used for the same
purpose.) Some prepackaged foods also include trace amounts of ZnO even if it is not intended as a nutrient.

Pigment
Zinc white is used as a pigment[58] in paints and is more opaque than lithopone, but less opaque than titanium dioxide. It is also used in coatings for paper.
Chinese white is a special grade of zinc white used in artists' pigments. It is also a main ingredient of mineral makeup.[59]

Coatings
Paints containing zinc oxide powder have long been utilized as anticorrosive coatings for metals. They are especially effective for galvanized iron. Iron is
difficult to protect because its reactivity with organic coatings leads to brittleness and lack of adhesion. Zinc oxide paints retain their flexibility and adherence
on such surfaces for many years.[40]
ZnO highly n-type doped with Al, Ga, or In is transparent and conductive (transparency ~90%, lowest resistivity ~104 cm[60]). ZnO:Al coatings are used for
energy-saving or heat-protecting windows. The coating lets the visible part of the spectrum in but either reflects the infrared (IR) radiation back into the room
(energy saving) or does not let the IR radiation into the room (heat protection), depending on which side of the window has the coating. [4]
Plastics, such as polyethylene naphthalate (PEN), can be protected by applying zinc oxide coating. The coating reduces the diffusion of oxygen with PEN.
[61]
Zinc oxide layers can also be used on polycarbonate (PC) in outdoor applications. The coating protects PC form solar radiation and decreases the oxidation
rate and photo-yellowing of PC.[62]

Corrosion prevention in nuclear reactors

Main article: Depleted zinc oxide
Zinc oxide depleted in the zinc isotope with the atomic mass 64 is used in corrosion prevention in nuclear pressurized water reactors. The depletion is
necessary, because 64Zn is transformed into radioactive 65Zn under irradiation by the reactor neutrons. [63]

Potential applications
Electronics
ZnO has wide direct band gap (3.37 eV or 375 nm at room temperature). Therefore, its most common potential applications are in laser diodes and light
emitting diodes (LEDs).[64] Some optoelectronic applications of ZnO overlap with that of GaN, which has a similar bandgap (~3.4 eV at room temperature).
Compared to GaN, ZnO has a larger exciton binding energy (~60 meV, 2.4 times of the room-temperature thermal energy), which results in bright roomtemperature emission from ZnO. ZnO can be combined with GaN for LED-applications. For instance as TCO layer and ZnO nanostructures provide better light
outcoupling.[65] Other properties of ZnO favorable for electronic applications include its stability to high-energy radiation and to wet chemical etching.
[66]
Radiation resistance[67] makes ZnO a suitable candidate for space applications. ZnO is the most promising candidate in the field of random lasers to produce
an electronically pumped UV laser source.
The pointed tips of ZnO nanorods result in a strong enhancement of an electric field. Therefore, they can be used as field emitters.[68]
Aluminium-doped ZnO layers are used as a transparent electrodes. The constituents Zn and Al are much cheaper and less poisonous compared to the generally
used indium tin oxide (ITO). One application which has begun to be commercially available is the use of ZnO as the front contact for solar cells or of liquid
crystal displays.[69]
Transparent thin-film transistors (TTFT) can be produced with ZnO. As field-effect transistors, they even may not need a pn junction, [70] thus avoiding the ptype doping problem of ZnO. Some of the field-effect transistors even use ZnO nanorods as conducting channels. [71]

Zinc oxide nanorod sensor

Zinc oxide nanorod sensors are devices detecting changes in electrical current passing through zinc oxide nanowires due to adsorption of gas molecules.
Selectivity to hydrogen gas was achieved by sputtering Pd clusters on the nanorod surface. The addition of Pd appears to be effective in the catalytic
dissociation of hydrogen molecules into atomic hydrogen, increasing the sensitivity of the sensor device. The sensor detects hydrogen concentrations down to
10 parts per million at room temperature, whereas there is no response to oxygen. [72][73]

Spintronics
ZnO has also been considered for spintronics applications: if doped with 110% of magnetic ions (Mn, Fe, Co, V, etc.), ZnO could become ferromagnetic, even at
room temperature. Such room temperature ferromagnetism in ZnO:Mn has been observed,[74] but it is not clear yet whether it originates from the matrix itself
or from secondary oxide phases.

Piezoelectricity
The piezoelectricity in textile fibers coated in ZnO have been shown capable of fabricating "self-powered nanosystems" with everyday mechanical stress from
wind or body movements.[75][76]
In 2008 the Center for Nanostructure Characterization at the Georgia Institute of Technology reported producing an electricity generating device (called
flexible charge pump generator) delivering alternating current by stretching and releasing zinc oxide nanowires. This mini-generator creates an oscillating
voltage up to 45 millivolts, converting close to seven percent of the applied mechanical energy into electricity. Researchers used wires with lengths of 0.2
0.3 mm and diameters of three to five micrometers, but the device could be scaled down to smaller size. [77]

