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Chapter 4. Biochemistry - Advanced

4.1 Biochemical Energy - Advanced

Define energy, and describe how energy can be changed from one form to another.

What is energy? Where does your energy come from? Can energy be recycled?
This team of ants is breaking down a dead tree. A classic example of teamwork. And all that work takes energy. In
fact, each chemical reaction - the chemical reactions that allow the cells in those ants to do the work - needs energy
to get started. And all that energy comes from the food the ants eat. Whatever eats the ants gets their energy from
the ants. Energy passes through an ecosystem in one direction only.
Matter and Energy

All living things are made of matter. In fact, matter is the stuff of which all organisms are made. Anything
that occupies space and has mass is known as matter. Matter, in turn, consists of chemical substances. It is the
carbons, hydrogens, oxygens and other elements that combine to form molecules, compounds, organelles, cells and
eventually tissues, organs and organisms. In addition to being made of matter, all living organisms also need energy
to survive.
Energy is a property of matter that is defined as the ability to do work. The concept of energy is useful for explaining
and predicting most natural phenomena, and it is the foundation for an understanding of biology. All living organisms
need energy to grow and reproduce. However, energy can never be created nor destroyed. Energy can only be
transformed. That is, energy is always conserved. This is called the law of conservation of energy. Therefore,
organisms cannot create the energy they need. Instead, they must obtain energy from the environment. Organisms
also cannot destroy or use up the energy they obtain. They can only change it from one form to another. Organisms
will either use their energy (for metabolism) or release it to the environment as heat.
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In biology, energy is required for ecosystems to survive, as all living organisms need energy. Within an organism,
energy is needed for growth and development of a biological cell or an organelle within that cell. Energy is also
needed for all biochemical reactions within that cell. Therefore, energy is stored within cells in the chemical bonds
of substances such as carbohydrates (including sugars), lipids, and proteins. This energy is released during aerobic
respiration.
The energy for most living organisms initially originates from the sun. This energy is absorbed by producers,
usually photosynthetic organisms such as plants. Plants convert this energy into chemical energy, in the form of
carbohydrates, such as glucose. Energy can be stored in this state, or converted into a usable form of energy,
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This occurs in both the plant, as well as the organisms that eat the plant, or eat the
organism that ate the plant.
Forms of Energy

Energy can take several different forms. Common forms of energy include light, chemical, and heat energy. Other
common forms are kinetic and potential energy.
How Organisms Change Energy

In organisms, energy is always changing from one form to another. For example, plants obtain light energy from
sunlight and change it to chemical energy in food molecules, such as glucose. Chemical energy is energy stored in
bonds between atoms within food molecules. When other organisms eat and digest the food, they break the chemical
bonds and release the chemical energy. Organisms do not use energy very efficiently. About 90 percent of the energy
they obtain from food is converted to heat energy that is given off to the environment.
Kinetic and Potential Energy

Energy also constantly changes back and forth between kinetic and potential energy. Kinetic energy is the energy
of movement. For example, a ball falling through the air has kinetic energy because it is moving ( Figure 4.1). The
random motion of molecules is due to kinetic energy, and the driving force behind diffusion.
Potential energy is the energy stored in an object due to its position. A bouncing ball at the top of a bounce, just
before it starts to fall, has potential energy. For that instant, the ball is not moving, but it has the potential to move
because gravity is pulling on it. Once the ball starts to fall, the potential energy changes to kinetic energy. When the
ball hits the ground, it gains potential energy from the impact. The potential energy changes to kinetic energy when
the ball bounces back up into the air. As the ball gains height, it regains potential energy because of gravity.
Like the ball, every time you move you have kinetic energy whether you jump or run or just blink your eyes.
Can you think of situations in which you have potential energy? Obvious examples might include when you are
standing on a diving board or at the top of a ski slope or bungee jump. What gives you potential energy in all of
these situations? The answer is gravity.
Vocabulary

adenosine triphosphate (ATP): Energy-carrying molecule that cells use to power their metabolic processes;
energy-currency of the cell.
energy: Property of matter that is defined as the ability to do work.
kinetic energy: Form of energy that an object has when it is moving.
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FIGURE 4.1
Energy in a bouncing ball is transformed
from potential energy to kinetic energy
and then back to potential energy. This
cycle of energy changes keeps repeating
as long as the ball continues to bounce.
The ball rises less on each successive
bounce because some energy is used to
resist air molecules.

