Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Concepts of Marxism
1.1
Historical materialism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1
Key ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2
1.1.3
Marx's materialism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.4
The future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.5
1.1.6
1.1.7
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.8
1.1.9
In Marxist thought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.11 Criticisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dialectical materialism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1
The term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.2.3
Marx's dialectics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.2.4
Engels' dialectics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
1.2.5
Lenin's contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
1.2.6
Lukcs' contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.2.7
Mao's contributions
13
1.2.8
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.2.9
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.2.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
15
Marxist philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
1.3.1
16
1.3.2
17
1.2
1.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ii
CONTENTS
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.3.3
22
1.3.4
22
1.3.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
1.3.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
1.3.7
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
Marx's method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
1.4.1
23
1.4.2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
1.4.3
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
Marxian economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
1.5.1
24
1.5.2
Marx's theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
1.5.3
27
1.5.4
Criticisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
1.5.5
Neo-Marxian economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
1.5.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
1.5.7
Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
1.5.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
1.5.9
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
30
Surplus value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
1.6.1
Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
1.6.2
Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
1.6.3
Interpretations
31
1.6.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
1.6.5
32
1.6.6
32
1.6.7
32
1.6.8
Relation to taxation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
1.6.9
33
1.6.10 Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
34
35
36
1.6.14 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
1.6.15 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
37
Bourgeoisie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
1.7.1
Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
1.7.2
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
1.7.3
Denotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTENTS
iii
1.7.4
Modern history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
1.7.5
Bourgeois culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
1.7.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
1.7.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
1.7.8
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
Proletariat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
1.8.1
44
1.8.2
45
1.8.3
Prole drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
1.8.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
1.8.5
Reference notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
1.8.6
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
1.8.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
Class conict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
1.9.1
Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
1.9.2
Capitalist societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
1.9.3
50
1.9.4
Marxist perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
1.9.5
Non-Marxist perspectives
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
1.9.6
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
1.9.7
Chronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
1.9.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
1.9.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
54
54
55
1.10.1 Classlessness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
55
55
1.10.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
55
55
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
1.11.3 Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
57
1.11.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
57
1.12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
58
58
58
1.8
1.9
iv
CONTENTS
1.12.5 Contemporary political movements organized around the idea of the commune . . . . . . .
58
58
1.12.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
59
59
1.13.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
60
1.13.3 In practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
60
1.13.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
61
61
1.14.2 Lenin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
64
1.14.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
65
65
1.15.1 Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
66
1.15.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
1.15.4 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
66
1.16.1 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
67
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
67
1.16.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
68
68
71
72
73
75
1.17.6 Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
78
1.17.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
80
81
81
81
82
CONTENTS
82
83
83
1.18.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
84
84
85
85
86
1.19.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
87
87
88
1.20.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
89
2.1
Anti-imperialism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
2.1.1
Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
2.1.2
Political movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
2.1.3
Anti-Imperialist League
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
2.1.4
90
2.1.5
Right-wing anti-imperialism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
2.1.6
Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
2.1.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
2.1.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
2.1.9
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
93
94
2.2.1
Empirical support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
2.2.2
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
2.2.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
2.2.4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
Economic planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
2.3.1
95
2.3.2
Planning in capitalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
2.3.3
97
2.3.4
Criticisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
2.3.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
2.3.6
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
2.2
2.3
2.4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
2.4.2
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
vi
CONTENTS
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.5.2
2.5.3
2.5.4
Critiques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
2.5.5
2.5.6
2.5.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2.6.2
2.6.3
In China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
2.6.4
2.6.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
2.6.6
2.7.2
Marx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
2.7.3
Engels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
2.7.4
Lenin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2.7.5
2.7.6
2.7.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.7.8
2.7.9
2.8.2
First International
2.8.3
2.8.4
2.8.5
2.8.6
2.8.7
2.8.8
2.8.9
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
2.9.2
2.9.3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
CONTENTS
vii
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
viii
CONTENTS
2.15.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
2.15.2 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
2.15.3 Maoism in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
2.15.4 Maoism after Mao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
2.15.5 Maoism's International Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
2.15.6 Criticisms and interpretations
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
2.17.2 Components
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
CONTENTS
ix
180
3.1
Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
3.2
Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
3.3
Chapter 1
Concepts of Marxism
1.1 Historical materialism
However, production does not get carried out in the abstract, or by entering into arbitrary or random relations
chosen at will. Human beings collectively work on nature
but do not do the same work; there is a division of labor
in which people not only do dierent jobs, but according
to Marxist theory, some people live o the fruits of others' labour by owning the means of production. How this
is accomplished depends on the type of society. Production is carried out through very denite relations between
people. And, in turn, these production relations are determined by the level and character of the productive forces
that are present at any given time in history. For Marx,
productive forces refer to the means of production such
as the tools, instruments, technology, land, raw materials, and human knowledge and abilities in terms of using
these means of production.
Historical materialism* [1] looks for the causes of developments and changes in human society in the means by
which humans collectively produce the necessities of life.
Social classes and the relationship between them, along
with the political structures and ways of thinking in society, are founded on and reect contemporary economic
activity.* [2]
Since Marx's time, the theory has been modied and expanded by Marxist writers. It now has many Marxist and
non-Marxist variants.
1.1.1
Key ideas
Marx identied the production relations of society (arising on the basis of given productive forces) as the economic base of society. He also explained that on the
foundation of the economic base there arise certain political institutions, laws, customs, culture, etc., and ideas,
ways of thinking, morality, etc. These constituted the
political/ideological superstructure of society. This superstructure not only has its origin in the economic base,
but its features also ultimately correspond to the character
and development of that economic base, i.e. the way people organize society is determined by the economic base
and the relations that arise from its mode of production.
Historical materialism can be seen to rest on the following
principles:
1. The basis of human society is how humans work on
nature to produce the means of subsistence.
2. There is a division of labour into social classes (relations of production) based on property ownership
where some people live from the labour of others.
3. The system of class division is dependent on the
mode of production.
4. The mode of production is based on the level of the
productive forces.
5. Society moves from stage to stage when the dominant class is displaced by a new emerging class, by
overthrowing thepolitical shellthat enforces the
old relations of production no longer corresponding
to the new productive forces. This takes place in the
superstructure of society, the political arena in the
form of revolution, whereby the underclass liberatesthe productive forces with new relations of
production, and social relations, corresponding to it.
Perhaps the most inuential recent defense of this passage, and of relevant Marxian and Marxist assertions,
is G.A. Cohen's Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence.* [6]
Marx's clearest formulation of his materialist concep- 1.1.2 Key implications in the study and untion of historywas in the 1859 Preface to his book A
derstanding of history
Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, whose
relevant passage is reproduced here:
Many writers note that historical materialism represented
a revolution in human thought, and a break from previIn the social production of their exisous ways of understanding the underlying basis of change
tence, men inevitably enter into denite rewithin various human societies. As Marx puts it, a colations, which are independent of their will,
herence arises in human history* [7] because each genernamely relations of production appropriate to a
ation inherits the productive forces developed previously
given stage in the development of their material
and in turn further develops them before passing them on
forces of production. The totality of these reto the next generation. Further, this coherence increaslations of production constitutes the economic
ingly involves more of humanity the more the productive
structure of society, the real foundation, on
forces develop and expand to bind people together in prowhich arises a legal and political superstrucduction and exchange.
ture and to which correspond denite forms
of consciousness. The mode of production of
material life conditions the general process of
social, political and intellectual life. It is not
the consciousness of men that determines their
existence, but their social existence that determines their consciousness. At a certain stage
This understanding counters the notion that human history is simply a series of accidents, either without any underlying cause or caused by supernatural beings or forces
exerting their will on society. This posits that history
is made as a result of struggle between dierent social
classes rooted in the underlying economic base.
1.1.3
Marx's materialism
1.1.4
The future
In his analysis of the movement of history, Marx predicted the breakdown of capitalism, and the establishment in time of a communist society in which class-based
human conict would be overcome. The means of production would be held in the common ownership and used
for the common good. In the mention of human liberationone should not neglect that, in the level of production, solely the working class is the most oppressed. But
either way in the prediction of the future, one shall rst
know of the past (i.e. the establishment of capitalism and
the transitional part of feudalism).
1.1.5
According to Marxist theorists, history develops in accordance with the following observations:
1. Social progress is driven by progress in the material, productive forces a society has at its disposal
(technology, labour, capital goods, etc.)
2. Humans are inevitably involved in production relations (roughly speaking, economic relationships
3
or institutions), which constitute our most decisive
social relations.
3. Production relations progress, with a degree of inevitability, following and corresponding to the development of the productive forces.
4. Relations of production help determine the degree
and types of the development of the forces of production. For example, capitalism tends to increase
the rate at which the forces develop and stresses the
accumulation of capital.
5. Both productive forces and production relations
progress independently of mankind's strategic intentions or will.
6. The superstructure the cultural and institutional
features of a society, its ideological materials is
ultimately an expression of the mode of production
(which combines both the forces and relations of
production) on which the society is founded.
7. Every type of state is a powerful institution of the
ruling class; the state is an instrument which one
class uses to secure its rule and enforce its preferred
production relations (and its exploitation) onto society.
8. State power is usually only transferred from one class
to another by social and political upheaval.
9. When a given style of production relations no longer
supports further progress in the productive forces,
either further progress is strangled, or 'revolution'
must occur.
10. The actual historical process is not predetermined
but depends on the class struggle, especially the organization and consciousness of the working class.
1.1.7
History
1.1.8
5
stress enough in our writings and in regard to
which we are all equally guilty. That is to say,
we all laid, and were bound to lay, the main
emphasis, in the rst place, on the derivation
of political, juridical and other ideological
notions, and of actions arising through the
medium of these notions, from basic economic
facts. But in so doing we neglected the formal
side the ways and means by which these
notions, etc., come about for the sake of
the content. This has given our adversaries a
welcome opportunity for misunderstandings,
of which Paul Barth is a striking example.
*
[13]
At the very least, Marxism had now been born, andhistorical materialismhad become a distinct philosophical
1.1.10
Recent versions
Criticisms
In the early 1980s, Paul Hirst and Barry Hindess elab- ability of history to explain the present. John Bellamy
orated a structural Marxism interpretation of historical Foster asserts that historical materialism is important in
explaining history from a scientic perspective, by folmaterialism.
lowing the scientic method, as opposed to belief-system
Regulation theory, especially in the work of Michel Agli- theories like Creationism and Intelligent Design, which
etta draws extensively on historical materialism.
do not base their beliefs on veriable facts and hypotheSpiral dynamics shows similarities to historical material- ses.* [20]
1.1.12
See also
Economic determinism
Fundamentals of Marxism Leninism
Marx's theory of history
Marxist historiography
Orthodox Marxism
Parametric determinism
Historical Materialism - Journal
1.1.13
References
Notes
[1] Seligman 1901, p. 613: This doctrine is often called
'historical materialism,' or the 'materialistic interpretation
of history.' Such terms are, however, lacking in precision.
If by materialism is meant the tracing of all changes to
material causes, the biological view of history is also materialistic. Again, the theory which ascribes all changes
in society to the inuence of climate or to the character
of the fauna and ora is materialistic, and yet has little in
common with the doctrine here discussed. The doctrine
we have to deal with is not only materialistic, but also economic in character; and the better phrase is not the 'materialistic interpretation,' but the 'economic interpretation'
of history.
[2] https://www.marxists.org/archive/fromm/works/1961/
man/ch02.htm
Bibliography
Seligman, Edwin R. A. (1901).The Economic Interpretation of History. Political Science Quarterly
16 (4): 612640. (Free to view)
[5] K. Marx, A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1977, with some
notes by R. Rojas.
[6] G.A. Cohen (1978, 2000), Karl Marx's Theory of History:
A Defence, Princeton and Oxford.
[7] Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Selected Works in One
Volume (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1968), p. 660.
[8] Grundrisse: Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy, by Karl Marx & Martin Nicolaus, Penguin Classics,
1993, ISBN 0-14-044575-7, pg 265
[9] John Bellamy Foster, Marx's Ecology
[10] Ronald Meek, Social Science and the Ignoble Savage
[11] Historical Materialism is a theory that privileges the economic in explanation of non. Marxmail.org. Retrieved
2011-12-07.
[12] Letters: Marx-Engels Correspondence 1890. Marxists.org. Retrieved 2011-12-07.
Franz Jakubowski, Ideology and Superstructure attempts to provide an alternative to schematic interpretations of historical materialism
Ernest Mandel, Introduction to Marxism. (emphasizes understanding the roots of class society and the
state)
H. B. Acton, The Illusion of the Epoch. (critical account which focusses on incoherencies in the
thought of Marx, Engels and Lenin)
Perry Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State,
1974
Ronald L. Meek, Social Science and the Ignoble
Savage, Cambridge U.P. Cambridge studies in the
history and theory of politics, 1976
Paul Blackledge, Reections on the Marxist Theory
of History (2006)
Louis B. Boudin, The Theoretical System of Karl
Marx. Chicago: Charles H. Kerr Publishing Co.,
1907, contains an early defense of the materialist
conception of history against its critics of the day
Gordon V. Childe, Man Makes Himself (free interpretation of Marx's idea)
Gerald Cohen, Karl Marx's Theory of History: A
Defence. (inuential analytical Marxist interpretation)
Hal Draper, Karl Marx's Theory of Revolution (4
volumes). (captures the full subtlety of Marx's
thought, but at length)
Helmut Fleischer, Marxism and History. (good reply to false interpretations of Marx's view of history)
E.P. Thompson, The Poverty of Theory. (polemic The formulation of dialectical and historical materialism
which ridicules theorists of history who do not actu- in the Soviet Union in the 1930s by Stalin and his assoally study history)
ciates (such as in Stalin's book Dialectical and Historical Materialism) became the ocialinterpretation of
Gustav A. Wetter, Dialectical Materialism: a His- Marxism. It was codied and popularized in text books
torical and Systematic Survey of Philosophy in the that were required reading in the Soviet Union as well as
Soviet Union. (alternative survey)
the Eastern European countries it occupied. It was ex Johan Witt-Hansen, Historical Materialism: The ported to China as theocialinterpretation of MarxMethod, The Theories. (sees historical materialism ism but has since then been widely rejected in China in
as a methodology, and Das Kapital as an application the Soviet formulation.
of the method)
Allen W. Wood, Karl Marx (Arguments of the Philiosophers series), Routledge 2004 delves into misinterpretations of Marx including the substitution of
Historical materialismby Lenin
1.1.15
External links
10
1.2.2
For Marx, dialectics is not a formula for generating predetermined outcomes, but is a method for the empirical study of social processes in terms of interrelations,
development, and transformation. In his introduction to
the Penguin edition of Marxs Capital, Ernest Mandel
writes, When the dialectical method is applied to the
study of economic problems, economic phenomena are
not viewed separately from each other, by bits and pieces,
11
but in their inner connection as an integrated totality, tative changes can also be applied to the process of social
structured around, and by, a basic predominant mode of change and class conict.* [31]
production.* [18]
The third law, negation of the negation,originated
Marxs own writings are almost exclusively concerned with Hegel. Although Hegel coined the term negation
with understanding human history in terms of systemic of the negation,it gained its fame from Marx's using it
processes, based on modes of production (broadly speak- in Capital. There Marx wrote this: The [death] knell
ing, the ways in which societies are organized to employ of capitalist private property sounds. The expropriators
their technological powers to interact with their mate- [capitalists] are expropriated. The capitalist mode of aprial surroundings). This is called historical materialism. propriation, the result of the capitalist mode of producMore narrowly, within the framework of this general the- tion, produces capitalist private property. This is the rst
ory of history, most of Marxs writing is devoted to an negation [antithesis] of individual private property. [The
analysis of the specic structure and development of the rst negation,or antithesis, negates the thesis, which in
capitalist economy.
this instance is feudalism, the economic system that preFor his part, Engels applies a dialecticalapproach ceded capitalism.] . . . But capitalist production begets,
to the natural world in general, arguing that contem- with the inexorability of a law of Nature, its own negathe synthesis] is the negation
porary science is increasingly recognizing the necessity tion. It [nal communism,
*
of
[the]
negation.
[32]
of viewing natural processes in terms of interconnectedness, development, and transformation. Some scholars
have doubted that Engelsdialectics of natureis a
legitimate extension of Marxs approach to social processes.* [19]* [20]* [21]* [22] Other scholars have argued
that despite Marxs insistence that humans are natural
beings in an evolving, mutual relationship with the rest of
nature, Marxs own writings pay inadequate attention to
the ways in which human agency is constrained by such
factors as biology, geography, and ecology.* [23]* [24]
1.2.4
Engels' dialectics
Lenin develops these in a further series of notes, and appears to argue thatthe transition of quantity into quality
and vice versais an example of the unity and opposition
of opposites expressed tentatively as not only the unity
of opposites, but the transitions of every determination,
quality, feature, side, property into every other [into its
opposite?].
Also, in his essayOn the Question of Dialectics, Lenin
stated that " Development is thestruggle of opposites.
He stated that " The unity ( coincidence, identity, equal
action ) of opposites is conditional, temporary, transitory,
relative. The struggle of mutually exclusive opposites is
absolute, just as development and motion are absolute.
"* [35]
In Materialism and Empiriocriticism (1908), Lenin explained dialectical materialism as three axes: (i) the
12
in this or that thesis, nor the exegesis of asacredbook. On the contrary, orthodoxy refers
exclusively to method. It is the scientic conviction that dialectical materialism is the road
to truth, and that its methods can be developed,
expanded, and deepened, only along the lines
laid down by its founders. (1)
In his later works and actions, Lukcs became a leader
of Democratic Marxism. In the 1960s his associates,
which became known as the Budapest School. He and
his associates became sharply critical of the formulation
of dialectical materialism in the Soviet Union that was
exported to those countries under its control. He modied many of his formulations in his 1923 works and went
on to develop a Marxist ontology and played an active
role in democratic movements in Hungary in 1956 and
the 1960s.
Lukcs philosophical criticism of Marxist revisionism
proposed an intellectual return to Marxist method. As
did Louis Althusser, who later dened Marxism and
psychoanalysis as conictual sciences";* [37] that political factions and revisionism are inherent to Marxist theory and political praxis, because dialectical materialism
is the philosophic product of class struggle:
Yet, at the 5th Congress of the Communist International (July 1924), Grigory Zinoviev formally denounced
Lukcs's heterodox denition of orthodox Marxism as
exclusively derived from delity to theMarxist method
13
, and not to Communist party dogmas; and denounced the not discarded because some nations of the second world
Marxism developments of the German theorist Karl Ko- have constructed a cardboard version as an ocial politrsch.
ical doctrine.* [40] Furthermore,
1.2.7
Mao's contributions
In On Contradiction (1937) Mao outlined a version of dialectical materialism that subsumed two of Engels' three
principal laws of dialectics,the transformation of quantity into qualityand the negation of the negationas
sub-laws (and not principal laws of their own) of the rst
law, the unity and interpenetration of opposites.
1.2.8
The noted historian of science Loren Graham has detailed at length the role played by dialectical materialism in the Soviet Union in disciplines as diverse as biology, psychology, chemistry, cybernetics, quantum mechanics, and cosmology. He has concluded that, despite
the Lysenko period in genetics and constraints on free inquiry imposed by political authorities, dialectical materialism had a positive inuence on the work of many Soviet
scientists.* [38]
Some evolutionary biologists, such as Richard Lewontin
and the late Stephen Jay Gould, have tried to employ dialectical materialism in their approach. They view dialectics as playing a precautionary heuristic role in their work.
From Lewontin's perspective, we get this idea:
Dialectical materialism is not, and never
has been, a programmatic method for solving
particular physical problems. Rather, a dialectical analysis provides an overview and a set of
warning signs against particular forms of dogmatism and narrowness of thought. It tells us,
Remember that history may leave an important trace. Remember that being and becoming are dual aspects of nature. Remember that
conditions change and that the conditions necessary to the initiation of some process may
be destroyed by the process itself. Remember to pay attention to real objects in time and
space and not lose them in utterly idealized abstractions. Remember that qualitative eects
of context and interaction may be lost when
phenomena are isolated. And above all else,
Remember that all the other caveats are only
reminders and warning signs whose application
to dierent circumstances of the real world is
contingent.* [39]
Gould shared similar views regarding a heuristic role for
dialectical materialism. He wrote thatdialectical thinking should be taken more seriously by Western scholars,
when presented as guidelines for a philosophy of change, not as dogmatic precepts true
by at, the three classical laws of dialectics embody a holistic vision that views change as interaction among components of complete systems, and sees the components themselves not
as a priori entities, but as both products and
inputs to the system. Thus, the law of interpenetrating oppositesrecords the inextricable
interdependence of components: the transformation of quantity to qualitydefends a
systems-based view of change that translates
incremental inputs into alterations of state; and
thenegation of negationdescribes the direction given to history because complex systems
cannot revert exactly to previous states.* [41]
This heuristic was also applied to the theory of punctuated
equilibrium proposed by Niles Eldredge and Gould. They
wrote that history, as Hegel said, moves upward in
a spiral of negations,and that punctuated equilibria is a model for discontinuous tempos of change (in)
the process of speciation and the deployment of species
in geological time.* [42] They noted that the law of
transformation of quantity into quality, holds that a
new quality emerges in a leap as the slow accumulation
of quantitative changes, long resisted by a stable system,
nally forces it rapidly from one state into another,a
phenomenon described in some disciplines as a paradigm
shift. Apart from the commonly cited example of water
turning to steam with increased temperature, Gould and
Eldredge noted another analogy in information theory,
with its jargon of equilibrium, steady state, and homeostasis maintained by negative feedback,andextremely
rapid transitions that occur with positive feedback.* [43]
Lewontin, Gould and Eldredge were thus more interested
in dialectical materialism as a heuristic, than a dogmatic
form of 'truth' or a statement of their politics. Nevertheless, they found a readiness for critics toseize uponkey
statements* [44] and portray punctuated equilibrium, and
exercises associated with it, such as public exhibitions, as
a Marxist plot.* [45]
14
1.2.11
Further reading
15
" - The author traces the struggle between materialism and idealism on the basis of the
dialectical-materialist conception of the history of
philosophy. The book was in 1979 awarded the
Plekhanov prize under the decision of the USSR
Academy of Sciences.
Materialism And Historical Materialism, Anton Pannekoek
Grant, Ted; Woods, Alan (1995), Reason in Revolt,
Marxist Philosophy and Modern Science, London:
Wellred, ISBN 978-1-900007-00-9 text replication
at Marxist.com
Grant, Ted; Woods, Alan (2003), Dialectical Philosophy and Modern Science, Reason in Revolt, Vol.2
(American ed.), Algora Publishing, ISBN 0-87586158-X, retrieved 26 September 2010
Hollitscher, Walter (March 1953),Dialectical Materialism and the Physicist, Bulletin of the Atomic
Scientists 9 (2): 5457, retrieved 26 September 2010
Lefebvre, Henri; John Sturrock (translator) (2009),
Dialectical Materialism, Minneapolis, Minnesota:
University of Minnesota Press, ISBN 978-0-81665618-9, retrieved 26 September 2010 First published 1940 by Presses Universitaires de France, as
Le Matrialisme Dialectique. First English translation published 1968 by Jonathan Cape Ltd.
History and Class Consciousness, Gyrgy Lukcs
Ioan, Petru Logic and DialecticsA.I. Cuza University Press, Iai 1998.
Jameson, Fredric. Valences of the Dialectic. London
and New York: Verso, 2009.
The Origins of Dialectical Materialism, Z.A. Jordan
Dialectics for the New Century, ed. Bertell Ollman and Tony Smith, Palgrave Macmillan, England,
2008.
(French) Eftichios Bitsakis, Physique contemporaine
et matrialisme dialectique, ditions Sociales, 1973.
Rosa Lichtenstein's criticism of dialectical materialism,
Oizerman : Dialectical Materialism and the History
of Philosophy
Afanasyev : Marxist Philosophy (Chapter 4 to
Chapter 9)
Philosophy in the USSR: Problems of Dialectical
Materialism
16
(French) Pascal Charbonnat, Histoire des philoso- philosophy: The philosophers have only interpreted
phies matrialistes, Syllepse, 2007 (ISBN 978- the world, in various ways; the point is to change it.
2849501245) (second edition, Kim, 2013)
If this claim (which Marx originally intended as a criti Bertell Ollman, Dance of the Dialectic: Steps in cism of German Idealism and the more moderate Young
Hegelians) is still more or less the case in the 21st century,
Marx's Method
as many Marxists would claim, then Marxist theory is in
Biel, R. and Mu-Jeong Kho (2009), The Issue of fact the practical continuation of the philosophical tradiEnergy within a Dialectical Approach to the Regu- tion, while much of philosophy is still politically irrelelationist Problematique,Recherches & Rgulation vant. Many critics, both philosophers outside Marxism
Working Papers, RR Srie ID 2009-1, Association and some Marxist philosophers, feel that this is too quick
a dismissal of the post-Marxian philosophical tradition.
Recherche & Rgulation: 1-21.
Much sophisticated and important thought has taken
(French) variste Sanchez-Palencia, Promenade diplace after the writing of Marx and Engels; much or
alectique dans les sciences, Hermann, 476p., 2012
perhaps even all of it has been inuenced, subtly or
(ISBN 978-2705682729)
overtly, by Marxism. Simply dismissing all philoso Tucker, Robert, Philosophy and Myth in Karl Marx phy as sophistry might condemn Marxism to a simplis(Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University tic empiricism or economism, crippling it in practice and
making it comically simplistic at the level of theory.
Press, 1961).
1.3.1
1.3.2
17
ing Louis Napoleon Bonaparte's 1851 coup and then after
the crushing of the 1871 Paris Commune, Marx's thought
transformed itself.
Marxism's philosophical roots were thus commonly explained as derived from three sources: English political
economy, French republicanism and radicalism, and German idealist philosophy. Although this three sources
model is an oversimplication, it still has some measure
of truth.
On the other hand, Costanzo Preve (1990) has assigned
four mastersto Marx: Epicurus (to whom he dedicated his thesis, Dierence of natural philosophy between
Democritus and Epicurus, 1841) for his materialism and
theory of clinamen which opened up a realm of liberty;
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, from which come his idea of
egalitarian democracy; Adam Smith, from whom came
the idea that the grounds of property is labour; and nally
Hegel.
Vulgar Marxism(or codied dialectical materialism)
was seen as little other than a variety of economic determinism, with the alleged determination of the ideological
superstructure by the economical infrastructure. This
positivist reading, which mostly based itself on Engels'
latter writings in an attempt to theorize "scientic socialism" (an expression coined by Engels) has been challenged by Marxist theorists, such as Lukacs, Gramsci, Althusser or, more recently, tienne Balibar.
Hegel
See also: Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
Marx develops a comprehensive, theoretical understanding of political reality early in his intellectual and activist
career by means of a critical adoption and radicalization
There are endless interpretations of the philosophy of of the categories of 18th and 19th century German IdealMarx, from the interior of the Marxist movement as ist thought. Of particular importance is Hegel's appropriwell as in its exterior. Although some have separated ation of Aristotle's organicist and essentialist categories in
Marx's works between a "young Marx" (in particular the the light of Kant's transcendental turn.* [2]
Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844) and a
mature Marxor also by separating it into purely philo- Marx builds on four contributions Hegel makes to our
philosophical understanding. They are: (1) the replacesophical works, economics works and political and historical interventions, tienne Balibar (1993) has pointed out ment of mechanism and atomism with Aristotelean catthat Marx's works can be divided intoeconomic works egories of organicism and essentialism, (2) the idea that
(Das Kapital, 1867),philosophical worksandhistori- world history progresses through stages, (3) the diercal works(The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte, ence between natural and historical (dialectical) change,
the 1871 Civil War in France which concerned the Paris and (4) the idea that dialectical change proceeds through
Commune and acclaimed it as the rst "dictatorship of contradictions in the thing itself.
the proletariat", etc.)
(1) Aristotelian Organicism and Essentialism
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel was an important gure in the
development of Marxism.
(a) Hegel adopts the position that chance is not the basis
of phenomena and that events are governed by laws.* [3]
Some have falsely attributed to Hegel the position that
phenomena are governed by transcendent, supersensible
ideas that ground them. On the contrary, Hegel argues
for the organic unity between universal and particular.* [4]
Particulars are not mere token types of universals; rather,
18
they relate to each other as a part relates to a whole. This The process of natural development occurs in a relatively
latter has import for Marx's own conception of law and straight line from the germ to the fully realized being and
necessity.
back to the germ again. Some accident from the outside
(b) In rejecting the idea that laws merely describe or in- might come along to interrupt this process of developdependently ground phenomena, Hegel revives the Aris- ment, but if left to its own devices, it proceeds in a relatotlean position that law or principle is something implicit tively straightforward manner.
in a thing, a potentiality which is not actual but which is
in the process of becoming actual.* [4] This means that if
we want to know the principle governing something, we
have to observe its typical life-process and gure out its
characteristic behavior. Observing an acorn on its own,
we can never deduce that it is an oak tree. To gure out
what the acorn is - and also what the oak tree is - we have
to observe the line of development from one to the other.
Society's historical development is internally more complex.* [4] The transaction from potentiality to actuality is
mediated by consciousness and will.* [4] The essence realized in the development of human society is freedom,
but freedom is precisely that ability to negate the smooth
line of development and go o in novel, hitherto unforeseen directions. As humankind's essence reveals itself,
that revelation is at the same time the subversion of itself.
*
(c) The phenomena of history arise from a whole with Spirit is constantly at war with itself. [4] This appears as
an essence which undergoes transformation of form and the contradictions constituting the essence of Spirit.
which has an end or telos.* [5] For Hegel, the essence of (4) Contradiction
humanity is freedom, and the telos of that essence is the In the development of a natural thing, there is by and large
actualization of that freedom.* [4] Like Aristotle, Hegel no contradiction between the process of development and
believes the essence of a thing is revealed in the entire, the way that development must appear.* [9] So the transitypical process of development of that thing. Looked at tion from an acorn, to an oak, to an acorn again occurs in
purely formally, human society has a natural line of devela relatively uninterrupted ow of the acorn back to itself
opment in accordance with its essence just like any other again. When change in the essence takes place, as it does
living thing. This process of development appears as a
in the process of evolution, we can understand the change
succession of stages of world history.
mostly in mechanical terms using principles of genetics
(2) The Stages of World History
The historical process, however, never attempts to preserve an essence in the rst place.* [4] Rather, it develops
an essence through successive forms.* [4] This means that
at any moment on the path of historical change, there is
a contradiction between what exists and what is in the
process of coming-to-be.* [4] The realization of a natural thing like a tree is a process that by and large points
back toward itself: every step of the process takes place
in order to reproduce the genus. In the historical process,
however, what exists, what is actual, is imperfect.* [10] It
is inimical to the potential. What is trying to come into
existence - freedom - inherently negates everything preceding it and everything existing, since no actual exist(3) The Dierence Between Natural and Historical ing human institution can possibly embody pure human
freedom. So the actual is both itself and its opposite (as
Change
potential).* [4] And this potential (freedom) is never inert
Hegel distinguishes as Aristotle did not between the ap- but constantly exerts an impulse toward change.* [4]
plication of organic, essentialist categories to the realm
of human history and the realm of organic nature.* [6]
According to Hegel, human history strives toward perThe rupture with German Idealism and the Young
fectibility, but nature does not.* [7] Marx deepens and exHegelians
pands this idea into the claim that humankind itself can
adapt society to its own purposes rather than adapting
Main articles: German Idealism and Young Hegelians
themselves to it.* [4]
Natural and historical change, according to Hegel, have
two dierent kinds of essences.* [4] Organic natural entities develop through a straightforward process, relatively
simple to comprehend at least in outline.* [4] Historical
development, however, is a more complex process.* [8]
Its specic dierence is its dialecticalcharacter.* [4]
Marx did not study directly with Hegel, but after Hegel
died Marx studied under one of Hegel's pupils, Bruno
Bauer, a leader of the circle of Young Hegelians to whom
Marx attached himself. However, Marx and Engels came
to disagree with Bruno Bauer and the rest of the Young
Hegelians about socialism and also about the usage of
19
alienation. Some critics have claimed that meant that
Marx enforced a strict social determinism which destroyed the possibility of free will.
Criticisms of the human rights In the same way,
following Babeuf, considered as one of the founder of
communism during the French Revolution, he criticized
the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen as a bourgeois declarationof the rights of the
egoistic individual, ultimately based on the right to
private property, which economism deduced from its
own implicitphilosophy of the subject, which asserts
the preeminence of an individual and universal subject
over social relations. On the other hand, Marx also criticized Bentham's utilitarianism.
Alongside Freud, Nietzsche, and Durkheim, Marx thus
takes a place amongst the 19th century philosophers
who criticized this pre-eminence of the subject and its
consciousness.* [11] Instead, Marx saw consciousness as
political. According to Marx, the recognition of these individual rights was the result of the universal extension of
market relations to all of society and to all of the world,
rst through the primitive accumulation of capital (including the rst period of European colonialism) and then
through the globalization of the capitalist sphere. Such individual rights were the symmetric of the right for the
labourertofreelysell his labor force on the marketplace through juridical contracts, and worked in the same
time as an ideological means to discompose the collective
grouping of producers required by the Industrial Revolution: thus, in the same time that the Industrial Era requires masses to concentrate themselves in factories and
in cities, the individualist, bourgeoisideology separated themselves as competing homo economicus.
20
A year before the Revolutions of 1848, Marx and EnWhat distinguished Marx from Feuerbach was his view gels thus wrote The Communist Manifesto, which was
of Feuerbach's humanism as excessively abstract, and so prepared to an imminent revolution, and ended with
21
stage in the development of their material
forces of production. The totality of these relations of production constitutes the economic
structure of society, the real foundation, on
which arises a legal and political superstructure
and to which correspond denite forms of social consciousness. The mode of production of
material life conditions the general process of
social, political and intellectual life. It is not
the consciousness of men that determines their
existence, but their social existence that determines their consciousness.
In this brief popularization of his ideas, Marx emphasized
that social development sprang from the inherent contradictions within material life and the social superstructure.
This notion is often understood as a simple historical narrative: primitive communism had developed into slave
states. Slave states had developed into feudal societies.
Those societies in turn became capitalist states, and those
states would be overthrown by the self-conscious portion
of their working-class, or proletariat, creating the conditions for socialism and, ultimately, a higher form of communism than that with which the whole process began.
Marx illustrated his ideas most prominently by the development of capitalism from feudalism, and by the prediction of the development of socialism from capitalism.
22
Moreover, Marx's rejection of the necessity of bourgeois revolution and appreciation of the obschina, the 1.3.4 Key works and authors
communal land system, in Russia in his letter to Vera
the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels:
Zasulich; respect for the egalitarian culture of North
especially the earlier writings such as The 1844
African Muslim commoners found in his letters from
Manuscripts, The German Ideology and "Theses on
Algeria; and sympathetic and searching investigation of
Feuerbach,
but also the Grundrisse, Das Kapital and
the global commons and indigenous cultures and pracother
works
inspired
tices in his notebooks, including the Ethnological Notebooks that he kept during his last years, all point to a his V.I. Lenin
torical Marx who was continuously developing his ideas
until his deathbed and does not t into any pre-existing
Lev Trotsky
ideological straitjacket.
Rosa Luxemburg
1.3.3
Some varieties of Marxist philosophy are strongly inuenced by Hegel, emphasizing totality and even teleology:
for example, the work of Georg Lukcs, whose inuence extends to contemporary thinkers like Fredric Jameson. Others consider totalitymerely another version
of Hegel's spirit,and thus condemn it as a crippling,
secret idealism.
Theodor Adorno, a leading philosopher of the Frankfurt
School, who was strongly inuenced by Hegel, tried to
take a middle path between these extremes: Adorno contradicted Hegel's motto the true is the wholewith his
new version, the whole is the false,but he wished to
preserve critical theory as a negative, oppositional version
of the utopia described by Hegel's spirit.Adorno believed in totality and human potential as ends to be striven
for, but not as certainties.
The status of humanism in Marxist thought has been
quite contentious. Many Marxists, especially Hegelian
Marxists and also those committed to political programs
(such as many Communist Parties), have been strongly
humanist. These humanist Marxists believe that Marxism describes the true potential of human beings, and
that this potential can be fullled in collective freedom after the Communist revolution has removed capitalism's constraints and subjugations of humanity. A
particular version of the humanism within the marxism
is represented by the school of Lev Vygotsky and his
school in theoretical psychology (Alexis Leontiev, Laszlo
Garai* [16]). The Praxis school based its theory on the
writings of the young Marx, emphasizing the humanist
and dialectical aspects thereof.
However, other Marxists, especially those inuenced by
Louis Althusser, are just as strongly anti-humanist. Antihumanist Marxists believe that ideas like humanity,
Karl Korsch
Georg Lukcs: History and Class Consciousness developed the theory of ideology to include a more
complex model of class consciousness
Antonio Gramsci
Laszlo Garai
Ernst Bloch
The Frankfurt School, esp. Theodor Adorno,
Herbert Marcuse and Jrgen Habermas
Walter Benjamin
Bertolt Brecht
Socialisme ou Barbarie (Cornelius Castoriadis,
Claude Lefort, etc.)
Louis Althusser and his students (e.g. tienne
Balibar, Alain Badiou, Jacques Rancire, Pierre
Macherey)
Praxis school
Situationist International
Fredric Jameson
Antonio Negri and autonomist Marxism
Helmut Reichelt
Slavoj iek
Mao Zedong
1.3.5
See also
23
1.3.7 Bibliography
Balibar, tienne, The Philosophy of Marx. Verso,
1995 (French edition: La philosophie de Marx, La
Dcouverte, Repres, 1991)
Bottomore, Thomas, ed.. A Dictionary of Marxist
Thought. Blackwell, 1991.
Marx himself presents a simplied explanation in the Appendix to the rst German edition of Das Kapital published in English translation in Capital & Class. The need
[1] tienne Balibar, 1993. La philosophie de Marx, La Dfor
this appendix was suggested by Engels* [1] and there is
couverte, Repres (English edition, The Philosophy of
an exchange of correspondence* [1]* [2]* [3]* [4] concernMarx. Verso, 1995)
ing its purpose and form.
1.3.6
References
24
1.4.2
References
Bibliography
Marx, Karl & Engels, Frederick 1983 Letters on
Capital New Park
1.4.3
External links
those related to capital accumulation and the business cycle, such as creative destruction, have been tted for use
in capitalist systems.
Marx's magnum opus on political economy was Das Kapital (Capital: A Critique of Political Economy) in three
volumes, of which only the rst volume was published
in his lifetime (1867); the others were published by
Friedrich Engels from Marx's notes. One of Marx's early
works, Critique of Political Economy, was mostly incorporated into Das Kapital, especially the beginning of volume 1. Marx's notes made in preparation for writing Das
Kapital were published in 1939 under the title Grundrisse.
Marxian economics or the Marxian school of economics refers to a school of economic thought tracing its
foundations to the critique of classical political economy
rst expounded upon by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.
Marxian economics refers to several dierent theories
and includes multiple schools of thought which are sometimes opposed to each other, and in many cases Marxian
analysis is used to complement or supplement other economic approaches.* [1] Because one does not necessarily
have to be politically Marxist to be economically Marxian, the two adjectives coexist in usage rather than being
synonymous. They share a semantic eld while also al- Marx followed Smith by claiming that the most important benecial economic consequence of capitalism was
lowing connotative and denotative dierences.
a rapid growth in productivity abilities. Marx also exMarxian economics concerns itself variously with the
panded greatly on the notion that laborers could come
analysis of crisis in capitalism, the role and distribution to harm as capitalism became more productive. Addiof the surplus product and surplus value in various types
tionally, in Theories of Surplus Value, Marx noted, We
of economic systems, the nature and origin of economic see the great advance made by Adam Smith beyond the
value, the impact of class and class struggle on economic
Physiocrats in the analysis of surplus-value and hence of
and political processes, and the process of economic evo- capital. In their view, it is only one denite kind of conlution.
crete labouragricultural labour that creates surplusMarxian economics, particularly in academia, is distin- value....But to Adam Smith, it is general social labour
guished from Marxism as a political ideology as well no matter in what use-values it manifests itselfthe
as the normative aspects of Marxist thought, with the mere quantity of necessary labour, which creates value.
view that Marx's original approach to understanding eco- Surplus-value, whether it takes the form of prot, rent, or
nomics and economic development is intellectually inde- the secondary form of interest, is nothing but a part of
pendent from Marx's own advocacy of revolutionary so- this labour, appropriated by the owners of the material
cialism.* [2]* [3] Marxian economists do not lean entirely conditions of labour in the exchange with living labour.
upon the works of Marx and other widely known Marx- Malthus' claim, in "An Essay on the Principle of Popists, but draw from a range of Marxist and non-Marxist ulation", that population growth was the primary cause
sources.* [4]
of subsistence level wages for laborers provoked Marx
Although the Marxian school is considered heterodox,
ideas that have come out of Marxian economics have contributed to mainstream understanding of the global economy; certain concepts of Marxian economics, especially
1.5.2
Marx's theory
25
the universe as composed of separate objects, each with
essentially stable unchanging characteristics. One component of dialectics is abstraction; out of an undierentiated mass of data or system conceived of as an organic
whole, one abstracts portions to think about or to refer
to. One may abstract objects, but also and more typically relations, and processes of change. An abstraction may be extensive or narrow, may focus on generalities or specics, and may be made from various points
of view. For example, a sale may be abstracted from a
buyer's or a seller's point of view, and one may abstract
a particular sale or sales in general. Another component is the dialectical deduction of categories. Marx uses
Hegel's notion of categories, which are forms, for economics: The commodity form, the money form, the capital form etc. have to be systematically deduced instead
of being grasped in an outward way as done by the bourgeois economists. This corresponds to Hegel's critique of
Kant's transcendental philosophy.* [7]
Marx regarded history as having passed through several
stages. The details of his periodisation vary somewhat
through his works, but it essentially is: Primitive Communism -- Slave societies -- Feudalism -- Capitalism -Socialism -- Communism (capitalism being the present
stage and communism the future). Marx occupied himself primarily with describing capitalism. Historians
place the beginning of capitalism some time between
about 1450 (Sombart) and some time in the 17th century
(Hobsbawm).* [8]
Marx denes a commodity as a product of human labour
that is produced for sale in a market, and many products
of human labour are commodities. Marx began his major
work on economics, Capital, with a discussion of commodities; Chapter One is called Commodities.
26
is a realisation or form of it.
Marx held that metallic money, such as gold, is a commodity, and its value is the labour time necessary to produce it (mine it, smelt it, etc.). Marx argued that gold and
silver are conventionally used as money because they embody a large amount of labour in a small, durable, form, Eect of technical progress
which is convenient. Paper money is, in this model, a representation of gold or silver, almost without value of its According to Marx, the amount of actual product (i.e.
use-value) that a typical worker produces in a given
own but held in circulation by state decree.
amount of time is the productivity of labour. It has tended
Paper money is a token representing gold or money. to increase under capitalism. This is due to increase in the
(Capital, I, Chap III, section 2, part c.)
scale of enterprise, to specialisation of labour, and to the
introduction of machinery. The immediate result of this
is that the value of a given item tends to decrease, because
Production
the labour time necessary to produce it becomes less.
Marx lists the elementary factors of production as:
1. labour, the personal activity of man.(Capital, I,
VII, 1.)
2. the subject of labour: the thing worked on.
27
in an increase in the surplus labour time and the rate of his conclusion that aggregate price and prot are detersurplus value.
mined by, and equal to, aggregate value and surplus value
Technological advancement tends to increase the amount no longer holds true. This result calls into question his
the exploitation of workers is the sole source
of capital needed to start a business, and it tends to re- theory that
*
of
prot.
