Professional Documents
Culture Documents
,'
December 1992
2173333115
w.
The challenge in
Another
if the spray rate is too low, some areas on the tube become dry and
the heat-transfer coefficient drops off rapidly.
~vaporator.
-2-
.,'
One of the
The development of
low-charge chillers in the next few years will facilitate the use
of ammonia water chillers for air conditioning service and possibly
antifreeze chillers for supermarkets and other applications.
One
The first
In the past
few years enhanced heat-transfer surfaces have come into wide use,
particularly with copper tubes used for halocarbon refrigerants.
The availability of aluminum tubes with enhanced surfaces opens
similar opportunities for ammonia.
-3-
temperature difference between the sea water and working fluid will
increase the energy efficiency of the system.
One of the most prominent characteristics of this equipment is
the low refrigerant charge which will be an attractive feature in
the refrigeration industry both in the short- and medium-term
because of the high costs of HFCs _and HCFCs or because of the
objective of increased safety in the case of ammonia.
One of the advantages of this type of equipment in comparison
to flooded evaporators is that the elevation of the boiling
temperature caused by hydrostatic head in the lower part of the
evaporator is avoided.
-4-
The circulation
In both
An
-5-
....
(1)
They
(5 )
(6)
It is
-6-
"~'
(8)
u
,.. 2000
c
~7000
NUSS8..T
OIJ
FWITA
SlMRER
q.1.11()A5
. q.2.8 1()A5
2000!---~~~~------~
o
. 3000
1000
RE
Fig. 1.
surfaces:
(a) Dry patch in which the appearance of
~he
This flow
-7-
..'
Col
poren
(III
"0'0
...
Fig. 2.
have investigated
Their
Finally, the
-8-
4/5
= 8.6 M
min
= ~/4
(8 )
/( j ~1/4 gl/4)
(1 - cos ~)3/5
= 498
(9 )
depends on the nature of the surface and the type of fluid, large
discrepancies in the values are found in the literature.
Thus, for
min
1000
100
10
.-20
I:
a:
II
10
1
100
Fig. 3.
300
500
..
700
900
.-30
.-40
.-so
70
1100
-9-
....
wetting~.
min
Alexander and
passes by, the surface tension dries the crest of the flute by
pulling the liquid into the rill, thus producing a higher heat
transfer coefficient.
LIOUID FLOWS
DOWNWARD
t,
.{
.
"
.'
I;
,\.
:!"
.'
'.
.'
i
1
~;
~7.
:; tl
,
..
'.
Fig. 4.
f.
~:
.'
'.':"
r
!
..'
-10-
The
It can be
:::
!!!
11.1
::
11.1
Q
a-:.
..
CIS
::
z
z
11.1
:I
10:
Col
..
. I
a 10'
&
..
10
Fig. 5.
-11-
On
In h*
T"\~ - ;
Fig. 6.
~
Smooth
Ln Re
The
-12-
....
= 4700)
For
The
10000
I&.
=
C
:s
1000
..
~~
...
..
II
hChu&S
hargone
h Rothfus
GI
~
100
100
Fig. 7.
1000
r.
10000
-13-
reduc~ion
-14-
,.'
!!
~
93
93
94
AUXILIARY SPRAY
TUBES (PLUGGED)
NO. OF FUIICTlOIIAL
TUBES PER PASS
71"1.0.
72 ~4 0.0,
5"SIGHT
GLASSrg
..L
CARBOtl STEEL
SHELL a TUBESHEETS
*1.5"0.0. TI TUBE EXTERtlAlLY COATED WITII
!Iff 'I ltIf1rlr III""
Fig. 8.
",
When the. liquid flows from one tube to another the flow can
take the form of drops, columns, or sheets, as shown in Fig. 9,
depending on the flow rate of the liquid, the physical properties
of the liquid, and the separation of the tubes.
is very low, as in Fig. 9a the liquid flows in drops from one tube
to another.
converts to columns.
...
