/

For
Fron

L esson

:
:

Kead;ng Ts

ttes

Grup hs

bJ

q *r;sh For Sc;ence nd TLchnology

C

Ger.eral Sc.gsa.e,

r t) idg Glrrs

w'tortin Bales et.ol

., lgfa

11. Look at these histograms:

'c

Calcutta

40

'C

20

40
30
20

10

10

30

-10

-10

Cm

JFMAMJJASOND
tomperatura

Crn

Tokyo

'C

Lima

Now read this:

JFMAMJJASOND
temparature

-10
Cm

JFMAMJJASOND

The average monthly rainlall in Calcutta during the first

of the year is:

)tr,

20
t5
10

n" JFMAMJJASOND
rainfall

o:?mmi:m6
ra inf

all

Now read this:

55cm=6:9-2cm

Total

JFMAMJJASOND
rainfall

months

January I cm
February 3 cm
March 4 cm
April
5 cm
May
14 cm
June
28 cm

temp6rSture

30

30
25
20
l5
.lo

si_r

Ans*'er these questions

e) Is the figure 9.2 exact or approximate?

f) What is the total rainfall for the second half of the vear in
Calcutta?

The hisrograms in the top row show the ave rage rangt, of terrpcrature
(in degrees centigrade ) for each nronth in three cities. The hisi'grams
in the bottom row show their average monthly rainlall (in centinretres).

In Calcutta in January the temperature ranges from 27.C to ll',C:

that is, the ma-vimum tempcrature is 27''C and the minintunt tcmperature is l3'C. These are the two extremcs of tcmperature .
Complete these (see part 5 ol the appendix for the narnes of months):

a)

Extremes of temperature in Tokyo in January: maximunr ___,

mlnlmum
b) In Lima in April the temperature ranges from _
to
c) Throughout the yeu in
the rainlali rangis l-r.rrn .lj cm

to i cm.
d) In Tokyo the maximum rainfall
occurs in the month of
and the minimum rainfall . . .

g) What is the average monthly rainfall during this period?

h) What is the average rnonthly rainfall during the last three
months of the year in Tokyo?
Now read this and answer the questions:
In Lima the range of rainfall isvery narrow. Rainfall is fairly constant
throughout the year. In Calcutta, however, the range of rainfall is
very wide.It varies

alol.

i)
j)

In which city is there the widest range of temperature?

In which city is the temperature most constant?
k) Where does the rainfall vary most?
33

the heights of rhe mounrains, makin-s

sentences from rhe rwo

*LTilt;re

Example: Everest is nearly nine tirnes

as high as Ben Nevis.

Aconcagua is considerabiy highei than Mont
Blanc.

i.{ow iook at this bar-graph:

the same height as

nearly

approximately
much
corfsiderably

slightly

'i

than

5'

Now read these staternents and then complete

the bar-graph, which shows
the lengths of rivers.

E
o

oc

The Nile is approximately l6 times as long

as the Thames.
The Amazon is slightly ,ho.te, than the
Nlle.
J.he _{ya.zon is approiimately I,000 t- long". than the yangtse.
The Nile is approximately twice u, fonlur-tt.
Volga and the parana
Ilr.
Lulunq is slightly tonger tf,an tfreTof sa.
I ne Volga ls considerably longer
than rhetuphrates.
The Euphrates is much longerit an th"-ii;.r.

o
o

E5
o
!
C1
a

3
o
o
c
o

o
c

.s

co

al
'6

higher
lower

.
.

E.
ot

o
ca

twice as high as . .

x times as high as

o
q
C

\2

Argentina Tanzania
(horizontal axis)
The reiative heiglhts of Mountains

Read and complete rhis:

The rectangles show the heights of different

--.-'-;;jr. mountains.
The heights are marked on"the
The scale is shown in
thousands of ._.-_-- fne leights
of tirlse' mountains range from
_=-=-to

234

56

length in thousands o{ kilometres

80

Section

Fercentages anrl ratios

or:

5. Look and read:

The ratio ol students ofscience to students ofengineering

is

3 :2.

Now write some similar statements about students in your college or

university.