[14]
sult in an increasing preponderance of capital being spent
on means of production (constant capital) as opposed to Whether the rate of prot in capitalism has, as Marx prelabour (variable capital). Marx called the ratio of these dicted, tended to fall is a subject of debate. N. Okishio,
two kinds of capital the composition of capital.
in 1961, devised a theorem (Okishio's theorem) showing
that if capitalists pursue cost-cutting techniques and if the
real wage does not rise, the rate of prot must rise.* [15]
1.5.3
Current theorizing in Marxian ecoThe inconsistency allegations have been a prominent feanomics
ture of Marxian economics and the debate surrounding it
Marxian economics has been built upon by many others, beginning almost at the moment of Marx's death.
The second and third volumes of Das Kapital were edited
by his close associate Friedrich Engels, based on Marx's
notes. Marx's Theories of Surplus Value was edited
by Karl Kautsky. The Marxian value theory and the
Perron-Frobenius theorem on the positive eigenvector of
a positive matrix * [10] are fundamental to mathematical
treatments of Marxist economics.
Universities oering one or more courses in Marxian
economics, or teach one or more economics courses on
other topics from a perspective that they designate as
Marxian or Marxist, include Colorado State University,
New School for Social Research, School of Oriental and
African Studies, Universiteit Maastricht, University of
Bremen, University of California, Riverside, University
of Leeds, University of Maine, University of Manchester,
University of Massachusetts Amherst, University of Massachusetts Boston, University of MissouriKansas City,
University of Sheeld, University of Utah, and York University (Toronto).* [11]
28
1.5.5
Neo-Marxian economics
1.5.6
See also
Capital accumulation
Evolutionary economics
Surplus product
Surplus labour
Labour power
Law of value
Unequal exchange
Value product
Productive and unproductive labour
Regulation school
Socialist economics
The Accumulation of Capital
Material product
1.5.7
Footnotes
29
[20] "[The falling-rate-of-prot] position is rebutted in Chapter 5 by a theorem which states that ... competitive innovations result in a rising rate of prot. . There seems to be
no hope for a theory of the falling rate of prot within the
strict connes of the environment that Marx suggested as
relevant.John Roemer, Analytical Foundations of Marxian Economic Theory, p. 12. Cambridge: Cambridge
Univ. Press, 1981.
[21] Vulgar Economy in Marxian Garb: A Critique of Temporal Single System Marxism, Gary Mongiovi, 2002, Review
of Radical Political Economics 34:4, p. 393. Marx did
make a number of errors in elaborating his theory of value
and the prot rate .... [H]is would-be Temporal Single
System defenders ... camouage Marxs errors.
Marx
s value analysis does indeed contain errors.(abstract).
Heilbroner, Robert (2000). The Worldly Philosophers (7th ed.). London: Penguin Books. ISBN
978-0-140-29006-6.
1.5.8
References
Reading
30
Saad-Filho, Alfredo. The Value of Marx: Political Economy for Contemporary Capitalism. London:
Routledge, 2002.
Wol, Richard D. and Resnick, Stephen A. Contending Economic Theories: Neoclassical, Keynesian, and Marxian. The MIT Press, 2012. ISBN
0262517833
1.5.10
External links
Surplus value is a central concept in Karl Marx's critique of political economy. Marx did not himself invent
The problem of explaining the source of surplus value is
the term, he developed the concept.* [1]Surplus value
expressed by Friedrich Engels as follows:
is a translation of the German word "Mehrwert", which
simply means value added (sales revenue less the cost of
materials used up). Conventionally, value-added is equal
Whence comes this surplus-value? It
to the sum of gross wage income and gross prot income.
cannot come either from the buyer buying the
However, Marx's use of this concept is dierent, because
commodities under their value, or from the
for Marx, the Mehrwert refers to the yield, prot or reseller selling them above their value. For in
turn on production capital invested, i.e. the amount of
both cases the gains and the losses of each inthe increase in the value of capital. Hence, Marx's use of
dividual cancel each other, as each individual
Mehrwert has always been translated as surplus value
is in turn buyer and seller. Nor can it come
, distinguishing it from value-added. According to
from cheating, for though cheating can enrich
Marx's theory, surplus value is equal to the new value creone person at the expense of another, it cannot
ated by workers in excess of their own labour-cost, which
increase the total sum possessed by both,
is appropriated by the capitalist as prot when products
and therefore cannot augment the sum of the
are sold.* [2]* [3]
values in circulation. (...) This problem must
31
average share of government spending in GDP in the advanced capitalist economies was around 5%; in 1870, a
bit above 8%; on the eve of World War I, just under 10%;
just before the outbreak of World War II, around 20%;
by 1950, nearly 30%; and today the average is around
35-40%. (see for example Alan Turner Peacock, The
growth of public expenditure, in Encyclopedia of Public
Choice, Springer 2003, pp. 594597).
1.6.2
Denition
of asset ownership, comprising both distributed personal income and undistributed business income. In
the whole economy, this will include both income
directly from production and property income.
Surplus-value can be viewed as the source of society's accumulation fund or investment fund; part of
it is re-invested, but part is appropriated as personal
income, and used for consumptive purposes by the
owners of capital assets (see capital accumulation);
in exceptional circumstances, part of it may also be
hoarded in some way. In this context, surplus value
can also be measured as the increase in the value of
the stock of capital assets through an accounting period, prior to distribution.
Surplus-value can be viewed as a social relation of
production, or as the monetary valuation of surpluslabour - a sort of indexof the balance of power
between social classes or nations in the process of
the division of the social product.
Surplus-value can, in a developed capitalist economy, be viewed also as an indicator of the level
of social productivity that has been reached by the
working population, i.e. the net amount of value it
can produce with its labour in excess of its own consumption requirements.
32
1.6.4
Equalization of rates of surplus In fact, Marx argues that the whole purpose of production
in this situation becomes the growth of capital, i.e. that
value
[5]
1.6.5
production of output becomes conditional on capital accumulation. If production becomes unprotable, capital
will be withdrawn from production sooner or later.
33
prot income (see also value-form). Output may be pro- what is a cost to some, is a source of prot to others.
duced containing surplus-value (valorisation), but selling Marx never analysed all this in detail; but the concept of
that output (realisation) is not at all an automatic process. surplus value will apply mainly to taxes on gross income
Until payment from sales is received, it is uncertain how (personal and business income from production) and on
much of the surplus-value produced will actually be re- the trade in products and services. Estate duty for examalised as prot from sales. So, the magnitude of prot re- ple rarely contains a surplus value component, although
alised in the form of money and the magnitude of surplus- prot could be earned in the transfer of the estate.
value produced in the form of products may dier greatly,
depending on what happens to market prices and the vagaries of supply and demand uctuations. This insight
forms the basis of Marx's theory of market value, prices
of production and the tendency of the rate of prot of
dierent enterprises to be levelled out by competition.
1.6.8
Relation to taxation
34
1.6.10
Measurement
35
The problem here is that Thurow doesn't really provide
an objective explanation of prots so much as a moral
justication for prots, i.e. as a legitimate entitlement or
claim, in return for the supply of capital.
He adds thatAttempts have been made to organize productive societies without the prot motive (...) [but] since
the industrial revolution... there have been essentially no
successful economies that have not taken advantage of the
prot motive.The problem here is again a moral judgement, dependent on what you mean by success. Some
societies using the prot motive were ruined; prot is no
guarantee of success, although you can say that it has
powerfully stimulated economic growth.
Thurow goes on to note that When it comes to actually measuring prots, some dicult accounting issues
arise.Why? Because after deduction of costs from gross
income,It is hard to say exactly how much must be reinvested to maintain the size of the capital stock. Ultimately, Thurow implies, the tax department is the arbiter
of the prot volume, because it determines depreciation
allowances and other costs which capitalists may annually
deduct in calculating taxable gross income.
This is a substantive - if abstract - thesis about the basic social relations involved in giving and getting, taking
and receiving in human society, and their consequences
for the way work and wealth is shared out. It suggests a
starting point for an inquiry into the problem of social order and social change. But obviously it is only a starting
point, not the whole story, which would include all the
variations and gradations.
36
That was the main reason why, Marx argues, the real 1.6.14 Notes
sources of surplus-value were shrouded or obscured by
ideology, and why Marx thought that political economy [1] Pierre-Joseph Proudhon already used the idea in a critical
sense..
merited a critique. Quite simply, economics proved unable to theorise capitalism as a social system, at least not [2] Marx, The Capital, Chapter 8
without moral biases intruding in the very denition of
its conceptual distinctions. Hence, even the most sim- [3] "...It was made clear that the wage worker has permission
to work for his own subsistencethat is, to live, only inple economic concepts were often riddled with contrasofar as he works for a certain time gratis for the capitalist
dictions. But market trade could function ne, even if
(and hence also for the latter's co-consumers of surplus
the theory of markets was false; all that was required
value)...Karl Marx, Critique of the Gotha Programme.
was an agreed and legally enforceable accounting system.
Sec.II
On this point, Marx probably would have agreed with
Austrian School economics no knowledge ofmarkets [4] Marxists Internet Archive
in generalis required to participate in markets.
[5] Marxists Internet Archive
1.6.13
See also
Analytical Marxism
Capital accumulation
Capital, Volume I
Character mask
Commodity fetishism
Compensation of employees
Cost of capital
Das Kapital
Labour theory of value
Law of value
Primitive accumulation of capital
1.6.15 References
Theories of Surplus-Value (1863)
Value, Price and Prot (1865)
Capital, Volume 1, Volume 2, Volume 3
Prot
Rate of exploitation
Relations of production
Superprot
Surplus
Surplus labour
Surplus product
Steve Keen, Debunking Economics; The Naked Emperor of the Social Sciences. London: Zed Press,
2004.Economics: Debunking Economics Overview
Return on capital
Surplus economics
Theories of Surplus Value
Valorisation
Value added
1.7. BOURGEOISIE
37
Ian Wright, iwright - Probabilistic Political Economy Laws of Chaosin the 21st Century.
Ernest Mandel, Marxist Economic Theory, Vol. 1
and Late Capitalism.
Harry W. Pearson,The economy has no surplusin
Trade and market in the early empires. Economies
in history and theory, edited by Karl Polanyi,
Conrad M. Arensberg and Harry W. Pearson (New
York/London: The Free Press: Collier-Macmillan,
1957).
Paul A. Baran, The Political Economy of Growth.
Piero Sraa, Production of Commodities by means
of commodities.
Michal Kalecki, The Determinants of Prots,
in Selected Essays on the Dynamics of the Capitalist
Economy 1933-1970.
John B. Davis (ed), The economic surplus in
advanced economies. Aldershot, Hants, England/Brookeld, Vt., USA : Elgar, 1992.
Anders Danielson, The economic surplus : theory,
measurement, applications. Westport, Connecticut:
Praeger, 1994.
Helen Boss, Theories of surplus and transfer : parasites and producers in economic thought. Boston:
Hyman, 1990.
The prototypical bourgeois: Monsieur Jourdain, the protagonist
in Molire's play Le Bourgeois gentilhomme (1670).
1.6.16
External links
1.7 Bourgeoisie
Bourgeoisredirects here. For other uses, see Bourgeois
(disambiguation).
The bourgeoisie (Eng.: /brwzi/; French pronunciation: [buwazi]), is a polysemous French term, because
it means:
originally and generally those who live in the
borough", that is to say, the people of the city (including merchants and craftsmen), as opposed to
those of rural areas; in this sense, the bourgeoisie
began to grow in Europe from the 11th-century
and particularly during the Renaissance of the 12thcentury, with the rst developments of rural exodus
and urbanization;
38
In Marxist philosophy the bourgeoisie is the social class Bourgeois gentilhomme, 1670.)
who owns the means of production and whose societal
concerns are the value of property and the preservation
of capital, to ensure the perpetuation of their economic
supremacy in society.* [1] Joseph Schumpeter instead saw
the creation of new bourgeoisie as the driving force behind the capitalist engine, particularly entrepreneurs who
took risks to bring innovation to industries and the economy through the process of creative destruction.* [2]
1.7.1
Etymology
1.7.2 History
Origins and rise
Further information: History of capitalism Origins of
capitalism and Trade History
In the 11th century, the bourgeoisie emerged as a historical and political phenomenon when the bourgs of Central and Western Europe developed into cities dedicated
to commerce. The organised economic concentration
that made possible such urban expansion derived from
the protective self-organisation into guilds, which became necessary when individual businessmen (craftsmen,
artisans, merchants, et alii) conicted with their rentseeking feudal landlords who demanded greater-thanagreed rents. In the event, by the end of the Middle
Ages (ca. AD 1500), under rgimes of the early national monarchies of Western Europe, the bourgeoisie
acted in self-interest, and politically supported the king or
the queen against the legal and nancial disorder caused
by the greed of the feudal lords. In the late-16th and
1.7. BOURGEOISIE
39
ital and land), and who controlled the means of coercion (armed forces and legal system, police forces and
prison system). In such a society, the bourgeoisie's ownership of the means of production enabled their employment and exploitation of the wage-earning working class
(urban and rural), people whose sole economic means is
From progress to reaction
labour; and the bourgeois control of the means of coercion suppressed the socio-political challenges of the lower
During the 17th and 18th centuries, the bourgeoisie were classes, and so preserved the economic status quo; workthe politically progressive social class who supported the ers remained workers, and employers remained employprinciples of constitutional government and of natural ers.* [9]
right, against the Law of Privilege and the claims of
rule by divine right that the nobles and prelates had In the 19th century, Marx distinguished two types of
autonomously exercised during the feudal order. The bourgeois capitalist: (i) the functional capitalist, the busimotivations for the English Civil War (164251), the ness administrator of the means of production; and (ii)
American War of Independence (177583), and French the rentier capitalist whose livelihood derives either from
interest-income produced
Revolution (178999) partly derived from the desire of the rent of property or from the
*
by
nance
capital,
or
both.
[10]
In the course of ecothe bourgeoisie to rid themselves of the feudal tramnomic
relations,
the
working
class
and the bourgeoisie
mels and royal encroachments upon their personal liberty,
continually
engage
in
class
struggle,
wherein the capitalcommercial rights, and the ownership of property. In the
ists
exploit
the
workers,
whilst
the
workers resist their
19th century, the bourgeoisie propounded liberalism, and
economic
exploitation,
which
occurs
because the worker
gained political rights, religious rights, and civil liberties
owns
no
means
of
production,
and,
to
earn a living, he or
for themselves and the lower social classes; thus was the
she
seeks
employment
from
the
bourgeois
capitalist; the
bourgeoisie then a progressive philosophic and political
worker
produces
goods
and
services
that
are
property of
force in modern Western societies.
the employer, who sells them for a price.
By the middle of the 19th century, subsequent to the
Industrial Revolution (17501850), the great expansion Besides describing the social class who own the means
of the bourgeoisie social class caused its self-stratication of production, the Marxist usage of the term bour by business activity and by economic function into geoisalso describes the consumerist style of life dethe haute bourgeoisie (bankers and industrialists) and the rived from the ownership of capital and real property.
petite bourgeoisie (tradesmen and white-collar workers). Marx acknowledged the bourgeois industriousness that
Moreover, by the end of the 19th century, the capitalists created wealth, yet criticised the moral hypocrisy of the
(the original bourgeoisie) had ascended to the upper class, bourgeoisie when they ignored the alleged origins of their
whilst the developments of technology and technical oc- wealth the exploitation of the proletariat, the urban and
cupations allowed the ascension of working-class men rural workers. Further sense denotations ofbourgeois
and women to the lower strata of the bourgeoisie; yet the describe ideological concepts such as bourgeois freedom, which is thought to be opposed to substantive
social progress was incidental.
forms of freedom; bourgeois independence"; bourIn the event, despite its initial philosophic progressivism geois personal individuality"; the bourgeois family";
from feudalism to liberalism to capitalism the bour- et cetera, all derived from owning capital and property.
geoisie social class (haute and petite) became reactionary (See: The Communist Manifesto, 1848.)
in their refusal to allow the ascension (economic, social,
political) of people from the proletariat (peasants and
urban workers) to maintain hegemony.* [6]
Nomenklatura
1.7.3
Denotations
Marxist theory
According to Karl Marx, the bourgeois during Middle
Ages usually was a self-employed businessman such as
a merchant, banker, or entrepreneur whose economic
role in society was being the nancial intermediary to the
feudal landlord and the peasant who worked the ef, the
land of the lord. Yet, by the 18th century, the time of
the Industrial Revolution (17501850) and of industrial
capitalism, the bourgeoisie had become the economic
ruling class who owned the means of production (cap-
40
tries consists of four evolving social layers: la petite bour- haute bourgeoisie are also referred to as les 200 familles,
geoisie, la moyenne bourgeoisie, la grande bourgeoisie, a term which was coined in the rst half of the 20th cenand la haute bourgeoisie.
tury. Michel Pinon and Monique Pinon-Charlot have
studied the lifestyle of the French bourgeoisie, and how
they boldly guard their world from the nouveau riche, or
La Petite Bourgeoisie The petite bourgeoisie consists of newly rich.
people who have experienced a brief ascension in social
mobility for one or two generations. It usually starts with In the French language, the term bourgeoisie almost desa trade or craft, and by the second and third generation, a ignates a caste by itself, even though social mobility into
family may rise another level. The petite bourgeois would this socio-economic group is possible. Nevertheless, the
belong to the British lower middle class and would be bourgeoisie is dierentiated from la classe moyenne, or
American middle income. They are distinguished mainly the middle class, which consists mostly of white-collar
by their mentality, and would dierentiate themselves employees, by holding a profession referred to as a profrom the proletariat or working class. This class would in- fession librale, which la classe moyenne, in its denition
clude artisans, small traders, shopkeepers, and small farm does not hold. Yet, in English the denition of a whiteowners. They are not employed, but may not be able to collar job encompasses the profession librale. As the
world becomes globalised and society moves towards a
aord employees themselves.
corporate one, the term la bourgeoisie in its pure form
has become a somewhat outdated term, which requires a
La Moyenne Bourgeoisie People who belong to the more up-to-date denition.
moyenne bourgeoisie or middle bourgeoisie, have solid incomes and assets, but without the aura of those who have
become established at a higher level. They tend to be- 1.7.4 Modern history
long to a family that has been bourgeois for three or more
generations. Some members of this class may have rel- Because of their ascribed cultural excellence as a social
atives from similar backgrounds, or may even have aris- class, the Italian fascist rgime (192245) of Prime Mintocratic connections. The moyenne bourgeoisie would be ister Benito Mussolini regarded the bourgeoisie as an obthe equivalent of the British and American upper-middle stacle to Modernism in aid to transforming Italian society.* [12] Nonetheless, despite such intellectual and soclasses.
cial hostility, the Fascist State ideologically exploited the
Italian bourgeoisie and their materialistic, middle-class
La Grande Bourgeoisie The grande bourgeoisie are spirit, for the more ecient cultural manipulation of the
families that have been bourgeois since the 19th century, upper (aristocratic) and the lower (working) classes of
or for at least four or ve generations. Members of these Italy. In 1938, Prime Minister Mussolini gave a speech
families tend to marry with the aristocracy or make other wherein he established a clear ideological distinction beadvantageous marriages. This bourgeoisie family has ac- tween capitalism (the social function of the bourgeoisie)
quired an established historical and cultural heritage over and the bourgeoisie (as a social class), whom he dehuthe decades. The names of these families are generally manised by reducing them into high-level abstractions:
known in the city where they reside, and their ancestors a moral category and a state of mind.* [12] Culturally
have often contributed to the region's history. These fam- and philosophically, Mussolini isolated the bourgeoisie
ilies are respected and revered. They belong to the upper from Italian society by portraying them as social paraclass, and in the British class system would be considered sites upon the Fascist Italian State and The People"; as
part of the gentry. In the French-speaking countries they a social class who drained the human potential of Italare sometimes referred la petite haute bourgeoisie.
ian society, in general, and of the working class, in particular; as exploiters who victimised the Italian nation
to life characterised by hedonism and
La Haute Bourgeoisie The haute bourgeoisie is a social with an approach
*
materialism.
[12]
Nevertheless, despite the slogan The
rank in the bourgeoisie that can only be acquired through
Fascist
Man
Disdains
the Comfortable Life, which epittime. In France, it is composed of bourgeois families that
omised
the
anti-bourgeois
principle, in its nal years of
have existed since the French Revolution. They hold only
power,
for
mutual
benet
and
prot, the Mussolini Fascist
honourable professions and have experienced many illusrgime
transcended
ideology
to
merge the political and trious marriages in their family's history. They have rich
nancial
interests
of
Prime
Minister
Benito Mussolini with
cultural and historical heritages, and their nancial means
the
political
and
nancial
interests
of
the bourgeoisie, the
are more than secure. These families exude an aura of
Catholic
social
circles
who
constituted
the ruling class of
nobility, which prevents them from certain marriages or
Italy.
occupations. They only dier from nobility in that due to
circumstances, the lack of opportunity, and/or political
regime, they have not been ennobled. These people nevertheless live a lavish lifestyle, enjoying the company of
the great artists of the time. In France, the families of the
1.7. BOURGEOISIE
41
ligion; in The Autarchy of Culture: Intellectuals and Fascism in the 1930s, the priest Giuseppe Marino said that:
Christianity is essentially anti-bourgeois.
... A Christian, a true Christian, and thus a
Catholic, is the opposite of a bourgeois.* [13]
The economic security, nancial freedom, and social mobility of the bourgeoisie threatened the philosophic integrity of Italian Fascism, the ideologic monolith that was
the rgime of Prime Minister Benito Mussolini. Any assumption of legitimate political power (government and
rule) by the bourgeoisie represented a Fascist loss of
totalitarian State power for social control through political unityone people, one nation, one leader. Sociologically, to the fascist man, to become a bourgeois was a
character aw inherent to the masculine mystique; therefore, the ideology of Italian Fascism scornfully dened
the bourgeois man as spiritually castrated.* [14]
1.7.5
Bourgeois culture
Cultural hegemony
Karl Marx said that the culture of a society is dominated
by the mores of the ruling-class, wherein their superimposed value system is abided by each social class (the
upper, the middle, the lower) regardless of the socioeconomic results it yields to them. In that sense, contemporary societies are bourgeois to the degree that they
practice the mores of the small-businessshop cultureof
early modern France; which the writer mile Zola (1840
1902) naturalistically presented, analysed, and ridiculed
in the twenty-two-novel series (18711893) about Les
The 17th-century French playwright Molire (162273) catalogued the social-climbing essence of the bourgeoisie in Le Bourgeois gentilhomme (1670).
Rougon-Macquart family; the thematic thrust is the necessity for social progress, by subordinating the economic
sphere to the social sphere of life.* [15]
42
Conspicuous consumption
The critical analyses of the bourgeois mentality by the
German intellectual Walter Benjamin (18921940) indicated that the shop culture of the petite bourgeoisie established the sitting room as the centre of personal and
family life; as such, the English bourgeois culture is a
sitting-room culture of prestige through conspicuous consumption. The material culture of the bourgeoisie concentrated on mass-produced luxury goods of high quality; between generations, the only variance was the materials with which the goods were manufactured. In the
early part of the 19th century, the bourgeois house contained a home that rst was stocked and decorated with
hand-painted porcelain, machine-printed cotton fabrics,
machine-printed wallpaper, and Sheeld steel (crucible
and stainless). The utility of these things was inherent to
their practical functions. By the latter part of the 19th
century, the bourgeois house contained a home that had
been remodelled by conspicuous consumption. Here, the
goods were bought to display wealth (discretionary income), rather than for their practical utility. The bourgeoisie had transposed the wares of the shop window
to the sitting room, where the clutter of display signalled bourgeois success.* [16] (See: Culture and Anarchy, 1869.)
Beyond the intellectual realms of political economy, history, and political science that discuss, describe, and analyse the bourgeoisie as a social class, the colloquial usage
of the sociological terms bourgeois and bourgeoise describe the social stereotypes of the old money and of the
nouveau riche, who is a politically timid conformist satised with a wealthy, consumerist style of life characterised
by conspicuous consumption and the continual striving
for prestige.* [19]* [20] This being the case, the cultures
of the world describe the philistinism of the middle-class
personality, produced by the excessively rich life of the
bourgeoisie, is examined and analysed in comedic and
dramatic plays, novels, and lms. (See: Authenticity.)
Theatre
Le Bourgeois gentilhomme (The Would-be Gentleman,
1670) by Molire (Jean-Baptiste Poquelin), is a comedyballet that satirises Monsieur Jourdain, the prototypical
nouveau riche man who buys his way up the social-class
scale, to realise his aspirations of becoming a gentleman,
to which end he studies dancing, fencing, and philosophy, the trappings and accomplishments of a gentleman,
to be able to pose as a man of noble birth, someone who,
in 17th-century France, was a man to the manor born;
Jourdain's self-transformation also requires managing the
private life of his daughter, so that her marriage can also
assist his social ascent.* [8]* [21]
Literature
Buddenbrooks (1901), by Thomas Mann (18751955),
chronicles the moral, intellectual, and physical decay of
a rich family through its declines, material and spiritual,
in the course of four generations, beginning with the
patriarch Johann Buddenbrook Sr. and his son, Johann
1.7. BOURGEOISIE
43
Buddenbrook Jr., who are typically successful German 1.7.6 See also
businessmen; each is a reasonable man of solid charac Beurgeois (auent French Muslims of Northter. Yet, in the children of Buddenbrook Jr., the materiAfrican descent)
ally comfortable style of life provided by the dedication
to solid, middle-class values elicits decadence: The ckle
Bildungsbrgertum
daughter, Toni, lacks and does not seek a purpose in life;
son Christian is honestly decadent, and lives the life of a
Burgess
neer-do-well; and the businessman son, Thomas, who
Conspicuous consumption
assumes command of the Buddenbrook family fortune,
occasionally falters from middle-class solidity by being
Conspicuous leisure
interested in art and philosophy, the impractical life of
the mind, which, to the bourgeoisie, is the epitome of so Cultural hegemony
cial, moral, and material decadence.* [22]* [23]* [24]
Economic stratication
Babbitt (1922), by Sinclair Lewis (18851951), satirises
the American bourgeois George Follansbee Babbitt, a
Gemtlichkeit
middle-aged realtor, booster, and joiner in the Midwest Grand Burgher (German Grobrger)
ern city of Zenith, who despite being unimaginative,
self-important, and hopelessly conformist and middle Habitus (sociology)
class is aware that there must be more to life than
money and the consumption of the best things that money
Homo economicus
can buy. Nevertheless, he fears being excluded from the
Occupational prestige
mainstream of society more than he does living for himself, by being true to himself his heart-felt irtations
Petite bourgeoisie
with independence (dabbling in liberal politics and a love
aair with a pretty widow) come to naught because he is
Political class
existentially afraid.
The Proletariat, the opposite of the Bourgeoisie
Yet, George F. Babbitt sublimates his desire for selfrespect, and encourages his son to rebel against the conformity that results from bourgeois prosperity, by recommending that he be true to himself:
Rational-legal authority
Social environment
Social structure of the United Kingdom
Films
The comedy lms by the Spanish lm director Luis
Buuel (190083) examine the mental and moral eects
of the bourgeois mentality, its culture, and the stylish way
of life it provides for its practitioners.
L'ge d'or (The Golden Age, 1930) illustrates the
madness and self-destructive hypocrisy of bourgeois
society.
Le charme discret de la bourgeoisie (The Discreet
Charm of the Bourgeoisie, 1972) explores the timidity instilled by middle-class values.
Cet obscur objet du dsir (That Obscure Object of Desire, 1977) illuminates the practical self-deceptions
required for buying love as marriage.* [26]* [27]
1.7.7 References
Notes
[1] Bourgeois Society
[2] Joseph A. Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism, and
Democracy',' pages 83-84, 134
[3] The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology C.T. Onions,
Editor (1995) p. 110.
[4] Oxford English Reference Dictionary Second Edition
(1996) p. 196.
[5] Dictionary of Historical Terms Chris Cook, Editor (1983)
p. 267.
[6]Bourgeoisie, The Columbia Encyclopedia, Fifth Edition. (1994) p. 0000.
[7] Bent's Reader's Encyclopedia Third Edition (1987) p.
118, p. 759.
44
1.8 Proletariat
For other uses, see Proletariat (disambiguation).
Further reading
Bledstein, Burton J. and Johnston, Robert D. (eds.) The origin of the name is presumably linked with the
The Middling Sorts: Explorations in the History of census, which Roman authorities conducted every ve
years to produce a register of citizens and their propthe American Middle Class. Routledge. 2001.
erty from which their military duties and voting privileges
Brooks, David, Bobos In Paradise: The New Upper could be determined. For citizens with property valued
Class and How They Got There. Simon & Schuster. 11,000 asses or less, which was below the lowest census
2001.
for military service, their childrenproles (from Latin
1.8. PROLETARIAT
proli, ospring)were listed instead of their property; hence, the name proletarius,the one who produces
ospring. The only contribution of a proletarius to the
Roman society was seen in his ability to raise children,
the future Roman citizens who can colonize new territories conquered by the Roman Republic and later by the
Roman Empire. The citizens who had no property of signicance were called capite censi because they werepersons registered not as to their property...but simply as to
their existence as living individuals, primarily as heads
(caput) of a family.* [2]* [3]
45
classes by wealth, plus 5 centuriae of support personnel
called adsidui. The top infantry class assembled with full
arms and armor; the next two classes brought arms and armor, but less and lesser; the fourth class only spears; the
fth slings. In voting, the cavalry and top infantry class
were enough to decide an issue; as voting started at the
top, an issue might be decided before the lower classes
voted.* [6] In the last centuries of the Roman Republic
(509-44 B.C.), the Comitia Centuriata became impotent
as a political body, which further eroded already minuscule political power the proletarii might have had in the
Roman society.
Following a series of wars the Roman Republic engaged
since the closing of the Second Punic War (218201),
such as the Jugurthine War and conicts in Macedonia
and Asia, the signicant reduction in the number of Roman family farmers had resulted in the shortage of people
whose property qualied them to perform the citizenry's
military duty to Rome.* [7] As a result of the Marian reforms initiated in 107 B.C. by the Roman general Gaius
Marius (15786), the proletarii became the backbone of
the Roman Army.* [8]
Karl Marx, who studied Roman law at the University of
Berlin,* [9] used the term proletariat in his socio-political
theory of Marxism to describe a working class unadulterated by private property and capable of a revolutionary action to topple capitalism in order to create classless
society.
46
1.8.5
Reference notes
47
[14] Luxemburg,
Rosa.
The Accumulation of
Capital.
Chapter 6, Enlarged Reproduction,
http://www.marxists.org/archive/luxemburg/1913/
accumulation-capital/ch06.htm
[15] Marx, Karl. Critique of the Gotha Programme, I.
http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/
gotha/ch01.htm
[16] Marx, Karl. The Communist Manifesto, part II, Proletarians and Communists http://www.marxists.org/archive/
marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/ch02.htm
[17] Fussell, Paul (October 1992). Class, A Guide Through the
American Status System. New York: Ballantine. ISBN 0345-31816-1.
or class struggle, is the tension or antagonism which exists in society due to competing socioeconomic interests
and desires between people of dierent classes. The view
[12] Marx, Karl (February 1848). Bourgeois and Proletari- that the class struggle provides the lever for radical soans. Manifesto of the Communist Party. Progress Pubcial change for the majority is central to the work of Karl
lishers. Retrieved 10 February 2013.
Marx and the anarchist Mikhail Bakunin. However, the
[13] Marx, Karl.
The Capital, volume 1, chapter 6. discovery of the existence of class struggle is not the product of their theories; their theories can instead be seen as
http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867-c1/
ch06.htm
a response to the existence of class struggles.
[11] Lumpen proletariat Britannica Online Encyclopedia
48
Class conict can take many dierent forms: direct violence, such as wars fought for resources and cheap labor;
indirect violence, such as deaths from poverty, starvation,
illness or unsafe working conditions; coercion, such as the
threat of losing a job or pulling an important investment;
or ideology, either intentionally (as with books and articles promoting capitalism) or unintentionally (as with the
promotion of consumerism through advertising). Additionally, political forms of class conict exist; legally or
illegally lobbying or bribing government leaders for passage of partisan desirable legislation including labor laws,
tax codes, consumer laws, acts of congress or other sanction, injunction or tari. The conict can be open, as with
a lockout aimed at destroying a labor union, or hidden, as
with an informal slowdown in production protesting low
wages or unfair labor practices.
1.9.1
Usage
In the past the term Class conict was a term used mostly
by socialists, who dene a class by its relationship to the
means of production such as factories, land and machinery. From this point of view, the social control of
production and labor is a contest between classes, and
the division of these resources necessarily involves conict and inicts harm. It can involve ongoing low-level
clashes, escalate into massive confrontations, and in some
cases, lead to the overall defeat of one of the contending
classes. However, in more contemporary times this term
is striking chords and nding new denition amongst capitalistic societies in the United States and other Westernized countries.
The term is not always used as a pejorative in modern times. Bill Moyers, for example, gave a speech at
Brennan Center for Justice in December 2013 which was
titledThe Great American Class War,referring to the
current struggle between democracy and plutocracy in the
U.S.* [5] Chris Hedges wrote a column for Truthdig called
Let's Get This Class War Started,which was a play on
Pink's song "Let's Get This Party Started.* [6]* [7]
Historian Steve Fraser, author of The Age of Acquiescence: The Life and Death of American Resistance to Organized Wealth and Power, asserts that class conict is
an inevitability if current political and economic conditions continue, noting that people are increasingly fed
uptheir voices are not being heard. And I think that
can only go on for so long without there being more and
The anarchist Mikhail Bakunin argued that the class more outbreaks of what used to be called class struggle,
struggle of the working class, peasantry and poor had the class warfare.* [8]
potential to lead to a social revolution involving the overthrow of ruling elites, and the creation of libertarian socialism. This was only a potential, and class struggle was, 1.9.2 Capitalist societies
he argued, not always the only or decisive factor in society, but it was central. By contrast, Marxists argue that The typical example of class conict described is class
class conict always plays the decisive and pivotal role conict within capitalism. This class conict is seen to oc-
49
50
of other comparable societies and are part of the ongo- 1.9.3 The Soviet Union and similar sociing class war. Take a look at CEO salaries.... -- Noam
eties
Chomsky in OCCUPY: Class War, Rebellion and Solidarity, Second Edition (November 5, 2013)* [17]
A variety of predominantly Marxist and anarchist
thinkers argue that class conict exists in Soviet-style societies. These arguments describe as a class the bureaucratic stratum formed by the ruling political party (known
Max Weber, Germany
as the Nomenklatura in the Soviet Union) sometimes
termed a "new class".* [27]that controls the means of
Max Weber (18641920) agrees with the fundamental production. This ruling class is viewed to be in opposiideas of Karl Marx about the economy causing class con- tion to the remainder of society, generally considered the
ict, but claims that class conict can also stem from proletariat. This type of system is referred to by its deprestige and power.* [18] Weber argues that classes come tractors as state capitalism, state socialism, bureaucratic
from the dierent property locations. Dierent locations collectivism or new class societies. (Cli; ilas 1957)
can largely aect one's class by their education and the Marxism was such a predominate ideological power in
people they associate with.* [18] He also states that pres- what became the Soviet Union since a Marxist group
tige results in dierent status groupings. This prestige is known as the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party
based upon the social status of one's parents. Prestige is was formed in the country, prior to 1917. This party soon
an attributed value and many times cannot be changed. divided into two main factions; the Bolsheviks, who were
Weber states that power dierences led to the forma- led by Vladimir Lenin, and the Mensheviks, who were
tion of political parties.* [18] Weber disagrees with Marx led by Julius Martov.
about the formation of classes. While Marx believes that
groups are similar due to their economic status, Weber argues that classes are largely formed by social status.* [18] 1.9.4 Marxist perspectives
Weber does not believe that communities are formed by
economic standing, but by similar social prestige.* [18]
Weber does recognize that there is a relationship between
social status, social prestige and classes.* [18]
Arab Spring
Numerous factors have culminated in what's known as the
Arab Spring. Agenda behind the civil unrest, and the ultimate overthrow of authoritarian governments throughout
the Middle-East included issues such as dictatorship or
absolute monarchy, human rights violations, government
corruption (demonstrated by Wikileaks diplomatic cables),* [19] economic decline, unemployment, extreme
poverty, and a number of demographic structural factors,* [20] such as a large percentage of educated but dissatised youth within the population.* [21] Also, some,
like Slovenian philosopher Slavoj iek attribute the
2009 Iranian protests as one of the reasons behind the
Arab Spring.* [22] The catalysts for the revolts in all
Northern African and Persian Gulf countries have been
the concentration of wealth in the hands of autocrats in
power for decades, insucient transparency of its redistribution, corruption, and especially the refusal of the
youth to accept the status quo.* [23]* [24] as they involve
threats to food security worldwide and prices that approach levels of the 20072008 world food price crisis.* [25] Amnesty International singled out Wikileaks' release of US diplomatic cables as a catalyst for the revolts.* [26] One additional issue is the nancing and arming of rebels by western, non-Arab countries, as well as
favourable media coverage and intense propaganda campaigning by using social networks.
51
from the bourgeoisie because production becomes a social enterprise. Contributing to their separation is the
technology that is in factories. Technology de-skills and
alienates workers as they are no longer viewed as having a specialized skill.* [18] Another eect of technology
is a homogenous workforce that can be easily replaceable. Marx believed that this class conict would result
in the overthrow of the bourgeoisie and that the private
property would be communally owned.* [18] The mode
of production would remain, but communal ownership
would eliminate class conict.* [18]
52
1.9.6
1.9.7
Chronology
Classical antiquity
53
Labor union
Revolution
Sharecropping
Slave rebellion
Social class
Taxation
1.9.9 References
[1] Marx, Karl et al. (1848). The Communist Manifesto. :
www.marxists.org.
[7] Hedges, Chris (20 October 2013). Lets Get This Class
War Started. Truthdig. Retrieved 25 January 2014.
[8] Full Show: The New Robber Barons. Moyers & Company.
December 19, 2014.
1.9.8
See also
Class consciousness
Classism
Classless society
Conict of the Orders
Deformed workers state
Degenerated workers state
Economic inequality
Economic stratication
Exploitation
Johnson County War
54
[17] Chomsky, Noam (2013), OCCUPY: Class War, Rebellion and Solidarity, Second Edition (November 5, 2013),
Zuccotti Park Press, retrieved October 14, 2014
[18] Blackwell Reference Online.. Retrieved November 24,
2008.
[19] Cockburn, Alexander (1820 February 2011). The
Tweet and Revolution.
[20] Korotayev A, Zinkina J (2011).Egyptian Revolution: A
Demographic Structural Analysis. Entelequia. Revista
Interdisciplinar 13: 139165.
[21] Demographics of the Arab League, computed by Wolfram Alpha.
[22] Ahmadinejad row with Khamenei intensies.
Jazeera. 6 May 2011.
Al
1.10.1
Classlessness
The term classlessness has been used to describe dierent social phenomena.
In societies where classes have been abolished it is usually
the result of a voluntary decision by the membership to
form such a society, to abolish a pre-existing class structure in an existing society or to form a new one without any. This would include communes, of the modern period, such as various Utopian communities, the
kibbutzim, etc. as well as revolutionary and political
acts at the nation-state level such as the Paris Commune,
Russian Revolution, etc. The abolition of social classes
and the establishment of a classless society is the primary
goal of communism, libertarian socialism and anarchism.
Classlessness also refers to the state of mind required in
order to operate eectively as a social anthropologist.
Anthropological training includes making assessments of
and therefore becoming aware of one's own class assumptions, so that these can be set aside from conclusions
reached about other societies. This may be compared to
ethnocentric biases or the "neutral axiology" required by
Max Weber. Otherwise conclusions reached about studied societies will likely be coloured by the anthropologist's own class values.
55
the dierent functional assignments of the primitive
mode of production, howsoever rigid and stratied they
might be, did not and could not, simply because of the
numbers, produce a class society as such. With the
transition to agriculture, the possibility to make a surplus
product, i.e. to produce more than what is necessary to
satisfy one's immediate needs, developed in the course
of development of the productive forces. According to
Marxism, this also made it possible for a class society
to develop, because the surplus product could be used
to nourish a ruling class, which did not participate in
production.
56
1.11.2
Georg Lukcs' History and Class ism has gone so far as seeing an invisible hand in this collective results, making capitalism the best of all possible
Consciousness (1923)
worlds). By contrast, the proletariat would be, accordClass consciousness, as described by Georg Lukcs's fa- ing to Lukcs, the rst class in history with the possibility
mous History and Class Consciousness (1923), is opposed to achieve a true form of class consciousness, granting it
to any psychological conception of consciousness, which knowledge of the totality of the historical process.
forms the basis of individual or mass psychology (see The proletariat takes the place of Hegel's Weltgeist
Freud or, before him, Gustave Le Bon). According to (World Spirit), which achieves history through
Lukcs, each social class has a determined class con- Volksgeist (the spirit of the people): the idealist consciousness which it can achieve. In eect, as opposed ception of an abstract Spirit making history, which ends
to the liberal conception of consciousness as the basis in the realm of Reason, is replaced by a materialist conof individual freedom and of the social contract, Marxist ception based not on mythical Spirits, but on a concrete
class consciousness is not an origin, but an achievement identical subject-object of history": the proletariat. The
(i.e. it must be earnedor won). Hence, it is never as- proletariat is both the objectof history, created by
sured: the proletariat's class consciousness is the result of the capitalist social formation; but it is also the suba permanent struggle to understand the "concrete totality" jectof history, as it is its labour that shapes the world,
of the historical process.
and thus, knowledge of itself is also, necessarily, knowlAccording to Lukcs, the proletariat was the rst class edge of the reality and of the totality of the historical proin history that may achieve true class consciousness, be- cess. The proletariat's class consciousness is not immedicause of its specic position highlighted in the Communist ate; class consciousness must not be mistaken either with
Manifesto as the living negationof capitalism. All the consciousness of one's future and collective interests,
others classes, including the bourgeoisie, are limited to a opposed to personal immediate interests.
"false consciousness" which impedes them from understanding the totality of history: instead of understanding
each specic moment as a portion of a supposedly deterministic historical process, they universalize it and believe it is everlasting. Hence, capitalism is not thought as
a specic phase of history, but is naturalized and thought
of as an eternal solidied part of history. Says Lukcs,
thisfalse consciousness, which forms ideology itself,
is not a simple error as in classical philosophy, but an
illusion which can't be dispelled.
Marx described it in his theory of commodity fetishism,
which Lukcs completed with his concept of reication:
alienation is what follows the worker's estrangement to
the world following the new life acquired by the product of his work. The dominant bourgeois ideology thus
leads the individual to see the achievement of his labour
take a life of its own. Furthermore, specialization is
also seen as a characteristic of the ideology of modern
rationalism, which creates specic and independent domains (art, politics, science, etc.). Only a global perspective can point out how all these dierent domains interact,
argues Lukcs. He also points out how Kant brought to its
limit the classical opposition between the abstract form
and the concrete, historical content, which is abstractly
conceived as irrational and contingent. Thus, with Kant's
rational system, history becomes totally contingent and is
thus ignored. Only with Hegel's dialectic can a mediation be found between the abstract form and the abstract
notion of a concrete content.* [5]
Even if the bourgeois loses his individual point of view
in an attempt to grasp the reality of the totality of society
and of the historical process, he is condemned to a form
of false consciousness. As an individual, he will always
see the collective result of individual actions as a form of
"objective law" to which he must submit himself (liberal-
The possibility of class consciousness is given by the objective process of history, which transforms the proletariat into a commodity, hence objectifying it. Class consciousness is thus not a simple subjective act: as consciousness here is not the consciousness of an object opposed to itself, but the object's consciousness, the act of
being conscious of oneself disrupts the objectivity form
of its object(in Reication and the Proletariat's Consciousness3, III The proletariat's point of view).