-15-
Horizontal falling
A. Jacobi is currently
AI OlscnETE onOPLET
Fig. 9.
DILIOUIO COLUI.IIIS
CllIQUIO SHEET
experiment~
He
"~'
-16-
along the length of the tube of the order of two times the diameter
and when not receiving drops for several seconds produced dryout on
plain tubes.
Yung and Lorenz (1980) studied the separation of the drop from
the film of liquid.
the large drop drags a small wake that breaks off and forms
satellite drops.
main drop d
p'
= C(cr" /~ 1
1/2
(10)
For a mixture of alcohol and water the experimentally determined
d
g)
(1980).
tube
coincided
=2
with a
A is not affected by
-17-
ENTRAINMENT
An important process in falling film evaporators is the
influence of entrainment.
the liquid that does not evaporate on a tube passes directly to the
tube below it.
the lower tube . . D. Yung and Lorenz (1980) determined the value of
velocity u
u
[(3~ dg)/(2~)]
1/2
~:
-1/4
[(P/D)(P/D-1)]
(13)
1
g
where P is the pitch of the tubes and D is the diameter
~he
....
-18-
---
vapor
Fig. 10.
values of P/D
= 1.25,
The maximum
(U)
--
E
II
at
:::I
ug(pld-1.8)
ug(pld=1.vr
ug(pld=1. Ji
dp1
ds2
ds3
1
o4---~~~~-r~~~~~~--~
Fig. 11.
-19-
"~'
tan (flj)
4 A.
rg
d* _
8 A. r
(,_ _ _)1/2
7t PI
(2 g S)-1/4
PIn
The
It is observed
how for vapor velocities lower than 1 mls the angle of deflection
....
-20-
is negative.
downstream (with respect to the vapor) side of the tube, passes its
low point, and then drips off with a component in the upstream
vapor direction.
The
-..
PIn
for various
values.
--
-
~
~/
l...--""
ug
::I
500
1000
1500
2000
Re
Fig. 12. Maximum velocity of gas as a function of Reynolds number.
50,-----------------------------~
40
P/D~1.5
30
..
20
Re400
10
Re 1200
Re 2100
-10;---~~--_r----~--~----~--~
3
1
2
o
u(m/s)
der~eC~1on
or
~ne
-21-
ENTRAINMENT BY ATOMIZATION
With high velocities of the gas in contact with the drops, it
is possible to produce atomization of the drops.
Wallis (1969)
Wea
12 a
)1/2
pg d
pg d
\....
atomization, u
decreases as a result of the increase in the
g,a
diameter of the drop as is represented in Fig. 14. Having,
therefore, drops that are larger in diameter than d
maximum velocity of the gas.
limits the
6~----------------------------_
---
E
lEI
uga
::s
2~~-r~-'--~~
0.001
__~~~__~
0.005 0.006
0.007
~~,--
Fig. 14.
...
-22-
ENTRAINMENT BY STRIPPING
If the velocity of the vapor is sufficiently high, the film of
liquid becomes unstable, separating into drops that are dragged by
the flow of vapor.
III PI 2 0'.1
PI
(
)1/2
PI
)115 = 1
( PI - PI) g
mIg,
that
a value
These small
(1~79)
experienced
...
-23-
= 4.854
(18)
where
In the case of ammonia at 22C, the value of M is 1010 and
assuming an angle of wetting between 20 and 30, the value of
Re
? "
~.. ~)
If
'-
100
a::
200
400
600
800
III
,,10
" 20
" 30
" 40
" 50
Fig. 15.
...
-24-
Table 1
Minimum
Wetting
REYNODl.S
Ammonia 180 - 350
J.Tang
A.M.Czikk Ammonia 200-300
SOURCE
FLUID
Conti
Ammonia 220
GanicRoppo
W'ater
C.Sabin
Ammonia 17 -170
C.Sabin
Ammonia 17 -170
aIEC
aIEC
Ammonia 500
Ammonia 220
ruBE
OBSERVATIONS
Plain
Plain
Correlation *
Influence of
vapor velocity
Comparison of
the wetting of
various fluids
Influence of
Heat Flux
Tube Separation
Dry- Out
Plain
70-200
Plain
Smooth
Rough Nickel
Turner & Stripe
Burnished,
Diamon Knurled,
Strainght Knurl
Hi-Flux
Nickel Plate
Plain
Hi-Flux .