law of conservation of energy: Law of physics that states that energy may neither be created nor destroyed;
the sum of all the energies in a system remains constant over time.
matter: All the substances of which things are made.
potential energy: Form of energy that is stored in an object due to its position.
Summary

Energy is a property of matter. It cannot be created or destroyed. Organisms obtain light energy from sunlight
or chemical energy from food and change the energy into different forms, including heat energy.
Explore More

Use this resource to answer the questions that follow.

http://www.hippocampus.org/Biology Non-Majors Biology Search: Energy
1.
2.
3.
4.

What is energy?
Why do living organisms need energy?
What is the main difference between potential and kinetic energy?
What is the original source of most energy used by living organisms on Earth?

Review

1. What is energy?
2. Describe two ways that energy changes form in the following sequence of events: A plant grows in the sun.
A rabbit eats the plant.
3. Describe a real-life situation in which the energy of an object or person changes back and forth between kinetic
energy and potential energy. Identify each time energy changes form.

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4.2 States of Matter in Biological Systems Advanced

Identify three states of matter and explain how they differ.

Solid, liquid or gas?

The state of matter is a physical property of that matter. H2 O can exist in three different states of matter. This glacier
is obviously a solid state of H2 O, floating in the liquid state. Why does the ice float on water? Which has a greater
density, solid H2 O or liquid H2 O?
States of Matter

The amount of energy in molecules of matter determines the state of matter. Matter can exist in one of several
different states, including a gas, liquid, or solid state. These different states of matter have different properties,
which are illustrated in Figure 4.2. Gasses have the most energy, and solids have the least energy.
A gas is a state of matter in which atoms or molecules have enough energy to move freely. The molecules
come into contact with one another only when they randomly collide. Forces between atoms or molecules are
not strong enough to hold them together, allowing the molecules to move independently of one another.
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A liquid is a state of matter in which atoms or molecules are constantly in contact but have enough energy
to keep changing positions relative to one another. Forces between atoms or molecules are strong enough to
keep the molecules together but not strong enough to prevent them from moving. The particles of a liquid
have enough energy to allow them to slide past one another, but not enough energy to allow them to move
freely.
A solid is a state of matter in which atoms or molecules do not have enough energy to move. They are
constantly in contact and in fixed positions relative to one another. Forces between atoms or molecules are
strong enough to keep the molecules together and to prevent them from moving. The particles of a solid only
have enough energy to vibrate in place.

FIGURE 4.2
States of Matter.

All three containers contain a substance with the same mass, but the substances are in different states. In the lefthand container, the substance is a gas, which has spread to fill its container. It takes both the shape and volume of the
container. In the middle container, the substance is a liquid, which has spread to take the shape of its container but
not the volume. In the right-hand container, the substance is a solid, which takes neither the shape nor the volume
of its container.
What Determines a Substances State?