In other words, instead of the bourgeois subject and its
corresponding ideological concept of individual free will,
the proletariat has been transformed into an object (a
commodity) which, when it takes consciousness of itself,
transforms the very structure of objectivity, that is of reality.
This specic role of the proletariat is a consequence of
its specic position; thus, for the rst time, consciousness
of itself (class consciousness) is also consciousness of the
totality (knowledge of the entire social and historical process). Through dialectical materialism, the proletariat understands that what the individual bourgeois conceived as
lawsakin to the laws of nature, which may be only manipulated, as in Descartes's dream, but not changed, is in
fact the result of a social and historical process, which can
be controlled. Furthermore, only dialectical materialism
links together all specialized domains, which modern rationalism can only think as separate instead of as forming
a totality.
Only the proletariat can understand that the so-called
eternal laws of economicsare in fact nothing more than
the historical form taken by the social and economical
process in a capitalist society. Since these lawsare
the result of the collective actions of individuals, and are
thus created by society, Marx and Lukcs reasoned that
57
this necessarily meant that they could be changed. Any 1.11.4 See also
attempt in transforming the so-called lawsgoverning
capitalism into universal principles, valid in all times and 1.11.5 References
places, are criticized by Lukcs as a form of false consciousness.
[1] Wright, Erik Olin (2006). Class. In Beckert, Jens &
As the expression of the revolutionary process itself,
dialectical materialism, which is the only theory with an
understanding of the totality of the historical process, is
the theory which may help the proletariat in itsstruggle
for class consciousness. Although Lukcs does not contest the Marxist primacy of the economic infrastructure
on the ideological superstructure (not to be mistaken with
vulgar economic determinism), he considers that there is
a place for autonomous struggle for class consciousness.
In order to achieve a unity of theory and praxis, theory must not only tend toward reality in an attempt to
change it; reality must also tend towards theory. Otherwise, the historical process leads a life of its own, while
theorists make their own little theories, desperately waiting for some kind of possible inuence over the historical
process. Henceforth, reality itself must tend toward the
theory, making it the expression of the revolutionary
process itself. In turn, a theory which has as its goal
helping the proletariat achieve class consciousness must
rst be an objective theory of class consciousness.
However, theory in itself is insucient, and ultimately
relies on the struggle of humankind and of the proletariat
for consciousness: the objective theory of class consciousness is only the theory of its objective possibility
.
1.11.3
Criticism
58
and anarchists. The model is often characterized as being a local and transparent organization composed of delegates bound by mandates. These delegates would be
recallable at any time from their positions. Proponents
view the right of recall as a particularly important safeguard against corruption and unresponsiveness among the
representatives.
1.12.1
Introduction
1.12.2
Within Marxism
Thus in Marxist theory, the commune is a form of politi- 1.12.6 See also
cal organization adopted during the rst (or lower) phase
Commune
of communism, socialism. Communes are proposed as
59
1.13.1 History
Libertarian municipalism
Soviet democracy
Anarchism
1.12.7
References
1.12.8
External links
Movement in the UK
The principle was adopted by the new waveworkersco-operative movement during the 1970s, and continues into the present day, although it is less common.
In 1976, the British Parliament passed the Industrial
Common Ownership Act (ICO Act), which gave
100,000 of seedfunding to the Industrial Common
Ownership Movement (ICOM) and 50,000 to the Scottish Co-operative Development Committee (SCDC), respectively. ICOM was fueled by three strands of thought
Christian socialism, workerscontrol andrice and sandalsalternativismand successfully promoted the creation of over 2,000 workers co-operatives, before merging in 2001 with the Co-operative Union to form Cooperatives UK, thus reuniting the worker co-operative
and consumer co-operative sectors.
Finance: The ICO Act also established a 250,000 rotating loan fund managed by Industrial Common Ownership Finance Ltd (ICOF). ICOF since 2005 trading as
Co-operative and Community Finance- has grown steadily
and now manages a range of funds totalling some 4.5
million. Some of these have been endowed by public bodies, and others were raised through public subscription.
This was the start of the ethical investment movement in
Britain.
Currently, as signalled by the British Labour Partys
abandonment of clause 4of its constitution, which
called for common ownership and was printed on party
membership cards, ideology has given way to pragmatism, and the social enterprise movement focuses on outcomes rather than structures.
60
1.13.2
Many socialist movements advocate the common ownership of the means of production by all of society as
an eventual goal to be achieved through the development
of the productive forces, although many socialists classify socialism as public ownership of the means of production, reserving common ownershipfor what Karl
Marx termed "upper-stage communism". From a Marxist
analysis, society based on a superabundance of goods and
common ownership of the means of production would be
devoid of classes based on ownership of productive property.
British law has been reluctant to entrench common ownership, insisting that a three-quarters majority of a companys members, by passing a special resolution,
have the right to amend a companys memorandum of
association. This three-quarters majority above applies
to most limited companies, except that it is possible since
2006 to entrench altruistic dissolution in an industrial and
provident society registered as a 'community benet society' ('bencom'). This statutory asset lock is not available to societies registered as 'bona de' co-operatives.
However such entrenchment has also been written into
the Community interest company (CIC), a new legal status that was introduced in 2005.
1.13.3
In practice
Common ownership is practised by large numbers of voluntary associations and non-prot organizations, by all
charities, as well as implicitly by all public bodies. Most
co-operatives have some element of common ownership,
but some part of their capital may be individually owned.
A very signicant early inuence on the movement
has been the Scott Bader Commonwealth, a composites and speciality polymer plastics manufacturing company in Wellingborough, Northamptonshire, which its
owner, Ernest Bader, gave to the workforce in installments through the late 1950s to early 1960s. (Contrary to the popular concept of common ownership organisations as being small organisations, this is a hightechnology chemical manufacturer whose turnover has
exceeded 100 million per annum since the early 1990s
Communism
Common-pool resource
Commons
Commons-based peer production
Cooperative
Creative Commons
Egalitarianism
Georgism / Geolibertarianism
Libertarian socialism
Open source
1.13.5
References
61
Karl Marx
Karl Marx did not write much about the nature of the
dictatorship of the proletariat, with his published works
instead largely focusing on analysing and criticising capitalist society. In 1848 he and Engels wrote in the
Communist Manifesto that their ends can be attained
only by the forcible overthrow of all existing social conditions.* [6] In the same year, commenting on revolution
in Vienna he again highlighted the role of the violence:
there is only one way in which the murderous death agonies of the old society and the bloody birth throes of
the new society can be shortened, simplied and concentrated, and that way is revolutionary terror.* [7]
[1] Public Ownership and Common Ownership, Anton Pannekoek, Western Socialist, 1947. Transcribed by Adam
Buick.
62
Friedrich Engels
A revolution is certainly the most authoritarian thing there is; it is the act whereby one
part of the population imposes its will upon
the other part by means of ries, bayonets and
cannon authoritarian means, if such there
be at all; and if the victorious party does not
want to have fought in vain, it must maintain
this rule by means of the terror which its arms
inspire in the reactionists. Would the Paris
Commune have lasted a single day if it had
not made use of this authority of the armed
people against the bourgeois?
Friedrich Engels, On Authority, 1872* [14]
Force and violence played an important role in Friedrich This statement was written in Address of the Central
Engels's vision of the revolution and rule of proletariat. Committee to the Communist League, which is credited
In 1877, arguing with Eugen Dhring Engels ridiculed to Marx & Engels:
his reservations against use of force:
That force, however, plays yet another
role in history, a revolutionary role; that, in
the words of Marx, it is the midwife of every
old society pregnant with a new one, that it
is the instrument with the aid of which social
movement forces its way through and shatters
the dead, fossilised political forms
Friedrich Engels, Anti-Duhring, 1877* [13]
1.14.2
Lenin
63
The use of violence, terror and rule of single communist
party was criticised by Karl Kautsky, Rosa Luxemburg
and Mikhail Bakunin. In response Lenin accused Kautsky of being arenegadeandliberal* [19] and these
socialist movements that did not support the Bolshevik
party line were condemned by the Communist International and called social fascism.
No Dictatorship in developed countries
Soviet democracy granted voting rights to the majority of
the populace who elected the local soviets, who elected
the regional soviets, and so on until electing the Supreme
Soviet of the Soviet Union. Capitalists were disenfranchised in the Russian soviet model. However, according to Lenin, in a developed country it would be possible to dispense with the disenfranchisement of capitalists within the democratic proletarian dictatorship; as the
proletariat would be guaranteed of an overwhelming majority. [Notes on Plenkhanov's Second Draft Programme.
Lenin Collected Works. Vol. 6, p. 51]
64
did not have the same repressive character as later bans Stalinist Communists and Socialistsargue that the Stalunder Stalin would.* [22]
inist USSR and other Stalinist countries used thedictatorship
of the proletariatto justify the monopolisation of
Internally, Lenin's critics argued that such political suppolitical
power by a new ruling layer of bureaucrats, depression always was his plan; supporters argued that
rived
partly
from the old Tsarist bureaucracy and partly
the reactionary civil war of the foreign-sponsored White
created
by
the
impoverished condition of Russia.
Movement required itgiven Fanya Kaplan's unsuccessful assassination of Lenin on 30 August 1918, and the However, the rising Stalinist clique rested on other
successful assassination of Moisei Uritsky, the same day. grounds for political legitimacy, rather than a confusion
After 1919, the Soviets had ceased to function as organs between the modern and Marxist use of the termdictaof democratic rule, as the famine induced by forced grain torship. Rather, they took the line that since they were
requisitions led to the Soviets emptying out of ordinary the vanguard of the proletariat, their right to rule could
people. Half the population of Moscow and a third of not be legitimately questioned. Hence, opposition parPetrograd had, by this stage, ed to the countryside to ties could not be permitted to exist. From 1936 onward,
Stalinist-inspired state constitutions enshrined this connd food. Political life ground to a halt.* [22]
cept by giving the various 'Communist Parties' a leadThe Bolsheviks became concerned that under these con- ing rolein societya provision that was interpreted to
ditions the absence of mass participation in political either ban other parties altogether or force them to aclife, and the banning of opposition parties counter- cept the Stalinists guaranteed right to rule as a condition
revolutionary forces would express themselves within the of being allowed to exist.
Bolshevik party itself (some evidence existed for this in
the mass of ex-opposition party members who signed up This justication was adopted by subsequent 'communist'
for Bolshevik membership immediately after the end of parties built upon the Stalinist model, such as the CCP
in China, the CP in North Korea, Vietnam, and the CP
the Civil War).
(initially the 26th of July Movement) in Cuba.
Despite the principle of democratic centralism in the Bolshevik Party, internal factions were banned. This was
considered an extreme measure, and did not fall within Post-Stalin
Marxist doctrine. The ban remained until the USSR's dissolution in 1991.* [23] In 1921, vigorous internal debate At the 22nd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soand freedom of opinion were still present within Russia; viet Union (CPSU) Nikita Khrushchev declared an end to
the beginnings of censorship and mass political repres- the 'dictatorship of the proletariat' and the establishment
*
sion had not yet emerged. For example, the Workers Op- of the All People's Government. [24]
position faction continued to operate despite being nominally dissolved. The debates of the Communist Party of
1.14.3 See also
the Soviet Union continued to be published until 1923.
Democracy in Marxism
Stalinism and 'dictatorship'
Invisible dictatorship
[5] Luxemburg, Rosa (1918). "Democracy and Dictatorship". The Russian Revolution. New York: Workers Age
Publishers.
65
[7] Karl Marx (1848). The Victory of the CounterRevolution in Vienna. Neue Rheinische Zeitung. Retrieved 2015-04-25.
Collective leadership is considered an ideal form of ruling a communist party, both within and outside a socialist
state. Its main task is to distribute powers and functions
from the individual to a single group. For instance, in
Marx 1875. Chapter One.
China powers have been distributed from the oce of
Marx, Karl (1986). The Civil War in France. Marx General Secretary of the Communist Party and shared
& Engels Collected Works 22. New York: International
with the Politburo Standing Committee while still retainPublishers. p. 331.
ing one ruler. On the other hand, in Vietnam there is
Engels, Friedrich (1877). Theory of Force (Conclu- not one paramount leader, and power is shared by the
sion)". Retrieved 2013-11-06.
party General Secretary, President and the Prime Minister along with collegial bodies such as the Politburo,
Engels, Friedrich (1872). On Authority. Retrieved
Secretariat and the Central Committee.
2013-11-06.
[13]
[14]
1.15.1 Forms
China
Currently, the central authority of the Chinese government is concentrated in the Politburo Standing Committee, which is composed of 7-members of the Communist
Party of China and headed by the General Secretary of
the Central Committee.* [1]
[17] The theory of Marx and Engels of the inevitability of a violent revolution refers to the bourgeois state. The latter cannot be superseded by the proletarian state (the dictatorship
of the proletariat) through the process of 'withering away
, but, as a general rule, only through a violent revolution.
The panegyric Engels sang in its honor, and which fully Soviet Union
corresponds to Marx's repeated statements. (The State and
Revolution, Chapter 1)
[18] "www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1918/prrk/
equality.htm".
[24]
66
Although the term socialism has come to mean specically a combination of political and economic science, it
is also applicable to a broader area of science encompassing what is now considered sociology and the humanities.
The distinction between utopian and scientic socialism
originated with Marx, who criticized the utopian characteristics of French socialism and English and Scottish political economy. Engels later argued that utopian socialists failed to recognize why it was that socialism arose in
the historical context that it did, that it arose as a response
to new social contradictions of a new mode of production, i.e. capitalism. In recognizing the nature of social1.15.2 See also
ism as the resolution of this contradiction and applying
a thorough scientic understanding of capitalism, Engels
asserted that socialism had broken free from a primitive
Federal Council (Switzerland)
state and become a science.* [2] This shift in socialism
was seen as complimentary to shifts in contemporary biology sparked by Charles Darwin and the understanding
1.15.3 Notes
of evolution by natural selection; Marx and Engels saw
this
new understanding of biology as essential to the new
[1] New Politburo Standing Committee decided: Mingjing
understanding
of socialism, and vice versa.
News. Want China Times. 18 October 2012. Retrieved
2 January 2013.
Similar methods for analyzing social and economic trends
and involving socialism as a product of socioeconomic
evolution have also been used by non-Marxist theoreticians, such as Joseph Schumpeter and Thorstein Veblen.
1.15.4 Bibliography
Baylis, Thomas A. (1989). Governing by Committee:
Collegial Leadership in Advanced Societies. State 1.16.1 Methodology
University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-88706Scientic socialism refers to a method for understanding
944-4.
and predicting social, economic, and material phenom Cocks, Paul; Daniels, Robert Vincent; Whittier ena by examining their historical trends through the use
Heer, Nancy (1976). The Dynamics of Soviet Pol- of the scientic method in order to derive probable outitics. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674- comes and probable future developments. It is in contrast to what later socialists referred to as utopian so21881-9.
cialisma method based on establishing seemingly ra Christian, David (1997). Imperial and Soviet Rus- tional propositions for organizing society and convincing
sia: Power, Privilege, and the Challenge of Moder- others of their rationality and/or desirability. It also connity. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-17352- trasts with classical liberal notions of natural law, which
are grounded in metaphysical notions of morality rather
4.
than a dynamic materialist or physicalist conception of
*
Taras, Roy (1989). Leadership Change in Commu- the world. [3]
nist States. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-04-445277-5.
Scientic socialists view social and political developments as being largely determined by economic condi Law, David A. (1975). Russian Civilization. Ardent tions as opposed to ideas in contrast to utopian socialists
Media. ISBN 978-0-8422-0529-0.
and classical liberals, and thus believe that social relations
67
1.16.3
The most one could say is that socialism has historically 1.16.5 References
been an idea that nds expression in various scientic disciplines such as mathematical economics, sociology, and [1] Frederick Engels - Socialism: Utopian and Scientic.
other like areas of study. Socialism and Marxism are
1880 Full Text
thus better described as theoretical frameworks for understanding and analyzing the social, economic and po- [2] Frederick Engels - Socialism: Utopian and Scientic.
1880 Full Text
litical world rather than the natural or physical world.
Critique of scientic socialist methodology
The term also refers to an important philosophical difference between proponents of natural law, static human
nature, and static equilibrium (such as classical liber-
68
the condition of the social organism (which would be correct), but that they are absolute laws, that is to say that they
apply to humanity at all times and in all places, and consequently, that they are immutable in their principal points,
though they may be subject to modication in details. Scientic socialism holds, on the contrary, that the laws established by classical political economy, since the time of
Adam Smith, are laws peculiar to the present period in
the history of civilized humanity, and that they are, consequently, laws essentially relative to the period of their
analysis and discovery.
Gift exchange is distinguished from other forms of exchange by a number of principles, such as the form of
property rights governing the articles exchanged; whether
gifting forms a distinct sphere of exchangethat can
be characterized as aneconomic system"; and the character of the social relationship that the gift exchange establishes. Gift ideology in highly commercialized societies diers from theprestationstypical of non-market
societies. Gift economies must also be dierentiated
[4] Frederick Engels. Socialism: Utopian and Scientic. from several closely related phenomena, such as common
Marxists.org. Retrieved 2013-12-22.
property regimes and the exchange of non-commodied
labour.
[5] Wood, John (1993). The life of Thorstein Veblen and perspectives on his thought. introd. Thorstein Veblen. New
York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-07487-8. The decisive
dierence between Marx and Veblen lay in their respective attitudes on socialism. For while Marx regarded socialism as the ultimate goal for civilization, Veblen saw
socialism as but one stage in the economic evolution of
society.
[6] The life of Thorstein Veblen and perspectives on his
thought, Wood, John (1993) (in English). The life of
Thorstein Veblen and perspectives on his thought. introd.
Thorstein Veblen. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-41507487-8. Part III Historical Materialism
69
is no such thing as the free giftgiven without expectation.* [22]
Mauss, in contrast, emphasized that the gifts were not between individuals, but between representatives of larger
collectivities. These gifts were, he argued, atotal prestation.A prestation is a service provided out of a sense of
obligation, like community service.* [23] They were
not simple, alienable commodities to be bought and sold,
but, like the "Crown jewels", embodied the reputation,
history and sense of identity of acorporate kin group,
such as a line of kings. Given the stakes, Mauss asked
why anyone would give them away?" His answer was an
enigmatic concept,the spirit of the gift.Parry believes
that a good part of the confusion (and resulting debate)
was due to a bad translation. Mauss appeared to be arguing that a return gift is given to keep the very relationship
between givers alive; a failure to return a gift ends the
relationship and the promise of any future gifts.
Both Malinowski and Mauss agreed that in non-market
societies, where there was no clear institutionalized economic exchange system, gift/prestation exchange served
economic, kinship, religious and political functions that
could not be clearly distinguished from each other,
and which mutually inuenced the nature of the practice.* [22]
Inalienable possessions
Gift vs prestation
Mauss' concept of total prestationswas further developed by Annette Weiner, who revisited Malinowski's
Malinowski's study of the Kula ring* [21] became the eldsite in the Trobriand Islands. Her critique was
subject of debate with the French anthropologist, Mar- twofold: rst, Trobriand Island society is matrilineal, and
cel Mauss, author of "The Gift" (Essai sur le don, women hold a great deal of economic and political power.
1925).* [5] In Parry's view, Malinowski placed the em- Their exchanges were ignored by Malinowski. Secondly,
phasis on the exchange of goods between individuals, and she developed Mauss' argument about reciprocity and the
their non-altruistic motives for giving the gift: they ex- spirit of the giftin terms of "inalienable possessions:
pected a return of equal or greater value. Malinowski the paradox of keeping while giving.* [6] Weiner constates that reciprocity is an implicit part of gifting; there trasts moveable goodswhich can be exchanged with
70
immoveable goodsthat serve to draw the gifts back (in Charity, debt, and the poison of the gift
the Trobriand case, male Kula gifts with women's landed
property). She argues that the specic goods given, like Jonathan Parry has argued that ideologies of the pure
are most likely to arise only in highly dierentiated
Crown Jewels, are so identied with particular groups, gift
that even when given, they are not truly alienated. Not societies with an advanced division of labour and a sigall societies, however, have these kinds of goods, which nicant commercial sectorand need to be distinguished
depend upon the existence of particular kinds of kinship from the non-marketprestationsdiscussed above.* [10]
groups. French anthropologist Maurice Godelier* [24] Parry also underscored, using the example of charitable
pushed the analysis further in The Enigma of the Gift giving of alms in India (Dna), that thepure giftof alms
(1999). Albert Schrauwers has argued that the kinds of given with no expectation of return could bepoisonous.
societies used as examples by Weiner and Godelier (in- That is, the gift of alms embodying the sins of the giver,
cluding the Kula ring in the Trobriands, the Potlatch of when given to ritually pure priests, saddled these priests
the Indigenous peoples of the Pacic Northwest Coast, with impurities that they could not cleanse themselves of.
and the Toraja of South Sulawesi, Indonesia) are all char- Pure giftsgiven without a return, can place recipients
acterized by ranked aristocratic kin groups that t with in debt, and hence in dependent status: the poison of the
Claude Lvi-Strauss' model ofHouse Societies(where gift.* [28] David Graeber points out that no reciprocity is
Houserefers to both noble lineage and their landed es- expected between unequals: if you make a gift of a doltate). Total prestations are given, he argues, to preserve lar to a beggar, he will not give it back the next time you
landed estates identied with particular kin groups and meet. More than likely, he will ask for more, to the detriment of his status.* [29] Many who are forced by circummaintain their place in a ranked society.* [25]
stances to accept charity feel stigmatized. In the Moka
exchange system of Papua New Guinea, where gift givers
become political Big men, those who are in their debt and
Reciprocity and the spirit of the gift
unable to repay withinterestare referred to asRubbish men.
According to Chris Gregory reciprocity is a dyadic ex- In La part Maudite Georges Bataille, the French writer,
change relationship that we characterize, imprecisely, uses Mauss's argument in order to construct a theory of
as gift-giving. Gregory believes that one gives gifts to economy: the structure of gift is the presupposition for
friends and potential enemies in order to establish a rela- all possible economy. Bataille is particularly interested
tionship, by placing them in debt. He also claimed that in the potlatch as described by Mauss, and claims that
in order for such a relationship to persist, there must be its agonistic character obliges the receiver of the gift to
a time lag between the gift and counter-gift; one or the conrm their own subjection. Gift-giving thus embodies
other partner must always be in debt, or there is no rela- the Hegelian dipole of master and slave within the act.
tionship. Marshall Sahlins has stated that birthday gifts
are an example of this.* [26] Sahlins notes that birthday
presents are separated in time so that one partner feels the Spheres of exchange and 'economic systems'
obligation to make a return gift; and to forget the return
gift may be enough to end the relationship. Gregory has The relationship of new market exchange systems to instated that without a relationship of debt, there is no reci- digenous non-market exchange remained a perplexing
procity, and that this is what distinguishes a gift economy question for anthropologists. Paul Bohannan argued that
from a true giftgiven with no expectation of return the Tiv of Nigeria had three spheres of exchange, and
(something Sahlins calls 'generalized reciprocity', see be- that only certain kinds of goods could be exchanged in
low).* [27]
each sphere; each sphere had its own dierent form of
Marshall Sahlins, an American cultural anthropologist, special purpose money. However, the market and uniidentied three main types of reciprocity in his book versal money allowed goods to be traded between spheres
served as an acid on established social relationStone Age Economics (1972). Gift or generalized reci- and thus
*
[30]
Jonathan Parry and Maurice Bloch, argued in
ships.
procity is the exchange of goods and services without
Money
and
the Morality of Exchange(1989), that the
keeping track of their exact value, but often with the extransactional
orderthrough which long-term social repectation that their value will balance out over time. Balproduction
of
the
family takes place has to be preserved as
anced or Symmetrical reciprocity occurs when someone
separate
from
short-term
market relations.* [31] It is the
gives to someone else, expecting a fair and tangible return at a specied amount, time, and place. Market or long-term social reproduction of the family that is sacralNegative reciprocity is the exchange of goods and services ized by religious rituals such baptisms, weddings and fuwhere each party intends to prot from the exchange, nerals, and characterized by gifting.
often at the expense of the other. Gift economies, or
generalized reciprocity, occurred within closely knit kin
groups, and the more distant the exchange partner, the
more balanced or negative the exchange became.* [26]
71
Other anthropologists, however, refused to see these Moka exchange in Papua New Guinea: competitive
dierent "exchange spheres" as such polar opposites. exchange
Marilyn Strathern, writing on a similar area in Papua New
Guinea, dismissed the utility of the opposition in The Main article: Moka exchange
Gender of the Gift(1988).* [33]
The Moka is a highly ritualized system of exchange
72
relationship alive; a debt fully paid o ends further interaction. Giving more than one receives establishes a reputation as a Big man, whereas the simple repayment of
debt, or failure to fully repay, pushes one's reputation towards the other end of the scale, Rubbish man.* [37] Gift
exchange thus has a political eect; granting prestige or
status to one, and a sense of debt in the other. A political
system can be built out of these kinds of status relationships. Sahlins characterizes the dierence between status
and rank by highlighting that Big man is not a role; it is
a status that is shared by many. The Big man is not a
prince OF men,but a prince among men.The Big
man system is based upon the ability to persuade, rather
than command.* [38]
Toraja funerals: the politics of meat distribution
Theravada Buddhism in Thailand emphasizes the importance of giving alms (merit making) without any intention of return (a pure gift), which is best accomplished
according to doctrine, through gifts to monks and temples. The emphasis is on the seless gifting whichearns
merit(and a future better life) for the giver rather than
on the relief of the poor or the recipient on whom the gift
is bestowed. Bowie's research among poorer Thai farmers shows, however, that this ideal form of gifting is limited to the rich who have the resources to endow temples,
73
The Children of Peace in Canada
Sharon Temple.
Young Burmese monk
74
used by corporations as a means of creating a sense of endebtedness and loyalty in customers. It is very interesting
that modern marketing techniques often aim at infusing
commodity exchange with features of gift exchange, thus
blurring the presumably sharp distinction between gifts
and commodities.* [46]
Organ transplant networks, sperm and blood banks
75
76
gift economy as an ideal, with neither money, nor markets, nor central planning. This view traces back at least
to Peter Kropotkin, who saw in the hunter-gatherer tribes
he had visited the paradigm of "mutual aid".* [61] In place
of a market, anarcho-communists, such as those who inhabited some Spanish villages in the 1930s, support a
currency-less gift economy where goods and services are
produced by workers and distributed in community stores
where everyone (including the workers who produced
them) is essentially entitled to consume whatever they
want or need as payment for their production of goods
and services.* [62]
As an intellectual abstraction, mutual aid was developed and advanced by mutualism or labor insurance systems and thus trade unions, and has been also used in
cooperatives and other civil society movements. Typically, mutual-aid groups will be free to join and participate in, and all activities will be voluntary. They are often structured as non-hierarchical, non-bureaucratic nonprot organizations, with members controlling all resources and no external nancial or professional support. They are member-led and member-organized.
They are egalitarian in nature, and designed to support
participatory democracy, equality of member status and
power, and shared leadership and cooperative decisionmaking. Members' external societal status is considered
irrelevant inside the group: status in the group is conferred by participation.* [63]
Moral economy
English historian E.P. Thompson wrote of the moral
economy of the poor in the context of widespread English
food riots in the English countryside in the late eighteenth
century. According to Thompson these riots were generally peaceable acts that demonstrated a common political
culture rooted in feudal rights to set the priceof essential goods in the market. These peasants held that a
traditional fair pricewas more important to the community than a freemarket price and they punished
large farmers who sold their surpluses at higher prices
outside the village while there were still those in need
within the village. A moral economy is thus an attempt to
preserve an alternate exchange sphere from market penetration.* [64]* [65] The notion of a peasants with a noncapitalist cultural mentalit using the market for their own
ends has been linked to subsistence agriculture and the
need for subsistence insurance in hard times. James C.
Scott points out, however, that those who provide this
subsistence insurance to the poor in bad years are wealthy
patrons who exact a political cost for their aid; this aid is
given to recruit followers. The concept of moral economy has been used to explain why peasants in a number
of colonial contexts, such as the Vietnam War, have rebelled.* [66]
77
source which describe ideological dierences rather than benets, was more rarely reported. Many of those
legal ones.* [74]
surveyed said things like, Mainly I contribute just to
develop
Free content encompasses all works in the public domain make it work for me, and programmers
*
[80]
The
International
software
to
'scratch
an
itch'".
and also those copyrighted works whose licenses honor
and uphold the freedoms mentioned above. Because Institute of Infonomics at the University of Maastricht,
copyright law in most countries by default grants copy- in the Netherlands, reported in 2002 that in addition
right holders monopolistic control over their creations, to the above, large corporations, and they specically
copyright content must be explicitly declared free, usually mentioned IBM, also spend large annual sums employing developers specically for them to contribute to
by the referencing or inclusion of licensing statements
open source projects. The rms' and the employees'
from within the work.
motivations in such cases are less clear.* [81]
Though a work which is in the public domain because its
often speak of their
copyright has expired is considered free, it can become Members of the Linux community
*
[82]
The
IT research rm
community
as
a
gift
economy.
*
non-free again if the copyright law changes. [75]
IDC valued the Linux kernel at $18 billion USD in 2007
Information is particularly suited to gift economies, as in- and projected its value at $40 billion USD in 2010.* [83]
formation is a nonrival good and can be gifted at practi- The Debian distribution of the GNU/Linux operating syscally no cost (zero marginal cost).* [76]* [77] In fact, there tem oers over 37,000 free open-source software packis often an advantage to using the same software or data ages via their AMD64 repositories alone.* [84]
formats as others, so even from a selsh perspective, it
can be advantageous to give away one's information.
Collaborative works Collaborative works are works
created by an open community. For example, Wikipedia
Filesharing Markus Giesler in his ethnography Con a free online encyclopedia features millions of arsumer Gift System, described music downloading as a systicles developed collaboratively, and almost none of its
tem of social solidarity based on gift transactions.* [78]
many authors and editors receive any direct material reAs Internet access spread, le sharing became extremely
ward.* [85]* [86]
popular among users who could contribute and receive
les on line. This form of gift economy was a model for
online services such as Napster, which focused on music sharing and was later sued for copyright infringement. 1.17.6 Characteristics
Nonetheless, online le sharing persists in various forms
such as Bit Torrent and Direct download link. A number Many societies have strong prohibitions against turning
of communications and intellectual property experts such gifts into trade or capital goods. Anthropologist Wendy
as Henry Jenkins and Lawrence Lessig have described James writes that among the Uduk people of northeast
le-sharing as a form of gift exchange which provides Africa there is a strong custom that any gift that crosses
numerous benets to artists and consumers alike. They subclan boundaries must be consumed rather than in*
*
have argued that le sharing fosters community among vested. [87] :4 For example, an animal given as a gift
distributors and allows for a more equitable distribution must be eaten, not bred. However, as in the example
of the Trobriand armbands and necklaces, this perishof media.
ingmay not consist of consumption as such, but of the
gift moving on. In other societies, it is a matter of givFree and open-source software In his essay ing some other gift, either directly in return or to another
"Homesteading the Noosphere", noted computer party. To keep the gift and not give another in exchange
programmer Eric S. Raymond said that free and open- is reprehensible. In folk tales,Lewis Hyde remarks,
source software developers have created a 'gift culture' the person who tries to hold onto a gift usually dies.
in which participants compete for prestige by giving * [87]* :5
time, energy, and creativity away.* [79] Prestige gained
as a result of contributions to source code fosters a social Daniel Everett, a linguist *who studied a small tribe of
network for the developer; the open source community hunter-gatherers in Brazil, [88] reported that, while they
will recognize the developer's accomplishments and are aware of food preservation using drying, salting, and
intelligence. Consequently, the developer may nd more so forth, they reserve the use of these techniques for items
opportunities to work with other developers. However, for barter outside of the tribe. Within the group, when
prestige is not the only motivator for the giving of someone has a successful hunt they immediately share
lines of code. An anthropological study of the Fedora the abundance by inviting others to enjoy a feast. Asked
I
community, as part of a master's study at the University about this practice, one hunter laughed *and replied,
*
[89]
[90]
store
meat
in
the
belly
of
my
brother.
of North Texas in 2010-11, found that common reasons
given by contributors were learning for the joy of Carol Stack's All Our Kin describes both the positive and
learning and collaborating with interesting and smart negative sides of a network of obligation and gratitude
people. Motivation for personal gain, such as career eectively constituting a gift economy. Her narrative of
78
The Flats, a poor Chicago neighborhood, tells in pass- [8] J. Parry, M. Bloch (1989). Introductionin Money and
the Morality of Exchange. Cambridge: Cambridge Uniing the story of two sisters who each came into a small
versity Press. pp. 812.
inheritance. One sister hoarded the inheritance and prospered materially for some time, but was alienated from [9] Parry, Jonathan (1986).
The Gift, the Indian
the community. Her marriage ultimately broke up, and
Gift and the 'Indian Gift'". Man 21 (3): 453473.
she integrated herself back into the community largely
doi:10.2307/2803096.
by giving gifts. The other sister fullled the community's expectations, but within six weeks had nothing ma- [10] Parry, Jonathan (1986).The Gift, the Indian Gift and the
'Indian Gift'". Man 21 (3): 467. doi:10.2307/2803096.
terial to show for the inheritance but a coat and a pair of
*
*
shoes. [87] :7576
[11] Gregory, Chris (1982). Gifts and Commodities. London:
Academic Press. pp. 69.
1.17.7
See also
Knowledge market
Basic income
Brownie points
Egoboo
Food swap
Giving circles
History of money
Calculation in kind
Reciprocity in cultural anthropology
Post-scarcity economy
Pay it forward
1.17.8
Notes
[12] Hann, C.M. (1998). Property Relations: Renewing the Anthropological Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 4.
[13] Sider, Gerald M. (1980). The Ties That Bind: Culture and Agriculture, Property and Propriety in the Newfoundland Village Fishery. Social History 5 (1): 23,
17. doi:10.1080/03071028008567469.
[14] Coleman, Gabriella (2004). The Political Agnosticism
of Free and Open Source Software and the Inadvertent
Politics of Contrast. Anthropological Quarterly 77 (3):
50719. doi:10.1353/anq.2004.0035.
[15] Levitt, Leon (1987). On property, Intellectual Property, the Culture of Property, and Software Pirating. Anthropology of Work Review 8 (1): 79.
doi:10.1525/awr.1987.8.1.7.
[16] Friedman, Jonathan (1999). American Ethnologist 26 (4):
10012. Missing or empty |title= (help)
[17] Aragon, Lorraine; James Leach (2008). Arts and Owners: Intellectual property law and the politics of scale in
Indonesian Arts. American Ethnologist 35 (4): 60731.
doi:10.1111/j.1548-1425.2008.00101.x.
[18] Coombe, Rosemary J. (1993). Cultural and Intellectual Properties: Occupying the Colonial Imagination.
PoLAR: Political and Legal Anthropology Review 16 (1):
815. doi:10.1525/pol.1993.16.1.8.
[19] Chris Hann, Keith Hart (2011). Economic Anthropology:
History, Ethnography, Critique. Cambridge: Polity Press.
p. 158.
[20] Strangelove, Michael (2005). The Empire of Mind: Digital
Piracy and the Anti-Capitalist Movement. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 926.
[21] Malinowski, Bronislaw (1984) [1922]. Argonauts of the
Western Pacic : an account of native enterprise and adventure in the archipelagoes of Melanesian New Guinea.
Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press.
[22] Parry, Jonathan (1986).
The Gift, the Indian
Gift and the 'Indian Gift'". Man 21 (3): 46669.
doi:10.2307/2803096.
[23] Hann, Chris, Hart, Keith (2011). Economic Anthropology:
History, Ethnography, Critique. Cambridge: Polity Press.
p. 50.
[24] Godelier, Maurice (1999). The Enigma of the Gift. Cambridge: Polity Press.
79
[25] Schrauwers, Albert (2004). H(h)ouses, E(e)states and [43] Bowie, Katherine (1998).
The Alchemy of
class: On the importance of capitals in central Sulawesi
Charity: Of class and Buddhism in Northern Thai. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 160 (1):
land. American Anthropologist 100 (2): 4734.
7294. doi:10.1163/22134379-90003735.
doi:10.1525/aa.1998.100.2.469.
[26] Sahlins, Marshall (1972). Stone Age Economics. Chicago:
Aldine-Atherton. ISBN 0-202-01099-6.
[27] Gregory, Chris (1982). Gifts and Commodities. London:
Academic Press. pp. 189194.
[29] Graeber, David (2001). Toward an Anthropological Theory of Value: The false coin of our own dreams. New
York: Palgrave. p. 225.
[38] Sahlins, Marshall (1963). Poor Man, Rich Man, BigMan, Chief: Political Types in Melanesia and Polynesia [54] Lytle 2006, pp. 213, 215.
. Comparative Studies in Society and History. 3 5: 2947.
doi:10.1017/s0010417500001729.
[55] Overview: who were (are) the Diggers?". The Digger
Archives. Retrieved 2007-06-17.
[39] Tana Toraja ocial website(in Indonesian). Archived
from the original on May 29, 2006. Retrieved 2006-10- [56] Gail Dolgin; Vicente Franco (2007). American Experi04.
ence: The Summer of Love. PBS. Retrieved 2007-04-23.
[40] Schrauwers, Albert (2004). H(h)ouses, E(e)states and
class; On the importance of capitals in central Sulawesi [57] What is Burning Man? FAQ - Preparation Retrieved
10/5/11
. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 160 (1):
8386. doi:10.1163/22134379-90003735.
[58] How We Survive: The Currency of Giving (Encore)"
Making Contact, produced by National Radio Project.
[41] Graeber, David (2011). Debt: The rst 5,000 years. New
December 21, 2010.
York: Melville House. pp. 22349.
[42] Bowie, Katherine (1998).
The Alchemy of
Charity: Of class and Buddhism in Northern Thailand. American Anthropologist 100 (2): 46981.
doi:10.1525/aa.1998.100.2.469.
80
[63] Turner, Francis J. (2005). Canadian encyclopedia of social work. Waterloo, Ont.: Wilfrid Laurier University
Press. pp. 3378. ISBN 0889204365.
[83] http://www.cioupdate.com/news/article.php/3660141/
IDC-Linux-Ecosystem-Worth-40-Billion-by-2010.htm
[84] http://www.debian.org/doc/manuals/debian-reference/
ch02.en.html
[66] Scott, James C. (1976). The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellion and subsistence in Southeast Asia. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
[67] Bollier, David (2002). Reclaiming the commons.
Boston Review.
[68] Berry, David (21 February 2005).The commons. Free
Software Magazine.
[69] Anon. Commoner. Farlex Inc. Retrieved 20 April
2012.
[70] Barnes, Peter (2006). Capitalism 3.0: A Guide to Reclaiming the Commons. Berrett-Koehler Publishers. ISBN 9781-57675-361-3.
[71] http://freecontentdefinition.org/Definition
[72] Denition of Free Cultural Works. Retrieved 8 December 2011.
[73] Stallman, Richard (November 13, 2008).Free Software
and Free Manuals. Free Software Foundation. Retrieved
March 22, 2009.
[74] Stallman, Richard. Why Open Source misses the point
of Free Software. Free Software Foundation.
[75] Anderson, Nate (July 16, 2008).EU caves to aging rockers, wants 45-year copyright extension. Ars Technica.
Retrieved August 8, 2008.
[77] Heylighen, Francis (2007).Why is Open Access Development so Successful?". In B. Lutterbeck, M. Barwol,
and R. A. Gehring. Open Source Jahrbuch. Lehmanns
Media.
81
Communism is a specic stage of socioeconomic development predicated upon a superabundance of material
wealth, which is postulated to arise from technological
advances in the productive forces. This would allow for
distribution based on need and social relations based on
freely-associated individuals.* [4]* [5]
The term communist societyshould be distinguished
from "communist state", the latter referring to a state
ruled by a party which professes a variation of MarxismLeninism.* [6]
A communist economic system is characterized by advanced productive technology that enables material abundance, which in turn enables the free distribution of most
or all economic output and the holding of the means of
Wizard's Holiday (2003) by Diane Duane describes producing this output in common. In this respect commutwo young wizards visiting a utopian-like planet nism is dierentiated from socialism, which, out of ecowhose economy is based on gift-giving and mutual nomic necessity, restricts access to articles of consumpsupport.
tion and services based on one's contribution.* [7]
Voyage from Yesteryear (1982) by James P. Hogan In further contrast to previous economic systems, comdescribes a society of the embryo colonists of Alpha munism would be characterized by the holding of natural
Centauri who have a post-scarcity gift economy.
resources and the means of production in common as opposed to them being privately owned (as in the case of
Cradle of Saturn (1999) and its sequel The Ancapitalism) or owned by public or cooperative organizaguished Dawn (2003) by James P. Hogan describe a
tions that similarly restrict access (as in the case of socialcolonization eort on Saturn's largest satellite. Both
ism). In this sense, communism involves the negation
describe the challenges involved in adopting a new
of propertyinsofar as there would be little economic raeconomic paradigm.
tionale for exclusive control over production assets in an
*
Science ction author Bruce Sterling wrote a story, environment of material abundance. [8]
Maneki-neko, in which the cat-paw gesture is the
sign of a secret AI-based gift economy.
working hours by rst automating production to an extent that the average length of the working day is reduced
and second by eliminating the exploitation inherent in
the division between workers and owners. A communist system would thus free individuals from alienation
in the sense of having one's life structured around survival (making a wage or salary in a capitalist system),
which Marx referred to as a transition from the realm
of necessityto the realm of freedom. As a result,
a communist society is envisioned as being composed of
an intellectually-inclined population with both the time
and resources to pursue its hobbies and genuine interests,
82
and to contribute to creative social wealth in this manner. marginalization of human labor to the highest possible
Karl Marx considered true richnessto be the amount extent, replacing with automated labor.
of time one has at his or her disposal to pursue one's creative passions.* [10] Marx's notion of communism is in
this way radically individualistic.* [11]
1.18.3 Open-source and peer production
Marx's concept of the realm of freedomgoes handin-hand with Marx's idea of the ending of the division Many aspects of a communist economy have emerged
of labor, which would not be required in a society with in recent decades in the form of open-source software
and hardware, where source code and thus the means
highly automated production and limited work roles.
of producing software is held in common and freelyIn a communist society, economic necessity and relaaccessible to everyone; and to the processes of peer
tions would cease to determine cultural and social relaproduction where collaborative work processes produce
*
tions. As scarcity is eliminated, [8] alienated labor would
freely-available software that does not rely on monetary
cease and people would be free to pursue their individual
valuation. Michel Bauwens juxtaposes open source and
*
goals. [12]
peer production with market production.* [15]
Politics, law and the state
communism, the all-round development of people will be accompanied by the growth of the productive forces on the basis of continuous progress in science and technology, all the springs of social wealth
will ow abundantly, and the great
principleFrom each according to
his ability, to each according to his
needswill be implemented. Communism is a highly organised society of free, socially conscious working people a society in which public self-government will be established, a society in which labour for
the good of society will become the
prime vital requirement of everyone, a clearly recognised necessity,
and the ability of each person will
be employed to the greatest benet
of the people.