Wetting on the
tubes
32 MBTU/h
= 290)
...
-25-
not result.
= 220.
It was found
that the nickel plate and Hi Flux surfaces favor the uniform
distribution of the liquid with the resulting complete wetting
of the tube, while the remaining surfaces form small canals of
liquid (rivelets) and form dry zones along the length of the
tubes.
3.
4.
The circulation of the vapor around the tube changes the form
of the draining of the liquid on the tube and therefore the
MWR.
-26-
r (kg/ms)
-=-
;:
a
Fig. 16.
Re
1200
1000
800
iii
a::
600
400
200
0
Fig. 17.
in/.
Values of Re
as a function of the
min
velocity of the gas.
As
-27-
In the case of a
= 220).
HEAT TRANSFER
Most of the experiments conducted on predicting the transfer
of heat in falling film evaporators have centered on the
development of facilities for desalination or for the OTEC program
with water or ammonia (Liu, Fletcher, Parken, Conti, Seban, Owen).
On the other hand some experiments have concentrated on halogenated
refrigerants (Danilova).
heat-transfer studies.
These experiments have permitted the development of several
correlations on the transfer of heat in falling film evaporators
(Owen, Lorenz and Yung, Sabin, Chyu and Bergles, Danilova) as well
as well as checking the validity of
analy~ical
Surface evaporation
-28-
Table 2.
SOURCE
Oem
LIU(1975)
H2O
secction
stainles 2.5
LIU(7195)
H2O
stainles 5
FLETCHER&SERNA H2O
Lan
T (C)
q w/m2
10- 3
30.48 55-100 28.-55
60.9
62-81
21
Cu/Ni
2.5
25
49-127 35-63
Cu/Ni
25
49-127 23-52
49-127 30-80
49-127 49-79
I (1974)
FLETCHER&SERNA H2O
S(1974)
.FLETCHER&
H2O
HAN(1985)
Re
12005000
13002050
15004100
29507500
700-7000
BOlLI
m
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes&
No
PARKEN(1977)
H2O
Groves 5
25
knurle
d
BRASS 2.5 & 25
5
BRASS 2.5
15
PARKEN,(1977)
H2O
BRASS
15
49-127 30-80
SERNAS(1979)
H2O
BRASS
15
45-122 47-79
SERNAS(l979)
H2O.
BRASS
2.5
15
45-117 47-79
OWENS(1978)
CONTI(1978)
NH3
NH3
STEEL
5
5
30
30
22
22
5 16
5-16
ROGFRS&GOINDI
H2O
ALUMIN 13
U
S1F.EL 2.5
ill
2.5
45.7
17
100
30
15
12-24
100
17-170
3-25
No
10-200 300-1750 Yes
18
-40
50
0.5-25
250-6000 Yes
23
5 13.7
180 .630
I (J989)
S1F.EL
SABIN(J978)
NH3
H2O
CHYU&
BERGLESfI987)
DANILOVA(1976) R12 S1F.EL
1.8
R22
R113
Rll
PORCEL 1.2
SPEGELE(1975)
AIN
49-127 30-80
10006800
200010700
10006700
16806050
11504600
110-9500
20010500
800-2000
Yes&
No
YES
YES&
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
(A1)
( 19)
-29-
,.'
Table 3.