A substances state depends partly on temperature and air pressure. For example, at the air pressure found at sea
level, water exists as a liquid at temperatures between 0C and 100C. Above 100C, water exists as a gas (water
vapor). Below 0C, water exists as a solid (ice). Different substances have a different range of temperatures at which
they exist in each state. For example, oxygen is gas above -183C, but iron is a gas only above 2861C. These
differences explain why some substances are always solids at normal Earth temperatures, whereas others are always
gases or liquids.
Changing States

Matter constantly goes through cycles that involve changing states. Water and all the elements important to organisms, including carbon and nitrogen, are constantly recycled on Earth (see Principles of Ecology). As matter moves
through its cycles, it changes state repeatedly. For example, in the water cycle, water repeatedly changes from a gas
to a liquid or solid and back to a gas again. How does this happen?
Adding energy to matter gives its atoms or molecules the ability to resist some of the forces holding them together.
For example, heating ice to its melting point (0C) gives its molecules enough energy to move. The ice melts and
becomes liquid water. Similarly, heating liquid water to its boiling point (100C) gives its molecules enough energy
to pull apart from one another so they no longer have contact. The liquid water vaporizes and becomes water vapor.
In biological systems, matter is continuously changing states as well. For example, carbon in the form of the gas
carbon dioxide is changed into glucose, a solid. This change, of course, occurs during photosynthesis. During
cellular respiration, carbons from the glucose molecule are changed back into the carbon dioxide gas.
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Conservation of Matter

Though matter can change states, and it often does, matter cannot be created or destroyed. Similar to the law of
the conservation of energy, the law of conservation of mass states that the mass (or matter) of an isolated system
will remain constant over time. This means that mass or matter cannot be created or destroyed, although it may
be rearranged and changed into different types of substances. Hence, matter is continuously recycled, resulting in
the so called "circle of life." The carbon and other elements of organisms are recycled to be used by other living
organisms. This law also states that in a chemical reaction, or a biochemical reaction, as mass cannot be created or
destroyed, the mass of the reactants must equal the mass of the products. In other words, the atoms in the starting
materials must be equivalent to the atoms in the ending materials.
Vocabulary

biochemical reaction: Chemical reaction within a cell or organism; usually controlled by an enzyme.
boiling point: The temperature at which a liquid changes state into a gas.
gas: State of matter in which atoms or molecules have enough energy to move freely.
law of conservation of mass: Law that states that the mass of an isolated system will remain constant over
time.
liquid: State of matter in which atoms or molecules are constantly in contact but have enough energy to keep
changing positions relative to one another.
melting point: The temperature at which a solid changes state into a liquid.
solid: State of matter in which atoms or molecules do not have enough energy to move.
state of matter: Condition that matter is in, depending on how much energy its atoms or molecules have.
Summary

Matter can exist in one of several different states, including a gas, liquid, or solid state. States of matter differ
in the amount of energy their molecules have. When matter recycles, it changes state by gaining or losing
energy.
Explore More

Use this resource to answer the questions that follow.

States of Matter at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HAPc6JH85pM

MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: http://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/139422

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1. What state of matter is glass?

2. How and why does the glass in the video change states?
Review

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Compare and contrast the three common states of matter?

What determines a substances state?
At what temperatures does the state of water change?
Explain what happens to molecules of matter when matter changes state from a liquid to a gas.
What is the law of conservation of mass?

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4.3 Chemical Reactions - Advanced

Describe what happens in a chemical reaction, and identify types of chemical reactions.

Understanding chemistry is essential to fully understand biology. Why?

A general understanding of chemistry is necessary to understand biology. Essentially, our cells are just thousands
of chemicals made of elements like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur in just the right
combinations. And these chemicals combine through chemical reactions.
What are Chemical Reactions?

A chemical compound may be very different from the substances that combine to form it. For example, the element
chlorine (Cl) is a poisonous gas, but when it combines with sodium (Na) to form sodium chloride (NaCl), it is no
longer toxic. You may even eat it on your food. Sodium chloride is just table salt. What process changes a toxic
chemical like chlorine into a much different substance like table salt?
A chemical reaction is a process that changes some chemical substances into other chemical substances. The
substances that start a chemical reaction are called reactants. The substances that form as a result of a chemical
reaction are called products. During the reaction, the reactants are used up to create the products. For example,
when methane burns in oxygen, it releases carbon dioxide and water. In this reaction, the reactants are methane
(CH4 ) and oxygen (O2 ), and the products are carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and water (H2 O).
Chemical Equations