83
1.18.7 References
[1] Steele, David Ramsay (September 1999). From Marx to
Mises: Post Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation. Open Court. p. 66. ISBN 9780875484495. Marx distinguishes between two phases
of marketless communism: an initial phase, with labor
vouchers, and a higher phase, with free access.
[2] Busky, Donald F. (July 20, 2000). Democratic Socialism:
A Global Survey. Praeger. p. 4. ISBN 978-0275968861.
Communism would mean free distribution of goods and
services. The communist slogan, 'From each according to
his ability, to each according to his needs' (as opposed to
'work') would then rule
[3] O'Hara, Phillip (September 2003). Encyclopedia of Political Economy, Volume 2. Routledge. p. 836. ISBN 0415-24187-1. it inuenced Marx to champion the ideas of
a 'free association of producers' and of self-management
replacing the centralized state.
[4] Critique of the Gotha Programme, Karl Marx.
84
[17] THE CPSU'S TASKS IN PERFECTING SOCIALISM AND MAKING A GRADUAL TRANSITION TO
COMMUNISM. Eurodos. 1998. Retrieved 26 October
2014.
[18] Cramer & Hartwell, Kathryn & David G. (10 July 2007).
The Space Opera Renaissance. Orb Books. p. 298. ISBN
978-0765306180. Iain M. Banks and his brother-in-arms,
Ken MacLeod, both take a Marxist line: Banks with his
communist-bloc 'Culture' novels, and MacLeod with his
'hard-left libertarian' factions.
85
Marxian conception, these conceptions of socialism retained commodity exchange (markets) for labor and the
means of production, seeking to perfect the market process.* [3] The Marxist idea of socialism was also heavily
opposed to utopian socialism.
damental ways. While socialism implies public ownership (by a state apparatus) or cooperative ownership (by
a worker cooperative enterprise), communism would be
based on common ownership of the means of production.
Class distinctions based on ownership of capital cease to
Although Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels wrote very lit- exist, along with the need for a state. A superabundance
tle on socialism and neglected to provide any details on of goods and services are made possible by automated
how it might be organized,* [4] numerous social scientists production that allow for *goods to be distributed based
on need rather than merit. [8]
and neoclassical economists have used Marx's theory as
a basis for developing their own models of socialist economic systems. The Marxist view of socialism served as a
Intermediate phases
point of reference during the socialist calculation debate.
1.19.1
Mode of production
The period in which capitalism becomes increasingly insucient as an economic system and immediately after
the proletarian conquest of the state, an economic system that features elements of both socialism and capitalism will probably exist until both the productive forces
of the economy and the cultural and social attitudes develop to a point where they satisfy the requirements for a
full socialist society (one that has lost the need for monetary value, wage labor and capital accumulation). Specifically, market relations will still exist but economic units
are either nationalized or re-organized into cooperatives.
This transitional phase is sometimes described as "state
capitalism" or "market socialism". China is ocially in
the primary stage of socialism.
Socialism is a post-commodity economic system, meaning that production is carried out to directly produce usevalue (to directly satisfy human needs, or economic demands) as opposed to being produced with a view to generating a prot. The stage in which the accumulation of
capital was viable and eective is rendered insucient
at the socialist stage of social and economic development, leading to a situation where production is carried
out independently of capital accumulation in a supposedly planned fashion. Although Karl Marx and Friedrich
Engels understood planning to involve the input and decisions of the individuals involved at localized levels of production and consumption, planning has been interpreted
to mean centralized planning by Marxist-Leninists during 1.19.2 Social relations
the 20th century. However, there have been other conceptions of economic planning, including decentralized- The fundamental goal of socialism from the view of Marx
and Engels was the realization of human freedom and
planning and participatory planning.
individual autonomy. Specically, this refers to freeIn contrast to capitalism, which relies upon the coercive dom from the alienation imposed upon individuals in the
market forces to compel capitalists to produce use-values form of coercive social relationships as well as material
as a byproduct of the pursuit of prot, socialist produc- scarcity, whereby the individual is compelled to engage
tion is to be based on the rational planning of use-values
in activities merely to survive (to reproduce his or herand coordinated investment decisions to attain economic self). The aim of socialism is to provide an environgoals.* [5] As a result, the cyclical uctuations that occur
ment whereby individuals are free to express their genin a capitalist market economy will not be present in a uine interests, creative freedom, and desires unhindered
socialist economy. The value of a good in socialism is
by forms of social control that force individuals to work
its physical utility rather than its embodied labor, cost of for a class of owners who expropriate and live o the
production and exchange value as in a capitalist system.
surplus product.* [9]
Socialism would make use of incentive-based systems, As a set of social relationships, socialism is dened by the
and inequality would still exist but to a diminishing extent degree to which economic activity in society is planned
as all members of society would be worker-owners. This by the associated producers, so that the surplus product
eliminates the severity of previous tendencies towards in- produced by socialized assets is controlled by a majority
equality and conicts arising ownership of the means of of the population through democratic processes. The sale
production and property income accruing to a small class of labor power would be abolished so that every individof owners.* [6] The method of compensation and reward ual participates in running their institution as stakeholders
in a socialist society would be based on an authentic mer- or members with no one having coercive power over anyitocracy, along the principle of "from each according to one else in a vertical social division of labor (which is to
his ability, to each according to his contribution".* [7]
be distinguished from a non-social, technical division of
The advanced stage of socialism, referred to as "upperstage communism" in the Critique of the Gotha Programme, is based on the socialist mode of production but
is dierentiated from lower-stage socialism in a few fun-
labor which would still exist in socialism).* [10] The incentive structure changes in a socialist society given the
change in the social environment, so that an individual laborers' work becomes increasingly autonomous and cre-
86
ative, creating a sense of responsibility for his or her insti- 1.19.4 Notes
tution as a stakeholder. The individual is no longer alienated from his or her work: work becomes a means by [1] Socialism. Marxism.org Glossary of Terms. Marxism.org. Retrieved 20 February 2013.
which the individual fullls his or her humanity (pursues
his or her interests).
Role of the state
In Marxist theory, the state isthe institution of organised
violence which is used by the ruling class of a country
to maintain the conditions of its rule. Thus, it is only in
a society which is divided between hostile social classes
that the state exists.* [11] The state is thus seen as a
mechanism that is dominated by the interests of the ruling
class and utilized to subjugate other classes in order to
protect and legitimize the existing economic system.
After a workers' revolution, the state would initially become the instrument of the working class. Conquest of
the state apparatus by the working class must take place to
establish a socialist system. As socialism is built, the role
and scope of the state changes as class distinctions (based
on ownership of the means of production) gradually deteriorate due to the concentration of means of production
in state hands. From the point where all means of production become state property, the nature and primary
function of the state would change from one of political
rule (via coercion) over men by the creation and enforcement of laws into a scientic administration of things and
a direction of processes of production; that is the state
would become a coordinating economic entity rather than
a mechanism of class or political control, and would no
longer be a state in the Marxian sense.* [12]
1.19.3
See also
[2] Bockman, Johanna (2011). Markets in the name of Socialism: The Left-Wing origins of Neoliberalism. Stanford University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-8047-75663. According to nineteenth-century socialist views, socialism would function without capitalist economic categories
- such as money, prices, interest, prots and rent - and
thus would function according to laws other than those described by current economic science. While some socialists recognized the need for money and prices at least during the transition from capitalism to socialism, socialists
more commonly believed that the socialist economy would
soon administratively mobilize the economy in physical
units without the use of prices or money.
[3] McNally, David (1993). Against the Market: Political
economy, market socialism and the Marxist critique. Verso.
ISBN 978-0-86091-606-2.
[4] Gasper, Phillip (October 2005). The Communist Manifesto: a road map to history's most important political document. Haymarket Books. p. 23. ISBN 1-931859-25-6.
Marx and Engels never speculated on the detailed organization of a future socialist or communist society. The
key task for them was building a movement to overthrow
capitalism. If and when that movement was successful, it
would be up to the members of the new society to decide
democratically how it was to be organized, in the concrete
historical circumstances in which they found themselves.
[5] Market Socialism: The Debate Among Socialists, by
Schweickart, David; Lawler, James; Ticktin, Hillel; Ollman, Bertell. 1998. From The Dierence Between
Marxism and Market Socialism(P.61-63): More fundamentally, a socialist society must be one in which the
economy is run on the principle of the direct satisfaction
of human needs...Exchange-value, prices and so money
are goals in themselves in a capitalist society or in any market. There is no necessary connection between the accumulation of capital or sums of money and human welfare.
Under conditions of backwardness, the spur of money and
the accumulation of wealth has led to a massive growth
in industry and technology...It seems an odd argument to
say that a capitalist will only be ecient in producing usevalue of a good quality when trying to make more money
than the next capitalist. It would seem easier to rely on the
planning of use-values in a rational way, which because
there is no duplication, would be produced more cheaply
and be of a higher quality.
[6] SCARLETT.Karl Marx Socialism and Scientic Communism. EconomicTheories.org. Retrieved 20 February
2013.
[7] Critique of the Gotha Programme, Karl Marx.
[8] Karl Marx - Critique of the Gotha Programme. 1875 Full
Text. Part 1:In a higher phase of communist society, after the enslaving subordination of the individual to the division of labor, and therewith also the antithesis between
mental and physical labor, has vanished; after labor has
87
become not only a means of life but life's prime want; after the productive forces have also increased with the allaround development of the individual, and all the springs
of co-operative wealth ow more abundantly -- only then
can the narrow horizon of bourgeois right be crossed in
its entirety and society inscribe on its banners: From each
according to his ability, to each according to his needs!"
[9] Erich Fromm (1961). Marx's Concept Of Socialism
. Marx's Concept of Man. Frederick Ungar Publishing.
Retrieved 20 February 2013.
[10] Market Socialism: The Debate Among Socialists, by
Schweickart, David; Lawler, James; Ticktin, Hillel; Ollman, Bertell. 1998. From Denitions of market and
socialism(P.58-59): For an Anti-Stalinist Marxist,
socialism is dened by the degree to which the society
is planned. Planning here is understood as the conscious
regulation of society by the associated producers themselves. Put it dierently, the control over the surplus product rests with the majority of the population through a resolutely democratic process...The sale of labour power is
abolished and labour necessarily becomes creative. Everyone participates in running their institutions and society as a whole. No one controls anyone else.
[11] State. Marxism.org Glossary of Terms. Marxism.org.
Retrieved 20 February 2013.
[12] Socialism: Utopian and Scientic, on Marxists.org: Comrade Lenin Cleanses the Earth of Filth(1920).
http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1880/
soc-utop/ch01.htm: In 1816, he declares that politics
is the science of production, and foretells the complete
1.20.1 Communist movements
absorption of politics by economics. The knowledge that
economic conditions are the basis of political institutions
appears here only in embryo. Yet what is here already The October Revolution of 1917 in Russia sparked a
very plainly expressed is the idea of the future conversion revolutionary wave of socialist and communist uprisof political rule over men into an administration of things ings across Europe, most notably the German Revoluand a direction of processes of production.
tion, the Hungarian Revolution, Biennio Rosso and the
88
the idea that an underdeveloped and agrarian country like
Russia would be able to build socialism with help from
successful revolutionary governments in the more industrialized parts of Europe, they found themselves in a crisis
once it became clear that no such help would arrive; see
Socialism in one country.
After those events and up until the present day, the international situation never came quite so close to a world
revolution again. As fascism grew in Europe in the 1930s,
instead of immediate revolution, the Comintern opted for
a Popular Front with liberal capitalists against fascism;
then, at the height of World War II in 1943, the Comintern was disbanded on the request of the Soviet Union's
Western allies.
World communism
A new upsurge of revolutionary feeling swept across Europe in the aftermath of World War II, though it was not 1.20.3 References
as strong as the one triggered by World War I which resulted in failed (in the socialist sense) revolution in Ger- [1] The Theory of Proletarian Dictatorship and Scientic
Communism by Bukharin
many and a successful one (for seventy years) in Russia.
Communist parties in countries such as Greece, France, [2] The State and Revolution Chapter 5
and Italy had acquired signicant prestige and public support due to their activity as leaders of anti-fascist re- [3] Stalin in Power: The Revolution from Above 1928-1941
by Robert C. Tucker, W. W. Norton & Company, 1992,
sistance movements during the war; as such, they also
ISBN 0-393-30869-3, pg 608
enjoyed considerable success at the polls and regularly
nished second in elections in the late 1940s. However, none managed to nish in rst and form a government. Communist parties in Eastern Europe, meanwhile,
though they did win elections at around the same time, did
so under circumstances regarded by some as mere show
elections.
Revolts across the world in the 1960s and early 1970s,
coupled with the Chinese Cultural Revolution, the establishment of the New Left together with the Civil Rights
Movement, the militancy of the Black Panther Party and
similar armed/insurrectionaryLiberation Frontgroups
around the globe, and even a bit of a resurgence in the
labor movement for a time once again made it seem to
some as though world revolution was not only possible,
but actually imminent; thus, there was a common expression, The East is Red, and the West is Ready.
However, this radical left spirit ebbed by the mid-1970s,
and in 1980s and 1990s there was a return to certain
right-wing, economically conservative ideologies (spearheaded, among other examples, by Thatcherism in the
United Kingdom and Reaganomics in the United States)
and also free-market reforms in China and in Vietnam.
Within Marxist theory, Lenin's concept of the labor aristocracy and his description of imperialism, and separately, but not necessarily unrelatedly Trotsky's theories regarding the deformed workers' state, oer several
explanations as to why the world revolution has not occurred to the present day. Many groups, however, such as
the Progressive Labor Party (United States), still explic-
Chapter 2
2.1.1
Theory
89
90
2.1.2
ernment...
We cordially invite the cooperation of all men
and women who remain loyal to the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of
the United States.* [12]
Fred Harrington states,the anti-imperialist's did not oppose expansion because of commercial, religious, constitutional, or humanitarian reasons but instead because they
thought that an imperialist policy ran counter to the political doctrines of the Declaration of Independence, Washington's Farewell Address, and Lincoln's Gettysburg Address.* [13]* [14]* [15]
Political movement
2.1.3
Marxism, Leninism,
imperialism
and
anti-
Anti-Imperialist League
We hold that the policy known as imperialism is hostile to liberty and tends toward militarism, an evil from which it has been our glory
to be free. We regret that it has become necessary in the land of Washington and Lincoln to
rearm that all men, of whatever race or color,
are entitled to life, liberty and the pursuit of
happiness. We maintain that governments derive their just powers from the consent of the
governed. We insist that the subjugation of any
people iscriminal aggressionand open disloyalty to the distinctive principles of our Gov-
2.1. ANTI-IMPERIALISM
from where they extract capitals, raw materials,
technicians, and cheap labor, and to which they
export new capitalsinstruments of dominationarms and all kinds of articles; thus submerging us in an absolute dependence.
Che Guevara, Message to the Tricontinental, 1967 * [16]
91
acteristic of colonial and neo-colonial empires, as used in
the realm of international relations.* [19]* [20]
In Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1917),
Lenin outlined the ve features of capitalist development
that lead to imperialism:
1. Concentration of production and capital leading to
the dominance of national and multinational monopolies and cartels.
2. Industrial capital as the dominant form of capital has
been replaced by nance capital, with the industrial
capitalists increasingly reliant on capital provided
by monopolistic nancial institutions; Again and
again, the nal word in the development of banking
is monopoly.
3. The export of the aforementioned nance capital is
emphasized over the export of goods;
4. The economic division of the world by between
multinational cartels;
5. The political division of the world into colonies by
the great powers, in which the great powers monopolise investment.* [21]
Generally, the relationship among Marxists and radical, left-wing organisations who are anti-war, often involves persuading such political activists to progress from
pacism to anti-imperialismthat is, to progress from
the opposition of war, in general, to the condemnation of
the capitalist economic system, in particular.* [22]
92
2.1.5
Right-wing anti-imperialism
2.1.6
Criticism
[3] Mark F. Proudman, Words for Scholars: The Semantics of 'Imperialism'". Journal of the Historical Society,
September 2008, Vol. 8 Issue 3, p395-433
[4] D. K. Fieldhouse, Imperialism": An Historiographical
Revision, South African Journal Of Economic History,
March 1992, Vol. 7 Issue 1, pp 45-72
[5] G.K. Peatling, Globalism, Hegemonism and British
Power: J. A. Hobson and Alfred Zimmern Reconsidered
, History, July 2004, Vol. 89 Issue 295, pp. 38198
[6] P. J. Cain, Capitalism, Aristocracy and Empire: Some
'Classical' Theories of Imperialism Revisited, Journal of
Imperial and Commonwealth History, March 2007, Vol.
35 Issue 1, pp 25-47
[7] G.K. Peatling, Globalism, Hegemonism and British
Power: J. A. Hobson and Alfred Zimmern Reconsidered
, History, July 2004, Vol. 89 Issue 295, pp 381-398
Harrington, 1935
Richard Koebner and Helmut Schmidt, Imperialism: The
Story and Signicance of a Political Word, 1840-1960
(2010)
Robert L. Beisner, Twelve against Empire: The AntiImperialists, 18981900 (1968)
2.1.7
See also
Empire-building
Colonialism
National liberation wars
National self-determination
Historiography of the British Empire
Anti-Americanism
Anti-Imperialist Camp
League against Imperialism
Antimilitarism
2.1.8
References
2.1. ANTI-IMPERIALISM
93
Cullinane, Michael Patrick. Liberty and American
Anti-Imperialism, 1898-1909. New York: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2012.
Ferguson, Niall. Empire: The Rise and Demise of
the British World Order and the Lessons for Global
Power (2002), excerpt and text search
[26] Antonio Negri and Michael Hardt, Empire, Harvard University Press (2001) ISBN 0-674-00671-2
Bibliography
Griths, Martin, and Terry O'Callaghan, and
Steven C. Roach 2008. International Relations: The
Key Concepts. Second Edition. New York: Routledge.
Heywood, C. 2004. Political Theory: An Introduction New York: Palgrave MacMillan
Harrington, Fred H. The Anti-Imperialist Movement in the United States, 1898-1900, Mississippi
Valley Historical Review, Vol. 22, No. 2 (Sep.,
1935), pp. 211230 in JSTOR
Proudman, Mark F..Words for Scholars: The Semantics of 'Imperialism'". Journal of the Historical
Society, September 2008, Vol. 8 Issue 3, p395-433
2.1.9
Further reading
Herman, Arthur. Gandhi & Churchill: The Epic Rivalry that Destroyed an Empire and Forged Our Age
(2009) [excerpt and text search]
Hobson, J.A. Imperialism: A Study (1905) except
and text search 2010 edition
James, Lawrence. The Rise and Fall of the British
Empire (1997).
Karsh, Efraim. Islamic Imperialism: A History
(2007) excerpt and text search
Olson, James S. et al., eds. Historical Dictionary of
European Imperialism (1991) online edition
Owen, Nicholas. The British Left and India:
Metropolitan Anti-Imperialism, 1885-1947 (2008)
excerpt and text search
Polsgrove, Carol. Ending British Rule in Africa:
Writers in a Common Cause (2009)
Sagromoso, Domitilla, James Gow, and Rachel
Kerr. Russian Imperialism Revisited: Neo-Empire,
State Interests and Hegemonic Power (2010)
Tompkins, E. Berkeley, ed. Anti-Imperialism in
the United States: The Great Debate, 1890
1920. (1970) excerpts from primary and secondary
sources
Wang, Jianwei. The Chinese interpretation of the
concept of imperialism in the anti-imperialist context of the 1920s.,Journal of Modern Chinese History (2012) 6#2 pp 164181.
External links
94
Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism by socialist states, while paying lip service to the primacy of
V.I. Lenin Full text at marxists.org
ideological change in individuals to sustain a communist
society, actually put productive forces rst, and ideologi How Imperialist 'Aid' Blocks Development in Africa cal change second.
by Thomas Sankara, The Militant, April 13, 2009
The theory of the productive forces is encapsulated in the
Daniel Jakopovich, In the Belly of the Beast: Chal- following quote from The German Ideology:
lenging US Imperialism and the Politics of the Oensive
"...it is only possible to achieve real liberation in the real world... by employing real
The M and S Collection at the Library of Congress
means... slavery cannot be abolished without
contains materials on anti-imperialism.
the steam-engine and the mule and spinningjenny, serfdom cannot be abolished without
improved agriculture, and... in general, people
2.2 Theory of the productive forces
cannot be liberated as long as they are unable to
obtain food and drink, housing and clothing in
adequate quality and quantity. Liberation
Thetheory of the productive forcesshould not
is a historical and not a mental act, and it is
be confused with the Marxist analysis of probrought about by historical conditions, the deductive forces.
velopment of industry, commerce, agriculture,
the conditions of intercourse [Verkehr]...
The theory of the productive forces (sometimes re1
ferred to as productive force determinism) is a widely
disseminated variation of historical materialism and
Marxism that places primary emphasis on technical advances as the basis for advances and changes in the social
structure and culture of a given civilization. The relative
strength assigned to the role of technical (or technological) progress in impacting society and social advancement
diers among dierent schools of Marxist thinkers. A
related concept is technological determinism.
Socialist states
On a prescriptive level, this view places a strong emphasis on the necessity of strengthening the productive forces
of the economy as a precondition for the realization of
socialism, and within a nominally socialist economy, essential to achieving communism. This theory was held by
many Orthodox Marxists as well as Marxist-Leninists; as
a result, it played a crucial role in informing the economic
policies of current and former socialist states.
Based on the theory of the productive forces and related perspectives, the economic systems of the former
Eastern bloc and the present-day socialist states the state
accumulated capital through forcible extraction of surpluses from the population for the purpose of rapidly
modernizing and industrializing their countries, because
these countries were not technologically advanced to a
point where an actual socialist economy was technically
possible,* [1] or were a socialist state tried to reach the
communist mode of production. The philosophical perspective behind the modernizing zeal of the Soviet Union
and People's Republic of China was based on the desire
to industrialize their countries.* [2]
2.2.1
Empirical support
http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/
1845/german-ideology/ch01b.htm#b1
http://pubs.socialistreviewindex.org.uk/isj102/
harman.htm
http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/
1847/poverty-philosophy/ch02.htm
2.2.4
References
[1] Bertrand Badie; Dirk Berg-Schlosser; Leonardo Morlino (2011). International Encyclopedia of Political Science. SAGE Publications, Inc. p. 2459. ISBN 9781412959636. The repressive state apparatus is in fact acting as an instrument of state capitalism to carry out the
process of capital accumulation through forcible extraction of surplus from the working class and peasantry
[2] Chan (2001). Mao's crusade: politics and policy implementation in China's great leap forward. ISBN 978-0-19924406-5.
95
on collective-decision making and disaggregated information, to centralized systems of planning conducted by
technical experts who use aggregated information to formulate plans of production. In a fully developed socialist
economy, engineers and technical specialists, overseen or
appointed in a democratic manner, would coordinate the
economy in terms of physical units without any need or
use for nancial-based calculation. The economy of the
Soviet Union never reached this stage of development,
so planned its economy in nancial terms throughout the
duration of its existence.* [5] Nonetheless, a number of
alternative metrics were developed for assessing the performance of non-nancial economies in terms of physical
output (i.e.: net material product versus gross domestic
product).
In general, the various models of socialist economic planning exist as theoretical constructs that have not been implemented fully by any economy, partially because they
depend on vast changes on a global scale (see: mode of
production). In the context of mainstream economics
and the eld of comparative economic systems, socialist planningusually refers to the Soviet-type command
economy, regardless of whether or not this economic system actually constituted a type of socialism or state capitalism or a third, non-socialist and non-capitalist type of
system.
Economic planning is a mechanism for economic coordination contrasted with the market mechanism. There
are various types of planning procedures and ways of conducting economic planning. As a coordinating mechanism for socialism and an alternative to the market, planning is dened as a direct allocation of resources and is In some models of socialism, economic planning comcontrasted with the indirect allocation of the market.* [1] pletely substitutes the market mechanism, supposedly
The level of centralization in decision-making in planning rendering monetary relations and the price system obsodepends on the specic type of planning mechanism em- lete. In other models, planning is utilized as a compleployed. As such, one can distinguish between central- ment to markets.
ized planning and decentralized planning.* [2] An economy primarily based on central planning is referred to
as a planned economy. In a centrally planned economy
the allocation of resources is determined by a comprehensive plan of production which species output requirements.* [3] Planning may also take the form of directive
planning or indicative planning.
Most modern economies are mixed economies incorporating various degrees of markets and planning.
A distinction can be made between physical planning (as
in pure socialism) and nancial planning (as practiced
by governments and private rms in capitalism). Physical planning involves economic planning and coordination conducted in terms of disaggregated physical units;
whereas nancial planning involves plans formulated in
terms of nancial units.* [4]
2.3.1
96
emerged in a haphazard manner during the collectivisation drive under Joseph Stalin, and emphasized rapid
growth and industrialization over eciency. Eventually
this method became an established part of the Soviet conception ofsocialismin the post-war period, and other
Socialist states emulated it in the latter half of the 20th
Planning versus Command
century. Material balancing involves a planning agency
(Gosplan in the case of the USSR) taking a survey of
The concept of a command economy is dierentiated available inputs and raw materials, using a balance-sheet
from the concept of a planned economy (or economic to balance them with output targets specied by industry,
planning), especially by socialists and Marxists, who liken thereby achieving a balance of supply and demand.* [11]
command economies (such as that of the former Soviet
Union) to that of a single capitalist rm, organized in a
top-down administrative fashion based on bureaucratic Lange-Lerner-Taylor model
organization akin to that of a capitalist corporation.* [8]
See also: Lange model
Economic analysts have argued that the economy of the
former Soviet Union actually represented an administered
or command economy as opposed to a planned economy The economic models developed in the 1920s and 1930s
because planning did not play an operational role in the al- by American economists Fred M. Taylor and Abba
location of resources among productive units in the econ- Lerner, and by Polish economist Oskar Lange, involved
omy; in actuality, the main allocation mechanism was a a form of planning based on marginal cost pricing. In
system of command-and-control. As a result, the phrase Lange's model, a central planning board would set prices
administrative command economy gained currency as a for producer goods through a trial-and-error method, admore accurate descriptor of Soviet-type economies.* [9] justing until the price matched the marginal cost, with
the aim of achieving Pareto-ecient outcomes. Although
these models were often described asmarket socialism
, they actually represented a form ofmarket simulation
Decentralized planning
planning.
See also: Decentralized planning (economics)
97
mote economic growth in market-based economies. This
involves the use of monetary policy, industrial policy
and scal policy to steerthe market toward targeted
outcomes. Industrial policy includes government taking
measures aimed at improving the competitiveness and
capabilities of domestic rms and promoting structural
transformation.* [16]
In contrast to socialist planning, state development planning does not replace the market mechanism and does
not eliminate the use of money in production. It only applies to privately owned and publicly owned rms in the
strategic sectors of the economy and seeks to coordinate
their activities through indirect means and market-based
incentives (such as tax breaks or subsidies).
98
From the start of the Cold War and up until the present
day, the United States Federal Government directs a
signicant amount of investment and funding into research and development (R&D), often initially through
the Department of Defense. The government performs
50% of all R&D in the United States,* [18] with a dynamic state-directed public-sector developing most of the
technology that later becomes the basis of the private sector economy. As a result, Noam Chomsky has referred to
the United States economic model as a form of State Capitalism.* [19] Examples include laser technology, the internet, nanotechnology, telecommunications and computers, with most basic research and downstream commercialization nanced by the public sector. This includes
research in other elds including healthcare and energy,
with 75% of most innovative drugs nanced through the
National Institutes of Health.* [20]
The economy of Singapore was partially based on economic planning involving an active government industrial
policy and high levels of state-owned industry in a freemarket economy.
Econometrics
France
Industrial policy
Input-output planning
2.3.4
Criticisms
2.3.6
Notes
[1] Mandel, Ernest (1986). In Defense of Socialist Planning (PDF). New Left Review: 537. Planning is not
equivalent toperfectallocation of resources, norscienticallocation, nor even more humaneallocation.
It simply means directallocation, ex ante. As such, it
is the opposite of market allocation, which is ex post.
[2] Gregory, Paul R.; Stuart, Robert C. (2003). Comparing
Economic Systems in the Twenty-First Century. Boston:
Houghton Miin. pp. 2324. ISBN 0-618-26181-8.
Centralization is commonly identied with plan and decentralization with market, but there is no simple relationship between the level of decision making and the use
of market or plan as a coordinating mechanism. In some
economies, it is possible to combine a considerable concentration of decision-making authority and information
in a few large corporations with substantial state involvement and yet to have no system of planning as such...To
identify an economy as planned does not necessarily reveal the prevalent coordinating mechanism, or for that
matter, the degree of centralization in decision making.
Both depend on the type of planning mechanism.
[3] Alec Nove (1987), planned economy, The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp. 879-80.
[4] Ellman, Michael (1989). Socialist Planning. Cambridge
University Press. p. 25. ISBN 0-521-35866-3. Planning
in the traditional model is primarily an activity that takes
place in physical terms. That is, it is concerned with allocating tonnes of this, cubic metres of that, etc. rather than
being concerned with allocating nancial ows.
[5] Bockman, Johanna (2011). Markets in the Name of Socialism: The Left-Wing Origins of Neoliberalism. Stanford
University Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-8047-7566-3.
[6] Schweickart, David; Lawler, James; Ticktin, Hillel; Ollman, Bertell (1998). Denitions of Market and Socialism. Market Socialism: The Debate Among Socialists.
New York: Routledge. pp. 5859. ISBN 0-415-91967-3.
For an Anti-Stalinist Marxist, socialism is dened by the
degree to which the society is planned. Planning here is
understood as the conscious regulation of society by the
associated producers themselves. Put it dierently, the
control over the surplus product rests with the majority of
the population through a resolutely democratic process...
The sale of labour power is abolished and labour necessarily becomes creative. Everyone participates in running
their institutions and society as a whole. No one controls
anyone else.
[7] Socialism: Utopian and Scientic. Marxists.org. In
1816, he declares that politics is the science of production,
and foretells the complete absorption of politics by economics. The knowledge that economic conditions are the
basis of political institutions appears here only in embryo.
Yet what is here already very plainly expressed is the idea
of the future conversion of political rule over men into an
administration of things and a direction of processes of
production.
[8]Command Economy, Marxists.org Glossary of Terms:
http://www.marxists.org/glossary/terms/c/o.htm For an
99
100
2.4.1
References
2.4.2
the left; according to many communist and Marxist tendencies, the system in use in the Soviet Union and the
states modeled after it (i.e.,communist states) - which
claimed to have reached socialism, not communism - was
not socialism but rather state capitalism.* [2]
These states did not use the term communist state
to refer to themselves, since they did not claim to have
achieved communism. Instead, they frequently called
themselves socialist states, because they claimed to have
established or to aim at establishing a socialist society,
i.e., a society based on the principles of scientic socialism.
Bibliography
101
lead the workers to expand class consciousness and re- applied to an entire state, democratic centralism creates
place the capitalist class as the ruling class, therein estab- a one-party system.* [5]
lishing the Proletarian state.
The constitutions of most socialist states describe their
political system as a form of democracy.* [6] Thus, they
recognize the sovereignty of the people as embodied in a
2.5.2 Development of communist states
series of representative parliamentary institutions. Such
states do not have a separation of powers; instead, they
During the 20th century, the world's rst constitution- have one national legislative body (such as the Supreme
ally socialist state was in Russia in 1917. In 1922, it Soviet in the Soviet Union) which is considered the highjoined other former territories of the empire to become est organ of state power and which is legally superior to
the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. After the Second the executive and judicial branches of government.* [7]
World War, the Soviet Army occupied much of Eastern
Such national legislative politics in socialist states often
Europe and thus helped establish Communist states in
have a similar structure to the parliaments that exist in
these countries. Most Communist states in Eastern Euliberal republics, with two signicant dierences: rst,
rope were allied with the USSR, except for Yugoslavia
the deputies elected to these national legislative bodies
which declared itself non-aligned. In 1949, after a war
are not expected to represent the interests of any particuagainst Japanese occupation and a civil war resulting in
lar constituency, but the long-term interests of the people
a Communist victory, the People's Republic of China
as a whole; second, against Marx's advice, the legislative
was established. Communist states were also established
bodies of socialist states are not in permanent session.
in Cuba, Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. A CommuRather, they convene once or several times per year in
nist state was established in North Korea, although it
sessions which usually last only a few days.* [8]
later withdrew from the Communist movement. In 1989,
the Communist states in Eastern Europe collapsed under When the national legislative body is not in session, its
public pressure during a wave of non-violent movements powers are transferred to a smaller council (often called
which led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. a presidium) which combines legislative and executive
Today, the existing Communist states in the world are in power, and, in some socialist states (such as the Soviet
Union before 1990), acts as a collective head of state. In
China, Laos, Vietnam, and Cuba.
some systems, the presidium is composed of important
These communist states often do not claim to have
communist party members who vote the resolutions of
achieved socialism or communism in their countries;
the communist party into law.
rather, they claim to be building and working toward the
establishment of socialism in their countries. For example, the preamble to the Socialist Republic of Vietnam's
State social institutions
constitution states that Vietnam only entered a transition
stage between capitalism and socialism after the country
A feature of socialist states is the existence of numerwas re-unied under the Communist party in 1976,* [3]
ous state-sponsored social organizations (trade unions,
and the 1992 Constitution of the Republic of Cuba states
youth organizations, women's organizations, associations
that the role of the Communist Party is to guide the
of teachers, writers, journalists and other professionals,
common eort toward the goals and construction of soconsumer cooperatives, sports clubs, etc.) which are incialism.* [4]
tegrated into the political system.
In some socialist states, representatives of these organi2.5.3 State institutions in Communist zations are guaranteed a certain number of seats on the
national legislative bodies. In socialist states, the social
states
organizations are expected to promote social unity and
cohesion, to serve as a link between the government and
Communist states share similar institutions, which are orsociety, and to provide a forum for recruitment of new
ganized on the premise that the Communist party is a
communist party members.* [9]
vanguard of the proletariat and represents the long-term
interests of the people. The doctrine of democratic centralism, which was developed by Vladimir Lenin as a set Political power
of principles to be used in the internal aairs of the communist party, is extended to society at large.* [5]
Historically, the political organization of many socialist
According to democratic centralism, all leaders must be
elected by the people and all proposals must be debated
openly, but, once a decision has been reached, all people
have a duty to obey that decision and all debate should
end. When used within a political party, democratic centralism is meant to prevent factionalism and splits. When
102
not tolerate criticism of policies that have already been of Marxism-Leninism in particular and as such repreimplemented in the past or are being implemented in the sent a particular ideology that many communists may not
present.* [10]
share. They are listed here together with the year of their
*
Nevertheless, communist parties have won elections and founding and their respective ruling parties: [19]
governed in the context of multi-party democracies, without seeking to establish a one-party state. Examples in- North Korea
clude San Marino, Republic of Nicaragua,* [11] Moldova,
Nepal (presently), Cyprus,* [12] and the Indian states of
2.5.5
Modern period
Socialist state
Socialism in one country
2.5.7
References
[1] Steele, David (1992). From Marx to Mises: PostCapitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation. Open Court Publishing Company. p. 45. ISBN
978-0875484495. Among Western journalists the term
Communistcame to refer exclusively to regimes and
movements associated with the Communist International
and its ospring: regimes which insisted that they were
not communist but socialist, and movements which were
barely communist in any sense at all
[2] State capitalismin the Soviet Union, M.C. Howard and
J.E. King
[3] VN Embassy - Constitution of 1992 Full Text. From
the Preamble: On 2 July 1976, the National Assembly of reunied Vietnam decided to change the country's
name to the Socialist Republic of Vietnam; the country
entered a period of transition to socialism, strove for national construction, and unyieldingly defended its frontiers
while fullling its internationalist duty.
[4] Cubanet - Constitution of the Republic of Cuba, 1992 Full
Text. From Article 5: The Communist Party of Cuba,
a follower of Marts ideas and of Marxism-Leninism,
and the organized vanguard of the Cuban nation, is the
highest leading force of society and of the state, which
organizes and guides the common eort toward the goals
of the construction of socialism and the progress toward a
communist society,
[5] Furtak, Robert K. The political systems of the socialist
states, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1986, pp. 8-9.
[6] Furtak, Robert K. The political systems of the socialist
states, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1986, p. 12.
[7] Furtak, Robert K. The political systems of the socialist
states, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1987, p. 13.
[8] Furtak, Robert K. The political systems of the socialist
states, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1986, p. 14.
[9] Furtak, Robert K. The political systems of the socialist
states, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1986, p. 16-17.
[10] Furtak, Robert K. The political systems of the socialist
states, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1986, p. 18-19.
[11] Kinzer, Stephen (15 January 1987). NICARAGUA'S
COMMUNIST PARTY SHIFTS TO OPPOSITION.
The New York Times.
103
[17] Michael Ellman. Socialist Planning. Cambridge University Press, 2014. ISBN 1107427320 p. 372.
[18] Richard G. Wilkinson. Unhealthy Societies: The Aictions of Inequality. Routledge, November 1996. ISBN
0415092353. p. 122
[19] Central Intelligence Agency World Factbook: FIELD
LISTING :: GOVERNMENT TYPE
[20] DPRK has quietly amended its Constitution. Leonid
Petrov's KOREA VISION.
[21] Contribution of PeoplesProgressive Party of Guyana
. Solidnet.org.
3. That there shall be strict Party discipline and the subordination of the minority to the majority;
4. That all decisions of higher bodies shall be absolutely binding on lower bodies and on all Party members.* [2]
104
Article 3. The state organs of the People's Republic of China apply the principle of
democratic centralism. The National People's
Congress and the local people's congresses at
dierent levels are instituted through democratic election. They are responsible to the
people and subject to their supervision. All administrative, judicial and procuratorial organs
of the state are created by the people's congresses to which they are responsible and under
whose supervision they operate. The division
of functions and powers between the central
and local state organs is guided by the principle
of giving full play to the initiative and enthusiasm of the local authorities under the unied
leadership of the central authorities.* [8]
Its principal practice exists as the supremacy of theNaThe Group of Democratic Centralism was a group in the tional People's Congress,which represents the people
Soviet Communist Party who advocated dierent con- and exercises legislative authority on their behalf. Other
cepts of party democracy.
powers, including the power to appoint the head of state
and head of government, are also vested in this body.
Spontaneism
By the Leonid Brezhnev period democratic centralism
was described, in the 1977 Soviet Constitution, as a prin Autonomy
ciple for organizing the state: The Soviet state is orga Federalism
nized and functions on the principle of democratic centralism, namely the electiveness of all bodies of state authority from the lowest to the highest, their accountability
to the people, and the obligation of lower bodies to ob- 2.6.5 References
serve the decisions of higher ones.Democratic central[1] Lenin, V. (1906). Report on the Unity Congress of the
ism combines central leadership with local initiative and
R.S.D.L.P.. Retrieved 2008-08-09.
creative activity and with the responsibility of each state
[2] History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolbody and ocial for the work entrusted to them.
The democratic centralist principle extended to elections.
All Communist countries were either de jure or de facto
single-party states. In most cases, the voters were presented with a single list, which usually won 90 percent
or more of the vote. In some countries, those who voted
against the lone candidate on the ballot could face serious
reprisals.* [6]* [7]
2.6.6
External links
105
106
2.7.2
Marx
In his rejection of all religious thought, Marx considered the contributions of religion over the centuries to
be unimportant and irrelevant to the future of humanity.* [16]* [17] The autonomy of humanity from the realm
of supernatural forces was considered by Marx as an
axiomatic ontological truth that had been developed since
ancient times, and he considered it to have an even more
respectable tradition than Christianity. He argued that religious belief had been invented as a reaction against the
suering and injustice of the world. In Marx's view, the
poor and oppressed were the original creators of religion,
and they used it as a way to reassure themselves that they
would have a better life in the future, after death. Thus,
it served as a kind of opium,or a way to escape the
harsh realities of the world.
Religious suering is, at one and the same
time, the expression of real suering and a
protest against real suering. Religion is the
sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a
heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people.* [18]
Furthermore, in his view, atheistic philosophy had liberated human beings from suppressing their natural potential and allowed for people to realize that they, rather than
any supernatural force that required obedience, were the
masters of reality. Marxs opposition to religion was
based especially upon this view in that he believed religion alienated humans from reality and held them back
from their true potential. He therefore considered that
religion needed to be removed from society.
The decomposition of man into Jew and
citizen, Protestant and citizen, religious man
and citizen, is neither a deception directed
against citizenhood, nor is it a circumvention
of political emancipation, it is political emancipation itself, the political method of emancipating oneself from religion. Of course, in periods when the political state as such is born violently out of civil society, when political liberation is the form in which men strive to achieve
107
the isolated individual, the image of very empirical fetters and limitations, within which the
mode of production of life and the form of intercourse coupled with it move.* [23]
existence, would eliminate these fantasies that were produced as a result of humanitys desperation with the
world it lived in. Since belief in God came about as a result of a need in people for there to be some control over
their existence, he therefore reasoned that by eliminat-
108
ing this need, religion (the reection of this need) would scientic rather than being a philosophy apart from the
gradually disappear.
sciences.
And when this act has been accomplished,
when society, by taking possession of all means
of production and using them on a planned basis, has freed itself and all its members from
the bondage in which they are now held by
these means of production which they themselves have produced but which confront them
as an irresistible alien force, when therefore
man no longer merely proposes, but also disposes only then will the last alien force which
is still reected in religion vanish; and with it
will also vanish the religious reection itself,
for the simple reason that then there will be
nothing left to reect.* [28]
Engels considered religion as a false consciousness, and
incompatible with communism. Engels, in his lifelong
contacts with leaders of Social Democratic and Communist parties in Europe as well as the founders of the First
International (the 19th century political union of communist movements), urged them to disseminate and cultivate atheism.* [29] He also called for scientic education on a massive scale in order to overcome the fears
and illusions of people who required a religious explanation for the world around them. He believed that science would provide an explanation for things that people
had formerly required religious concepts to fulll, and by
providing this explanation, people would no longer feel a
need to have religion for this purpose. He wrote much
about contemporary great scientic discoveries and used
them to support the principles of dialectical materialism
in all his popular works intended for the ordinary masses
in the Communist movements. These included discoveries in biology, physics, chemistry, anthropology and psychology, all of which Engels used to argue against a need
for religious explanations of the world.* [30] He believed
that science would make humanity condent of its own
self and to embrace its proper lordship over reality. It
would give humanity the ability to control the world he
lived in and therefore to overcome the harsh conditions
that produced a need in people to believe in a God who
controlled the universe. In his view scientic advancement in his time was justifying the materialist and atheistic outlook on the world that dialectical materialism held.
Speculative philosophy and rational theology became obsolete in light of scientic advancement.
The real unity of the world consists in its
materiality, and this is proved not by a few
juggled phrases, but by a long and wearisome
development of philosophy and natural science.* [31]
He also believed that scientic advancement required
atheistic materialism to be changed as well and to become
2.7.4 Lenin
Vladimir Lenin followed this tradition, and considered
religion as an opiate that must be always combated by
true socialists.* [33] He adapted the ideological ideas of
Marx and Engels to the particular context of Russia and
his interpretation of Marxism and its anti-religious doctrine was inuenced by the intellectual tradition of his
own country. Lenin considered that religion in Russia
was the chief ideological tool of the ruling classes to exploit the masses in that it taught subjects to be submissive
to their exploiters and it assisted the conscience of the exploiters to believe that acts of charity would merit eternal
life.
Boris Kustodiev's 1920 painting Bolshevik,depicting a revolutionary with the red ag, glaring at an Orthodox Christian
church.