Source
Re
Owens(78)
Owens(78)
Sernas(79)
Sernas(79)
Parken(90)
Parken(90)
Mitrovic86
Danilova76
Ai
<1680 Pr- I . S
>1680 Pr-1.S
1000<Re<6000
1000<Re<6000
1000<Re<6000
1000<Re<6000
240< Re<1100
250 < Re < 6000
A2
2.2
-1/3
0.185
0
0.01925 0.24
0.01729 0.24
0.042
0.15
0.038
0.15
0.0108
0.349
0.03
0.22
A3
A4
0
0.5
0:66
0.66
0.53
0.53
0.5
0.32
0.1
0.1
0
0
0
0
0.158
0.48
D, cm
- ---
1
1
1
1
1
1
~
2.5
5
2.5
5
1.8
Re*J\04
equations:
J3
* 10-3 Re
(.:to)
1.32 )
q"
Re*
={
( VI2/g)l/3 )
hfg
pv VI
F~g.
17.
-30-
1~00,-----------------------------~
10000
II
~BOOO
6:
E
:l SOOO
.c
.**
4000
nnnll lill
~~--~--r-~~~---P--~--
2000
--0-
4000
8000
__
Owen
Semas
Parker
Danilova
Mitovic
8000
Re
Fig. 17.
1.25
ANALYTICAL MODELS
Rogers (1981)
~nd
Two regions
(2) impingement,
-31-
,.,.
with heating of the liquid, and (4) fully developed region with
surface evaporation .
sr"""TlOII nOlI
ItGlCIII
II ''''IIGIII[IIT
nOllIlGlCIII
III M _
arVEL..,
IiGiOll
II ,......U
mELCIfID
151011
Fig. 18.
-32-
NUCELATE BOILING
An increase in the flow of heat per unit area q" forms bubble
nuclei that considerably intensify the heat transfer.
In this
However,
for the values of Prandtl number between 1.3 and 3.6 and with heat
2
Parken(90)
Parken (90)
Owens(78)
Re
lOOO<Re<7000
lOOO<Re<7000
A1
0.00082
0.00094
0.0175
A2
0.1
0.1
0
A3
0.65
0.65
0.5
A4
0
0
0.1
A5
D,cm
0.4 2.5
0.4 5
0.25 5
.72
Pr
.48
(24)
-33.'
where
Nu* = (h/k)(
0
g(p(p y)
\2.~ ')
)1/2
(1~ )
lZ1 )
On the other hand, Lorenz and Yung (1979) calculated the film
coefficient for the case of nucleate boiling in a tube superimposing the effects of convection and nucleate boiling.
For this
= nD/2
distinct regions:
(a) Developing region of the length designated L in which the
d
saturated liquid is heated until a linear velocity profile is
achieved, and
-34-
r
Ld
.J T
TltERHAl
DEVELOPING
REGION
TS
r~~i~ING
REGION
FULLY
DEVELOPED
REGION
EVAPORATION
+ BOILING
THIN fiLM ON
HORIZONTAL TUBE
Fig. 19.
SIMPLIfiED GECHETRT
USED IN MODEL
(28)
hb -'_ _ _ _ _ _ __
( Cp/hfg PfS)3 4 T2
in Zone a:
(30)
-35-
(Re,l) "().22
(31)
turbulent regime
(32)
3J.L
Let =
('-_ _-1)1/2
1C1C1DOO
.-
--
C
1C1C1DOO
Owen
Parka'
.-
Daniiova
1aooo ~
.c
1000
20000
10000
.. -,w/m A 2)
l--)
--
10000~
80000
.c
1000
20000
.
50000
\
80000
..- W/m A 2
(b)
-36-
For
with high rates of heat flow and uses surfaces with microcavities
of very small diameter with the objective of trapping bubbles of
vapor in the interior and assisting in nucleation.
The dimension
,~,k)
To the
-37-
..'
LIQUID IN
VAPOR OUT
Fig. 21.
The mean radius of the pore varies from 0.01 mm to 0.1 mm.
For
Webb
-38..'
Por.
Fig. 22.
~ebb
(1981).
of fins per unit length (fins/inch) and the gap between the fins.