A chemical reaction can be represented by a chemical equation. Using the same example, the burning of methane
gas can be represented by the equation:
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CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H2 O.
The arrow in a chemical equation separates the reactants from the products and shows the direction in which the
reaction occurs. If the reaction could also occur in the opposite direction, then two arrows, one pointing in each
direction, or one arrow pointing in both directions, would be used. On each side of the arrow, a mixture of chemicals
is indicated by the chemical symbols joined by a plus sign (+). The numbers preceding some of the chemical symbols
(such as 2 O2 ) indicate how many molecules of the chemicals are involved in the reaction. (If there is no number in
front of a chemical symbol, it means that just one molecule is involved.)
In a chemical reaction, the quantity of each element does not change. There is the same amount of each element at
the end of the reaction as there was at the beginning. This is reflected in the chemical equation for the reaction. The
equation should be balanced. In a balanced equation, the same number of atoms of a given element appear on each
side of the arrow. For example, in the equation above, there are four hydrogen atoms on each side of the arrow.
Types of Chemical Reactions

In general, a chemical reaction involves the breaking and forming of chemical bonds. In the methane reaction above,
bonds are broken in methane and oxygen, and bonds are formed in carbon dioxide and water. A reaction like this, in
which a compound or element burns in oxygen, is called a combustion reaction. This is just one of many possible
types of chemical reactions. Other types of chemical reactions include synthesis, decomposition, and substitution
reactions.
A synthesis reaction occurs when two or more chemical elements or compounds unite to form a more complex
product. For example, nitrogen (N2 ) and hydrogen (H2 ) unite to form ammonia (NH3 ):
N2 + 3 H2 2 NH3 .
A decomposition reaction occurs when a compound is broken down into smaller compounds or elements.
For example, water (H2 O) breaks down into hydrogen (H2 ) and oxygen (O2 ):
2 H2 O 2 H2 + O2 .
A substitution reaction occurs when one element replaces another element in a compound. For example,
sodium (Na+ ) replaces hydrogen (H) in hydrochloric acid (HCl), producing sodium chloride (NaCl) and
hydrogen gas (H2 ):
2 Na+ + 2 HCl 2 NaCl + H2 .
Redox Rections

Reduction-oxidation reactions, or redox reactions include all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation
state changed. This can be either a simple redox process, such as the oxidation of carbon into carbon dioxide or the
reduction of carbon by hydrogen into methane, or a complex process such as the oxidation of glucose through a
series of complex electron transfer processes during cellular respiration. Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an
increase in oxidation state by a molecule, atom, or ion. Reduction is the gain of electrons or a decrease in oxidation
state by a molecule, atom, or ion.
Redox Reactions in Biology

Many important biological processes involve redox reactions, which frequently store and release energy. For
example, photosynthesis involves the reduction of carbon dioxide into glucose and the oxidation of water into
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oxygen. This process stores the energy of sunlight in the bonds of sugars. The reverse reaction, cellular respiration,
converts the energy in glucose into ATP. Cellular respiration involves the oxidation of glucose to carbon dioxide and
the reduction of oxygen gas to water. This process depends on the reduction of NAD+ to the electron carrier NADH,
and the reverse oxidation of NADH to NAD+ . The reduction of NAD+ leads to the formation of a proton (H+ )
gradient, which drives the synthesis of ATP. NADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and NADPH (Nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide phosphate) are electron carriers in biological systems. The term redox state is often used to
describe the balance between NAD+ /NADH and NADP+ /NADPH (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate).
Vocabulary