History
It is hardly possible to trace the first usage of zinc oxide zinc compounds were used by early humans, in processed and unprocessed forms, as a paint or
medicinal ointment, but their composition is uncertain.
The use of pushpanjan, probably zinc oxide, as a salve for eyes and open wounds, is mentioned in the Indian medical text the Charaka Samhita, thought to
date from 500 BC or before.[78] Zinc oxide ointment is also mentioned by the Greek physician Dioscorides (1st century AD.)[79] Avicenna mentions zinc oxide
in The Canon of Medicine (1025 AD), which mentioned it as a preferred treatment for a variety of skin conditions, including skin cancer. Though it is no longer
used for treating skin cancer, it is still widely used to treat a variety of other skin conditions, in products such as baby powder and creams against diaper
rashes, calamine cream, anti-dandruff shampoos, and antiseptic ointments.[48]
The Romans produced considerable quantities of brass (an alloy of zinc and copper) as early as 200 BC by a cementation process where copper was reacted
with zinc oxide.[80]The zinc oxide is thought to have been produced by heating zinc ore in a shaft furnace. This liberated metallic zinc as a vapor, which then
ascended the flue and condensed as the oxide. This process was described by Dioscorides in the 1st century AD.[81] Zinc oxide has also been recovered from zinc
mines at Zawar in India, dating from the second half of the first millennium BC. This was presumably also made in the same way and used to produce brass. [79]
From the 12th to the 16th century zinc and zinc oxide were recognized and produced in India using a primitive form of the direct synthesis process. From India,
zinc manufacture moved to China in the 17th century. In 1743, the first European zinc smelter was established in Bristol, United Kingdom.[82]
The main usage of zinc oxide (zinc white) was again paints and additive to ointments. Zinc white was accepted as a watercolor by 1834 but it did not mix well
with oil. This problem was quickly solved by optimizing the synthesis of ZnO. In 1845, LeClaire in Paris was producing the oil paint on a large scale, and by
1850, zinc white was being manufactured throughout Europe. The success of zinc white paint was due to its advantages over the traditional white lead: zinc
white is essentially permanent in sunlight, it is not blackened by sulfur-bearing air, it is non-toxic and more economical. Because zinc white is so "clean" it is
very valuable for making tints with other colors; however, it makes a rather brittle dry film when unmixed with other colors. For example, during the late
1890s and early 1900s, some artists used zinc white as a ground for their oil paintings. All those paintings developed cracks over the years. [83]
In the recent times, most zinc oxide was used in the rubber industry (see applications above). In the 1970s, the second largest application of ZnO was
photocopying. High-quality ZnO produced by the "French process" was added into the photocopying paper as a filler. This application was however soon
displaced.[19]

Safety

As a food additive, zinc oxide is on the U.S. FDA's list of generally recognized as safe, or GRAS, substances.[84]
Zinc oxide itself is non-toxic; however it is hazardous to inhale zinc oxide fumes, as generated when zinc or zinc alloys are melted and oxidized at high
temperature. This problem occurs while melting brass because the melting point of brass is close to the boiling point of zinc. [85] Exposure to zinc oxide in the
air, which also occurs while welding galvanized (zinc plated) steel, can result in a nervous malady called metal fume fever. For this reason, typically galvanized
steel is not welded, or the zinc is removed first. [86]
A recent study has also raised a concern that zinc oxide nano-particles may cause cancer.[87]

In popular culture

Reflecting its many varied but relatively unobtrusive and unglamorous uses, zinc oxide was the theme of a spoof in The Kentucky Fried Movie as a
short educational filmZinc Oxide and You.

In SpongeBob SquarePants, the lifeguards in Goo Lagoon use zinc oxide to make their noses white to show that they're a lifeguard.

zinc oxide
n a white insoluble powder used as a pigment in paints (zinc white or Chinese white), cosmetics, glass, and printing inks. It is an
antiseptic and astringent and is used in making zinc ointment. Formula: ZnO , (Also called) flowers of zinc, philosophers wool
Starch or amylum is a carbohydrate consisting of a large number of glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by
most green plants as an energy store. It is the most common carbohydrate in human diets and is contained in large amounts in such staple
foods aspotatoes, wheat, maize (corn), rice, and cassava.
Pure starch is a white, tasteless and odorless powder that is insoluble in cold water or alcohol. It consists of two types of molecules: the linear
andhelical amylose and the branched amylopectin. Depending on the plant, starch generally contains 20 to 25% amylose and 75 to 80% amylopectin
by weight.[1] Glycogen, the glucose store of animals, is a more branched version of amylopectin.
Starch is processed to produce many of the sugars in processed foods. Dissolving starch in warm water gives wheatpaste, which can be used as a
thickening, stiffening or gluing agent. The biggest industrial non-food use of starch is as adhesive in the papermaking process. Starch can be applied to
parts of some garments before ironing, to stiffen them.
Petroleum jelly, petrolatum, white petrolatum, soft paraffin or multi-hydrocarbon, CAS number 8009-03-8, is a semi-solid mixture
ofhydrocarbons (with carbon numbers mainly higher than 25),[1] originally promoted as a topical ointment for its healing properties.
After petroleum jelly became a medicine chest staple, consumers began to use it for myriad ailments and cosmetic purposes, including toenail fungus,
male genital rashes (non-STD), nosebleeds, diaper rash, and chest colds. Its folkloric medicinal value as a "cure-all" has since been limited by better
scientific understanding of appropriate and inappropriate uses (see uses below). It is recognized by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as
an approved over-the-counter (OTC) skin protectant, and remains widely used in cosmetic skin care.