-39-
Name
Fluid
Gap width
GEWA T 19C
19
0.25 mm
GEWA T 26B
26
0.15 mm
24 T Shaped
12
0.258 mm
H2 o, R-114
H2 O, R-114
NH
3
References
Chyu & Bergles
"
Huang (1990)
from the pores in the form of bubbles, and the liquid is drawn into
the tunnels to replenish the evaporated" liquid.
Table 5 presents a summary of some of the surfaces used for
enhancing the heat transfer in falling film evaporators.
For the case of a falling film evaporator with water, Chyu and
Bergles (1989) studied the behavior of three commercial surfaces,
Hi-Flux, Thermoexel E, GEWA T using heat fluxes less than
2
10 kW/m.
Figure 23
in Fig. 24.
-40-
Table 5.
Source
Conti
Conti
N .Fagerholm
N.Fa2erholm
N .Fa2erholm
N .Fagerholm
N .Fa2erholm
Chyu& Bergles
Chvu& Bergles
Chyu& Ber2les
Chyu& Bergles
Flecher
Lorenz& Yun2
Lorenz& Yung
Lorenz& Yun2
Lorenz& Yung
Sabin&
PODDendiek
Sabin&
PODDendiek
Nakavama
Nakayama
Nakayama
Kajikawa
Bukin Danilova
Danilova
Yingke Tan
Ouoqing Wang
Manufacturer
Linde U.Carbide
Hitachi
Hitachi
Wieland Werke
Linde U.Carbide
Wieland Werke
Wieland Werke
Hitachi
Linde U .Carbide
Linde U.Carbide
Fluid
NH3
NH3
R 114
R 114
R 114
R 114
R 114
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
NH3
NH3
NH3
NH3
NH3
NH3
R11
R11
R11
Hitachi
Hitachi
Hitachi
Nh3 /R22
RI2/R22
Rll/RI2
R22
R1l3
R1l3
-41,.'
100000,-------------~Mn~~----------~
PLAIN
10000
--0--
GEWAT
HIFLUX
1E
1000~--~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
.1
DT
Fig. 23.
100
10
1
IIC
100000~------------------------~
<
-E
10000 ":
r:T
1000
~
'
.1
TS-TSAT
Fig. 24.
PLAIN
*
--0--
THERM:> EXEL
GEWAT
HI FLU
10
(IIC)
The porous metal coating has been used for enhancement of heat
transfer in falling film evaporators with horizontal tubes both
with ammonia and fiuorocarbons.
-42-
The film
~m.
compar~son
R~22
-43-
In
~ergles
(1989) for
-44"~'
It can be
heat the curves for the heat-transfer coefficients converge for all
1000000y---------------------------------__-,
--1:1'--
-----
100000
,,f
,
JS
10000
,rS
rS
, ,"
1000
100
.1
10
DT
Fig. 25.
100
Ie
-45-
"~'
The depth of
For
falling film evaporators, all the tubes are covered with a film of
refrigerant, and the"' liquid at the bottom of the shell was assumed
to be at a depth of 1/4 the radius of the shell.
In Fig. 26 i t can
1000~----------------------------~
Ju
100
Flooded
FatIng FiJN\
10~--------~--~~~~~~~-.~
1000000
100000
Fig. 26.
"(w,
....
";"'.". -.
47
14. Ayub and knewitz. Limited Inventory Ammonia Falling Film Spray
Evaporator. in I.I.A.R. 1991. San Francisco(California):
15. Bergles and Jensen. Enhancement Single Phase Heat Transfer for OTEC
system. in OTEC. 1987.
16. Berntson, Berntson, and Pan holzer, Heat Transfer of Nonazeotropic
Mixtures in a Falling Film Evaporator. : p. 1337 1350.
17. Bond J. and M.B. Donald, The effect of Absortion on the wetted area of
absortion tower. Chemic~1 Engineering Science, 1957. 9886: p. 237 - 244.
18. Bukin, Danilova, and Dyundin, Heat Transfer form Freons in a Film
Flowing over Bundles of Horizontal Tubes That carry a Porous Coating.