chemical reaction: A process that changes some chemical substances into other chemical substances.
combustion reaction: Type of chemical reaction in which a compound or element burns in oxygen.
decomposition reaction: Type of chemical reaction in which a compound is broken down into smaller
compounds or elements.
oxidation: The loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation state by a molecule, atom, or ion.
product: Substance that forms as a result of a chemical reaction.
reactant: Substance involved in a chemical reaction that is present at the beginning of the reaction.
redox reaction: A chemical reaction in which atom(s) have their oxidation state changed.
redox state: Describes the balance between NAD+ /NADH and NADP+ /NADPH.
reduction: The gain of electrons or a decrease in oxidation state by a molecule, atom, or ion.
substitution reaction: Type of chemical reaction in which one element replaces another element in a compound.
synthesis reaction: Type of chemical reaction in which elements or compounds unite to form a more complex
product.
Summary

A chemical reaction is a process that changes some chemical substances into others. It involves breaking
and forming chemical bonds. Types of chemical reactions include synthesis reactions and decomposition
reactions.
Review

1.
2.
3.
4.

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Identify the roles of reactants and products in a chemical reaction.

Describe each type of chemical reaction.
What is wrong with the following chemical equation? How could you fix it? CH4 + O2 CO2 + 2H2 O
What type of reaction is represented by the following chemical equation? Explain your answer. 2Na + 2HCl
2NaCl + H2

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Chapter 4. Biochemistry - Advanced

4.4 Chemical Reactions and Energy - Advanced

Explain the role of energy in chemical reactions, and define activation energy.

How do you change one thing into another?

The bonds between the atoms need to be rearranged. That is the definition of a chemical reaction. And all chemical
sections need energy to get started.
Chemical Reactions and Energy

All chemical reactions involve energy. Some chemical reactions consume energy, whereas other chemical reactions
release energy. Chemical reactions can be either spontaneous, which do not require an input of energy, or nonspontaneous, which does require an input of some type of energy. Energy may be in the form of heat, light or
electricity. Each of the energy changes that occur during a reaction are graphed in Figure 4.3. In the reaction on the
left, energy is released. In the reaction on the right, energy is consumed.
Bill Nye discusses chemical reactions at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=66kuhJkQCVM (2:05).

MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: http://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/201

Thermodynamics

Chemical reactions follow the laws of thermodynamics. The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy can
be changed from one form to another, but it cannot be created or destroyed. This law is also known as the Law of
Conservation of Energy. The Second Law of Thermodynamics states the energy available after a chemical reaction
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FIGURE 4.3
The exothermic reaction on the left releases energy. The endothermic reaction
on the right consumes energy.

is always less than that at the beginning of a reaction. This is also commonly referred to as entropy. Entropy can
be described as the degree of disorder in a system. That is, as energy is transferred from one form to another, some
of the energy is lost as heat, and the amount of available energy decreases. As the energy decreases, the disorder in
the system increases, and, by definition, the entropy increases. Ice melting provides an example in which entropy
increases. Entropy essentially is a measure of the tendency of a process, such as a chemical reaction, to proceed in a
particular direction.
Reactions can proceed by themselves if they are exergonic or exothermic, that is if they release energy. The
associated free energy of the reaction is composed of two different thermodynamic quantities, enthalpy and entropy.
Enthalpy is a measure of the total energy of a thermodynamic system. The change in enthalpy is positive in
endothermic reactions, and negative in exothermic processes.
Exothermic Reactions

Chemical reactions that release energy are called exothermic reactions. An example is the combustion of methane
described at the beginning of this lesson. In organisms, exothermic reactions are called catabolic reactions.
Catabolic reactions break down molecules into smaller units. An example is a decomposition reaction, such as
the breakdown of glucose molecules for energy. Exothermic reactions can be represented by the general chemical
equation:
Reactants Products + Heat.
Endothermic Reactions

Chemical reactions that consume energy are called endothermic reactions. Energy is usually absorbed from
the surroundings as heat. An example is the synthesis of ammonia, described above. In organisms, endothermic
reactions are called anabolic reactions. Anabolic reactions construct molecules from smaller units. An example
is the synthesis of proteins from amino acids. Endothermic reactions can be represented by the general chemical
equation:
Reactants + Heat Products.
Endothermic Organisms