Since religion was the ideological tool that kept the system in place, Lenin believed atheistic propaganda to be
of critical necessity. To this eect, before the revolution
Lenins faction devoted a signicant portion of their
meagre resources to antireligious propaganda, and even
during the civil war, Lenin devoted much of his personal
energy towards the anti-religious campaign. The inuence of the Orthodox Church especially needed to be
weakened in order to undermine the Tsarist rgime. The
populace also needed to be prepared in order to make a
transition from religious beliefs to atheism, as Communism would require of them.* [35]
Lenin considered atheism and theoretical ideas, not as important in themselves, but as weapons to use in the class
struggle in order to overthrow the ruling classes that supported themselves with religion. For this reason he considered it important to maintain an intellectually enlightened Party that did not hold religious superstitions, and he
considered that a true socialist must be an atheist. Theoretical debates and abstract philosophical or theological
ideas could not be understood in isolation from the material conditions of society. Lenin did not believe in the
existence of objective and neutral academic research, because he considered, in the tradition of historical materialism, that all intellectual activity was perpetrated and
maintained by class interests. He believed that philosophical debates were always partisan, and his 1909 work
Materialism and Empirio-criticismwas written from
this perspective and he also kept extensive notes from
the works of Aristotle, Descartes, Kant and Hegel, in
which he believed questions concerning the ideological
class struggle could be answered.* [36]
109
Lenin had no tolerance for any trace of idealism in the
views of either his opponents or his collaborators, and
considered that anything short of a fully atheistic materialist outlook was a concession to the ideological dominance of the ruling classes and their religious beliefs.
He considered religion to be political by nature and the
primary target of ideological attacks. Lenin considered
militant atheism to be so critical to his faction that he
went beyond the Russian atheist tradition of Belinsky,
Herzen, and Pisarev and organized a systematic, aggressive and uncompromising movement of antireligious agitation. He founded a whole institution of professional
atheist propagandists in the USSR who spread all over
the country after 1917 and who were the foot-soldiers
of the antireligious campaigns meant to eliminate religion
so as to make the populace atheists.
Lenins unequivocal hostile intolerance towards religious
belief became a distinctive feature of ideological Soviet
atheism, which was contrasted with milder antireligious
views of Marxists outside the USSR. His hostility to religion allowed no compromises, such that it even alienated
leftist religious believers who sympathised with the Bolsheviks. It even alienated some leftist atheists who were
willing to accommodate religious beliefs.* [36] Attacking
religion became far more important for Lenin than it had
been for Marx.
A prominent Bolshevik leader and later USSR Commissar for Enlightenment, Anatoli Lunacharsky, was attacked by Lenin for attempting to accommodate pseudoreligious sentiments in the world-view of Communism.
Lunacharsky had carried ideas similar to Feuerbachs
notion of replacing religion with a new atheistic religion that had a place for the sentiments, ceremonies and
meanings of religion, but which was compatible with science and possessed no supernatural beliefs (see: GodBuilding). Lunacharsky considered that while religion
was false and was used as a tool of exploitation, it still cultivated emotion, moral values and desires among masses
of people, which the Bolsheviks should take over and
manipulate rather than abolish. These products of religion should have been transformed into humanistic values of a communist morality rather than abolished, when
they formed the basis of the psychological and moral
integrity of masses of people. By replacing traditional
religion with a new atheistic religion wherein humanity
was worshiped rather than God, socialism would achieve
much better success, according to Lunacharsky. He believed this would have less confrontation and abuse of
the culture and historical tradition of European civilization.* [37]
Lenin was enraged with this idea of Lunacharsky, however, because he considered it a concession to religious belief, and therefore harmful in the extreme. He
claimed it ignored the fact that religion was an ideological tool of suppression of the masses, and he claimed that
Lunacharskys ideas were a dangerous and unnecessary
compromise with the reactionary forces of the Russian
110
2.7.5
Soviet Union
The policy that began with Lenin and continued for the
course of Soviet history was that religion was to be tolerated by the state, but the Party was to do whatever it
deemed necessary in order to gradually remove it from
society.* [40]* [41] Thus, the Soviet state and the Communist Party - which were two separate institutions - were
supposed to have two dierent attitudes towards religion, with the rst being neutral and the second being
hostile to it. However, since the USSR was a one-party
state, the distinction between Party and state became very
blurred over time, with the result that religion was sometimes repressed and sometimes tolerated, to varying degrees.* [42] When writing about the Party's anti-religious
stance, Lenin did not see the replacement of religion with
atheism as an end to itself, but wrote that it needed to be
accompanied by a materialist world-view.
Marxism is materialism. As such, it is
as relentlessly hostile to religion as was the
materialism of the eighteenth-century Encyclopaedists or the materialism of Feuerbach.
This is beyond doubt. But the dialectical materialism of Marx and Engels goes further than
the Encyclopaedists and Feuerbach, for it applies the materialist philosophy to the domain
111
2.7.6
See also
God-Building
Marxism and religion
Opium of the people
Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc
Persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union
Persecution of Muslims in the former USSR
Polish anti-religious campaign
Red Terror
Religion in the Soviet Union
Religious persecution in Communist Romania
State atheism
Soviet anti-religious legislation
(in Russian). .
-
,
...
[2] (
) (1981). (in Russian). - "". -
.
, ,
...
[3] (1983).
(in Russian).
.
-
*.
(
) , .
...
[4] Vladimir Lenin, in Novaya Zhizn No. 28, December 3,
1905, as quoted in Marxists Internet Archive. Religion
is one of the forms of spiritual oppression which everywhere weighs down heavily upon the masses of the people, over burdened by their perpetual work for others, by
want and isolation... Those who toil and live in want all
their lives are taught by religion to be submissive and patient while here on earth, and to take comfort in the hope
of a heavenly reward... Religion is opium for the people.
Religion is a sort of spiritual booze, in which the slaves of
capital drown their human image, their demand for a life
more or less worthy of man.
[5] Brad Olsen. Sacred Places Europe. CCC Publishing.
p117. Soviet policy toward religion was based on the
ideology of Marxism-Leninism, which promoted atheism
as the ocial doctrine of the Soviet Union. MarxismLeninism consistently advocated the control, suppression,
and, ultimately, the elimination of all religious doctrines.
[6] Slovak Studies, Volume 21. The Slovak Institute in North
America. p231.The origin of Marxist-Leninist atheism
as understood in the USSR, is linked with the development
of the German philosophy of Hegel and Feuerbach.
[7] Richard L. Rubenstein, John K. Roth (1988). The Politics of Latin American Liberation Theology. Washington
Institute Press. ISBN 0-88702-040-2. There were, however, Marxist voices that pointed out the disadvantages of
such antireligious policies.
112
Marxist-Leninist Atheism and Soviet Anti-Religious Policies, St Martin's Press, New York (1987) pg 12 " Obviously Marx began his own theory of reality with an incomplete intellectual disdain for everything that religious
thought, represented, theoretically, practically or emotionally. The cultural contributions of religion over the
centuries were dismissed as unimportant and irrelevant to
the well-being of the human mind.
[17] Dimitry V. Pospielovsky. A History of Soviet Atheism in
Theory, and Practice, and the Believer, vol 1: A History of
Marxist-Leninist Atheism and Soviet Anti-Religious Policies, St Martin's Press, New York (1987) pg 12 The
cultural contributions of religion over the centuries were
dismissed as unimportant and irrelevant to the well-being
of the human mind.
[18] Marx, K. 1976. Introduction to A Contribution to the Critique of Hegels Philosophy of Right. Collected Works,
v. 3. New York.
[19] Karl Marx, On the Jewish Question, http://www.marxists.
org/archive/marx/works/1844/jewish-question/
[20] Karl Marx. A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel
s Philosophy of Right: Introduction, December 1843
January 1844, Deutsch-Franzsische Jahrbcher, 7 &
10 February 1844, found at: http://www.marxists.org/
archive/marx/works/1843/critique-hpr/intro.htm
[21] Karl Marx. Private Property and Communism, found
at: http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1844/
manuscripts/comm.htm
[22] Marx, Theses on Feuerbach, http://marx.eserver.org/
1845-feuerbach.theses.txt
[23] Marx, The German Ideology, http://www.marxists.org/
archive/marx/works/1845/german-ideology/ch01a.htm
[24] Dimitry V. Pospielovsky. A History of Soviet Atheism in
Theory, and Practice, and the Believer, vol 1: A History
of Marxist-Leninist Atheism and Soviet Anti-Religious
Policies, St Martin's Press, New York (1987) pg 23 " It
had been taken over, however, by the ruling classes, says
Marx, and gradually turned into a tool for the intellectual
and emotional control of the masses. Marx insists on perceiving the history of Christianity as an enterprise for the
preservation of the status quo, as an elaborate "
[25] Dimitry V. Pospielovsky. A History of Soviet Atheism in
Theory, and Practice, and the Believer, vol 1: A History of
Marxist-Leninist Atheism and Soviet Anti-Religious Policies, St Martin's Press, New York (1987) pg 24
[26] Dimitry V. Pospielovsky. A History of Soviet Atheism in
Theory, and Practice, and the Believer, vol 1: A History of
Marxist-Leninist Atheism and Soviet Anti-Religious Policies, St Martin's Press, New York (1987) pg 25
[27] The Damascus Aair, by Jonathan Frankel. Cambridge
University Press, 1997. Page 413. 'Daumer, Geheimnisse
des christlichen Altertums. The 1923 edition included a
speech delivered on 30 November 1847 by Karl Marx who
said, inter alial:We know that human sacrice holds the
highest place in Christianity. Daumer demonstrated that
the Christians in actual reality slaughtered human beings,
they consumed human esh and human blood in the Eucharist(p. v).'
[28] Anti-Dhring, Friedrich Engels, http://www.marxists.
org/archive/marx/works/1877/anti-duhring/ch27.htm
[29] Dimitry V. Pospielovsky. A History of Soviet Atheism in
Theory, and Practice, and the Believer, vol 1: A History of
Marxist-Leninist Atheism and Soviet Anti-Religious Policies, St Martin's Press, New York (1987) pg 16
[30] Dimitry V. Pospielovsky. A History of Soviet Atheism in
Theory, and Practice, and the Believer, vol 1: A History of
Marxist-Leninist Atheism and Soviet Anti-Religious Policies, St Martin's Press, New York (1987) pg 17
[31] Friedrich Engels, Anti-Dhring, http://www.marxists.
org/archive/marx/works/1877/anti-duhring/index.htm
[32] Friedrich Engels, Anti-Dhring, 1,13, Negation of a
Negation, http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/
1877/anti-duhring/index.htm
[33] Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, The Attitude of the Workers' Party
to Religion. Proletary, No. 45, May 13 (26), 1909.
Found at: http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/
1909/may/13.htm
[34] Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, Socialism and Religion Found
at: http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1905/
dec/03.htm
[35] Dimitry V. Pospielovsky. A History of Soviet Atheism in
Theory, and Practice, and the Believer, vol 1: A History of
Marxist-Leninist Atheism and Soviet Anti-Religious Policies, St Martin's Press, New York (1987) pg 18
[36] Dimitry V. Pospielovsky. A History of Soviet Atheism in
Theory, and Practice, and the Believer, vol 1: A History of
Marxist-Leninist Atheism and Soviet Anti-Religious Policies, St Martin's Press, New York (1987) pg 1819
[37] Dimitry V. Pospielovsky. A History of Soviet Atheism in
Theory, and Practice, and the Believer, vol 1: A History of
Marxist-Leninist Atheism and Soviet Anti-Religious Policies, St Martin's Press, New York (1987) pg 20
[38] Dimitry V. Pospielovsky. A History of Soviet Atheism in
Theory, and Practice, and the Believer, vol 1: A History of
Marxist-Leninist Atheism and Soviet Anti-Religious Policies, St Martin's Press, New York (1987) pg 21
[39] Essays in Russian and Soviet History: In Honor of Geroid
Tanquary Robinson, by John Shelton Curtiss. Brill
Archive, 1965. Page 173.
[40] Gerhard Simon. Church, State, and Opposition in the
U.S.S.R., University of California Press, Berkeley and
Los Angeles (1974) pg 64 The political situation of the
Russian Orthodox Church and of all other religious groups
in the Soviet Union is governed by two principles which
are logically contradictory. On the one hand the Soviet
Constitution of 5 December 1936, Article 124, guarantees 'freedom to hold religious services'. On the other
hand the Communist Party has never made any secret of
the fact, either before or after 1917, that it regards 'militant atheism' as an integral part of its ideology and will regard 'religion as by no means a private matter'. It therefore
113
114
Illinois University Press. 2002. ISBN 0-87580-595- 2.8.1 Marx and Engels
7.
Proletarian internationalism is summed up in the slogan
Marsh, Christopher. Religion and the State in Rus- coined by Marx and Engels, Workers of all countries,
sia and China: Suppression, Survival, and Revival. unite!, the last line of The Communist Manifesto, pubContinuum International Publishing Group. 2011. lished in 1848. However, Marx and Engels' approach to
ISBN 1-4411-1247-2.
the national question was also shaped by tactical considerations in their pursuit of a long-term revolutionary strat Pospielovsky, Dimitry. A History of Marxist
egy. In 1848, the proletariat was a small minority in all
Leninist atheism and Soviet antireligious policies.
but a handful of countries. Political and economic condiMacmillan. 1987. ISBN 0-333-42326-7.
tions needed to ripen in order to advance the possibility
Thrower, James. MarxistLeninist scientic athe- of proletarian revolution.
ism and the study of religion and atheism in the Thus, for example, Marx and Engels supported the emerUSSR. Walter de Gruyter. 1983. ISBN 90-279- gence of an independent and democratic Poland, which
3060-0.
at the time was divided between Germany, Russia and
2.7.9
External links
First International
115
contrast, Luxemburg broke with the mainstream Polish
Socialist Party (PPS) in 1893 on the national question.
Luxemburg argued in that the nature of Russia had
changed since Marxs day. Russia was now fast developing as a major capitalist nation, while the Polish bourgeoisie now had its interests linked to Russian capitalism.
This had opened the possibility of a class alliance between
the Polish and Russian working class.
In the event the leading party of the Second International,
the SPD, voted overwhelmingly in support of Germany's
entry into the First World War by approving war credits on 4 August 1914. Many other member parties of
the Second International followed suit by supporting national governments and the Second International was dissolved in 1916. Proletarian internationalists characterized the combination of social democracy and nationalism as social chauvinism.
116
2.8.5
Third International: Leninism ver- 2.8.8 Leftist opposition to proletarian insus Left Communism
ternationalism
Following the First World War the international socialist movement was irreconcilably split into two hostile
factions: on the one side, the social democrats, who
broadly supported their national governments during the
conict; and on the other side Leninists and their allies
who formed the new Communist Parties that were organised into the Third International, which was established
in March 1919. However, during the Russian Civil War
Lenin and Trotsky more rmly embraced the concept of
national self-determination for tactical reasons. In the
Third International the national question became a major bone of contention between mainstream Leninists and
"left communists". However the latter soon became an
isolated minority, either falling into line or leaving the
International.
By the time the Second World War broke out in 1939 only
a few prominent communists such as the Italian Marxist Amadeo Bordiga and the Dutch council communist
Anton Pannekoek remained opponents of Russia's use of
the tactics of national self-determination. But in 1943,
following the collapse of the Mussolini regime in Italy,
Bordigists regrouped and founded the Internationalist
Communist Party (PCInt). The rst edition of the party
organ, Prometeo (Prometheus) proclaimed: Workers!
Against the slogan of a national war which arms Italian
workers against English and German proletarians, oppose
the slogan of the communist revolution, which unites the
workers of the world against their common enemy capitalism.* [8] The PCInt took the view that Luxemburg,
not Lenin, had been right on the national question.
On the question of imperialism and national determination, proponents of third worldism argue that workers in
oppressornations (such as the USA or Israel) must rst
support national liberation movements inoppressednations (such as Afghanistan or Palestine) before there can
be any basis for proletarian internationalism. For example, Tony Cli, a leading gure of the British Socialist
Workers Party, denied the possibility of solidarity between Palestinians and Israelis in the current Middle East
situation, writing Israel is not a colony suppressed by
imperialism, but a settlers citadel, a launching pad of
imperialism. It is a tragedy that some of the very people
2.8.6 Socialist internationalism
who had been persecuted and massacred in such bestial
fashion should themselves be driven into a chauvinistic,
Socialist internationalism allegedly regulated relationship
militaristic fervour, and become the blind tool of imperi*
between socialist countries. [9] In reality Soviet Union
alism in subjugating the Arab masses.* [11]
controlled smaller countries using the Warsaw Pact and
Comecon, invading Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia Trotskyists argue that there must be a permanent revoluin 1968. The Sino-Soviet split in 1950s and 1960s pro- tion in third world countries, in which a bourgeoisie revolution will inevitably lead to a worker's revolution with
duced two groups of socialist countries.
an international scope. We may see this in the Bolshevik
Revolution before the movement was stopped by Stalin,
a proponent of Socialism in One Country. Because of
this threat, the bourgeoisie in third world countries will
willingly subjugate themselves to national and capitalist
2.8.7 Proletarian internationalism today
interests in order to prevent a proletarian uprising.
Some political groupings such as the International Communist Party, the International Communist Current and
the International Bureau for the Revolutionary Party
(which includes the PCInt) follow the Luxemburgist and
Bordigist interpretations of proletarian internationalism,
as do some libertarian communists.
117
possibility.* [12] For internationalists, all national libera- 2.8.11 References and external links
tion movements, whatever theirprogressivegloss, are
Internationalism and Nationalism by Liu Shaoqi
therefore obstacles to the communist goal of world revolution.
Marxism and Nationalism by Tom Lewis
2.8.9
See also
Marxism
Communism
Global Citizens Movement
Socialist International
Social Patriotism
Footnotes
[9] http://tapemark.narod.ru/kommunizm/198.html
Soviet Union
[10] George Orwell, Collected Essays, "The Lion and the Unicorn".
118
East Germany
The Socialist Unity Party of Germany ocially had socialist patriotism within its party statutes.* [15] The SED
expanded on this by emphasizing a socialist national
consciousnessinvolving a love for the GDR and
pride in the achievements of socialism.* [16] However the
GDR claimed that socialist patriotism was compatible
with proletarian internationalism and stated that it should
not be confused with nationalism that it associated with
chauvinism and xenophobia.* [16]
Kim Il-sung promoted socialist patriotism while he condemned nationalism in claiming that it destroyed fraternal
relations between people because of its exclusivism.* [19]
In North Korea, socialist patriotism has been described as
an ideology meant to serve its own people, be faithful to
their working class, and to be loyal to their own (communist) party.* [19]
Patriotism is not an empty concept. Education in patriotism cannot be conducted simply
by erecting the slogan, Let us arm ourselves
with the spirit of socialist patriotism!" Educating people in the spirit of patriotism must begin with fostering the idea of caring for every
tree planted on the road side, for the chairs and
desks in the school... There is no doubt that a
person who has formed the habit of cherishing
common property from childhood will grow up
to be a valuable patriot.* [20]
Kim Il Sung
Vietnam
The Communist Party of Vietnam and the government of Vietnam advocate socialist patriotismof the
Vietnamese people.* [21] Vietnamese Communist leader
Ho Chi Minh emphasized the role of socialist patriotism
119
Anti-nationalism
Marxism-Leninism
National liberation (Marxism)
Patriotism
Proletarian internationalism
2.9.3 References
[1] Robert A. Jones. The Soviet concept of limited
sovereigntyfrom Lenin to Gorbachev: the Brezhnev Doctrine. MacMillan, 1990. Pp. 133.
The Ho Chi Minh Mausoleum.
to Vietnamese communism, and emphasized the importance of patriotism, saying:In the beginning it was patriotism and not communism which impelled me to believe
in Lenin and the Third International.* [22]
2.9.2
See also
Anti-imperialism
[11] Suisheng Zhao. A nation-state by construction: dynamics of modern Chinese nationalism. Stanford, California,
USA: Stanford University Press, 2004. Pp. 28.
[12] Jan-Ingvar Lfstedt. Chinese educational policy: changes
and contradictions, 1949-79. Almqvist & Wiksell International, 1980. Pp. 25.
[13] Li, Gucheng (1995). A Glossary of Political Terms of The
People's Republic of China. Chinese University Press. pp.
3839.
[14] Ghai, Yash (2000). Autonomy and Ethnicity: Negotiating Competing Claims in Multi-Ethnic States. Cambridge
University Press. p. 77.
120
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
allows (at least nominally) democratic multiparty elections, but the existing practices or balance of political
power eectively prevent the opposition from winning
the elections.
2.10.1 Concept
Most single-party states have been ruled either by parties following the ideology of Marxism-Leninism and
international solidarity (such as the Soviet Union for most
2.10 Single-party state
of its existence), or by parties following some type of
This article is about single-party political states. For nationalist or fascist ideology (such as Italy under Benito
telephone recording laws and notication requirements, Mussolini), or by parties that came to power in the wake
see Telephone recording laws#One-party notication of independence from colonial rule. One-party systems
often arise from decolonization because one party has had
states.
an overwhelmingly dominant role in liberation or in independence struggles.
A single-party state, one-party state, one-party system, or single-party system is a type of state in which Single-party states are often, but not always, considered
a single political party has the right to form the govern- to be authoritarian or totalitarian. However, not all aument, usually based on the existing constitution. All other thoritarian or totalitarian states operate based on singleparties are either outlawed or allowed to take only a lim- party rule. Some, especially absolute monarchies and cerited and controlled participation in elections. Sometimes tain military dictatorships, have made all political parties
the term de facto single-party state is used to describe a illegal.
dominant-party system that, unlike the single-party state, The term "communist state" is often used in the west to
121
Cape Verde (African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde) 19751981, (African Party for the Independence of
Cape Verde) 1981-1990
Chad (Chadian Progressive Party) 19621973, (National Movement for the Cultural
and Social Revolution) 1973-1975, (National
Union for Independence and Revolution)
1984-1990
2.10.2
Examples
Guinea-Bissau (African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde) 19741991
Most states in Sub-Saharan Africa after independence, although all except Eritrea have eventually
converted to a de jure multi-party system;
122
Iraq (Iraqi Arab Socialist Union) 19641968, (Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party Iraq Region led the National Progressive Front) 19682003
1993
North Yemen
Congress) 1982-1988
Syria (Arab Liberation Movement) 19531954, (Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party Syria Region led the National Progressive Front) 19632012
(General
People's
Togo (Party of Togolese Unity) 19621963, (Rally of the Togolese People) 19691991
123
Spain (Spanish Patriotic Union) 19241930 Francos and Landesma Ramoes and Jose
Antonio de Rivera Falanga (in fascist version)
1937-1945
Political organisation
Dominant-party system
Political factionalism
Outline of democracy
Multi-party system
Two-party system
2.10.4 Notes
1948
124
these concepts are distinguished from a socialist government, which generally refers to a liberal democratic state
governed by an elected majority socialist party or social
democratic party which need not pursue the development
of socialism - in any case, the distinguishing feature between a socialist state and a socialist government is that in
the latter the state apparatus is not constitutionally bound
to the construction of a socialist system.
would have to take control of the state apparatus and machinery of government in order to transition out of capitalism and to socialism. This transitional stage would
involve working-class interests dominating the government policy (the "Dictatorship of the proletariat"), in the
same manner that capitalist-class interests dominate government policy under capitalism. Fredrick Engels argued
that the state under socialism is not a government of
people, but the administration of things, and thus would
A variety of non-state socialist positions, such as social
anarchism, libertarian socialism, and council commu- not be a state in the traditional sense of the term.
nism reject the concept of a socialist state" altogether, One of the most inuential modern visions of a socialbelieving that the modern state is a byproduct of capital- ist state was based on the Paris Commune, in which the
ism and cannot be used for the establishment of a socialist workers and poor took control of the city of Paris in 1871
system. They reason that a socialist stateis antithet- in reaction to the Franco-Prussian War. Karl Marx deical to socialism, and that socialism will emerge sponta- scribed the Paris Commune as the prototype for a revneously from the grass-roots level in an evolutionary man- olutionary government of the future, the form at last
ner, developing its own unique political and economic in- discoveredfor the emancipation of the proletariat.* [6]
stitutions for a highly organized stateless society.
Friedrich Engels noted that all ocials, high or low,
The phrase Socialist state, or Communist state in the West,
is widely used by Leninists and MarxistLeninists in reference to a state under the control of a vanguard party that
is organizing the economic, social, and political aairs of
said state toward the construction of socialism. This often
includes at least thecommanding heightsof the economy to be nationalised, usually operated according to a
plan of production, at least in the major production and
social spheres.* [1] Under the Leninist denition, the socialist state presides over a state capitalist economy structured upon state-directed accumulation of capital, with
the goal of building up the country's productive forces and
promoting worldwide socialist revolution, with the eventual long-term goal of building a socialist economy.* [2]
Most theories assume widespread democracy, and some
assume workers' democratic participation at every level
of economic and state administration, while varying in
the degree to which economic planning decisions are delegated to public ocials and administrative specialists.
States where democracy is lacking, yet the economy is
largely in the hands of the state, are termed by orthodox
Trotskyist theories as workers' statesbut not socialist
states,* [3] using the terms "degenerated" or "deformed"
workers' states.
2.11.1
Henri de Saint-Simon, a pre-Marxian socialist, understood that the nature of the state would change under socialism from that of political rule (via coercion) over people to a scientic administration of things and a direction
of processes of production; specically, the state would
become a coordinating entity for production as opposed
to a mechanism for political control.* [4]* [5]
Karl Marx understood the state to be an instrument of the
class rule, dominated by the interests of the ruling class in
any mode of production. Although Marx never referred
to a socialist state, he argued that the working-class
125
rection, foreign invasion, and to promote socialist con- well-known example is the People's Republic of China,
sciousness among the Russian population.
which proclaims itself to be asocialist statein its 1982
These ideas were adopted by Vladimir Lenin in 1917 Constitution of the People's Republic of China. In the
just prior to the October Revolution in Russia and pub- West, such states are commonly known as "communist
lished in The State and Revolution, a central text for many states" (though they do not use this term to refer to themMarxists. With the failure of the worldwide revolution selves).
envisaged by Lenin and Trotsky, the Civil War, and nally Lenin's death, war measures that were deemed to
be temporary, such as forced requisition of food and the
lack of democratic control, became permanent and a tool
to boost Stalin's power , leading to the emergence of
MarxismLeninism and Stalinism, as well as the notion
that socialism can be created and exist in a single state.
Vladimir Lenin argued that as socialism is replaced by
communism, the state wouldwither away* [9] as strong
centralized control progressively reduces as local communities gain more empowerment. As he put succinctly:
So long as the state exists there is no freedom. When
there is freedom, there will be no state.
MarxistLeninist states
Main article: Communist state
States run by Communist parties that adhere to
126
2.11.3
Proletarians
2.12. VANGUARDISM
List of socialist states
Legislatures in communist states
Leninism
Deformed workers' state
Degenerated workers' state
Dictatorship of the proletariat
Reformism
Socialism in one country
State capitalism
State socialism
2.11.6
References
127
2.12 Vanguardism
In the context of the theory of Marxist revolutionary
struggle, vanguardism is a strategy whereby the most
class-conscious and politically advanced sections of the
proletariat or working class, described as the revolutionary vanguard, form organizations in order to draw larger
128
sections of the working class towards revolutionary politics and serve as manifestations of proletarian political
power against its class enemies.
In theory, the revolutionary vanguard is not intended to
be an organization separate from the working class that
attempts to place itself at the center of the movement and
steer it in a direction consistent with its own ideology. It
is instead intended to be an organic part of the working
class that comes to socialist consciousness as a result of
the dialectic of class struggle.
Vanguardism may also more generally refer to cooperation between avant-garde individuals advancing in any
eld. Innovative writers and artists are often described as
being in the vanguard of development of new forms and
styles of art.
Once the proletariat gained class consciousness and thus
was prepared to revolt against the ruling classes, the vanguard party would serve another purpose. The party
2.12.1 Foundations
would coordinate the proletariat through its revolution by
acting as a military command hub of sorts. This is, acVladimir Lenin popularized political vanguardism as cording to Leninists, a vital function as mass revolutions
conceptualized by Karl Kautsky, detailing his thoughts can sometimes be easily crushed by the disciplined miliin one of his earlier works, What is to be done?. Lenin tary of the ruling classes. The vanguards would serve as
argued that Marxism's complexity and the hostility of commanders of the revolt, chosen to their positions by
the establishment (the autocratic, semi-feudal state of democratic natural selection.
Imperial Russia,) required a close-knit group of individuals pulled from the working class vanguard to safeguard In Lenin's view, after the revolution the working class
the revolutionary ideology within the particular circum- would implement the dictatorship of the proletariat to rule
stances presented by the Tsarist rgime at the time. While the new worker's state through the rst phase of commuLenin allegedly wished for a revolutionary organization nism, socialism. Here it can be said that the vanguard
akin to the contemporary Social Democratic Party of disappears, as all of society now consists of revolutionarGermany, which was open to the public and more demo- ies.
cratic in organization, the Russian autocracy prevented
this.
Leninists argue that Lenin's ideal vanguard party would
be one where membership is completely open: The
members of the Party are they who accept the principles
of the Party programme and render the Party all possible
support.* [1] This party could, in theory, be completely
transparent: the entire political arena is as open to the
public view as is a theater stage to the audience.* [2]
A party that supposedly implemented democracy to such
an extent thatthe general control (in the literal sense of
the term) exercised over every act of a party man in the
political eld brings into existence an automatically operating mechanism which produces what in biology is called
thesurvival of the ttest.This party would be completely open to the public eye as it conducted its business
which would mainly consist of educating the proletariat
to remove the false consciousness that had been instilled
in them.* [3]
In its rst phase, the vanguard party would exist for two
reasons. Firstly, it would protect Marxism from outside
corruption from other ideas as well as advance its concepts. Secondly, it would educate the proletariat in Marxism in order to cleanse them of their false individual
consciousnessand instill the revolutionary "class consciousness" in them.
2.12. VANGUARDISM
2.12.3
Political party
A vanguard party is a political party at the fore of a massaction political movement and of a revolution. In the
praxis of political science, the concept of the vanguard
party, composed of professional revolutionaries, was rst
eected by the Bolshevik Party in the Russian Revolution of 1917. Lenin (Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov), the rst
leader of the Bolsheviks, coined the term vanguard party,
and argued that such a party was necessary in order to
provide the practical and political leadership that would
impel the proletariat to achieve a communist revolution.
Hence, as a political-science concept and term, vanguard
party most often is associated with Leninism; however,
similar concepts (under dierent names) also are present
in other revolutionary ideologies.
Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx presented the concept of
the vanguard party as solely qualied to politically lead
the proletariat in revolution; in Chapter II: Proletarians
and Communistsof The Communist Manifesto (1848),
they said:
The Communists, therefore, are, on the
one hand, practically the most advanced and
resolute section of the working-class parties of
every country, that section which pushes forward all others; on the other hand, theoretically, they have over the great mass of the proletariat the advantage of clearly understanding
the lines of march, the conditions, and the ultimate general results of the proletarian movement. The immediate aim of the Communists
is the same as that of all other proletarian parties: Formation of the proletariat into a class,
overthrow of the bourgeois supremacy, conquest of political power by the proletariat.
129
society), which featured the decisive revolutionary leadership of the Bolshevik vanguard party.
Marxist/Leninist
As he surveyed the European milieu in the late 1890s,
Lenin found several theoretic problems with the Marxism
of the late 19th century. Contrary to what Karl Marx had
predicted, capitalism had become stronger in the last third
of the 19th century. In Western Europe, the working
class had become poorer, rather than becoming politically progressive, thinking people; hence, the workers and
their trade unions, although they had continued to militate
for better wages and working conditions, had failed to develop a revolutionary class consciousness, as predicted by
Marx. To explain that undeveloped political awareness,
Lenin said that the division of labour in a bourgeois capitalist society prevented the emergence of a proletarian
class consciousness, because of the ten-to-twelve-hour
workdays that the workers laboured in factories, and so
had no time to learn and apply the philosophic complexities of Marxist theory. Finally, in trying to eect a revolution in Tsarist Imperial Russia (17211917), Lenin faced
the problem of an autocratic rgime that had outlawed
almost all political activity. Although the Tsarist autocracy could not enforce a ban on political ideas, until 1905
when Tsar Nicholas II (18941917) agreed to the formation of a national duma the Okhrana, the Tsarist
secret police, suppressed every political group seeking social and political changes, including those with a democratic program.
To counter such political conditions, Lenin said that a
professional revolutionary organisation was necessary to
organise and lead the most class-conscious workers into a
politically coherent movement. About the Russian class
struggle, in the book What Is to Be Done? (1902), against
the economisttrend of the socialist parties (who proposed that the working class would develop a revolutionary consciousness from demanding solely economic improvements), Lenin said that the history of all countries bears out the fact that, through their own powers
alone, the working class can develop only a trade-union
consciousness; and that under reformist, trade-union
leadership, the working class could only engage spontaneous local rebellions to improve their political position
within the capitalist system, and that revolutionary consciousness developed unevenly. Nonetheless, optimistic
about the working classs ability to develop a revolutionary class consciousness, Lenin said that the missing element for escalating the class struggle to revolution was a
political organisation that could relate to the radicalism of
political vanguard of the working class, who then would
attract many workers from the middling policies of the
reformist leaders of the trade unions.
According to Vladimir Lenin, the purpose of the vanguard party is to establish a dictatorship of the proletariat;
supported by the working class. The change of ruling
class, from the bourgeoisie to the proletariat, makes possible the full development of socialism. In early 20th century Russia, Lenin argued that the vanguard party would
lead the revolution to depose the incumbent Tsarist government, and transfer government power to the working
class.* [5] In the pamphlet What is to be Done? (1902),
Lenin said that a revolutionary vanguard party, mostly
recruited from the working class, should lead the political campaign, because it was the only way that the
proletariat could successfully achieve a revolution; unlike the economist campaign of trade union struggle advocated by other socialist political parties and later by
the anarcho-syndicalists. Like Karl Marx, Lenin distinguished between the two aspects of a revolution, the economic campaign (labour strikes for increased wages and It is often believed that Lenin thought the bearers of
work concessions), which featured diused plural lead- class consciousness were the common intellectuals who
ership; and the political campaign (socialist changes to made it their vocation to conspire against the capitalist
130
system, educate the public in revolutionary theory, and
prepare the workers for the proletarian revolution and
the dictatorship of the proletariat that would follow. Yet,
unlike his Menshevik rivals, Lenin distinguished himself
by his hostility towards the bourgeois intelligentsia, and
was routinely criticised for placing too much trust in the
intellectual ability of the working class to transform society through its own political struggles.
Like other political organisations that sought to change
Imperial Russian society, Lenin's Bolshevik Party resorted to conspiracy, and operated in the political underground. Against Tsarist repression, Lenin argued for
the necessity of conning membership to people who
were professionally trained to combat the Okhrana secret
police; however, at its core, the Bolshevik Party was
an exceptionally exible organisation who pragmatically
adapted policy to changing political situations. After the
Revolution of 1905, Lenin proposed that the Bolshevik
Partyopen its gatesto the militant working class, who
were rapidly becoming political radicals, in order for the
Party to become a mass-action political party with genuine roots in the working class movement.
The concept of a vanguard party was used by the Bolsheviks to justify their suppression of other parties. They
took the line that since they were the vanguard of the proletariat, their right to rule could not be legitimately questioned. Hence, opposition parties could not be permitted
to exist. From 1936 onward, Communist-inspired state
constitutions enshrined this concept by giving the Communist parties a leading rolein societya provision
that was interpreted to either ban other parties altogether
or force them to accept the Communists' guaranteed right
to rule as a condition of being allowed to exist.
2.13. LENINISM
Blanquism
Democratic centralism
2.12.5
References
2.12.6
Further reading
Arts
Burger, Peter. Theory of the Avant-Garde. Theory & History of Literature Series. 135 pages.
University of Minnesota Press, February 1, 1984.
ISBN 0-8166-1068-1.
Forster, Merlin H. and K. David Jackson, compilers.
Vanguardism in Latin American Literature : An Annotated Bibliographic Guide. Bibliographies and Indexes in World Literature Series. 232 pages. Greenwood Press, May 23, 1990. ISBN 0-313-24861-3.
131
Bakunin, Mikhail. Letter to Albert Richard.
August 1870. Reprinted in Bakunin on Anarchy,
translated and edited by Sam Dolgo. A. A. Knopf,
1st edition, 1972. ISBN 0-394-41601-5. Retrieved
May 17, 2005.
Mandel, Ernest. Trotskys conception of selforganisation and the vanguard party. Originally
published in French in Quatrime Internationale,
No.36, pp. 3549. November 1989. Translated by
Mike Murray, marked up by Einde OCallaghan
for the MarxistsInternet Archive. Retrieved May
24, 2005.
Mitchell, Roxanne and Frank Weiss. Two, Three,
Many Parties of a New Type? Against the Ultra-Left
Line. Publisher: United Labor Press. 1977. Retrieved May 25, 2005.
Slaughter, Cli. What is Revolutionary Leadership?". Labour Review. Socialist Labor League.
1964?. Retrieved May 17, 2005.
Polemics
Mythology of the White-LedVanguard": A Critical
Look at the Revolutionary Communist Party, USA.
Anarchist People of Color website. Retrieved May
17, 2005.
Cooper, Nick. Critique of Revolutionary Communism . Belgium Indymedia. Sep. 23, 2004. Retrieved June 3, 2005.
2.13 Leninism
In Marxist philosophy, Leninism is the body of political
theory for the democratic organisation of a revolutionary
vanguard party, and the achievement of a dictatorship of
the proletariat, as political prelude to the establishment
of socialism. Developed by, and named for, the Russian
revolutionary and later Soviet premier Vladimir Lenin,
Leninism comprises socialist political and economic theories, developed from Marxism, as well as Lenins interpretations of Marxist theory for practical application to
the socio-political conditions of the agrarian early-20thcentury Russian Empire. In February 1917, for ve years,
Leninism was the Russian application of Marxist economics and political philosophy, eected and realised by
the Bolshevik party, the vanguard party who led the ght
for the political independence of the working class.
Maerhofer, John. 2009. Rethinking the Vanguard: Aesthetic and Political Positions in the Mod- Functionally, the Leninist vanguard party provided to
ernist Debate, 1917-1962. New Castle: Cambridge the working class the political consciousness (education
Scholars Press. ISBN 1-4438-1135-1
and organisation), and the revolutionary leadership necessary to depose capitalism in Imperial Russia. After
Politics
the October Revolution of 1917, Leninism was the dominant version of Marxism in Russia; in fact, the Bolshe Vladimir Lenin What is to be done?
viks considered it the only legitimate form and persecuted
132
2.13. LENINISM
and democratization, in view that the Russian propertied
classes would attempt to suppress any revolution, in town
and country. In April 1917, Lenin published the April
Theses, the strategy of the October Revolution, which
proposed that the Russian revolution was not an isolated
national event, but a fundamentally international event
the rst world socialist revolution. Thus, Lenin's practical application of Marxism and working-class urban revolution to the social, political, and economic conditions
of the agrarian peasant society that was Tsarist Russia
sparked the revolutionary nationalism of the poorto
depose the absolute monarchy of the three-hundred-year
Romanov dynasty (16131917).* [3]
Imperialism
In the course of developing the Russian application of
Marxism, the pamphlet Imperialism, the Highest Stage of
Capitalism (1916) presented Lenins analysis of an economic development predicted by Karl Marx: that capitalism would become a global nancial system, wherein
advanced industrial countries export nancial capital to
their colonial countries, to nance the exploitation of their
natural resources and the labour of the native populations.
Such superexploitation of the poor (undeveloped) countries allows the wealthy (developed) countries to maintain
some homeland workers politically content with a slightly
higher standard of living, and so ensure peaceful labour
capital relations in the capitalist homeland. (see: labour
aristocracy, globalization) Hence, a proletarian revolution
of workers and peasants could not occur in the developed
capitalist countries, while the imperialist global-nance
system remained intact; thus an underdeveloped country would feature the rst proletarian revolution; and, in
the early 20th century, Imperial Russia was the politically weakest country in the capitalist global-nance system.* [4] In the United States of Europe Slogan (1915),
Lenin said:
Workers of the world, unite! Uneven
economic and political development is an absolute law of capitalism. Hence the victory
of socialism is possible, rst in several, or
even in one capitalist country taken separately.
The victorious proletariat of that country, having expropriated the capitalists and organised
its own socialist production, would stand up
against the rest of the world, the capitalist
world.
Collected Works, vol. 18, p. 232.* [5]
The more powerful enemy can be vanquished only by exerting the utmost eort, and
by the most thorough, careful, attentive, skilful
and obligatory use of any, even the smallest, rift
between the enemies, any conict of interests
among the bourgeoisie of the various countries
133
and among the various groups or types of bourgeoisie within the various countries, and also by
taking advantage of any, even the smallest, opportunity of winning a mass ally, even though
this ally is temporary, vacillating, unstable, unreliable and conditional. Those who do not
understand this reveal a failure to understand
even the smallest grain of Marxism, of modern scientic socialism in general. Those who
have not proved in practice, over a fairly considerable period of time and in fairly varied political situations, their ability to apply this truth
in practice have not yet learned to help the revolutionary class in its struggle to emancipate all
toiling humanity from the exploiters. And this
applies equally to the period before and after
the proletariat has won political power.
Left-Wing Communism: an Infantile Disorder (1920)* [6]
134
2.13. LENINISM
parties competing for elected power.* [1]* [10]* [13] Nevertheless, the circumstances of the Red vs. White Russian
Civil War, and terrorism by the opposing political parties, and in aid of the White Armies' counter-revolution,
led to the Bolshevik government banning other parties;
thus, the vanguard party became the sole, legal political party in Russia. Lenin did not regard such political
suppression as philosophically inherent to the dictatorship of the proletariat; yet the Stalinists retrospectively
claimed that such factional suppression was original to
Leninism.* [14]* [15]* [16]
Economics
Soviet democracy nationalised industry and established
a foreign-trade monopoly to allow the productive coordination of the national economy, and so prevent Russian national industries from competing against each
other. To feed the populaces of town and country, Lenin
instituted War Communism (191821) as a necessary
condition adequate supplies of food and weapons
for ghting the Russian Civil War (191723).* [13] Later,
in March 1921, he established the New Economic Policy (NEP, 192129), which allowed measures of private
commerce, internal free trade, and replaced grain requisitions with an agricultural tax, under the management of
State banks. The purpose of the NEP was to resolve foodshortage riots among the peasantry, and allowed measures of private enterprise, wherein the prot motive encouraged the peasants to harvest the crops required to
feed the people of town and country; and to economically re-establish the urban working class, who had lost
many men (workers) to the counter-revolutionary Civil
War.* [18]* [19] With the NEP, the socialist nationalisation of the economy could then be developed to industrialise Russia, strengthen the working class, and raise standards of living; thus the NEP would advance socialism
against capitalism. Lenin regarded the appearance of new
socialist states in the developed countries as necessary to
the strengthening Russia's economy, and the eventual development of socialism. In that, he was encouraged by
the German Revolution of 19181919, the Italian insurrection and general strikes of 1920, and industrial unrest
in Britain, France, and the U.S.