Heat Transfer Soviet Research, 82. 14.: p. 98 103.
19. C.P.Newman, S.A.H.&., Dynamic models of Falling Film Evaporators for
Ocean Thermal Energy Convertions Plants. 1976, Carnegie Mellon
University:
20. C.Panchal, Energy Efficiency comparation of advanced Ammonia Heat
Exchanger Types. 1991 ..
21. Cannizzaro, Fourth Report on Horizontal Tube Multiple Effect (HTME)
Process Pilot Plant Test Program, 1972,. 1972, Universal Desalting
Corporation,:
22. Cavallini A., Frizzerin S., and Rossetto L. Condensation of R11 Vapor
Flowing Downward outsdie a Horizontal Tube Bundle. in 8th International
Heat Transfer Conference. 1986.
23. Chang and Witte, Liquid Solid Contact. in Pool Film Boiling From a
Cylinder. Journal of Heat Transfer, 1990. 112: p. 263266.
24. Chen, M.M., An Analytical Study of Laminar Film Condensation: Part I Flat Plates. American Society of Mechanical Engineers Journal of Heat
Transfer, 1961. 83: p. 48-54.
25. Chen, I., Y., Heat Transfer Analysis of a Falling Film Horizontal Tube
48
....
49
"~'
37. Czikk A.M., Ocean Thermal Power Plants Heat Exchangers". 1977, UCC
-Linde Division,Tonawanda, NY:
38. Czikk A.M. Fluid Dymamic and Heat Transfer Studies of OTEC Heat
Exchangers. 1978. Proceeding of the Fifth Ocean Thermal Energy
Convertion OTEC, Miami Beach:
39. Danilova, Burkin, and Dyundin, Heat transfer in Spray-Type
Refrigerator Evaporators. Heat Transfer Soviet Research, 76. 8: p. 105
113.
40. Danilova, Guygo, and Boreshanskaya, Enhancement of Heat Transfer
during Boiling of Liquid Refrigerants at low Heat fluxes. Heat Transfer
Soviet Research, 1976. 8 N2 4: p. 1 .. 8.
41. Dhir, V.K., Hydrodinamic Transition During Dripping of a Liquid From
Underside of a Horizontal Tube. 1981, ASME:
42. Dukler, A.E., Chem. Eng. Prog. Symp. Ser, 1960. 56 N 10: p. 1 -10.
43. Fagerholm, Kivioja, and Ghazanfari. Using Structured Surfaces to
Enhancement Heat Transfer in Falling Film Flow. in I.I.R. 85. Trondheim
(Norway):
44. Faghari A. and Seban R.A., Heat and Mass transfer to a turbulent Liquid
Film. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 1988. 31: p. 891.
45. Faghari A. and Seban R.A., Heat and Mass transfer to a turbulent Liquid
Film II. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 1989. : p. 1796.
46. Fletcher L.S., Valentinas Sernas , and L. S. Galowin, Evaporation from
thin water films on horizontal tubes. Ind. Eng. Chem. Proccss.Des.Dev,
1974. 13 N 3: p. 265 .. 269.
47. Fletcher L.S., Sernas V., and W. P.H., Evaporation Heat Transfer
Coeffitcients for Thin Sea Water Film on Horizontal tubes. Ind. Eng.
Chem.Procc.Des.Dev., 1975. 14: p. 411.
48. Fletcher L.S. and J.-C. Han, Falling Film evaporation and Boiling in
50
.'
51
....
59. Hewitt, G.F. and P.W.C.Lacey, The break down of the liquid filmin
annular two phase flow. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer" 1965. 8: p. 781-788.
60. Hillis, Lorenz, Yung, and Sather, OTEC Performance Tests of the Union
Carbide Sprayed Bundle Evaporator. 79, Argonne National Laboratory:
61. Holmberg, Berntssons, and Perssons. Heat Transfer in a Falling Film
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