In biological systems, the term endothermic is a metabolic term related to maintenance of body temperature. An
endothermic animals is an organism that produces heat through internal means, a process known as endothermy.
Animals may do this through muscle shivering or increasing metabolism. These animals do to absorb heat from
their surroundings, so the term endothermic has distinct uses related to chemical reactions or maintenance of body
temperature. The opposite of endothermy is ectothermy. Ectothermic animals (cold-blooded) do absorb heat from
their surroundings.
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FIGURE 4.4
This pack gets cold due to an endothermic reaction.

Vocabulary

anabolic reaction: Endothermic reaction that occurs in organisms; chemical reaction that builds new molecules
and/or stores energy.
catabolic reaction: Chemical reaction that breaks down more complex organic molecules into simpler substances; usually releases energy.
decomposition reaction: Type of chemical reaction in which a compound is broken down into smaller
compounds or elements.
endothermic reaction: Any chemical reaction that consumes energy.
enthalpy: A measure of the total energy of a thermodynamic system.
entropy: A measure of the tendency of a process, such as a chemical reaction, to proceed in a particular
direction.
exothermic reaction: Any chemical reaction that releases energy.
Summary

Chemical reactions follow the laws of thermodynamics.

Some chemical reactions are exothermic, which means they release energy. Other chemical reactions are
endothermic, which means they consume energy.
Catabolic and anabolic reactions occur in cells/organisms.
Explore More

Use this resource to answer the questions that follow. Assignment Discovery: Chemical Reactions at http://www.d
iscovery.com/tv-shows/other-shows/videos/assignment-discovery-shorts-chemical-reactions.htm

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MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: http://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/139421

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

What is the chemical reaction definition used in this video?

How does a chemical reaction form new substances?
What is a balanced equation? Give an example.
Define a single replacement reaction.
Give an example of a double replacement reaction.
What is a redox reaction?
Define oxidation and reduction.

Review

1. Compare and contrast each of the following:

a.
b.
c.
d.

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The first and seconds laws of thermodynamics.

Entropy and enthalpy.
Endothermic and exothermic reactions.
Anabolic and catabolic reactions.

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Chapter 4. Biochemistry - Advanced

4.5 Enzymes and Activation Energy - Advanced

Explain the importance of enzymes in organisms, and describe how enzymes work.
State factors that affect the rate of chemical reactions.

What is the energy needed for biochemical reactions?

Is it light or heat? It could be either. But whatever form energy takes, every single biochemical reaction in your body
- and there are trillions of these reactions (or more) every split second, needs energy to start or activate. And that is
known as activation energy.
Activation Energy

Regardless of whether reactions are exothermic reactions or endothermic reactions, they all need energy to get
started. This energy is called activation energy. Activation energy is like the push you need to start moving down
a slide. The push gives you enough energy to start moving. Once you start, you keep moving without being pushed
again. Activation energy is defined as the energy that must be overcome in order for a chemical reaction to occur, or
the minimum energy required to start a chemical reaction. The concept of activation energy is illustrated in Figure
4.5.
An overview of activation energy can be viewed at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VbIaK6PLrRM (1:16).

MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: http://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/202

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FIGURE 4.5
To start this reaction, a certain amount of
energy is required, called the activation
energy. How much activation energy is
required depends on the nature of the reaction and the conditions under which the
reaction takes place. Activation energy
can be thought of as the height of the
energy barrier between the reactants and
the products.