135
National self-determination
Lenin recognized and accepted the existence of
nationalism among oppressed peoples, advocated their
national rights to self-determination, and opposed the
ethnic chauvinism of Greater Russiabecause such
ethnocentrism was a cultural obstacle to establishing the
proletarian dictatorship in the territories of the deposed
Tsarist Russian Empire (17211917).* [20]* [21] In The
Right of Nations to Self-determination (1914), Lenin said:
We ght against the privileges and violence
of the oppressor nation, and do not in any
way condone strivings for privileges on the
part of the oppressed nation.... The bourgeois
nationalism of any oppressed nation has a
general democratic content that is directed
against oppression, and it is this content that
we unconditionally support. At the same time,
we strictly distinguish it from the tendency
towards national exclusiveness....
Can a
nation be free if it oppresses other nations? It
cannot.* [22]
Socialist culture
The role of the Marxist vanguard party was to politically
educate the workers and peasants to dispel the societal
false consciousness of religion and nationalism that constitute the cultural status quo taught by the bourgeoisie
to the proletariat to facilitate their economic exploitation
136
of peasant and worker. Inuenced by Lenin, the Central Committee of the Bolshevik Party stated that the development of the socialist workersculture should not
behamstrung from above, and opposed the Proletkult
(191725) organisational control of the national culture.* [25]
2.13.3
Stalin aligned with Lenins advocacy of the right of selfdetermination for the national and ethnic groups of the
former Tsarist Empire, which was a key theoretic concept
of Leninism.* [28] Lenin warned that Stalin has unlimited authority concentrated in his hands, and I am not sure
whether he will always be capable of using that authority
with sucient caution, and formed a factional bloc with
Leon Trotsky to remove Stalin as the General Secretary
of the Communist Party.* [16]* [29] To that end followed
proposals reducing the administrative powers of Party
posts, in order to reduce bureaucratic inuence upon the
policies of the Communist Party. Lenin advised Trotsky to emphasize Stalins recent bureaucratic alignment
in such matters (e.g. undermining the anti-bureaucratic
Workersand PeasantsInspection), and argued to depose Stalin as General Secretary. Despite advice to refuse
any rotten compromise, Trotsky did not heed Lenins
advice, and General Secretary Stalin retained power over
the Communist Party and the bureaucracy of the soviet
government.* [16]
Trotskyism vs. Stalinism
After Lenins death (21 January 1924), Trotsky ideologically battled the inuence of Stalin, who formed
ruling blocs within the Russian Communist Party (with
Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev, then with Nikolai
Bukharin, and then by himself) and so determined soviet government policy from 1924 onwards. The ruling
blocs continually denied Stalins opponents the right
to organise as an opposition faction within the Party
thus, the re-instatement of democratic centralism and free
speech within the Communist Party were key arguments
of Trotskys Left Opposition, and the later Joint Opposition.* [16]* [30]
In the course of instituting government policy, Stalin promoted the doctrine of Socialism in One Country (adopted
1925), wherein the USSR would establish socialism upon
Russias economic foundations (and support socialist
revolutions elsewhere). Conversely, Trotsky held that socialism in one country would economically constrain the
industrial development of the USSR, and thus required
assistance from the new socialist countries that had arisen
in the developed world, which was essential for maintaining Soviet democracy, in 1924 much undermined by
civil war and counter-revolution. Furthermore, Trotsky
s theory of Permanent Revolution proposed that socialist
revolutions in underdeveloped countries would go further
towards dismantling feudal rgimes, and establish socialist democracies that would not pass through a capitalist
stage of development and government. Hence, revolutionary workers should politically ally with peasant political organisations, but not with capitalist political parties. In contrast, Stalin and allies proposed that alliances
with capitalist political parties were essential to realising
a revolution where Communists were too few; said Stalinist practice failed, especially in the Northern Expedition
portion of the Chinese Revolution (19251927), wherein
2.13. LENINISM
it resulted in the right-wing Kuomintangs massacre of
the Chinese Communist Party; nonetheless, despite the
failure, Stalins policy of mixed-ideology political alliances, became Comintern policy.
137
The People's Action Party (PAP) of Singapore was
originally organized on Leninist lines, with internal democracy, and initiated a legacy of single-party
dominance over the government that continues to
the present.* [34]
The Oppositionists
Until exiled from Russia in 1929, Leon Trotsky helped
develop and led the Left Opposition (and the later Joint
Opposition) with members of the WorkersOpposition,
the Decembrists, and (later) the Zinovievists.* [16] Trotskyism ideologically predominated the political platform
of the Left Opposition, which demanded the restoration of soviet democracy, the expansion of democratic
centralism in the Communist Party, national industrialisation, international permanent revolution, and socialist internationalism. The Trotskyist demands countered
Stalins political dominance of the Russian Communist
Party, which was ocially characterised by the cult
of Lenin, the rejection of permanent revolution, and
the doctrine of Socialism in One Country. The Stalinist
economic policy vacillated between appeasing capitalist
kulak interests in the countryside, and destroying them.
Initially, the Stalinists also rejected the national industrialisation of Russia, but then pursued it in full, sometimes
brutally. In both cases, the Left Opposition denounced
the regressive nature of the policy towards the kulak social class of wealthy peasants, and the brutality of forced
industrialisation. Trotsky described the vacillating Stalinist policy as a symptom of the undemocratic nature of
a ruling bureaucracy.* [31]
During the 1920s and the 1930s, Stalin fought and defeated the political inuence of Leon Trotsky and of
the Trotskyists in Russia, by means of slander, antiSemitism, programmed censorship, expulsions, exile (internal and external), and imprisonment. The anti
Trotsky campaign culminated in the executions (ocial
and unocial) of the Moscow Trials (193638), which
were part of the Great Purge of Old Bolsheviks (who had
led the Revolution).* [16]* [32] Once established as ruler
of the USSR, General Secretary Stalin re-titled the ofcial Socialism in One Country doctrine as MarxismLeninism, to establish ideologic continuity with Leninism, whilst opponents continued calling it Stalinism
.
2.13.4
Philosophic successors
In political practice, Leninism (vanguard-party revolution), despite its origin as Communist revolutionary
praxis, was adopted throughout the political spectrum.
In China, the Communist Party of China was organised as a Leninist vanguard party, based upon Mao
Zedong Thought, the Chinese practical application
of Marxism-Leninism, specic to Chinese socioeconomic conditions.* [33]
2.13.5 Criticism
In several works, including an essay written from jail and
published posthumously by her last companion, Paul Levi
(publication of which precipitated his expulsion from the
Third International) titled The Russian Revolution
,* [36] the Marxist Rosa Luxemburg sharply criticized
some Bolshevik policies, such as their suppression of the
Constituent Assembly in January 1918, their support for
the partition of the old feudal estates to the peasant communes, and their policy of supporting the purported right
of all national peoples toself-determination.According
to Luxemburg, the Bolsheviks' strategic mistakes created
tremendous dangers for the Revolution, such as its bureaucratisation.
Left communism is the range of communist viewpoints
held by the communist left, which criticizes the political ideas of the Bolsheviks at certain periods, from
a position that is asserted to be more authentically
Marxist and proletarian than the views of Leninism held
by the Communist International after its rst and during its second congress. Proponents of left communism have included Amadeo Bordiga, Herman Gorter,
Anton Pannekoek, Otto Rhle, Sylvia Pankhurst and Paul
Mattick.* [37] Left-WingCommunism: An Infantile
Disorder is a work by Vladimir Lenin attacking assorted
critics of the Bolsheviks who claimed positions to their
left.
Critics of Lenin, such as Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and
Noam Chomsky, have argued that Stalinism (i.e., a political system which includes forced collectivization, a
police state, a totalitarian political ideology, forced labor camps and mass executions) was not a deviation
from Lenin's policies, but merely a logical extension of
them.* [38]* [39]
The call-up of 1937was very loquacious, and having access to the press and radio created the legend of 1937, a legend
consisting of two points: 1) If they arrested
people at all under the Soviet government, it
was only in 1937, and it is necessary to speak
out and be indignant only about 1937; 2) In
1937 they were the only ones arrested. Here's
what they write: That terrible year when
138
[8] Lenin, V.I. (1905) Freedom to Criticise and Unity of Action, from Lenin Collected Works, Progress Publishers,
1965, Moscow, Volume 10, pages 442-443. Available
online at: http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/
1906/may/20c.htm (Retrieved 30 November 2011)
[9] Lenin, V.I. (1917) The State and Revolution, from Lenin
Collected Works, Volume 25, pp. 381-492. Available
online at http://marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1917/
staterev/index.htm (Retrieved 30 November 2011)
[10] Isaac Deutscher, 1954. The Prophet Armed: Trotsky
1879-1921, Oxford University Press
[11] Lenin, V.I. The Proletarian Revolution and the
Renegade Kautsky, from Lenins Collected Works,
Progress Publishers, Moscow, Volume 28, 1974, pages
227-325.Available online at: http://marxists.org/archive/
lenin/works/1918/prrk/ (Retrieved 2 December 2011)
[12] Hill, Christopher Lenin and the Russian Revolution (1971)
Penguin Books:London p. 86.
[13] Carr, Edward Hallett. The Russian Revolution From Lenin
to Stalin: 1917-1929. (1979)
[14] Lewin, Moshe. Lenins Last Struggle. (1969)
2.13.6
See also
2.13.7
Notes
2.13. LENINISM
[24] Lenin, V.I. (1923) The Question of Nationalities or Autonomisationin Last Testament Letters to the
Congress, from Lenin Collected Works, Volume 36, pp.
593-611. Available online at: http://marxists.org/archive/
lenin/works/1922/dec/testamnt/index.htm (Retrieved 30
November 2011)
[25] Central Committee, On Proletcult Organisations, Pravda
No. 270 1/12/1920
[26] Chambers Dictionary of World History (2000) p. 837.
139
The Three Sources and Three Component Parts of
Marxism, 1913
The Right of Nations to Self-Determination, 1914
Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism, 1917
The State and Revolution, 1917
The Tasks of the Proletariat in the Present Revolution
(The April Theses), 1917
[33] Zheng Yongnian, The Chinese Communist Party as Organizational Emperor (2009) p 61
Marcel Liebman. Leninism Under Lenin. The Merlin Press. 1980. ISBN 0-85036-261-X
[35] Kenneth M. Roberts, Deepening Democracy?: The Modern Left and Social Movements in Chile and Peru (1988)
pp 288-89
2.13.8
Further reading
A. James Gregor. The Faces of Janus. Yale University Press. 2000. ISBN 0-300-10602-5.
140
2.13.9
External links
Stalinist industrialization was ocially designed to accelerate the development towards communism, stressing
Works by Vladimir Lenin:
that such rapid industrialization was needed because the
country was previously economically backward in comparison with other countries; and that it was needed in
What is to be Done?
order to face the challenges posed by internal and ex Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism
ternal enemies of communism.* [4] Rapid industrialization was accompanied with mass collectivization of agri The State and Revolution
culture and rapid urbanization.* [5] Rapid urbanization
converted many small villages into industrial cities.* [5]
The Lenin Archive at Marxists.org
To accelerate the development of industrialization, Stalin
First Conference of the Communist International
pragmatically created joint venture contracts with major
American private enterprises, such as Ford Motor ComOther thematic links:
pany, that under state supervision assisted in developing
the basis of industry of the Soviet economy from the late
1920s to 1930s.* [6] After the American private enter Marcel Liebman on Lenin and democracy
prises completed their tasks, Soviet state enterprises took
An excerpt on Leninism and State Capitalism from over.* [6]
the work of Noam Chomsky
Organizational Questions of the Russian Social
Democracy by Rosa Luxemburg
Lenin's Philosophy by Karl Korsch
Cyber Leninism
Leninist Ebooks
Lenin as a Philosopher by Anton Pannekoek
The Lenin Legend by Paul Mattick
Dead Labor: Marx and Lenin Reconsidered by Paul
Craig Roberts
2.14 Stalinism
For the architecture, see Stalinist architecture. For the 2.14.1 Etymology
album by The Stalin, see Stalinism (album). For the EP
by The Stalin, see Stalinism (EP).
The term came into prominence during the mid-1930s,
when Lazar Kaganovich, a Soviet politician and associate
Stalinism is the means of governing and related policies of Stalin, reportedly declared, Let's replace Long Live
*
implemented by Joseph Stalin. Stalinist policies in the Leninism with Long Live Stalinism!" [7] Stalin initially
Soviet Union included: state terror, rapid industrializa- met this usage with hesitancy, dismissing it as excessively
*
tion, the theory of socialism in one country, a centralized praiseful and contributing to a cult of personality. [7]
state, collectivization of agriculture, cult of personality,
and subordination of interests of foreign communist parties to those of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union 2.14.2 History
deemed by Stalinism to be the most forefront vanguard
Stalinism is used to describe period Stalin was acting
party of communist revolution at the time.* [1]
leader of the Soviet Union while serving as General SecStalinism promoted the escalation of class conict, uti- retary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party
lizing state violence to forcibly purge society of claimed from 1922 to his death in 1953.
supporters of the bourgeoisie, regarding them as threats
to the pursuit of the communist revolution that resulted in substantial political violence and persecution of 2.14.3 Stalinist policies
such people.* [2] These included not only bourgeois people but also working-class people accused of counter- Stalinism usually denotes a style of a government, and
revolutionary sympathies.* [3]
an ideology. While Stalin claimed to be an adherent to
2.14. STALINISM
141
the ideas of Vladimir Lenin and Karl Marx, and hence
purported that his policies were merely a style of government, critics say that many of his policies and beliefs
were dierent or in direct opposition to those of Lenin
and Marx.* [9] Stalin's idea of Socialism in one country,
and his turn to overt centralization were all in stark contradiction to the theories put forth by Lenin or Marx.* [9]
From 1917 to 1924, Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin often appeared united, but had had discernible ideological differences. In his dispute with Leon Trotsky, Stalin deemphasized the role of workers in advanced capitalist
countries (for example, he considered the U.S. working
class asbourgeoisiedlabour aristocracy). Also, Stalin
polemicized against Trotsky on the role of peasants, as in
China, whereas Trotsky's position was in favor of urban
insurrection over peasant-based guerrilla warfare.
142
2.14. STALINISM
143
Economic policy
At the start of the 1930s, Stalin launched a wave of radical economic policies that completely overhauled the industrial and agricultural face of the Soviet Union. This
came to be known as the 'Great Turn' as Russia turned
away from the near-capitalist New Economic Policy. The
NEP had been implemented by Lenin in order to ensure
the survival of the Socialist state following seven years of
144
2.14.4
Legacy
2.14. STALINISM
Misconceptions about Soviet Russia and the Threat to
America, argues that the use of the term Stalinismis
an excuse to hide the inevitable eects of communism as
a whole on human liberties. He writes that the concept of
Stalinism was developed after 1956 by western intellectuals so as to be able to keep alive the communist ideal.
The termStalinismhowever was in use as early as 1937
when Leon Trotsky wrote his pamphlet Stalinism and
Bolshevism.* [54]
Trotskyism
Trotskyists argue that the Stalinist USSRwas not
socialist (and not communist), but a bureaucratised
degenerated workers' statethat is, a non-capitalist state
in which exploitation is controlled by a ruling caste which,
although not owning the means of production and not
constituting a social class in its own right, accrued benets and privileges at the expense of the working class.
Trotsky believed that the Bolshevik revolution needed to
be spread all over the globe's working class, the proletarians for world revolution; but after the failure of the
revolution in Germany Stalin reasoned that industrializing and consolidating Bolshevism in Russia would best
serve the proletariat in the long run. The dispute did not
end until Trotsky's assassination in his Mexican villa by
the Stalinist assassin, Ramon Mercader in 1940.* [55]
In the United States, Max Shachtman, at the time one
of the principal Trotskyist theorists in the United States,
argued that the Soviet Union had evolved from a degenerated worker's state to a new mode of production he called
bureaucratic collectivism": where orthodox Trotskyists
considered the Soviet Union an ally gone astray, Shachtman and his followers argued for the formation of a Third
Camp opposed equally to both the Soviet and capitalist
blocs. By the mid-20th century, Shachtman and many of
his associates identied as social democrats rather than
Trotskyists, and some ultimately abandoned socialism altogether. In the United Kingdom, Tony Cli independently developed a critique of state capitalism that resembled Shachtman's in some respects but retained a commitment to revolutionary communism.
145
Anarchism
Anarchists like Emma Goldman were initially enthusiastic about the Bolsheviks, particularly after dissemination
of Lenin's pamphlet State and Revolution, which painted
Bolshevism in a very libertarian light. However, the relations between the anarchists and the Bolsheviks soured
in Soviet Russia (e.g., in the suppression of the Kronstadt
rebellion and the Makhnovist movement). Anarchists and
Stalinist Communists were also in armed conict during
the Spanish civil war. Anarchists are critical of the statist,
totalitarian nature of Stalinism, as well as its cult of personality around Stalin (and subsequent leaders seen by anarchists as Stalinists, such as Mao).
Social anarchism sees individual freedom as conceptually connected with social equality and emphasize community and mutual aid..* [57] Social anarchists argue
that this goal can be achieved through the decentralization of political and economic power, distributing power
equally among all individuals, and nally abolishing
authoritarian institutions which control certain means of
production.* [58] Social anarchism rejects private property, seeing it as a source of social inequality.* [59]
Social Anarchism political philosophies almost always
share strong characteristics of anti-authoritarianism, anticapitalism and anti-statism. As the Soviet Union under
Stalin manifested itself as a strong centralized authoritarian state, Stalinism and libertarian socialism are almost
directly opposed.
The historiography of Stalin is diverse, with many dierent aspects of continuity and discontinuity between the
regimes of Stalin and Lenin proposed. Totalitarian historians such as Richard Pipes tend to see Stalinism as the
natural consequence of Leninism, that Stalin faithfully
implemented Lenin's domestic and foreign policy programmes.* [60] More nuanced versions of this general
view are to be found in the works of other Western historians, such as Robert Service, who notes that institutionally and ideologically, Lenin laid the foundations for a
Stalin ... but the passage from Leninism to the worse terrors of Stalinism was not smooth and inevitable.* [61]
Likewise, historian Edvard Radzinsky believes that Stalin
was a real follower of Lenin, exactly as he claimed himself.* [62] Stalin's biographer Stephen Kotkin wrote that
Maoism
his violence was not the product of his subconscious but
engagement with MarxistLeninist ideMao Zedong famously declared Stalin to be 70% good, of the Bolshevik
*
ology.
[63]
30% bad. Maoists criticised Stalin chiey regarding his
views that bourgeois inuence within the Soviet Union Proponents of continuity cite a variety of contributory
was primarily a result of external forces (to the almost factors: it is argued that it was Lenin, rather than Stalin,
complete exclusion of internal forces) and that class con- whose civil war measures introduced the Red Terror with
tradictions ended after the basic construction of social- its hostage taking and internment camps, that it was Lenin
ism. They however praise Stalin for leading the USSR who developed the infamous Article 58, and who esand the international proletariat, defeating fascism in tablished the autocratic system within the Communist
Party.* [64] They also note that Lenin put a ban on facGermany, and his anti-revisionism.* [56]
146
tions within the Russian Communist Party and introduced 2.14.7 References
the one-party state in 1921a move that enabled Stalin
to get rid of his rivals easily after Lenin's death, and cite [1] T. B. Bottomore. A Dictionary of Marxist thought.
Malden, Massaschussetts, USA; Oxford, England, UK;
Felix Dzerzhinsky, who, during the Bolshevik struggle
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; Berlin, Germany: Wileyagainst opponents in the Russian Civil War, exclaimed
Blackwell, 1991. Pp. 54.
We stand for organised terrorthis should be frankly
*
stated. [65]
[2] Stephen Kotkin. Magnetic Mountain: Stalinism As a Civilization. First Paperback Edition. Berkeley and Los AngeOpponents of this view include revisionist historians and
les, California, USA: University of California Press, 1997.
a number of postCold War and otherwise dissident
ISBN 9780520208230. Pp. 71, 307, 81.
Soviet historians including Roy Medvedev, who argues
that although one could list the various measures car- [3] Jerey Rossman. Worker Resistance Under Stalin: Class
ried out by Stalin that were actually a continuation of
and Revolution on the Shop Floor. Harvard University
anti-democratic trends and measures implemented under
Press, 2005 ISBN 0674019261.
Lenin ... in so many ways, Stalin acted, not in line with
Lenin's clear instructions, but in deance of them. In [4] Stephen Kotkin. Magnetic Mountain: Stalinism As a Civilization. First Paperback Edition. Berkeley and Los Angedoing so, some historians have tried to distance Stalinles, California, USA: University of California Press, 1997.
ism from Leninism in order to undermine the Totalitarian
ISBN 9780520208230. Pp. 70-71.
view that the negative facets of Stalin (terror, etc.) were
inherent in Communism from the start. Critics of this [5] Stephen Kotkin. Magnetic Mountain: Stalinism As a Civikind include anti-Stalinist communists such as Leon Trotlization. First Paperback Edition. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California, USA: University of California Press, 1997.
sky, who pointed out that Lenin attempted to persuade the
ISBN 9780520208230. Pp. 70-79.
CPSU to remove Stalin from his post as its General Secretary. Lenin's Testament, the document which contained
[6] LTC Roy E Peterson. Russian Romance: Danger and
this order, was suppressed after Lenin's death. British
Daring. AuthorHouse, 2011. Pp. 94.
historian Isaac Deutscher, in his biography of Trotsky,
says that on being faced with the evidence only the [7] Monteore, Simon Sebag (2004). Stalin: The Court of the
Red Tsar. Knopf. p. 164. ISBN 1-4000-4230-5.
blind and the deaf could be unaware of the contrast between Stalinism and Leninism.* [66] A similar analysis
is present in more recent works, such as those of Graeme [8] Gilbert, Felix; Large, David Clay (2008). The End of the
European Era: 1890 to the Present (6th ed.). New York
Gill, who argues that "[Stalinism was] not a natural owCity: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 213. ISBN 978on of earlier developments; [it formed a] sharp break re0393930405.
sulting from conscious decisions by leading political actors.* [67]
[9] Amadon, Phil (April 4, 2011). How Stalin Distorted
Marxism.
2.14.6
See also
Anti-revisionism
Anti-Stalinist left
Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism
Cult of personality
Joseph Stalin
Maoism
Mass killings under Communist regimes
Neo-Stalinism
Soviet Empire
Stalin Society
Stalinist architecture
[16] Kuper, Leo (1982) Genocide: Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-03120-3
Totalitarianism
2.14. STALINISM
147
[52] Fried, Richard M. (1991). Nightmare in Red: The McCarthy Era in Perspective. Oxford University Press. p.
50. ISBN 0-19-504361-8.
148
[54] Leon Trotsky: Stalinism and Bolshevism (1937). Marxists.org (August 28, 1937). Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
Lankov, Andrei N., Crisis in North Korea: The Failure of De-Stalinization, 1956. Honolulu: Hawaii
University Press (2004)
C.L.R. James. State Capitalism and World Revolution. Chicago: Charles H. Kerr Publishing Co.,
1950.
2.15 Maoism
2.14.8
Further reading
2.15. MAOISM
149
Chinese model.* [6] Vital to understanding Chinese nationalist sentiments of the time is the Treaty of Versailles, which was signed in 1919. The Treaty aroused
a wave of bitter nationalist resentment in Chinese intellectuals as lands formerly ceded to Germany in Shandong
were, without consultation with the Chinese, transferred
to Japanese control rather than returned to Chinese
sovereignty.* [7] The negative reaction culminated in the
May 4th Incident which occurred on that day in 1919.
The protest began with 3,000 students in Beijing displaying their anger at the announcement of the Versailles
2.15.1 Origins
Treaty's concessions to Japan yet rapidly took a violent
turn as protesters began attacking the homes and oces
Further information: Ideology of the Communist Party of ministers who were seen as cooperating with, or in the
of China
direct pay of the Japanese.* [7] The May 4th Incident and
Movement which followed,catalyzed the political awakening of a society which had long seemed inert and dormant* [7]
The modern Chinese intellectual tradition
Yet another international event would have a large impact
The modern Chinese intellectual tradition of the turn of on not only Mao but also the Chinese intelligensia was the
the twentieth century is dened by two central concepts, Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. Although the revolution
did elicit interest among Chinese intellectuals, socialist
iconoclasm and nationalism.* [1]
revolution in China was not considered a viable option
until after the May 4th Incident.* [8] Afterwards, To
Iconoclastic revolution/anti-Confucianism By the become a Marxist was one way for a Chinese intellectual
turn of the twentieth century, a proportionately small yet to reject both the traditions of the Chinese past and Westsocially signicant cross-section of China's traditional ern domination of the Chinese presentMaurice Meisner,
elite (i.e. landlords and bureaucrats), found themselves Mao's China and After, page 18.
increasingly skeptical of the ecacy and even the moral
validity of Confucianism.* [2] These skeptical iconoclasts
formed a new segment of Chinese society, a modern in- The Yan'an period
telligentsia, whose arrival, or as lauded historian of China
Maurice Meisner would label it, their defection, heralded During the period immediately following the Long
the beginning of the destruction of the gentry as a social March, Mao and the Communist Party of China were
class in China.* [3] The fall of the last Chinese imperial headquartered in Yan'an, which is a prefecture-level city
dynasty in 1911 marked the nal failure of the Confu- in the Shaanxi province. During this period Mao clearly
cian moral order, and did much to make Confucianism established himself as a Marxist theoretician and prosynonymous with political and social conservatism in the duced the bulk of the works which would later be canminds of Chinese intellectuals. It was this association of onized into the thought of Mao Zedong.* [9] The
conservatism and Confucianism which lent to the icono- rudimentary philosophical base of Chinese Communist
clastic nature of Chinese intellectual thought during the ideology is laid down in Mao's numerous dialectical trearst decades of the twentieth century.* [4]
tises and was conveyed to newly recruited party memindepenChinese iconoclasm was expressed most clearly and bers. This period truly established ideological
*
dence
from
Moscow
for
Mao
and
the
CPC.
[9]
Although
vociferously by Chen Duxiu during the New Culture
Movement which occurred between 1915 and 1919.* [5] the Yan'an period did answer some of the questions,
Proposing thetotal destruction of the traditions and val- both ideological and theoretical, which were raised by
ues of the past,the New Culture Movement was spear- the Chinese Communist Revolution, it left many of the
headed by the New Youth, a periodical which was pub- crucial questions unresolved; including how the Comlished by Chen Duxiu and which was profoundly inuen- munist Party of China was supposed to launch a socialwhile completely separated from the urban
tial on a young Mao Zedong whose rst published work ist revolution
*
[9]
sphere.
*
appeared on the magazine's pages. [5]
Marxism-Leninism. Developed during from 1950s until
the Deng Xiaoping reforms in the 1970s, it was widely applied as the guiding political and military ideology of the
Communist Party of China (CPC), and as theory guiding
revolutionary movements around the world. The essential
dierence between Maoism and other forms of Marxism
is that Mao claimed that instead of the peasants being
a revolutionary class, hand in hand with their industrial
workingcomrades, they were the revolutionary class.
150
19271935; (3) the mature Maoism period from 1935
1940; (4) the civil war period from 19401949; and (5)
the post-1949 period, following the revolutionary victory.
1. The Initial Marxist Period from 19201926:
Marxist thinking employs imminent socioeconomic
explanations; Mao's reasons were declarations of his
enthusiasm. Mao did not believe education alone
would bring about the transition from capitalism to
communism because of three main reasons. (1) Psychologically: the capitalists would not repent and
turn towards communist on their own; (2) the rulers
must be overthrown by the people; (3) the proletarians are discontented, and a demand for communism has arisen and had already become a fact.
*
[10] These reasons do not provide socioeconomic
explanations, which usually forms the core of Marxist ideology.
People's War
Holding that "Political power grows out of the barrel of a
gun",* [18] Mao Zedong Thought emphasizes the revolutionary struggle of the vast majority of people against
the exploiting classes and their state structures, which
Mao termed a "People's War". Mobilizing large parts of
rural populations to revolt against established institutions
by engaging in guerrilla warfare, Mao Zedong Thought
focuses onsurrounding the cities from the countryside
.
Maoism views the industrial-rural divide as a major di-
2.15. MAOISM
151
economic production and should not be radically disconnected from the former) and nally, class struggle. These
may be considered the proper objects of economy, scientic knowledge, and politics.* [23]
Mass Line
Knowledge results from hypotheses veried in the contrast with a real object; this real object, despite being mediated by the subject's theoretical frame, retains its materiality and will oer resistance to those ideas that do
not conform to its truth. Thus, in each of these realms
(economic, scientic and political practice), contradictions (principle and secondary) must be identied, explored and put to function to achieve the communist goal.
This involves the need to know,scientically, how the
masses produce (how they live, think, and work), to obtain knowledge of how class struggle (the main contradiction that articulates a mode of production, in its various
realms) expresses itself.
The theory of the Mass Line holds that party must not be
separate from the popular masses, either in policy or in
revolutionary struggle. To conduct a successful revolution
the needs and demands of the masses must be the most
important issues.
Cultural Revolution
The theory of the Cultural revolution states that the proletarian revolution and the dictatorship of the proletariat
does not wipe out bourgeois ideology; the class-struggle
continues, and even intensies, during socialism. Therefore, a constant struggle against these ideologies and their
social roots must be conducted. Cultural Revolution is
directed also against traditionalism.
Contradiction
Mao Zedong drew from the writings of Karl Marx,
Friedrich Engels and Vladimir Lenin in elaborating his
theory. Philosophically, his most important reections
emerge on the concept ofcontradiction(maodun). In
two major essays, On contradiction and On the correct
handling of contradictions among the people, he adopts
the positivist-empiricist idea (shared by Engels) that contradiction is present in matter itself (and thus, also in the
ideas of the brain). Matter always develops through a dialectical contradiction:
Furthermore, each contradiction (including class struggle, the contradiction holding between relations of production and the concrete development of forces of production) expresses itself in a series of other contradictions, some dominant, others not.
Thus, the principal contradiction should be tackled with
priority when trying to make the basic contradictionsolidify. Mao elaborates further on this theme in the essay On Practice. On the relation between knowledge and
practice, between knowing and doing. Here, Practiceconnectscontradictionwithclass strugglein
the following way: Inside a mode of production, there are
three realms where practice functions: economic production, scientic experimentation (which also takes place in
152
Nepal and Philippines have adopted equal stresses on urban and rural areas, depending on the country's focus of
economic activity. Maoism broke with the state capitalist
framework of the Soviet Union under Nikita Khrushchev,
dismissing it as revisionist, a pejorative term among communists referring to those who ght for capitalism in the
name of socialism and who depart from historical and dialectical materialism.
Although Maoism is critical of urban industrial capitalist powers, it views urban industrialization as a prerequisite to expand economic development and socialist reorganization to the countryside, with the goal being the
achievement of rural industrialization that would abolish
the distinction between town and countryside.* [25]
2.15.3
Maoism in China
Scholars outside China see this re-working of the denition of Maoism as providing an ideological justica2.15.4 Maoism after Mao
tion for what they see as the restoration of the essentials
of capitalism in China by Deng and his successors, who
China
sought toeradicate all ideological and physiological obstacles to economic reform.* [30] In 1978 this led to the
Shortly after Mao's death in 1976, Deng Xiaoping iniSino-Albanian Split when Albanian leader Enver Hoxha
tiated socialist market reforms in 1978, thereby begindenounced Deng as a revisionist and formed Hoxhaism
ning the radical change of Mao's ideology in the People's
as an anti-revisionist form of Marxism.
Republic of China (PRC).* [27] Although Mao Zedong
Thought nominally remains the state ideology, Deng's ad- Mao himself is ocially regarded by the CPC as agreat
monition to "seek truth from facts" means that state poli- revolutionary leaderfor his role in ghting the Japanese
cies are judged on their practical consequences; the role and creating the People's Republic of China, but Maoof ideology in determining policy, in many areas, has thus ism as implemented between 1959 and 1976 is regarded
been considerably reduced. Deng also separated Mao by today's CPC as an economic and political disaster.
from Maoism, making it clear that Mao was fallible and In Deng's day, support of radical Maoism was regarded
hence that the truth of Maoism comes from observing so- as a form of left deviationismand being based on a
cial consequences rather than by using Mao's quotations cult of personality, although these 'errors' are ocially
attributed to the Gang of Four rather than to Mao himas holy writ, as was done in Mao's lifetime.* [28]
self.* [31] Thousands of Maoists were arrested in the Hua
Contemporary Maoists in China criticize the social inGuofeng period after 1976. The prominent Maoists,
equalities created by the revisionist Communist Party.
2.15. MAOISM
153
of the second camp the parties that opposed Deng and
claimed to uphold the true legacy of Mao.
Zhang Chunqiao and Jiang Qing were sentenced to death Maoist leader Prachanda speaking at a rally in Pokhara, Nepal
with two-year-reprieve while some others were sentenced
to life imprisonment or imprisonment over 15 years.
From 1962 onwards, the challenge to the Soviet
hegemony in the World Communist Movement made by
the CPC resulted in various divisions in communist parInternationally
ties around the world. At an early stage, the Albanian
After the death of Mao in 1976 and the resulting power- Party of Labour sided with the CPC. So did many of
struggles in China that followed, the international Maoist the mainstream (non-splinter group) communist parties
movement was divided into three camps. One group, in South-East Asia, like the Burmese Communist Party,
composed of various ideologically nonaligned groups, Communist Party of Thailand, and Communist Party of
gave weak support to the new Chinese leadership under Indonesia. Some Asian parties, like the Workers Party
Deng Xiaoping. Another camp denounced the new lead- of Vietnam and the Workers Party of Korea attempted to
ership as traitors to the cause of Marxism-Leninism-Mao take a middle-ground position.
Zedong Thought. The third camp sided with the Albani- The Khmer Rouge of Cambodia is said to have been a
ans in denouncing the Three Worlds Theory of the CPC replica of the Maoist regime. According to the BBC
(see Sino-Albanian Split.)
The Communist Party of Kampuchea (Cambodia), better
Che Guevara, though initially praising the Soviet Union known as the Khmer Rouge, identied strongly with
Maoism, and is generally labeled aMaoistmovement
prior to, during and shortly after the Cuban Revolution,
*
today.
[33]* [34] Maoists (and Marxists generally), conlater came out in support of Maoism, and advocated
tend that the CPK strongly deviated from Marxist docthe adoption of the ideology throughout Latin AmerChina in CPK
ica. The pro-Albanian camp would start to function as trine, and that the few references to Maoist
propaganda were critical of the Chinese.* [35]
*
an international group as well, [32] led by Enver Hoxha
and the APL, and was also able to amalgamate many In the west and south, a plethora of parties and organiof the communist groups in Latin America, including zations were formed that upheld links to the CPC. Ofthe Communist Party of Brazil and the Marxist-Leninist ten they took names such as Communist Party (MarxistCommunist Party in Ecuador. Later Latin American Leninist) or Revolutionary Communist Party to distinguish
Communists such as Peru's Shining Path also embraced themselves from the traditional pro-Soviet communist
the tenets of Maoism.
parties. The pro-CPC movements were, in many cases,
The new Chinese leadership showed little interest in the based among the wave of student radicalism that engulfed
various foreign groups supporting Mao's China. Many of the world in the 1960s and 1970s.
the foreign parties that were fraternal parties aligned with
the Chinese government before 1975 either disbanded,
abandoned the new Chinese government entirely, or even
renounced Marxism-Leninism and developed into noncommunist, social democratic parties. What is today
called theinternational Maoist movementevolved out
154
Afghanistan
Turkey
The Progressive Youth Organization was a maoist organization in Afghanistan. It was founded in 1965 with
Akram Yari as its rst leader. the overthrow of the thencurrent order by means of people's war.
Communist
Party
of
Turkey/MarxistLeninist
(TKP/ML) is a maoist organization in Turkey currently waging a people's war against the Turkish
Government. It was founded in 1972 with brahim
Kaypakkaya as its rst leader. The armed wing of the
party is named Workers' and Peasants' Liberation Army
in Turkey (TIKKO).
Bangladesh
2.15. MAOISM
155
Mao's nationalist impulses also played a crucially impor[14] Lowe, Donald M. The Function of Chinain Marx,
tant role in the adaption of Marxism to the Chinese model
Lenin, and Mao. Berkeley: University of California Press,
*
and in the formation of Maoism. [45] Mao truly believed
1966. Page 118
that China was to play a crucial preliminary role in the socialist revolution internationally. This belief, or the fer- [15] Lowe, Donald M. The Function of Chinain Marx,
Lenin, and Mao. Berkeley: University of California Press,
vor with which Mao held it, separated Mao from the other
1966. Page 119
Chinese Communists and led Mao onto the path of what
Leon Trotsky called, Messianic Revolutionary Nation- [16] Amin, Samir (October 2009). The Countries of the
alismwhich was central to his personal philosophy.
South Must Take Their Own Independent Initiatives.
The Third World Forum. Retrieved 2011-02-22.
2.15.7
See also
156
[19] Alexander C. Cook, Third World Maoismin A Critical Introduction to Mao. Cambridge, England, UK; New
York, New York, USA: Cambridge University, 2011. P.
290.
[33] Khmer Rouge Duch trial nears end. BBC News. 200911-23. Retrieved 2010-05-12.
[20] Alexander C. Cook, Third World Maoismin A Critical Introduction to Mao. Cambridge, England, UK;
New York, New York, USA: Cambridge University Press,
2011. P. 289-290.
[35] What Went Wrong with the Pol Pot Regime. Aworldtowin.org. Archived from the original on August 10,
2011. Retrieved 2011-11-10.
[26] Xinhua: Constitution of the Communist Party of China [45] Meisner, Maurice. Mao's China and After. New York:
. News.xinhuanet.com. Retrieved 2011-11-10.
Free Press, 1999. Page 42.
[27] UC Berkeley Journalism -Faculty - Deng's Revolution at
the Wayback Machine (archived January 4, 2009)
[28] Maoism. Citizendia. Retrieved 2011-11-10.
[29] China the Four Modernizations, 1979-82. Countrystudies.com. Retrieved 2011-11-10.
[30] S. Zhao, A State-Led Nationalism: The Patriotic Education Campaign in Post-Tiananmen China, Communist
and Post-Communist Studies, 1998, 31(3): pp. 288
[31] For a newest expression of the ocial judgment, see
" "
(History of China Communist Party, Vol.
2, Party History Research Centre (Nov. 2010), Chap 28
Analysis on Cultural Revolution)
[32] ROMA OF THE FORMER YUGOSLAVIA Author: Judith
Latham doi:10.1080/009059999109037. Published in:
journal Nationalities Papers, Volume 27, Issue 2 June
1999 , pages 205 - 226
2.16. ANTI-REVISIONISM
Gregor, A. James and Maria Hsia Chang. Maoism and Marxism in Comparative Perspective.The
Review of Politics. Cambridge University Press for
the University of Notre Dame du Lac on behalf of
Review of Politics. Vol. 40, No. 3, July 1978. 307327. Available at Jstor.
Meisner, Maurice.
Leninism and Maoism:
Some Populist Perspectives on Marxism-Leninism
in China.The China Quarterly. Cambridge University Press on behalf of the School of Oriental and
African Studies. No. 45, January - March 1971. p.
2-36. Available at Jstor.
Steiner, H. Arthur.Maoism or Stalinism for Asia?"
Far Eastern Survey. Institute of Pacic Relations.
Vol. 22, No. 1, January 14, 1953. P. 1-5. Available
at Jstor.
Lee Feigon,Mao, A ReinterpretationIvan R. Dee,
Publisher
Mao Tse-Tung Unrehearsed by Stuart Schram (Pelican)
2.15.10
External links
157
and de-Stalinization; however, some uphold the works
of Marx, Engels, Lenin, Stalin and Mao (Maoism or
MarxismLeninismMaoism), and some the works of
Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin while rejecting Mao
(MarxismLeninism). In addition, other groups uphold
various less well-known historical leaders, such as Enver
Hoxha (Hoxhaism).
Historically, anti-revisionists presented a critique of the
ocial Communist Parties from the leftfor having
abandoned orthodox MarxismLeninism (becomingrevisionistand insuciently revolutionary). The terminological disagreement can be confusing because dierent
versions of a left-right political spectrum are used. Antirevisionists consider themselves the ultimate leftists on a
spectrum from communism on the left to imperialist capitalism on the right. But Stalinism is often labeled rightist within the communist spectrum and left communism
leftist. In the 1935 to 1960's period, the defense of Stalin
and his legacy became a hallmark of anti-revisionism. In
the 1970s the anti-revisionist movement expanded and diversied to encompass those communists who rejected
a pro-Soviet orientation for one aligned either with Chinese or Albanian positions, or who returned to Marxism
Leninism .
Anti-revisionism enjoyed its moment of greatest size and
inuence with numerous MarxistLeninist and Maoist
parties, groups and publications springing up around the
world in the period which began with the Sino-Soviet split
of the early 1960s. Its growth was greatly accelerated by
international enthusiasm for the Cultural Revolution in
China, but it began to decline in response to controversial Chinese foreign policy decisions in the last years of
Mao Zedong's life, his death and the subsequent defeat
of the Gang of Four. Some anti-revisionists responded
to these events with little change to their theoretical orientation, others adjusted their orientation based on world
events, while still remaining in the greater anti-revisionist
milieu, while yet others took up a non-Trotskyist leftwingcommunism, independent of allegiance to foreign
authorities or models, usually abandoning their claim to
anti-revisionism in the process.
2.16.1 Background
2.16 Anti-revisionism
In the communist lexicon, anti-revisionism is opposition
to attempts to revise, modify or abandon the fundamentals of revolutionary theory and practice. In this view,
reformism within communism is rejected as representing
dangerous concessions to communism's adversaries.
Because dierent political trends trace the historical
roots of revisionism to dierent eras and leaders, there
is signicant disagreement today as to what constitutes
anti-revisionism. Therefore modern groups which describe themselves as anti-revisionist fall into several categories. They universally tend to oppose Trotskyism
Self-proclaimed anti-revisionists rmly oppose the reforms initiated in Communist countries by leaders like
Nikita Khrushchev in the Soviet Union and Deng Xiaoping in China. They generally refer to such reforms
and states as state capitalist and social-imperialist. They
also reject Trotskyism and its "Permanent Revolution" as
"hypocritical" by arguing that Leon Trotsky had at one
time thought it acceptable that socialism could work in a
single country as long as that country was industrialized,
but that Trotsky had considered Russia too backward to
achieve such industrialization what it later in fact did
achieve, mostly through his archenemy Joseph Stalin's
Five Year Plans.
158
The Workers Party of Korea still claims an antirevisionist political line, but the communist movement as
a whole and anti-revisionists from the Maoist and Hoxhaist camps in particular tend to insist North Korea is
a revisionist state, however many if not most Hoxhaists
and Maoists are critically supportive of North Korea on
grounds of Anti-imperialism.
Anti-revisionists aligned with Enver Hoxha and the line
of the Albanian party of labor argue that Mao Zedong
thought is itself a form of revisionism. Hoxhaists insist
that Mao's Three Worlds Theory contradicted Marxism
Leninism and existed only to justify Mao's alliance with
the United States that began in the early 1970s and his
meeting with Nixon during the Sino-Soviet split that Enver Hoxha and the Hoxhaists opposed. Hoxhaists also argue that the theory of New Democracy and People's War
were revisionist and anti-scientic. The Hoxhaist camp
came into existence during the Sino-Albanian split.