Why do reactions need energy to get started? In order for reactions to occur, three things must happen, and they all
require energy:
Reactant molecules must collide. To collide, they must move, so they need kinetic energy.
Unless reactant molecules are positioned correctly, intermolecular forces may push them apart. To overcome
these forces and move together requires more energy.
If reactant molecules collide and move together, there must be enough energy left for them to react.
Rates of Chemical Reactions

The rates at which chemical reactions take place in organisms are very important. Chemical reactions in organisms
are involved in processes ranging from the contraction of muscles to the digestion of food. For example, when you
wave goodbye, it requires repeated contractions of muscles in your arm over a period of a couple of seconds. A huge
number of reactions must take place in that time, so each reaction cannot take longer than a few milliseconds. If the
reactions took much longer, you might not finish waving until sometime next year.
Factors that help reactant molecules collide and react speed up chemical reactions. These factors include the
concentration of reactants and the temperature at which the reactions occur.
Reactions are usually faster at higher concentrations of reactants. The more reactant molecules there are in a
given space, the more likely they are to collide and react.
Reactions are usually faster at higher temperatures. Reactant molecules at higher temperatures have more
energy to move, collide, and react.
Vocabulary

activation energy: Energy needed for a chemical reaction to get started.

endothermic reaction: Any chemical reaction that consumes energy.
exothermic reaction: Any chemical reaction that releases energy.
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product: Substance that forms as a result of a chemical reaction.

reactant: Substance involved in a chemical reaction that is present at the beginning of the reaction.
Summary

All chemical reactions require activation energy, which is the energy needed to get a reaction started.
Rates of chemical reactions depend on factors such as the concentration of reactants and the temperature at
which reactions occur. Both factors affect the ability of reactant molecules to react.
Explore More

Use this resource to answer the questions that follow.

Activation Energy at http://www.sophia.org/activation-energy--2/activation-energy5-tutorial?pathway=the
rmochemistry
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

In this video, what does A + B represent?

In this video, what does P + Q represent?
What is the activation energy?
Why is one activation energy lower than the other?
What is the main difference between an endothermic and exothermic reaction?

Review

1. What is activation energy?

2. Why do all chemical reactions require activation energy?

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4.6 Enzymes and Biochemical Reactions - Advanced

Explain the importance of enzymes in organisms, and describe how enzymes work.

What is a biological catalyst?

This super fast train can obviously reach great speeds. And theres a lot of technology that helps this train go fast.
Speaking of helping things go fast brings us to enzymes. Life could not exist without enzymes. Essentially, enzymes
are biological catalysts that speed up biochemical reactions.
Enzymes and Biochemical Reactions

Most chemical reactions within organisms would be impossible under the normal conditions within cell. For
example, the body temperature of most organisms is too low for reactions to occur quickly enough to carry out
life processes. Reactants may also be present in such low concentrations that it is unlikely they will meet and
collide. Therefore, the rate of most biochemical reactions must be increased by a catalyst. A catalyst is a chemical
that speeds up chemical reactions. In organisms, catalysts are called enzymes.
Like other catalysts, enzymes are not reactants in the reactions they control. They help the reactants interact but
are not used up in the reactions. Instead, they may be used over and over again. Unlike other catalysts, enzymes
are usually highly specific for a particular chemical reaction. They generally catalyze only one or a few types of
reactions.
Enzymes are extremely efficient in speeding up biochemical reactions. They can catalyze up to several million
reactions per second. As a result, the difference in rates of biochemical reactions with and without enzymes may be
enormous. A typical biochemical reaction might take hours or even days to occur under normal cellular conditions
without an enzyme, but less than a second with the enzyme.
An overview of enzymes can be viewed at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E90D4BmaVJM (9:43).

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MEDIA
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How Enzymes Work

How do enzymes speed up biochemical reactions so dramatically? Like all catalysts, enzymes work by lowering the
activation energy of chemical reactions. This is illustrated in Figure 4.6. The biochemical reaction shown in the
figure requires about three times as much activation energy without the enzyme as it does with the enzyme.
An animation of how enzymes work can be seen at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CZD5xsOKres (2:02).