2.16. ANTI-REVISIONISM
2.16.2
Anti-revisionist groups
Afghanistan
Communist (Maoist) Party of Afghanistan
Albania
Communist Party of Albania
Argentina
Revolutionary Communist Party of Argentina
Benin
Communist Party of Benin
Bhutan
Bhutan Communist Party (MarxistLeninist
Maoist)
Brazil
Revolutionary Communist Party
Burkina Faso
Voltaic Revolutionary Communist Party
Burma
Communist Party of Burma
Canada
Communist Party of Canada (Marxist
Leninist)
Parti marxistelniniste du Qubec
Chile
Chilean Communist Party (Proletarian Action)
Colombia
Communist Party of Colombia (Marxist
Leninist)
Cte d'Ivoire
Revolutionary Communist Party of Cte
d'Ivoire
Denmark
Workers' Communist Party
Dominican Republic
Communist Party of Labour
Ecuador
159
MarxistLeninist
Ecuador
Communist
Party
of
France
Workers' Communist Party of France
Georgia
New Communist Party of Georgia
Germany
MarxistLeninist Party of Germany
Greece
Movement for the Reorganization of the Communist Party of Greece 19181955
India
Communist Party of India (MarxistLeninist)
Communist Party of India (Maoist)
Iran
Iranian People's Fedai Guerrillas
Labour Party of Iran
Italy
Communist Platform
Mexico
Communist Party of Mexico (Marxist
Leninist)
Nepal
Unied Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)
Norway
MarxistLeninist Group Revolution
Pakistan
Communist Party of Pakistan
Communist Mazdoor Kissan Party
Philippines
Communist Party of the Philippines
Russia
Communist Party of the Russian Federation
Russian Maoist Party
Spain
Communist Party of Spain (MarxistLeninist)
Sweden
Communist Party
160
Tunisia
Tunisian Workers' Communist Party
Turkey
MarxistLeninist Communist Party
United Kingdom
Communist Party of Britain (Marxist
Leninist)
Communist Party of Great Britain (Marxist
Leninist)
Stalin Society
Revolutionary Communist Party of Britain
(MarxistLeninist)
New Communist Party of Britain
2.17 MarxismLeninismMaoism
MarxismLeninismMaoism (MLM or MLM) is
a theoretical tendency which builds upon MarxismLeninism and some aspects of Mao Zedong Thought.
2.17.1 Origin
2.16.3
External links
2.17. MARXISMLENINISMMAOISM
Any attempt to ght with the bourgeoisie on its own
terms, using the same tactics and strategies as they
do, will be crushed (Maoists cite that, apart from
the October Revolution, every single revolutionary
attempt that used conventional warfare was crushed
by the bourgeoisie).
It cannot be predicted when the objective conditions
for revolution will exist. Thus the subjective conditions i.e. class consciousness must be built long
in advance.
Seizure of state power generally does not happen in
one fell swoop. A situation of dual power through
the course of protracted people's war arises when the
proletarian vanguard controls sections of the country
at the same time as the bourgeoisie.
The party cannot possibly hope to lead the proletariat in a seizure of power if it itself has no military
experience. Thus, military experience i.e. experienced gained through actually ghting, even if on
a limited scale must be gained long in advance of
a seizure of power. Dual power, in addition to being
a necessary development towards the dictatorship of
the proletariat, is invaluable in providing this military experience (along with civil knowledge, fuel for
propaganda eorts, material aid for the party, and
the expansion and improvement of the mass line).
161
for the overthrow of imperialism but eventually turned
on the proletariat once they felt their long-term existence
in the new society would be threatened.
Much like the New Economic Policy in Russia, New
Democracy is conceived of as a necessary (but temporary) evil for the long-term development of socialism,
or in this case, for the construction and consolidation
of socialism in the rst place. Maoism holds that the
national-bourgeois in the New-Democratic stage must always be rmly under the command of the proletariat,
and they must be rmly dispensed with as soon as the
national situation allows (in other words, when the contradiction between the comprador class and the people
is no longer the primary contradiction of the nation, or
when the bourgeois-democratic revolution is at a suciently advanced stage) for an outright dictatorship of the
proletariat.
Cultural Revolution
Maoists draw heavily from the experiences and lessons of
the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution which sought
to eradicate the bourgeois that arose within the vanguard
party itself and to transform all aspects of the social superstructure. The catchphraseclass struggle continues,
and is intensied, under socialismis frequently used.
Maoists hold the primacy of the relations of production
over the productive forces, criticise Stalin's line that bourgeois inuence under an advanced stage of socialism is
primarily due to external forces (to the almost complete
exclusion of internal forces), and strongly rearm the
base-superstructure dialectic (that the conscious transformation of the base on its own is not enough, but the superstructure must also be consciously transformed).
Maoists uphold Mao's philosophical works, particularly his work on dialectics in On Contradiction and on
The theory of New Democracy holds that the national- epistemology in On Practice.
bourgeois in semi-feudal and semi-colonial countries has
a dual character in that although it is an exploitative capitalist force, it can also (though not always) side with 2.17.3 Dierences from Mao Zedong
Thought
the proletariat against colonialism, imperialism, and the
comprador-bourgeoisie (whose existence is due to impeThe three most notable dierences between Marxism
rialism).
LeninismMaoism and Mao Zedong Thought are
The role of the national-bourgeoisie as a progressive asthat:* [4]* [5]* [6]
set in the proletarian struggle to overthrow imperialism
is of course never guaranteed, and will eventually, when
1. MarxismLeninismMaoism is considered to be
the anti-imperialist situation progresses, turn on the proa higher stage of Marxism-Leninism, much like
letariat. The Balli Kombtar in Albania in 1943 and the
Kuomintang in China in the 1920s are examples of this.
Marxism-Leninism is considered a higher stage of
These national bourgeois forces temporarily allied with
Marxism. Mao Zedong Thought is however conthe proletariat of their countries (the Albanian Party of
sidered to just be Marxism-Leninism applied to the
Labor and the Chinese Communist Party, respectively)
particularities of the Chinese revolution.
New Democracy
162
2. MarxismLeninismMaoism is considered to be
universally applicable (particularly the theory of
Protracted People's war) whilst the aspects of Mao
Zedong Thought are generally not.
3. MarxismLeninismMaoism completely rejects the
Three Worlds Theory of Mao Zedong Thought, considering it part of the right-wards turn Mao took near
the end of his life and a deviation from MarxistLeninist theories of imperialism.
2.17.4
Marxism-Leninism-Maoism Internationally
a fusion of Marxism and Maoism as its main ideological line, the merger of Manipur with the Union of India
was in blatant contradiction of relevant international law
as the then king of Manipur no longer had the authority to sign the agreement following the establishment of a
democratically elected government.Moreover, the then
king signed the merger instrument only under duress, or
more precisely, at gunpoint and so the so-called Manipur
merger agreement was null and void from the very beginning, claims Ibungo Ngangom, the group's chairman.
The group is currently at war with the Union of India and
its express primary goal is not only to liberate Kangleipak
(Manipur) from the semi-colonial yoke of India but also
to bring about a communist state in Kangleipak through
the scientic socialism of Karl Marx.
Internationals
Perhaps the most notable Marxist-Leninist-Maoist international was the Revolutionary Internationalist Movement (RIM). RIM was founded in 1984 and included such
organizations as the Communist Party of Peru (PCP),
also known asSendero LuminosoorShining Path,
and the then Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist), now
known as the Unied Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)
UCPN(M). Today, the RIM appears to be defunct or
near defunct. The magazine associated with the RIM,
A World To Win, has not published an issue since 2006,
though A World To Win News Service still publishes regularly on the internet.* [7]
Peru
The Communist Party of Peru - Shining Path is a guerrilla
insurgent organization in Peru. It was founded in 1980
with Abimael Guzmn as its leader. The Shining Path is
currently waging a war against the Peruvian Government.
Nepal
The Unied Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist), a national communist party with a revolutionary background,
is a follower of MarxismLeninismMaoism, although it
In addition, many of the one-time RIM organizations is believed that the party has developed its own ideology,
have become increasingly critical of each other. This has Marxism-Leninism-Maoism-Prachanda Path, which was
developed taking Nepal's political, sociological and georesulted in many public splits.
graphical constraints into consideration.
India
Philippines
See also: Maoism in India
The Communist Party of India (Maoist) is a political
party which aims to overthrow the government of
India.* [8] It was founded on September 21, 2004,
through the merger of the Communist Party of India
(MarxistLeninist) People's War and the Maoist Communist Centre of India (MCC). The merger was announced to the public on October 14 the same year. In the
merger a provisional central committee was constituted,
with the erstwhile People's War leader Muppala Lakshmana Rao (alias Ganapathi) as General Secretary. It is
currently proscribed as a terrorist organization by the Indian government.
Kangleipak (Manipur)
It is claimed by the Kangleipak Communist Party (Ibungo
Ngangom) that Kangleipak (Manipur) was annexed by
the Union of India under the guise of Manipur Merger
Agreement 1949. According to this group, which follows
In the Philippines, the Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP) and its New People's Army (NPA) has been
waging a revolutionary war since 1968. Its strength
peaked during the dictatorial rule of Ferdinand Marcos
and was the main bulk of the opposition against the dictatorship. However due to controversies regarding massive purges of its members in the mid-1980s and political
miscalculations, it suered several splits within its ranks
in 1992 and 1997 forming several separate communist
parties. It maintains active guerrilla fronts throughout the
Philippines until today and is still considered by the military as the main threat to national security. The CPP,
according to the military also allegedly has been leading
and inuencing legal left-wing political organizations and
engages in elections.
The Marxist-Leninist Party of the Philippines (MLPP),
formed by former Central Luzon Regional Committee
members of the CPP after the split in 1997 maintained
much of the Maoist orientation from the CPP most especially on the concept of People's War. However it has
put equal emphasis on legal political struggles along with
2.18. HOXHAISM
163
armed revolution and it sees the proletariat as the leader [9] What breakthroughs are at the core of Maoism-Third
Worldism?". anti-imperialism.com. RAIM. Retrieved 18
of the Philippine revolution in union with the peasantry.
June 2014.
The Rebolusyonaryong Hukbo ng Bayan (People's Revolutionary Army, RHB) is the armed wing of the MLPP [10] The Maoist Internationalist Ministry of Prisons
and according to military intelligence sources, the most
active and fastest growing insurgent force in the Philip- [11] Revolutionary Anti-Imperialist Movement
pines recently next to the CPP. Like its estranged political
sibling the MLPP is said to be organizing legal organiza2.17.6 External links
tions but does not engage in electoral processes.
United States
The Maoist Internationalist Movement (MIM) was an
early Marxist-Leninist-Maoist party. Of particular theoretical note it expanded on Lenin's theses on the labor
aristocracy and more contemporary works such as J.
Sakai's Settlers, the Mythology of the White Proletariat,
claiming that the workers in modern imperialist countries
form a new type of labor aristocracy and cannot be considered proletarianin the traditional marxist sense of
the term, only sometimes oppressedworkers.
Concurrent to the collapse of MIM in 2008, some groups
began using the term Maoism (Third Worldism) to describe this trend.* [9] Today, Maoist (Third Worldist)
groups in the USA include the Maoist Internationalist
Ministry of Prisons* [10] and the Revolutionary AntiImperialist Movement.* [11]
Long
2.18 Hoxhaism
Hoxhaism is a variant of anti-revisionist Marxism
Leninism that developed in the late 1970s due to a split
in the Maoist movement, appearing after the ideological
row between the Communist Party of China and the Party
of Labour of Albania in 1978.* [1] It is a separate international tendency within Marxism-Leninism, and is sometimes compared to Titoism.* [2]
2.17.5
References
Warsaw Pact in response. Hoxhaism, like Titoism, asserts the right of nations to pursue socialism by dierent
paths, dictated by the conditions in that country* [4]although Hoxha personally held that Titoism, in practice,
was anti-Marxistoverall.* [5]
Hoxha declared Albania the only state legitimately adhering to MarxismLeninism after 1978. The Albanians
[4] Brown, Nikolai.
What is Maoism?".
anti- succeeded in ideologically winning over a large share of
Maoists, mainly in Latin America (such as the Popular
imperialism.com. RAIM. Retrieved 15 June 2014.
Liberation Army and Marxist-Leninist Communist Party
[5] Marxism-Leninism-Maoism Basic Course. Massalijn. of Ecuador, as well as the Communist Party of Brazil),
Communist Party of India (Maoist). Retrieved 16 June
but they also had a signicant international following in
2014.
general.
[6] The ve main contributions of Maoism to communist
thought. nuovopci.it. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
[7] AWorld To Win News Service. Aworldtowin.org.
2006-04-03. Retrieved 2011-11-10.
[8] Maoists looking at armed overthrow of state by 2050
. The Times of India (The Times of India). 2010-03-06.
Retrieved 2010-03-06.
164
Active
Colombia:
Communist Party of Colombia
(MarxistLeninist), Popular Liberation Army
(guerrilla group)
2.19. TROTSKYISM
2.18.2
165
See also
Enver Hoxha
2.18.3
External links
enver-hoxha.net
ENVER HOXHA multilingual website
Communist International (Stalinist-Hoxhaists)
Revolutionary Democracy
2.18.4
Denition
References
Filiquarian Publishing,
2.19 Trotskyism
Trotskyism is the theory of Marxism as advocated by
Leon Trotsky. Trotsky identied as an orthodox Marxist and Bolshevik-Leninist, and supported founding a
vanguard party of the working-class, proletarian internationalism, and a dictatorship of the proletariat based
on working-class self-emancipation and mass democracy.
Trotskyists are critical of Stalinism, as they oppose the
idea of Socialism in One Country. Trotskyists also criticise the bureaucracy that developed under the Stalin period of the USSR.
Vladimir Lenin and Trotsky were close both ideologically
and personally during the Russian Revolution and its aftermath, and some call Trotsky itsco-leader.* [1] However, Lenin criticized Trotsky's ideas and intra-Party political habits. Trotsky was the paramount leader of the
166
Support for social revolution in the advanced capitalist countries through working class mass action;
Support for proletarian internationalism;* [7] and
Use of a 'transitional' programme of demands that
bridge between daily struggles of the working class
and the 'maximal' ideas of the socialist transformation of society* [8]
On the political spectrum of Marxism, Trotskyists are
usually considered to be toward the left. In the 1920s they
called themselves the Left Opposition, although today's
left communism is distinct and usually non-Bolshevik.
The terminological disagreement can be confusing because dierent versions of a left-right political spectrum are used. Anti-revisionists consider themselves
the ultimate leftists on a spectrum from communism
on the left to imperialist capitalism on the right. But
given that Stalinism is often labeled rightist within the
communist spectrum and left communism leftist, Antirevisionists' idea of left is very dierent from that of
left communism. Trotsky and Stalin, despite being
Bolshevik-Leninist comrades during the Russian Revolution and Russian Civil War, became enemies in the
1920s and thereafter opposed the legitimacy of each
other's forms of Leninism. Thus Trotskyists supported
the de-Stalinization that occurred in the 1950s and 1960s
under Nikita Khrushchev, and they supported democratic rights in the USSR.* [9] This can be confusing
to Westerners and thus requires some explanation to be
clearly understood. Trotskyism supports Soviet democracy (democracy through soviet councils) and the legitimacy of one-party rule (and thus a single-party state),
as did the Khrushchev-era reformers, because, like other
forms of Leninism, it believes in the eternal equivalence
of the party and the people. Thus Trotskyism is antiStalinist and supportive of a certain kind of democracy
within socialism despite being Leninist and what many
social democrats (and all anti-communists) would consider totalitarian. Trotskyists opposed political deals with
the capitalist powers and advocated a spreading of the
revolution throughout Europe and Asia.
2.19.2
Theory
Permanent Revolution
Main article: Permanent Revolution
In 1905, Trotsky formulated a theory that became known
as the theory of Permanent Revolution. It is one of the
dening characteristics of Trotskyism. Until 1905, Marxism only claimed that a revolution in a European capitalist society would lead to a socialist one. According to
Trotsky (raising hand) with troops at the Polish front, during the
Polish-Soviet War, 1919.
2.19. TROTSKYISM
167
ries, banks, etc.from expropriation by the revolutionTrotsky argues that countries like Russia had noenlight- ary working class.
ened, activerevolutionary bourgeoisie which could play Therefore, according to the theory of Permanent Revothe same role, and the working class constituted a very lution, the capitalist classes of economically backward
small minority. By the time of the European revolutions countries are weak and incapable of carrying through revof 1848, the bourgeoisie was already unable to play a olutionary change. As a result, they are linked to and rely
comparable role. It did not want and was not able to un- on the feudal landowners in many ways. Thus, Trotsky
dertake the revolutionary liquidation of the social system argues, because a majority of the branches of industry
that stood in its path to power.
in Russia were originated under the direct inuence of
government measuressometimes with the help of government subsidiesthe capitalist class was again tied to
Theory of permanent revolution
the ruling elite. The capitalist class were subservient to
European capital.* [11]
The working class steps in
Instead, Trotsky argued, only the 'proletariat' or working
class were capable of achieving the tasks of that 'bourgeois' revolution. In 1905, the working class in Russia, a
generation brought together in vast factories from the relative isolation of peasant life, saw the result of its labour
as a vast collective eort, and the only means of struggling against its oppression in terms of a collective eort
also, forming workers councils (soviets), in the course of
the revolution of that year. In 1906, Trotsky argued:
The factory system brings the proletariat
to the foreground... The proletariat immediately found itself concentrated in tremendous
masses, while between these masses and the
autocracy there stood a capitalist bourgeoisie,
very small in numbers, isolated from the 'people', half-foreign, without historical traditions,
and inspired only by the greed for gain. Trotsky, Results and Prospects* [12]
168
struggle is central to the task of a successful socialist revolution, linked to these struggles of the rural poor. They
argue that the working class learns of necessity to conduct
a collective struggle, for instance in trade unions, arising
from its social conditions in the factories and workplaces,
and that the collective consciousness it achieves as a result
is an essential ingredient of the socialist reconstruction of
society.* [15]
2.19. TROTSKYISM
169
that without Lenin and the Bolshevik party the October
revolution of 1917 would not have taken place.
Lenin's outlook had always been that the Russian revolution would need to stimulate a Socialist revolution in
western Europe in order that this European socialist socigarrison, and carried through the October 1917 insurrec- ety would then come to the aid of the Russian revolution
and enable Russia to advance towards socialism. Lenin
tion. Stalin wrote:
stated:
All practical work in connection with the
organization of the uprising was done under the
immediate direction of Comrade Trotsky, the
President of the Petrograd Soviet. It can be
stated with certainty that the Party is indebted
primarily and principally to Comrade Trotsky
for the rapid going over of the garrison to the
side of the Soviet and the ecient manner in
which the work of the Military Revolutionary
Committee was organized. Stalin, Pravda,
November 6, 1918* [21]
As a result of his role in the Russian Revolution of 1917,
the theory of Permanent Revolution was embraced by the
young Soviet state until 1924.
The Russian revolution of 1917 was marked by two revolutions: the relatively spontaneous February 1917 revolution, and the 25 October 1917 seizure of power by the
Bolsheviks, who had gained the leadership of the Petrograd soviet.
Lenin was met with initial disbelief in April 1917. TrotBefore the February 1917 Russian revolution, Lenin had sky argues that:
formulated a slogan calling for the 'democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and the peasantry', but after the
up to the outbreak of the February revoFebruary revolution, through his April theses, Lenin inlution and for a time after Trotskyism did not
stead called for all power to the Soviets. Lenin nevmean the idea that it was impossible to build
ertheless continued to emphasise however (as did Trota socialist society within the national boundsky also) the classical Marxist position that the peasantry
aries of Russia (whichpossibilitywas never
formed a basis for the development of capitalism, not soexpressed
by anybody up to 1924 and hardly
cialism.* [22]
came into anybodys head). Trotskyism meant
But also before February 1917, Trotsky had not accepted
the importance of a Bolshevik style organisation. Once
the February 1917 Russian revolution had broken out
Trotsky admitted the importance of a Bolshevik organisation, and joined the Bolsheviks in July 1917. Despite
the fact that many, like Stalin, saw Trotsky's role in the
October 1917 Russian revolution as central, Trotsky says
170
Bolshevik freedomwith nude of Leon Trotsky. Polish propaganda poster - Polish-Soviet War 1920
Defeat of the European working class led to further isolation in Russia, and further suppression of the Opposition.
Trotsky argued that theso-called struggle against 'Trotskyism' grew out of the bureaucratic reaction against the
October Revolution [of 1917]".* [31] He responded to the
one sided civil war with his Letter to the Bureau of Party
History, (1927), contrasting what he claimed to be the
falsication of history with the ocial history of just a
In 1926, Stalin allied with Nikolai Bukharin who then few years before. He further accused Stalin of derailing
2.19. TROTSKYISM
171
the Chinese revolution, and causing the massacre of the key roles in the October Revolution in 1917), in the face
Chinese workers:
of increased opposition, particularly in the army.* [37]
In the year 1918, Stalin, at the very
outset of his campaign against me,
found it necessary, as we have already learned, to write the following words:
All the work of practical organization of the insurrection was carried out under the direct leadership
of the Chairman of the Petrograd
Soviet, comrade Trotsky...(Stalin,
Pravda, Nov. 6, 1918)
With full responsibility for my
words, I am now compelled to say
that the cruel massacre of the Chinese proletariat and the Chinese
Revolution at its three most important turning points, the strengthening of the position of the trade
union agents of British imperialism
after the General Strike of 1926,
and, nally, the general weakening of the position of the Communist International and the Soviet
Union, the party owes principally
and above all to Stalin. Trotsky,
Leon, The Stalin School of Falsication, p87, Pathnder (1971)
172
The Bolivian Trotskyist party (Partido Obrero Revolucionario, POR) became a mass party in the period of
the late 1940s and early 1950s, and together with other
groups played a central role during and immediately after
the period termed the Bolivian National Revolution.* [38]
In Brazil, as an ocially recognised platform or faction
of the PT until 1992, the Trotskyist Movimento Convergncia Socialista (CS), which founded the United Socialist Workers' Party (PSTU) in 1994, saw a number of
its members elected to national, state and local legislative
bodies during the 1980s.* [39] The Socialism and Liberty
Party (PSOL) presidential candidate in the 2006 general
elections, Helosa Helena is termed a Trotskyist who was
a member of the Workers Party of Brazil (PT), a legislative deputy in Alagoas and in 1999 was elected to the Federal Senate. Expelled from the PT in December 2003, she
helped found PSOL, in which various Trotskyist groups
play a prominent role.
2.19. TROTSKYISM
173
ticularly in the city of Salta itself, and has become the operated within the Labour Party with three memthird political force in the provinces of Tucumn, also in bers of parliament and eective control of Liverpool
the north, and Santa Cruz, in the south.
City Council. Described by journalist Michael Crick
fth most important political partyin
Venezuelan president Hugo Chvez declared himself to as Britain's
*
1986
[49]
it
played
a prominent role in the 19891991
be a Trotskyist during his swearing in of his cabinet
anti-poll
tax
movement
which was widely thought to have
two days before his own inauguration on 10 January
led
to
the
downfall
of
British
Prime Minister Margaret
*
2007. [41] Venezuelan Trotskyist organizations do not
*
*
[50]
[51]
Several
far-left
parties in Britain are
Thatcher.
regard Chvez as a Trotskyist, with some describing him
Trotskyist in orientation, including the Socialist Work*
as a bourgeois nationalist [42] and other considering him
an honest revolutionary leader who has made major mis- ers Party, the Socialist Party (not to be confused with the
SPGB), and the Scottish Socialist Party.
takes because he lacks a Marxist analysis.* [43]
The Socialist Party in Ireland was formed in 1990 by
members who had been expelled by the Irish Labour
Asia
Party's leader Dick Spring. It has had support in the
Fingal electoral district, as well as in the city of Limerick,
In Indochina during the 1930s, Vietnamese Trotskyism and has a Member of the European Parliament, Paul
led by T Thu Thu was a signicant current, particularly Murphy, representing Dublin and two Members of the
in Saigon.* [44]
Irish Parliament (Dil ireann), Clare Daly, representing
In Sri Lanka, the Lanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP) Dublin North and Joe Higgins, representing Dublin West.
expelled its pro-Moscow wing in 1940, becoming a In Portugal's September 2009 parliamentary election,
Trotskyist-led party. It was led by South Asia's pioneer the Left Bloc won 558,062 votes, which translated into
Trotskyist, Philip Gunawardena and his colleague N. M. 9.82% of the expressed votes and the election of 16
Perera. In 1942, following the escape of the leaders of the (out of 230) deputies to the national parliament.* [52] AlLSSP from a British prison, a unied BolshevikLeninist though founded by several leftist tendencies, it still exParty of India, Ceylon and Burma (BLPI) was established presses much of the Trotskyist thought upheld and develin India, bringing together the many Trotskyist groups in oped by its former leader, Francisco Lou.
the subcontinent. The BLPI was active in the Quit India
Movement as well as the labour movement, capturing the In Turkey, there are some organizations which are
second oldest union in India. Its high point was when it IST's section (Revolutionary Workers' Socialist Party),
led the strikes which followed the Bombay Mutiny. Af- CRFI's section (Revolutionary Workers' Party),
ter the war, the Sri Lanka section split into the Lanka Permanent Revolution Movement (SDH), Socialism
Sama Samaja Party and the Bolshevik Samasamaja Party Magazine(sympathizers of the ICFI) and several small
(BSP). The Indian section of the BLPI later fused with the groups.
Congress Socialist Party. In the general election of 1947
the LSSP became the main opposition party, winning 10
International
seats, the BSP winning a further 5. It joined the Trotskyist Fourth International after fusion with the BSP in 1950,
The Fourth International derives from the 1963 reuniand led a general strike (Hartal) in 1953.* [45]* [46]* [47]
cation of the two public factions into which Fourth InterIn 1964 a section of the LSSP split to form the LSSP national split in 1953: the International Secretariat of the
(Revolutionary) and joined the Fourth International af- Fourth International (ISFI) and the International Comter the LSSP proper was expelled. The LSSP (R) later mittee of the Fourth International (ICFI). It is often resplit into factions led by Bala Tampoe and Edmund Sama- ferred to as the United Secretariat of the Fourth Internarakkody. The LSSP joined the coalition government of tional, the name of its leading committee before 2003. It
Sirimavo Bandaranaike, three of its members, NM Per- is widely described as the largest contemporary Trotskyera, Cholmondely Goonewardena and Anil Moonesinghe, ist organisation with sections and sympathizing organizabecoming the rst Trotskyist cabinet ministers in history. tions in over 50 countries.* [53] Its best known section has
In 1974 a secret faction of the LSSP, allied to the Militant been the Ligue Communiste Revolutionnaire of France,
group in the UK emerged. In 1977 this faction was ex- but today there are also sizeable and inuential sections in
pelled and formed the Nava Sama Samaja Party, led by Portugal, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, Pakistan and several
other countries.
Vasudeva Nanayakkara.
The Committee for a Workers' International (CWI) was
founded in 1974 and now has sections in over 35 counEurope
tries. Before 1997, most organisations aliated to the
CWI sought to build an entrist Marxist wing within the
In France, 10% of the electorate voted in 2002 for parties large social democratic parties. Since the early 1990s it
calling themselves Trotskyist.* [48]
has argued that most social democratic, as indeed socialIn Britain during the 1980s, the entryist Militant group ist parties have moved so far to the right that there is little
174
2.19.5
Criticism
members of their organisations. Tourish, a former member of the Committee for a Workers' International asserts
that these organisations typically value doctrinal orthodoxy over critical reection, have illusions in the absolute correctness of their own party's analysis, a fear of
dissent, the demonising of dissenters and critical opinion, overworking of members, a sectarian attitude to the
rest of the left and the concentration of power among a
small group of leaders.* [56]
Some left communists, such as Paul Mattick claim that
the October Revolution was totalitarian from the start and
therefore, Trotskyism has no real dierences from Stalinism either in practice or theory.* [57]
In the United States Dwight Macdonald broke with Trotsky and left the Trotskyist Socialist Workers Party, by
raising the question of the Kronstadt rebellion, which
Trotsky as leader of the Soviet Red Army and the other
Bolsheviks had brutally repressed. He then moved towards democratic socialism * [58] and anarchism.* [59] A
similar critique on Trotsky's role on the events around
the Kronstadt rebellion was raised by the American anarchist Emma Goldman. In her essay Trotsky Protests
Too Muchshe says I admit, the dictatorship under
Stalin's rule has become monstrous. That does not, however, lessen the guilt of Leon Trotsky as one of the actors
in the revolutionary drama of which Kronstadt was one
of the bloodiest scenes.* [60]
Trotsky was not defeated by bureaucratic decisions or Stalin's control of the Party apparatus -- as his partisans and Trotskyite historians claim. He had his day in court and nally
lost because his whole position ew in the face
of Soviet and world realities. He was doomed
to defeat because his ideas were incorrect and
failed to conform to objective conditions, as
well as the needs and interests of the Soviet
people.* [55]
2.19. TROTSKYISM
175
[31] Trotsky, Leon, The Stalin School of Falsication, Foreword to the Russian edition, p xxxiii, Pathnder (1971)
[15] Many would put, for instance, the Committee for a WorkersInternational in this category of orthodox Trotskyists.
See for instance, Che Guevara: A revolutionary ghter accessed 2007-10-07
[44] Richardson, A.(Ed.), The Revolution Defamed: A documentary history of Vietnamese Trotskyism, Socialist Platform Ltd (2003)
[45] Ervin, W E, Tomorrow is Ours: The Trotskyist Movement
in India and Ceylon, 1935-48, Colombo, Social Scientists
Association, 2006.
[46] Y. Ranjith Amarasinghe, Revolutionary Idealism & Parliamentary Politics A Study Of Trotskyism In Sri Lanka,
Colombo (1998)
[47] Leslie Goonewardena, A Short History of the Lanka Sama
Samaja Party accessed online June 19, 2007
[48] The combined Trotskyist vote was 2,973,600 (10.44%)
compared to 1,616,546 (5.3%) in 1995
176
[55]
Marxism is the socio-political theory developed by German sociologists Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the
mid-19th century. It holds as its foundation the idea
of class struggle; that society mainly changes and proMattick, Paul.
1947.
Bolshevism and Stalinism: gresses as one socio-economic class takes power from
http://www.marxists.org/archive/mattick-paul/1947/
another. Thus Marxists believe that capitalism replaced
bolshevism-stalinism.htm
feudalism in the Early Modern period as the wealthy inMattson, Kevin. 2002. Intellectuals in Action: The Origins dustrial class, or bourgeoisie, took political and economic
of the New Left and Radical Liberalism, 1945-1970. Uni- power from the traditional land-owning class, the aristocversity Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, racy and monarchy. In the same process, Marxists pre2002. p. 34
dict that socialism will replace capitalism as the industrial
Memoirs of a Revolutionist: Essays in Political Criticism working class, or proletariat, seize power from the bour(1960). This was later republished with the title Politics geoisie through revolutionary action. In this way, Marxism is believed by its supporters to provide a scientic
Past.
explanation for why socialism should, and will, replace
Emma Goldman: Trotsky Protests Too Much
capitalism in human society.
[58]
[59]
[60]
2.19.7
Further reading
Castro has described two historical gures as being particular inuences on his political viewpoints; the Cuban
The Lubitz TrotskyanaNet, dealing with Leon Trotanti-imperialist revolutionary Jos Mart (18531895)
sky, Trotskyism and Trotskyists
and the German sociologist and theorist Karl Marx
Trotskyist archives in the United Kingdom
(18181883). Commenting on the inuence of Mart he
177
related that above all, he adopted his sense of ethics government would better serve the cause of peace by acbecause:
knowledging the 'unique' history of antisemitism and trying to understand why Israelis fear for their existence.
*
[6]
When he spoke that phrase I'll never be able
to forget 'All the glory in the world ts into a
grain of corn' it seemed extraordinarily beau2.20.4 Public image
tiful to me, in the face of all the vanity and
ambition that one saw everywhere, and against
By wearing military-style uniforms and leading mass
which we revolutionaries must be on constant
demonstrations, Castro projected an image of a perpetual
guard. I seized upon that ethics. Ethics, as
revolutionary. He was mostly seen in military attire, but
a mode of behaviour, is essential, a fabulous
his personal tailor, Merel Van 't Wout, convinced him to
*
treasure. [3]
occasionally change to a business suit.* [7] Castro is often
referred to as Comandante, but is also nicknamed
The inuence which Castro took from Marx on the other "El Caballo", meaning The Horse, a label that was
hand was hisconcept of what human society is, with- rst attributed to Cuban entertainer Benny Mor, who on
out which, Castro argued,you can't formulate any argu- hearing Castro passing in the Havana night with his enment that leads to a reasonable interpretation of historical tourage, shouted out Here comes the horse!"* [8]
events.* [4]
During the revolutionary campaign, fellow rebels knew
Castro asThe Giant.* [9] Large throngs of people gathered to cheer at Castro's ery speeches, which typically
2.20.2 On the Soviet Union and its leaders lasted for hours. Many details of Castro's private life, particularly involving his family members, are scarce as the
Although a Leninist, Castro remained critical of Marxist
media is forbidden to mention them.* [10] Castro's imLeninist Joseph Stalin, who was the Premier of the Soviet
age appears frequently in Cuban stores, classrooms, taxiUnion from 1941 to 1953. In Castro's opinion, Stalin
cabs, and national television.* [11] Despite this, Castro
committed serious errors - everyone knows about his
has stated that he does not promote a cult of personalabuse of power, the repression, and his personal characity.* [12]
teristics, the cult of personalityand also held him accountable for the invasion of the USSRby Nazi Germany in 1941. At the same time, Castro also felt that
2.20.5 References
Stalin showed tremendous merit in industrializing the
countryandin moving the military industry to Siberia
[1] Castro and Ramonet 2009. p. 157.
, things which he felt weredecisive factorsin the defeat
of Nazism.* [5]
[2] Castro and Ramonet 2009. p. 147.
[3] Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 101102.
2.20.3
In September 2010, The Atlantic began publishing a se[5] Castro and Ramonet 2009. p. 181.
ries of articles by Jerey Goldberg based on extensive and
wide-ranging interviews by Goldberg and Julia E. Sweig [6] Fidel to Ahmadinejad: 'Stop Slandering the Jews'". Thewith Castro, the rst of which lasted ve hours. Casatlantic.com. September 7, 2010. Retrieved March 16,
tro contacted Goldberg after he read one of Goldberg's
2011.
articles on whether Israel would launch a pre-emptive
air strike on Iran should it come close to acquiring [7] 10, 1995/01_5_m.htmlIn brief. Arizona Daily Wildcat. February 10, 1995. Retrieved August 12, 2006.
nuclear weapons. While warning against the dangers
of Western confrontation with Iran in which inadver[8] Richard Gott, Cuba : A new history. p. 175. Yale press.
tently,a gradual escalation could become a nuclear war",
Castro unequivocallydefended Israel's right to ex- [9] Jon Lee Anderson. Che Guevara : A revolutionary life.
ist and condemned antisemitism, while criticizing some
p. 317.
of the rhetoric on Israel by Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, the
President of Iran, under whom IranIsrael relations have [10] Admservice (October 8, 2000). Fidel Castro's Family
. Latinamericanstudies.org. Retrieved January 13, 2010.
become increasingly hostile:
Asked by Goldberg if he would tell Ahmadinejad the [11] Americas | Ailing Castro still dominates Cuba. BBC
same things, Castro responded, I am saying this so you
News. August 11, 2006. Retrieved January 13, 2010.
can communicate it. Castro criticized Ahmadinejad
for denying the Holocaust and explained why the Iranian [12] "Fidel Castro" PBS Online Newshour February 12, 1985.
178
2.20.6
Further reading
engender general uprising, rather than consolidating political power in military strongholds before expanding to
Theodore Draper: Castroism: Theory and Practice. new ones--Che Guevara took great inspiration from the
New York: Praeger 1965
Maoist notion of "protracted people's war" and sympathized with Mao Zedong's People's Republic of China in
Iain McLean,Alistair McMillan: The concise Oxford the Sino-Soviet split. This controversy may partly explain
dictionary of politics. Oxford University Press 2009, his departure from Castro's pro-Soviet Cuba in the midISBN 978-0-19-920516-5, p. 66 (restricted online 1960s. Guevara also drew direct parallels with his concopy, p. 66, at Google Books)
temporary communist comrades in the Viet Cong, ex Frank O. Mora, Jeanne A. K. Hey: Latin Amer- horting a multi-front guerrilla strategy to create two,
ican and Caribbean Foreign Policy. Rowman & three, many Vietnams.
Littleeld 2003, ISBN 0-7425-1601-6, p. 98-102 In Guevara's nal years, after leaving Cuba, he advised
(restricted online copy, p. 98, at Google Books)
communist paramilitary movements in Africa and Latin
America, including a young Laurent Kabila, future ruler
of Zaire/DR Congo. Finally, while leading a small foco
band of guerrilla cadres in Bolivia, Che Guevara was cap2.21 Guevarism
tured and killed. His death, and the short-term failure
of his Guevarist tactics, may have interrupted the comGuevarism is a theory of communist revolution and
ponent guerrilla wars within the larger Cold War for a
a military strategy of guerrilla warfare associated with
time, and even temporarily discouraged Soviet and Cuban
Marxist revolutionary Ernesto CheGuevara, a leadsponsorship for foquismo.
ing gure of the Cuban Revolution. During the Cold War,
the United States and Soviet Union clashed in a series of The emerging communist movements and other fellow
proxy wars, especially in the developing nations of the traveler radicalism of the time, however, either switched
to urban guerrilla warfare before the end of the 1960s,
Third World, including many decolonization struggles.
and/or soon revived the rural-based strategies of both
Maoism and Guevarism, tendencies that escalated world2.21.1 Overview
wide throughout the 1970s, by and large with the support
from the communist states and the Soviet empire in genAfter the 1959 triumph of the Cuban insurrection led by eral and Cuba's Castro regime in particular.
a militant "foco" under Fidel Castro, his Argentina-born,
Another proponent of Guevarism was the French intelcosmopolitan and Marxist colleague Guevara parlayed his
lectual Rgis Debray, who could be seen as attempting
ideology and experiences into a model for emulation (and
to establish a coherent, unitary theoretical framework on
at times, direct military intervention) around the globe.
these grounds. Debray has since broken with this.
While exporting one suchfocalistrevolution to Bolivia,
leading an armed vanguard party there in October 1967,
Guevara was captured and executed, becoming a martyr
2.21.2 Criticism
to both the World Communist Movement and the New
Left.