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FIGURE 4.6
The reaction represented by this graph
is a combustion reaction involving the reactants glucose (C6 H12 O6 ) and oxygen
(O2 ). The products of the reaction are
carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and water (H2 O).
Energy is also released during the reaction. The enzyme speeds up the reaction
by lowering the activation energy needed
for the reaction to start.

Compare the

activation energy with and without the enzyme.

Enzymes generally lower activation energy by reducing the energy needed for reactants to come together and react.
For example:
Enzymes bring reactants together so they dont have to expend energy moving about until they collide at
random. Enzymes bind both reactant molecules (called substrates), tightly and specifically, at a site on the
enzyme molecule called the active site ( Figure 4.7). This forms an enzyme-substrate complex.
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By binding reactants at the active site, enzymes also position reactants correctly, so they do not have to
overcome intermolecular forces that would otherwise push them apart. This allows the molecules to interact
with less energy.
Enzymes may also allow reactions to occur by different pathways that have lower activation energy.
FIGURE 4.7
This enzyme molecule binds reactant
moleculescalled substrateat its active
site, forming an enzyme-substrate complex. This brings the reactants together
and positions them correctly so the reaction can occur. After the reaction, the
products are released from the enzymes
active site. This frees up the enzyme so it
can catalyze additional reactions.

The activities of enzymes also depend on the temperature, ionic conditions, and the pH of the surroundings. Some
enzymes work best at acidic pHs, while others work best in neutral environments.
Digestive enzymes secreted in the acidic environment (low pH) of the stomach help break down proteins into
smaller molecules. The main digestive enzyme in the stomach is pepsin, which works best at a pH of about
1.5). These enzymes would not work optimally at other pHs. Trypsin is another enzyme in the digestive
system which break protein chains in the food into smaller parts. Trypsin works in the small intestine, which
is not an acidic environment. Trypsins optimum pH is about 8.
Biochemical reactions are optimal at physiological temperatures. For example, most biochemical reactions
work best at the normal body temperature of 98.6F (37C). Many enzymes lose function at lower and higher
temperatures. At higher temperatures, an enzymes shape deteriorates, and only when the temperature comes
back to normal does the enzyme regain its shape and normal activity.
Importance of Enzymes

Enzymes are involved in most of the chemical reactions that take place in organisms. About 4,000 such reactions are
known to be catalyzed by enzymes, but the number may be even higher. In animals, an important function of enzymes
is to help digest food. Digestive enzymes speed up reactions that break down large molecules of carbohydrates,
proteins, and fats into smaller molecules the body can use. Without digestive enzymes, animals would not be able to
break down food molecules quickly enough to provide the energy and nutrients they need to survive.
Vocabulary

active site: Site on the enzyme where the reaction occurs.

biochemical reaction: Chemical reaction within a cell or organism; usually controlled by an enzyme.
enzyme: Chemical, usually a protein, that speeds up chemical reactions in organisms; a biological catalyst.
pepsin: The main digestive enzyme in the stomach; degrades food proteins into peptides.
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Chapter 4. Biochemistry - Advanced

reactant: Substance involved in a chemical reaction that is present at the beginning of the reaction.
substrates: The reactants in an enzyme catalyzed reaction.
trypsin: Digestive enzyme which break protein chains in food into smaller peptide fragments; a serine
protease, cleaves peptide chains mainly at the carboxyl side of the amino acids lysine or arginine, except
when either is followed by proline.
Summary

Enzymes are needed to speed up chemical reactions in organisms. They work by lowering the activation
energy of reactions.
Enzymes position substrates into active sites.
Various conditions affect enzyme function. Pepsin and trypsin are two digestive enzymes that work in
contrasting environments.
Review

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

In general, how do enzymes speed up chemical reactions?

How do enzymes bring reactants together? How is it beneficial?
Explain why organisms need enzymes to survive.
What are the conditions necessary for enzymes to perform optimally?
What are pepsin and trypsin?

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