It was criticized from a revolutionary anarchist perspecHis ideology promotes exporting revolution to any coun- tive by Abraham Guilln, one of the leading tacticians of
try whose leader is supported by the empire (United urban guerrilla warfare in Uruguay and Brazil. Guillen
States) and has fallen out of favor with its citizens. Gue- claimed that cities are a better ground for the guerrilla
vara talks about how constant guerrilla warfare taking than the countryside (Guillen was a veteran of the Spanish
place in non-urban areas can overcome leaders. He intro- Civil War). He criticized Guevarist movements of naduces three points that are representative of his ideology tional liberation (like the Uruguayan Tupamaros, one
as a whole: that the people can win with proper organiza- of the many groups that he helped as a military advition against a nation's army; that the conditions that make sor) for trying to impose a dictatorship instead of selfa revolution possible can be put in place by the popular management.
forces; and that the popular forces always have an advantage in a non urban setting.* [1]
Guevara had a particularly keen interest in guerrilla war- 2.21.3 See also
fare, with a dedication to foco techniques, also known
Revisionism (Marxism)
as focalism(or "foquismo" in Spanish): vanguardism
by small armed units, frequently in place of established
Frantz Fanon
communist parties, initially launching attacks from rural areas to mobilize unrest into a popular front against
Carlos Marighella
a sitting regime. Despite dierences in approach- Cuban Revolution
emphasizing guerrilla leadership and audacious raids that
2.21. GUEVARISM
Foco
Guerrilla warfare
Protracted people's war
Urban guerrilla warfare
Wars of national liberation
2.21.4
Notes
179
Chapter 3
180
3.1. TEXT
181
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Cleared as led, Caiusc, Chichui, Zzuuzz, Reyk, Innity0, KnightRider~enwiki, SmackBot, Reedy, InverseHypercube, KnowledgeOfSelf, Delldot, Chris the speller, Marcushan, RolandR, Kukini, Tazmaniacs, Paulscf, Santa Sangre, RichardF, Christian Roess, Joseph Solis
in Australia, Bobfrombrockley, Jac16888, Drozdeva, Pascal.Tesson, DumbBOT, Legotech, JamesAM, JimFarm, Bobblehead, Mnemeson, Matthew Proctor, PottersWood, Goldenrowley, JenLouise, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Jetstreamer, TARBOT, Jim Douglas, L Trezise,
J.delanoy, It Is Me Here, Inbloom2, JohnDoe0007, Meenakshi20022, Myles325a, Anonymous Dissident, Schwalker, Billinghurst, GirasoleDE, Happysailor, Flyer22, Mildredinhi, Techman224, OKBot, Smilo Don, Szalagloria, Pinkadelica, Ahuitzotl, BHenry1969, ClueBot,
EastCoast1111, Timberframe, Mindstalk, TheRedPenOfDoom, Hans Adler, Jbh2wiki, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Wsvlqc, Download, SpBot,
Rog2203, Lightbot, Yobot, Stealth031, Angel ivanov angelov, Fitter stoke, Kingpin13, Ulric1313, Materialscientist, Citation bot, LilHelpa,
Thesoxlost, Omnipaedista, Adam9389, PepeBueno, Elockid, AustralianMelodrama, Gritob, Csillery, Tbhotch, EmausBot, John of Reading, Roxasoblivion13, F, Donner60, Manytexts, Mjbmrbot, ClueBot NG, Yo lenin1, Chester Markel, Cntras, Calabe1992, Technical 13,
Lowercase sigmabot, Stephenwanjau, Tonys lapdog, MahdiBot, SomeFreakOnTheInternet, RachelleLin, Stdevin2012, Fivezeros, Squiver
and Anonymous: 98
Marx's method Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx'{}s_method?oldid=653718934 Contributors: TimMartin, Stemonitis, Bgwhite, Pigman, NawlinWiki, Battlecry, Bdiscoe, Gregbard, DumbBOT, Auntof6, Good Olfactory, Tassedethe, Yobot, Pollinosisss, John
of Reading, ClueBot NG, Lowercase sigmabot, Zozs, Squiver and Anonymous: 3
Marxian economics Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxian_economics?oldid=668899771 Contributors: Heron, Edward, Radicalsubversiv, Sethmahoney, Jni, Robbot, Fifelfoo, Sunray, J heisenberg, Dick Bos, Nakosomo, Richard Myers, The Land, Pyro~enwiki,
Liberlogos, H0riz0n, Pavel Vozenilek, Bender235, Lycurgus, Chalst, Causa sui, Cmdrjameson, JavOs, Rd232, John Quiggin, Hinotori,
Bobrayner, FrancisTyers, Camw, Ollieplatt, DrThompson, Everton, Nutrosnutros, Bkwillwm, BD2412, Sjakkalle, Jrtayloriv, Chobot,
Frappyjohn, Petiatil, Splash, Pigman, Member, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Joel7687, Equilibrial, Mshecket, Ad Nauseam, Jurriaan, Johndburger, Fram, Innity0, Tom Morris, Yvwv, SmackBot, Alex1011, Hmains, Chris the speller, Willardo, Battlecry, Rrburke, Kongre-sec,
Nakon, Byelf2007, ArglebargleIV, Soap, Rigadoun, Santa Sangre, Joseph Solis in Australia, A.I.K., Thomasmeeks, Davius, Flowerpotman, Spylab, DumbBOT, Daniel, Headbomb, Frank, WinBot, Luna Santin, ReverendG, Nmcmurdo, Magioladitis, Horse Badorties, Karl
Wiki, STBot, Prezen, Cirenilsson, Jeepday, Aram33~enwiki, Marioosz, Inbloom2, Kenneth M Burke, ACSE, Lia Todua, Geree, Rubentomas, TXiKiBoT, Marxclass, C.J. Grin, SelketBot, Anarchangel, Synthebot, Akliman, Watchdog07, Hudisp, Oxymoron83, Jacob.jose,
ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, EoGuy, Mild Bill Hiccup, Spenny69, Jotterbot, Doprendek, Aleksd, Gogolyea, Eurodos, Trefork, DumZiBoT, Koumz, Flauius Claudius Iulianus, Dthomsen8, Avoided, SherryShamsi, Addbot, I feel like a tourist, Michaelwuzthere,
Debresser, Sindinero, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, ArthurBot, Quebec99, Srich32977, Omnipaedista, Cuauti, Gonji ha, FrescoBot,
D'ohBot, Kiefer.Wolfowitz, A8UDI, LilyKitty, Miracle Pen, Tbhotch, EmausBot, John of Reading, , Financestudent, Irishbrigade1942,
ClueBot NG, Chester Markel, Adair2324, Frietjes, Helpful Pixie Bot, Rationis, K4kant, Justincheng12345-bot, Correctionasdfg, Khazar2,
Jemappelleungarcon, RotlinkBot, Tentinator, LudicrousTripe, Bronx Discount Liquor, Gravuritas, Monkbot, Prisencolinensinainciusol,
Karmanatory, YeOldeGentleman, Knife-in-the-drawer and Anonymous: 135
Surplus value Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surplus_value?oldid=670263620 Contributors: Jimbo Wales, Ed Poor, Jrincayc,
William Avery, Heron, Infrogmation, Tomi, Skysmith, EntmootsOfTrolls, Snoyes, Samuel~enwiki, Charles Matthews, AaronSw, Robbot, Pbrooks, Fifelfoo, Yacht, Lancemurdoch, Giftlite, Nikodemos, Everyking, Revth, Richard Myers, D3, Piotrus, Ot, Sam Hocevar,
Discospinster, Smyth, Bender235, El C, Lycurgus, Tjic, Obradovic Goran, Hydriotaphia, John Quiggin, Kusma, Bobrayner, Woohookitty,
Niqueco, MGTom, SCEhardt, Mbxp, BD2412, Kinu, Zanturaeon, Vuong Ngan Ha, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford, Jrtayloriv, Bgwhite, YurikBot, RussBot, Hede2000, Gaius Cornelius, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Jurriaan, PTSE, Supernoodles, Rickkuhn, Innity0, IslandHopper973,
SmackBot, Primetime, Alex1011, Hmains, Colonies Chris, KurtFF8, Egsan Bacon, Battlecry, Aktron, Cybercobra, Pissant, Someoneisatthedoor, Teneri, Trojan traveler, AB, RichardF, CmdrObot, Ningum, Julian Wells, DumbBOT, Legotech, Frank, Manu bcn,
JAnDbot, Mauricio Malu, Jaysweet, Macmelvino, R'n'B, Belovedfreak, Remember the dot, TreasuryTag, SelketBot, Ccyber5, Itihasi,
Sanya3, SlackerMom, DragonBot, PixelBot, Addbot, Haruth, Ginosbot, Balabiot, Yobot, WellsSouth, AnomieBOT, Ciphers, Richardlord50, W.stanovsky, Srich32977, J04n, Nasireddin, Cuauti, Marco Bernardini, Thehelpfulbot, Focus, Lars Washington, LilyKitty, Tbhotch, Fujo11, Jmmcatan, Wilcannia, ClaudioSantos, Frietjes, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Mjacob14, Aua1422, 3298230932782302,
KasparBot and Anonymous: 66
Bourgeoisie Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourgeoisie?oldid=679828966 Contributors: Andre Engels, Gianfranco, Enchanter,
SimonP, Heron, GrahamN, R Lowry, Someone else, Stevertigo, Edward, Michael Hardy, Ixfd64, Egil, ThirdParty, Netsnipe, Smack,
Boson, Choster, Wik, Haukurth, Hyacinth, RayKiddy, Head, Bloodshedder, Rbellin, Bcorr, David.Monniaux, Slawojarek, Jni, Robbot,
Juro, Fifelfoo, Altenmann, Humus sapiens, Hadal, Snader, Xanzzibar, Nikodemos, Bkonrad, Snowdog, Dratman, Henryhartley, Guanaco, Mboverload, Neilc, Gadum, Jdevine, Loremaster, Robert Brockway, Piotrus, Rdsmith4, Jesster79, MRSC, Neutrality, Irpen, Mike
Rosoft, Francis Schonken, Leandros, Xgenei, Dbachmann, Trey Stone, Stbalbach, Bender235, Dewet, MattTM, Goplat, CanisRufus, El
C, Lycurgus, SpencerWilson, Lankiveil, Kwamikagami, Causa sui, Bobo192, Dreish, Ejrrjs, Blotwell, Man vyi, Sasquatch, John Fader,
Espoo, Knucmo2, Ranveig, Patsw, Alansohn, Eleland, JohnAlbertRigali, Atrivedi, Radical Mallard, Max rspct, Stephan Leeds, Grenavitar, VoluntarySlave, Pwqn, Mhazard9, Nuno Tavares, Woohookitty, Jannex, TigerShark, Tapir2001, SDC, Mimiian, Mandarax, Chris
Weimer, WBardwin, BD2412, Reisio, Johnwhunt, Jweiss11, Daejiny, SeanMack, FlaBot, Gringo300, RobertG, TheMidnighters, RexNL,
Gurubrahma, Chobot, DVdm, Korg, JosephHVilas, YurikBot, Mikeishigaki, RussBot, Lincolnite, Bhny, Wimt, Knyght27, Bvanderveen,
Aeusoes1, RattleMan, Grafen, Jaxl, Ad Nauseam, Kortoso, NWOG, Caroline Sanford, TheSeer, Mamathomas, Zzuuzz, Orbis 3, Clocke,
Fram, Anclation~enwiki, JLaTondre, Benandorsqueaks, Innity0, GrinBot~enwiki, Mardus, CIreland, Marquez~enwiki, Eykanal, Intangible, Yakudza, SmackBot, CSZero, Unyoyega, Power piglet, Thunderboltz, Midway, Eskimbot, WhiskyWhiskers, Kintetsubualo,
Edgar181, Xaosux, Anarkisto, Hmains, TimBentley, Rex Germanus, Te24409nsp, Jprg1966, Thumperward, Kemet, BrendelSignature,
Bazonka, ADobkin, Lexlex, Dr. Dan, Noeticsage, Metallurgist, Alphathon, Nixeagle, Sommers, Rrburke, Anime2000z, COMPFUNK2,
BullRangifer, Kozlovesred, Curly Turkey, Tesseran, Ohconfucius, Synthe, Kuru, Zaphraud, Ishmaelblues, Michael Bednarek, Joelo,
Mr Stephen, Rizome~enwiki, Hypnosi, Xiaphias, Hu12, Focomoso, Nonexistant User, Pratheesh prakash, Polymerbringer, Joseph Solis
in Australia, Wspencer11, J Milburn, Peter1c, Wolfdog, Neelix, Slazenger, Cydebot, Danrok, Ningum, R-41, Jayen466, Agne27, Mirrormundo, Twittenham, Kozuch, Omicronpersei8, Maziotis, Gimmetrow, Rjm656s, Epbr123, Kubanczyk, D4g0thur, N5iln, Mojo Hand,
Tellyaddict, Natalie Erin, Abdel Hameed Nawar, Mentisto, Hmrox, AntiVandalBot, The Obento Musubi, Seaphoto, Emeraldcityserendipity, Rabbi-m, Modernist, Wahabijaz, Claire andrade, JAnDbot, Deective, FruitcakeNL, MER-C, LeedsKing, Avaya1, Matthew Fennell, SeanCollins, Db099221, Hamsterlopithecus, Andonic, Yahel Guhan, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Eni, Hullaballoo Wolfowitz, Billybass, Tedickey, MikeMullins, Indon, Jutm543, Minimiscience, Ciaccona, Allstarecho, CapnPrep, Pax:Vobiscum, Zeplerfer,
When1eight=2zeros, Ungered, Charles Edward, Keith D, Meowmix melvin, R'n'B, Johnpacklambert, Prezen, Edward.og, Latentale, Jerry,
Natty4bumpo, Vvitor, Katalaveno, NewEnglandYankee, Trilobitealive, Prhartcom, Chinasociology, Aho101, DH85868993, Treisijs,
182
Scott Illini, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, CWii, Iosef, Kjod, AlnoktaBOT, Philip Trueman, Mark v1.0, Stoli23, Amartin26,
Miranda, Asdfghjkl3, Wikidemon, Jason McConnell-Leech, Mark Miller, JhsBot, Jvbishop, Sykosyko~enwiki, Demigod Ron, Falcon8765, Gmctague, Burntsauce, Qworty, Sfmammamia, SMC89, SieBot, Mycomp, WereSpielChequers, Jauerback, Sonyack, Gerakibot, ChrisB600, Snowborder4391, Aarondrake 1, Uwmad, Jimthing, Freedomwarrior, BenoniBot~enwiki, DeepQuasar, Efe, Denisarona,
WordyGirl90, Twinsday, Smashrance, ClueBot, Avenged Eightfold, Snigbrook, The Thing That Should Not Be, DionysosProteus, Saddhiyama, Pakaal, Canopus1, Gutm, Niceguyedc, Hangtrots, P. S. Burton, Muscovite99~enwiki, Hangakommy, PhGustaf, Jemmy Button,
Mash rance, Expunge rance, Resoru, End the trot, Cacadores, Sun Creator, Winnets, Ranceretarded, Secret, Aitias, Jimjmc, Damansanj93,
NJGW, Burner0718, Jbh2wiki, Editor2020, Indopug, NERIC-Security, Liberal Humanist, Cradel, Arturo57, J-vars, Addbot, Some jerk on
the Internet, Seipjere, Guoguo12, Bitemerance71, Bitemerance68, Ayapota, Mootros, Antone.konst, Michaelwuzthere, Bahamut Star, Mdnavman, TriniMuoz, Tide rolls, Lightbot, , Gail, Sieborg81, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Tay Casey, Gavin Lisburn,
Gongshow, AlternateU, AnomieBOT, Gtz, Rjanag, Piano non troppo, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Eumolpo, Quebec99, Munin75, Xqbot,
Capricorn42, Luca Visentin, Quark1005, What Is Moe?, Delsim9, J04n, Omnipaedista, FixMacs, WhiskerSoulstain, GhalyBot, Smallman12q, Paine Ellsworth, Adimitri82, HJ Mitchell, , Nightsturm, Krish Dulal, LittleWink, BRUTE, Night Jaguar,
Csgproductions, Nora lives, Keri, Jugni, Trappist the monk, Hobgoblein, Haaninjo, Skinnytony1, Hentzde, Weedwhacker128, Brian the
Editor, Some Wiki Editor, Phlegat, Beyond My Ken, Slon02, , Artefactual, RA0808, K6ka, Pseudosection, Deanybabeh, Kitty DeClaude, Tsutwo, Traxs7, Aplex84, Major Torp, Michael Fleischhacker, Jacobisq, Aidarzver, Rangoon11, Financestudent, Kgldude, Pgarret,
Bunnybooboo, Sven Manguard, Petrb, ClueBot NG, This lousy T-shirt, -sche, Benjamin9832, Snotbot, Dreth, O.Koslowski, WikiPuppies,
HMSSolent, TCN7JM, Dan653, Zyxwv99, Dr. Whooves, Atomician, Brad7777, Glacialfox, Carliitaeliza, TheOniPhony, I.eat.yangwei,
Panimo, Gohan999222, Pratyya Ghosh, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, Jaspermogg, Sarg Pepper, Mogism, Ovtchi, Uli Kunkel 69, JustAMuggle, Epicgenius, CsDix, FrigidNinja, Acatao2210, Hendrick 99, Bwloeb5, Suuuuperboy78123445, Alecc98, Samprice99, Ctshepherd,
TomokoKuroki, 3298230932782302, Jakob508, YeOldeGentleman, Squiver, StBlark, Dialog.groupie, JJMC89, Sexistpanda, Emelioa and
Anonymous: 573
Proletariat Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proletariat?oldid=678165876 Contributors: The Anome, Gianfranco, Vanderesch,
William Avery, Grimm Ripper, Den fjttrade ankan~enwiki, Lupinoid, Cyan, Rednblu, Doradus, Maximus Rex, Flockmeal, Cncs
wikipedia, Robbot, Fifelfoo, Altenmann, Texture, Humus sapiens, Alan Liefting, Nikodemos, Eran, Pretzelpaws, Kim Bruning, Philwelch,
Taak, Spe88, Neilc, Antandrus, Satori, MRSC, Soman, Jafro, A-giau, Edgarde, Bender235, Ground, Grick, Yonghokim, Func, Chicago
god, Geschichte, Jumbuck, Gary, ThePedanticPrick, Akaneko, Riana, Max rspct, Colin Kimbrell, Suruena, Bookandcoee, Kazvorpal, Rroser167, Tabletop, Marudubshinki, BD2412, MarnetteD, Sango123, Yamamoto Ichiro, Fish and karate, Magmafox, FlaBot, Flydpnkrtn, Sophrosune, RexNL, Chobot, Jersey Devil, DVdm, Korg, VolatileChemical, Crosstimer, Kummi, YurikBot, Stan2525, RussBot, Hede2000, Splash, Stephenb, Kimchi.sg, Jimphilos, NawlinWiki, Markwiki, Rhythm, Grafen, Nick C, Jurriaan, Wardog, Zzuuzz,
Marco Passarani, Huldra, Innity0, Yakudza, SmackBot, Zazaban, Eskimbot, WhiskyWhiskers, Gilliam, Master Jay, Bluebot, Yankees76,
MalafayaBot, Greatgavini, BrendelSignature, Nixeagle, Rsm99833, Gavin Moodie, John D. Croft, Richard001, Last Avenue, Nmpenguin,
Synthe, Vobrcz, Mgiganteus1, Hvn0413, Chief RZ, Xiaphias, , Waggers, Iridescent, PollockMachette, Shoreranger, Wolfdog,
Hass2006, LiamJoseph, Yourmanstan, Neelix, Besidesamiracle, Ningum, R-41, Adolphus79, Spylab, DumbBOT, Thijs!bot, Frozenport, Marek69, Qvasi, PottersWood, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, Edokter, LibLord, Hoponpop69, Deective, Cynwolfe, Stephenchou0722,
MartinBot, Tikitactinker, MacAuslan, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Elfelix, Jesauer, Bogey97, Suviljan, Thomas Larsen, AKA
MBG, Shoessss, BookSquirrel, Chinasociology, Wetdogmeat, Djr13, X!, VolkovBot, Raggz, A4bot, Mogmiester, Beyond silence, SelketBot, VanishedUserABC, Cnilep, SieBot, Flyer22, Eballnik, Mimihitam, Oxymoron83, OKBot, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not
Be, Marx07, Mild Bill Hiccup, On Thermonuclear War, Dr. B. R. Lang, Alexbot, Jusdafax, Jotterbot, Razorame, Bilbaosr, NJGW,
Jbh2wiki, XLinkBot, Messerjokke79, Livingwords, Addbot, Edgar8~enwiki, Proxima Centauri, AndersBot, Favonian, , Luckas-bot,
Behead rrance4, Utinomen, Valois bourbon, Gowr, Hunnjazal, , Xqbot, J04n, GrouchoBot, AVBOT, RibotBOT, SassoBot, GhalyBot, Yepthatsit, Shadowjams, Haploidavey, LucienBOT, Lumoy, W8ing4godot, Jauhienij, Jugni, Trappist the monk, Jonkerz, Vrenator,
LilyKitty, Lambanog, Tbhotch, Minimac, EmausBot, Az29, Meshuman, Winner 42, HarryRackmil, GeorgeBarnick, MonoAV, Rangoon11,
Lguipontes, ClueBot NG, Gaioa, Somedierentstu, Frietjes, Hazhk, Nordikrage, Lowercase sigmabot, Meclee, JYBot, Webclient101,
JasonMacker, CsDix, Hendrick 99, Stamptrader, Valfredotorpedo13, Monkbot, 3298230932782302, Squiver and Anonymous: 204
Class conict Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_conflict?oldid=676650738 Contributors: Ed Poor, Fredbauder, Ryguasu, Atlan, Ahoerstemeier, Cadr, Fifelfoo, Sam Spade, Nikodemos, Lefty, Utcursch, Andycjp, Jdevine, Loremaster, Johnfreez, Kate, KillerChihuahua, Stbalbach, Lycurgus, Shax, Maurreen, Neg, Theman353, Knucmo2, Mlessard, Max rspct, Bookandcoee, Woohookitty, Ylem,
Lapsed Pacist, Frankie1969, Prashanthns, BD2412, RadioActive~enwiki, Dpv, Stardust8212, Taboo Tongue, Ground Zero, Malhonen,
BradBeattie, Bgwhite, RussBot, TheDoober, Pigman, Morphh, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Kingpomba, SmackBot, Ohnoitsjamie, AntelopeInSearchOfTruth, Jfsamper, Simpsons contributor, Fuhghettaboutit, Cybercobra, Zdravko mk, BullRangifer, Liquidswords, Gobonobo, Luokehao, Floridan, Ryan4, Vision Thing, Spylab, Skittleys, DumbBOT, Salvor Hardin, Donnachadelong, Epbr123, Robert honomichl,
Vertium, Mr pand, Ckhartman, Dsp13, Meddlecascade, VoABot II, Sideshow Bob Roberts, Edward321, Doctors without suspenders,
R'n'B, Brian.ellis, PhilLiberty, Kezmaniac, DadaNeem, Pdcook, Raggz, DuaneCampbell1, C.J. Grin, Phirosiberia, Farcaster, Vokidas,
Freedomwarrior, ClueBot, Der Golem, Sun Creator, Kaecyy, Redthoreau, Xme, TFOWR, WPjcm, Addbot, Jarble, Apollonius 1236,
Amirobot, Ningauble, AnomieBOT, XB70Valyrie, Materialscientist, Citation bot, LilHelpa, Jmv12387, Nychelse, Jean-Jacques Georges,
RightCowLeftCoast, CaptainFugu, Tobby72, Trust Is All You Need, DrilBot, Worddeuce, Full-date unlinking bot, Elmoro, Trappist the
monk, Zonglowe, Skakkle, John of Reading, Chiton magnicus, ZroBot, Cogiati, Brothernight, Thargor Orlando, Erianna, Mojowiha,
Brandmeister, Adelson Velsky Landis, Rangoon11, ClueBot NG, Mesoderm, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, North911, Meclee, Bjhguerin,
EricEnfermero, BattyBot, Miszatomic, Mediran, Webclient101, Charles Essie, Dechrwr, JasonMacker, Tony Mach, Redblackwritings, Stilgar27, Roccodrift, Monkbot, Jeanleonboucher, E.D.J. Muckenfuss, KasparBot and Anonymous: 97
Classless society Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classless_society?oldid=659210062 Contributors: Robbot, Adamnelson, Beland,
Esperant, Lycurgus, Art LaPella, Jigen III, Bobrayner, Woohookitty, RussBot, Pigman, NawlinWiki, ONEder Boy, M3taphysical, NorsemanII, Carabinieri, SmackBot, Elendil's Heir, Kukini, Halaqah, Joseph Solis in Australia, JForget, Neelix, ST47, Peptuck, Capedia, DumbBOT, Thijs!bot, Nick Number, Tocharianne, Alphachimpbot, Yahel Guhan, Rich257, Allstarecho, Fang 23, R'n'B, Atheuz, Malik Shabazz,
Domwoolf, Sherlockindo, Canglesea, Explicit, Plastikspork, VolushGod, Arunsingh16, Nagika, Rphb, Bilbaosr, Addbot, Yobot, Amirobot,
Eduen, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, TechBot, GrouchoBot, Adam9389, Happydude69 yo, Trust Is All You Need, Tbhotch, Tinpac,
EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Joaosac, Tulandro, Rangoon11, Somedierentstu, Mesoderm, Lowercase sigmabot, Brad7777, Equilibrium
Allure, CsDix, I am One of Many and Anonymous: 36
Class consciousness Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_consciousness?oldid=679361955 Contributors: Edward, Dysprosia, HarryHenryGebel, Secretlondon, Alan Liefting, Adhib, Nikodemos, Pretzelpaws, DO'Neil, Rdsmith4, Livajo, Lycurgus, Remuel, Riana,
Velella, Zzyzx11, BD2412, Koavf, Bartleby, YurikBot, RussBot, NawlinWiki, M3taphysical, BOT-Superzerocool, Zzuuzz, Innity0,
3.1. TEXT
183
SmackBot, Mangoe, Chris the speller, Cybercobra, Zdravko mk, Lapaz, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, Santa Sangre, JForget, Gregbard, Gogo
Dodo, Flowerpotman, Synergy, DumbBOT, Ernalve, Nick Number, Mmortal03, Escarbot, Jennesy, Artegis, Nyttend, ClovisPt, Vssun,
J.delanoy, Lauristan, STBotD, Mellow2167, TreasuryTag, Raggz, Kyle the bot, FitzColinGerald, SelketBot, Classicalecon, WordyGirl90,
Mild Bill Hiccup, TheOldJacobite, Hans Adler, SchreiberBike, IamNotU, TheLamprey, Addbot, Tanhabot, Hillawiya, Luckas-bot, Fraggle81, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, JMCJMC, Moraca34, Srich32977, J04n, Omnipaedista, Cswift2, Zd12, Ong saluri, NatDemUK,
Endy Leo, FoxBot, Tamarts, LilyKitty, Tbhotch, Bluszczokrzew, WikitanvirBot, Semmler, Erianna, Kite3350, ClueBot NG, Mesoderm,
Rezabot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Electriccatsh2, Lowercase sigmabot, PhnomPencil, Meclee, Tco03displays, CsDix, Sportsguy17 and Anonymous: 43
Commune (socialism) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commune_(socialism)?oldid=679867455 Contributors: Koavf, Srleer,
Adoniscik, Pigman, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Petrichor, Lambiam, Skomorokh, Fang 23, R'n'B, M-le-mot-dit, Djr13, Demigod Ron,
Father Inire, , Double.reed, Michaelwuzthere, Felojiro, Yobot, PaulWalter, AnomieBOT, Kasaalan, Crashtools redux, VanishedUser
hjgjktyjhddgf, Dudanotak, CsDix, Saectar and Anonymous: 13
Common ownership Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_ownership?oldid=655464497 Contributors: Edward, KillerChihuahua, Bender235, Dan East, Michaelm, Woohookitty, Trdel, TobyJ, DVdm, TexasAndroid, Witan, Paki.tv, Banana04131, NeilN,
SmackBot, GeMiJa, Ohnoitsjamie, GwydionM, Battlecry, EPM, RolandR, Dreadstar, Gobonobo, Iridescent, Heathd, Richhoncho, Big
Bird, Skomorokh, Sysop100, Mbc362, Fang 23, Doomsday28, Scott Illini, Philip Trueman, Clarince63, Teknolyze, Operation Spooner,
Simem007, ClueBot, Fortune cell, JonStrines, Mindstalk, Mifter, Addbot, Rolandsukks, JoshuaD1991, Eduen, Dhidalgo, Teilolondon,
Tasudrty, Alumnum, Citation bot 1, Persian knight shiraz, Hoygan!!, Anatoly-Rex, ClueBot NG, Gob Lofa, KLBot2, Oleg-ch, CsDix,
TinaCFLE, JaconaFrere, DircoDT and Anonymous: 52
Dictatorship of the proletariat Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictatorship_of_the_proletariat?oldid=679579183 Contributors:
Ed Poor, Andre Engels, Enchanter, Fubar Obfusco, Graft, Vovkav~enwiki, Bth, Soulpatch, Olivier, Fred Bauder, Liftarn, 172, Atob,
Tpbradbury, Buridan, Johnleemk, Ewk, Owen, Altenmann, GreatWhiteNortherner, Marc Venot, Nikodemos, HangingCurve, DO'Neil,
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Zozs, TimIsTimisTimIsTim, Ewersj, 3298230932782302, Spumuq, GeneralizationsAreBad and Anonymous: 137
Collective leadership Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_leadership?oldid=639265498 Contributors: Nahum, Str1977,
NawlinWiki, SmackBot, Battlecry, ShelfSkewed, Ericoides, KylieTastic, Addbot, Tassedethe, Yobot, Materialscientist, Omnipaedista,
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Scientic socialism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_socialism?oldid=665355303 Contributors: Michael Hardy, BAxelrod, Jni, Altenmann, Rursus, Michael Snow, Nikodemos, Grant65, PDH, Lycurgus, Pazouzou, Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Bkwillwm,
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ReconditeRodent, Mundopopular, Karmanatory, Squiver and Anonymous: 28
Gift economy Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gift_economy?oldid=678771710 Contributors: Eloquence, Bryan Derksen,
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184
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Bot, BG19bot, Northamerica1000, Brianain, Nicholforest, God45, Jampel~enwiki, Cretog7, TradeMarkG, Safehaven86, WikiHannibal,
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Jenaye, Pablo Darko, 51coin, Turgeis, Anarcham, Monkbot, D. Cordoba-Bahle, You better look out below! and Anonymous: 232
Communist society Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_society?oldid=677535066 Contributors: Ed Poor, Altenmann, Piotrus, GregorB, Pigman, NawlinWiki, SmackBot, Battlecry, DumbBOT, Vestigial Thumb, Zeleftikam, Lklundin, KathrynLybarger, JLBot, Escape Orbit, Michaelwuzthere, Serols, Hardtondaname, Lovok Sovok, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Lowercase sigmabot, Iryna
Harpy, Zumoarirodoka, TURTLOS, Sweepy, Vondapace81,64 and Anonymous: 13
Socialist mode of production Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_mode_of_production?oldid=657354390 Contributors:
Robbot, Mike Rosoft, BD2412, NawlinWiki, Nickst, Battlecry, RolandR, Tktktk, RekishiEJ, DumbBOT, , AtticusX, R'n'B, Addbot,
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Jonpatterns, Semmler, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, CsDix, Jodosma, Konveyor Belt, Monkbot, LaneisRatchet, Squiver, Innite0694 and Anonymous: 18
World revolution Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_revolution?oldid=672346092 Contributors: 172, Warofdreams, Robbot,
Jmabel, Altenmann, Nikodemos, Monedula, Duncharris, Gzornenplatz, Martin Wisse, Soman, S.K., Lycurgus, Grenavitar, Ghirlandajo,
Woohookitty, A.K.A.47, Lapsed Pacist, Stefanomione, RCBot~enwiki, YurikBot, RussBot, NawlinWiki, Bronks, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Kandarin, Kikodawgzz, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Gnevin, Dukemeiser, Joseph Solis in Australia, Vision Thing, Was a bee, DumbBOT,
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ClueBot NG, Snotbot, Lowercase sigmabot, Jim Sukwutput, Henry McClean, SD5bot, Charles Essie, Aua1422, CsDix, Nixin06, Karmanatory, KasparBot and Anonymous: 37
Anti-imperialism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-imperialism?oldid=678993243 Contributors: SimonP, Edward, WhisperToMe, Maximus Rex, Pir, Robbot, Henrygb, Nikodemos, Zoney, Jackol, Wmahan, Rdsmith4, WpZurp, Esperant, KNewman, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Mat cross, Aris Katsaris, Smalljim, Alpheus, Delius, Riana, JK the unwise, Mhazard9, Bobrayner, Tabletop,
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Ephemeratta, Gouncbeatduke, Bohemian Baltimore, Czwelker, KasparBot and Anonymous: 143
Theory of the productive forces Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_the_productive_forces?oldid=668141224 Contributors: 172, Delirium, Pavel Vozenilek, Bobrayner, RussBot, Ksyrie, Tony1, Sardanaphalus, Intangible, SmackBot, Small Prot, Battlecry,
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Anonymous: 28
Economic planning Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_planning?oldid=666372265 Contributors: Edward, Andycjp, Bender235, Cretog8, Mdd, RJII, Woohookitty, BD2412, KYPark, Jrtayloriv, RussBot, Grafen, Arthur Rubin, SmackBot, Lawrencekhoo,
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Pixie Bot, Polmandc, Abezgauz, CsDix, Charles tiplitz, WPGA2345, Monkbot, Zorakton and Anonymous: 27
Commanding heights of the economy Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commanding_heights_of_the_economy?oldid=624904182
Contributors: Trust Is All You Need, Dark Liberty and Anonymous: 1
Communist state Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_state?oldid=679878723 Contributors: The Cunctator, Lee Daniel
Crocker, Bryan Derksen, Slrubenstein, Ed Poor, RK, Eclecticology, XJaM, Roadrunner, Daniel C. Boyer, Hephaestos, Olivier, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Fred Bauder, Jtdirl, MartinHarper, Tannin, 172, Jimfbleak, Jpatokal, G-Man, Ugen64, Pratyeka, Jll, Jiang,
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Tom harrison, Marcika, Everyking, Curps, Cantus, DO'Neil, Luis rib, Kpalion, Gzornenplatz, Avala, Chameleon, Sesel, Ruy Lopez, Mike R,
3.1. TEXT
185
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Trackteur, Mundopopular, Spumuq, AsharaDayne, Endr Hejs, TURTLOS, Sweepy, Scourge of Trumpton and Anonymous: 289
Democratic centralism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_centralism?oldid=679371461 Contributors: Ed Poor, Graft,
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MarxistLeninist atheism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist_atheism?oldid=667578473 Contributors: Reddi, Tom harrison, Snowolf, Koavf, Thane, NawlinWiki, SmackBot, Jprg1966, CmdrObot, Gregbard, Ningum, Tec15, DumbBOT, Magioladitis, Squids and Chips, Pjoef, Newzild, Eeekster, Redthoreau, AgnosticPreachersKid, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Yobot,
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Proletarian internationalism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proletarian_internationalism?oldid=662693955 Contributors: Altenmann, Humus sapiens, Robert Weemeyer, MistToys, Quarl, Rich Farmbrough, Livajo, Pearle, Matturn, Valip, RexNL, Pigman, NawlinWiki, Paki.tv, NHSavage, Innity0, One, C mon, SmackBot, Britannicus, DuncanBCS, OrionK, Xx236, Kikodawgzz, KI, ChaChaFut,
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Socialist patriotism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_patriotism?oldid=679413192 Contributors: Bearcat, BD2412, NawlinWiki, R-41, Katharineamy, Addbot, The Elves Of Dunsimore, Sayerslle, ZroBot, RJFF, Lowercase sigmabot, Solomon7968, ChrisGualtieri, Webclient101, Charles Essie, Stilgar27, Finnusertop and Anonymous: 8
186
Single-party state Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-party_state?oldid=677111070 Contributors: The Anome, Taw, Roadrunner, Defrenrokorit, Michael Hardy, Jtdirl, Tannin, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Jpatokal, Muriel Gottrop~enwiki, Jiang, Kaihsu, Mxn, Dwo,
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Anonymous: 279
Socialist state Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_state?oldid=677850412 Contributors: Ed Poor, Paul Benjamin Austin, Andres, Johan Magnus, Warofdreams, Altenmann, Nikodemos, Sesel, Ruy Lopez, Kathar, Discospinster, Lycurgus, Alansohn, Cmapm,
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Sweepy and Anonymous: 88
Vanguardism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanguardism?oldid=674398276 Contributors: Altenmann, Loremaster, Martin
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Leninism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leninism?oldid=677606792 Contributors: Slrubenstein, Ed Poor, Fubar Obfusco, William
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3.1. TEXT
187
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188
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3.1. TEXT
189
Communist, Wukonsun, ,3298230932782302, Sam Chalipa, Anonimeco, MLMist, KasparBot and Anonymous: 470
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and Anonymous: 117
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with toast, Roland Rancehole, Hackensacksack, Milletet, FreedomReins, Smilkyone, All runced out, Bingbingbung, Sumatrik, Zionist
lobby, Ned anders9, Douglasbell, Reaper Eternal, Crush commies, Woverbie, Suusion of Yellow, Power pugnace, Minimac, One fox
hunt, Sheep shopper, Mcpretty, Bento00, Regancy42, Tni soprano, Jack Jersawitz, Ndttdddd, Smilingsami, Sky hook hanger, EmausBot,
Smilingsamie, Katherine, Beeshoney, Dental fred, Bounded rat, Peter pieman, InSequential samet2, InSequential samet21, Snip foreskins,
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rholand, Midas02, Fizz tz, Phineas fo, Summary diss, Choam Chumsky, Zoam zumsky, Zloyvolsheb, Dang trots, Whiperppli, First
twater, Wayne Slam, Crying out loudest, Crybaby kommy, Akiva orr, Shemen zayiit, Hail Runts raid, Betsies to heaven, Bless thee runtshit,
Beaver builder, Atzmon gillie, Smekking about, Red is so dead, Red is oh so dead, Red is oh my dead, Seismicio, Fetid commy die,
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trooth1, Compfreak7, Hairspey balm, Hairspey balm3, Atomician, CimanyD, Milf hide, Eattmee, Prison wargg, Peppernox, Finnegas,
Slotskyist, Charles Essie, Defsant, Uglirunse, Monticores, Miguelpinheirokrip, CsDix, RyanBerry98, Zozs, Sietecolores, Filedelinkerbot,
Tigercompanion25, Lepriconnor, 3298230932782302, Karmanatory, AsharaDayne, Aliensyntax, Bathtoy2 and Anonymous: 346
Politics of Fidel Castro Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Fidel_Castro?oldid=676356340 Contributors: Edward,
Bearcat, Midnightblueowl, Namiba, Neelix, Florentyna, Kalidasa 777, Sun Creator, CanadianLinuxUser, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Dewritech,
Bamyers99, GeorgeBarnick, FSII, Meclee, Marceline Jackson and Anonymous: 4
Guevarism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guevarism?oldid=661629658 Contributors: Polaris999, Alan Liefting, Kuralyov, Esperant, Chewie, RJHall, RyanGerbil10, Xcuref1endx, BD2412, Hanshans23, FlaBot, Ground Zero, The One True Fred, NawlinWiki, Bronks,
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P.4.P. No. 1, Dasha14, Stegop, Tbhotch, Slightsmile, ZroBot, Nemogue, Lowercase sigmabot, AhMedRMaaty, Heuh0, Lux ex Tenebris
and Anonymous: 25
3.2 Images
File:"YOUR_BLOOD_CAN_SAVE_HIM"_-_NARA_-_516245.tif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/
%22YOUR_BLOOD_CAN_SAVE_HIM%22_-_NARA_-_516245.tif License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. National Archives and
Records Administration Original artist: Unknown or not provided
File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Ambox_important.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based o of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat (talk contribs)
File:Ambox_question.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Ambox_question.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Based on Image:Ambox important.svg Original artist: Mysid, Dsmurat, penubag
File:Ambox_scales.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Ambox_scales.svg License: Public domain Contributors: self-made using inkscape and based o of Image:Emblem-scales.svg Original artist: penubag and Tkgd2007 (scales image)
File:Anarchist-Communist_Symbol.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Anarchist-Communist_
Symbol.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mattsvendsen
File:Anarchy-symbol.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Anarchy-symbol.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Linuxerist, Froztbyte, Arcy
File:Antirevisionist_cartoon.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Antirevisionist_cartoon.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Torn Down Masks Original artist: Zef Bumi
File:Atheism_template.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Atheism_template.svg License: CC BY-SA
3.0 Contributors:
Atom_of_Atheism-Zanaq.svg Original artist: Atom_of_Atheism-Zanaq.svg: User:Zanaq
File:Battle_strike_1934.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Battle_strike_1934.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This media is available in the holdings of the National Archives and Records Administration, cataloged under the ARC
Identier (National Archives Identier) 541925. Original artist: Photographer not credited
File:Benjamin_Disraeli_by_Cornelius_Jabez_Hughes,_1878.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/
Benjamin_Disraeli_by_Cornelius_Jabez_Hughes%2C_1878.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Harvard Art Museum/Fogg Museum, Historical Photographs and Special Visual Collections Department, Fine Arts Library Original artist: Cornelius Jabez Hughes, British
(1819 - 1884, London, England London, England)
3.2. IMAGES
191
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Communist_countries_
192
3.2. IMAGES
193
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg License:
Original artist: Zscout370
194
3.2. IMAGES
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196
File:Ho_Chi_Minh_Mausoleum_2006.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Ho_Chi_Minh_
Mausoleum_2006.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rungbachduong
File:IWW_demonstration_NY_1914.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/IWW_demonstration_NY_
1914.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:JStalin_Secretary_general_CCCP_1942.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/JStalin_Secretary_
general_CCCP_1942.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress [1] Original artist: Reproduction Number: LCUSW33-019081-C United States. Oce of War Information. Overseas Picture Division. Washington Division. Farm Security Administration - Oce of War Information Photograph Collection.
File:JStalin_Secretary_general_CCCP_1942_flipped.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/JStalin_
Secretary_general_CCCP_1942_flipped.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
JStalin_Secretary_general_CCCP_1942.jpg Original artist: JStalin_Secretary_general_CCCP_1942.jpg:
File:Karl_Marx_001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Karl_Marx_001.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: International Institute of Social History in Amsterdam, Netherlands Original artist: John Jabez Edwin Mayall
File:Klallam_people_at_Port_Townsend.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Klallam_people_at_
Port_Townsend.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Duke of York House, Jenny Lind at beinecke.library.yale.edu Original artist:
James Gilchrist Swan (1818-1900)
File:Kula_bracelet.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Kula_bracelet.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Brocken Inaglory
File:Kustodiev_The_Bolshevik.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Kustodiev_The_Bolshevik.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Russian Avant-garde Gallery Original artist: Boris Kustodiev
File:La_conqute_du_pain.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/La_conqu%C3%AAte_du_pain.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Koroesu
File:Latvia_deportation_1941.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Latvia_deportation_1941.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Le-bourgeois-gentilhomme.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Le-bourgeois-gentilhomme.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:LeTrotskyDB.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/2a/LeTrotskyDB.jpg License: PD-US Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Lenin,_Trotsky_and_Voroshilov_with_Delegates_of_the_10th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_
(Bolsheviks).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Lenin%2C_Trotsky_and_Voroshilov_with_Delegates_
of_the_10th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_%28Bolsheviks%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: originally
uploaded to en.wikipedia by User:Dynamax, http://www.marxists.org/admin/legal/fdl.htm Original artist: Unknown
File:Lenin-Trotsky_1920-05-20_Sverdlov_Square_(original).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/
Lenin-Trotsky_1920-05-20_Sverdlov_Square_%28original%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This source can be found in
various publications on the subject of early Soviet history, including Robert Service, 2000, Lenin: A Biography (London: Macmillan).
Original artist: Goldshtein G.
File:Lenin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Lenin.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://
s123.photobucket.com/albums/o298/RedElephantMSU/?action=view¤t=Lenin.jpg Original artist: L. Lonidov
File:Lenin_1920.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Lenin_1920.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Stevegiacomelli at English Wikipedia
File:Lenin_and_stalin_crop.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Lenin_and_stalin_crop.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Leo_Trotzki_1900_in_Sibirien.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Leo_Trotzki_1900_in_
Sibirien.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/photo/t1900c.htm Original artist: Unknown
File:Leon_Trotsky.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Leon_Trotsky.JPG License: Public domain
Contributors: self-made Scan from an original public poster printed in Poland and dated 1920 Original artist: unknown,governmental
edition ( Ministry of Military Afairs of Poland)
File:Logo_of_the_Fourth_International.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Logo_of_the_Fourth_
International.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Original artist:
File:Luis_Buuel.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Luis_Bu%C3%B1uel.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Revista Gente y la actualidad, Ao 3, nmero 130, Enero de 1968, Buenos Aires Original artist: Unknown
File:Lukcs_Gyrgy.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Luk%C3%A1cs_Gy%C3%B6rgy.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-15304-0097, Berlin, Tagung Weltfriedensrat, Georg Lukacz, Anna
Seghers.jpg Original artist: Sturm, Horst
File:Mao.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Mao.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work
Original artist: photograph User:WliiamShakespeare. Mao Zedong portrait attributed to Zhang Zhenshi and a committee of artists (see
[1],* [#cite_note-1 [1]]), this version hung at Tiananmen Gate prior to about 1967.
File:Mao_Zedong_portrait.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Mao_Zedong_portrait.jpg License: CC
BY 2.0 Contributors: Intermediate source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/richardfisher/3451116326/ Original artist: Zhang Zhenshi (1914
1992). Mao Zedong portrait attributed to Zhang Zhenshi and a committee of artists (see [1]).
File:Marcha_PC(AP).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Marcha_PC%28AP%29.jpg License: CC
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File:Marx_Engels_Lenin.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Marx_Engels_Lenin.svg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jgaray
3.2. IMAGES
197
File:Marx_and_Engels.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Marx_and_Engels.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was at English Wikipedia
File:Molire_-_Nicolas_Mignard_(1658).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Moli%C3%A8re_-_
Nicolas_Mignard_%281658%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.lessing-photo.com/dispimg.asp?i=26030249+
&cr=3&cl=1 Original artist: Nicolas Mignard
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NARA_-_552754.tif License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. National Archives and Records Administration Original artist: Swanson,
Dick, Photographer (NARA record: 8464477)
File:North_korea_mass_games.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/69/North_korea_mass_games.jpg License:
CC-BY-SA-2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Papua_New_Guinea_map.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Papua_New_Guinea_map.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Peace_sign.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Peace_sign.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Schuminweb at English Wikipedia
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Prachanda.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Prachanda.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: en
Wikipedia Original artist: en:User:Nhorning
File:Pyramid_of_Capitalist_System.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Pyramid_of_Capitalist_
System.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Uni Hamburg Original artist: Artist not credited. Published by International Pub. Co.,
Cleveland, Ohio.
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Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
File:Red_flag_II.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Red_flag_II.svg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Red_flag_waving.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Red_flag_waving.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Original PNG by Nikodemos. Original artist: Wereon
File:Rosa_Luxemburg.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Rosa_Luxemburg.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.marxists.org/francais/img/rosa.jpg Original artist: Unknown
File:SharonTemple.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/SharonTemple.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Original publication: unknown
Immediate source: Sharon Temple Museum Original artist: unknown
(Life time: unknown)
File:Society.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Society.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: own
work based on Image:Society.png by MisterMatt originally from English Wikipedia (en:Image:Society.png) Original artist: MesserWoland
File:Socrates.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Socrates.png License: Public domain Contributors:
Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Magnus Manske at English Wikipedia Later versions
were uploaded by Optimager at en.wikipedia.
File:Soyuz_Voinstvuyushchikh_Bezbozhnikov_Membership_Card.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
4/42/Soyuz_Voinstvuyushchikh_Bezbozhnikov_Membership_Card.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The cover of the membership card of the Union of Militant Atheists (Soyuz Voinstvuyushchikh Bezbozhnikov), scanned at http://a-theism.com/index.php?option=com_
content&task=view&id=2082&Itemid=45 Original artist: Anonymous (a sta artist of the Union, one would presume)
File:Stalin_Image.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Stalin_Image.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: File:Molotov, Stalin and Voroshilov, 1937.jpg Original artist: Self
File:Stalin_birthday2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Stalin_birthday2.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://club2.cat898.com/newbbs/dispbbs.asp?boardid=1&star=6&replyid=716217&id=2754110&skin=0&page=1 Original
artist: Unknown
File:Stalin_in_London.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Stalin_in_London.jpg License: CC BY-SA
2.0 Contributors: Flickr: . Original artist: Adam Smith
File:Surplus-value.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/80/Surplus-value.jpg License: ? Contributors:
From: http://www.graphicwitness.org/contemp/marx31.htm Original artist:
By Hugo Gellert, 1934.
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