8. Look and read:

Alloys are mixtures of metals in

different proportions. For example,

brass

Engi neeri ng

is

ccmposed

of 7 parts

copper (Cu) lo 3 parts of zinc (Zn).

of

Answer these:

This chart shows the relati'e numbers ol stucients in different

faculties of a university. you can see that tlrc nta joritl,(the ureater
part) ol students study scientific or technical subjects. whereas
students of letters are in tlrc ntirtoritt,.

The proportions are approximate. They can be expressed as pcrce,tugc:t. J'hus, science students t.ortt.tiruit appr.oximateil 30 ?"
(thirty per cent) of all students.
(Note: A consists of B : B cons{itutes A.)

a) What are the percentages of copper and zinc in

b) What are A and B in the chan?
c) What is the ratio olcopper to zinc?

Now look at the charts and compiete the statements:

Sn 6%

Now complete these statements:

Zn

2o/o

d) Bronze is made up of I part of

to 3 parts of-to46
parts of
e) Expressed as a _-,
the composition isl copper __/,,
tin

a) Engineering studcnts . . .

b) 50:,;
c) The

brass?

cf a,ll students.
oi ail studenis studl'
or
of studerrts in thc faculties of engineering and letters

are approximately the same.

- of education.
d) There are _
lew students
e) _
the percentage of science students, the percentage oi

compos!tton

of bronze

f)

zrna

The ratio betwecn copper and the

other metals is _.

agricuiture students is relatir,,eiy small.

Q In the faculty of science, 70lof

are women; that is, the

..-

the students are men and 30,)(

g) Lead solder consists ol

tin to
of lead.
h) Lead and tin are ina ratio of.

are men and women are in

the

g) Approximately

15

\ of ali sruCents stud_v _.

--

7. Make

composltton

questions and answers like the example.

The proportions can also be expressed as ratio.s.
Exctmple

of lead solder

What is tl.re ratio betu,een students of science and

students ol engineering ?
The ratio betv;een students ol science and stLldents ol

engineering is 3:2. (three lo twoJ

81

Norv drari, ii rthart to shorl' ihe composition oj. crrbalt

stccl:
ilj cobalr (C.o). 65'l i ilon (Fe)

35

of

,l-J'

2. t,ook ai fhis tahle:

ll. Look at the diagranls and sa-l' rl'hether these staternents arc true or false.
Correct the false statements.

Abundaircc of lhe most common elements bv

mass

Ory

Silicon

t-5

a) Aeceleration is directlv proportional to force.

b) The greater the pow.er of a plane's engines, the slower rts ac-

celeration.

F - ma

I ron
Calciunr
Sodium
Potassium
l\{agnesiurn

Whole

Sea

|t) 4

ge n

Aluminiurr

9l

Orr

[Jrdrogcn

j.,i

Chlorinc

Sodium

A.1

3,1

iron

57
1

1"1;ignesiun

Magnesium 0'1

26: Sulphur
24 Calcium
l

Oxvgen
Silicon

0 08
0 04

Potassium 0'04

Hvd rnoen

n.g

Titanium

0_s

Bromine

Carbon

0'01

0'003

Norv ansrver these questions:

crust

40 km/h

as that between lbrce and acceleration.

The srnaller the rrass, the laster the acceleration.

20

r:

,rammonia

(NH.)

do oxyger.r, h'vdrogen, and chlorine

c)

Express the amounts of oxygen in the Earth's crust, in sea water.

and the u hole Earth as a ratio.
d) Which element has a ratio 90:20:l in the whole Earth. in the
crust. and in sea u'ater?
e) Which eleinent has an approximate ratio ol 5:2 in the crust and

(ii) bromine.
lr) Cornpare the arrount oi iron in the whole

oliron in the

copper sulpha:e (Cu SO")

Ear-tl.r

with the an.iouni

crus!.

,/

50
40
30

;o
l-

sea rvater

constitute'l

f)

70

LO
tg)
=O

l{ of the Earth's

in sea water?
Which element has a ratio of 85:l in tl're crust and sea rvater?
g) In sea water compare the amount ol chlorine with (i) ox,vgen

r nn -,

60

80

b) What percentase of

c) Accelelation is inverseiv proportional to rnass ior a given torce.

d) The relationship betrvecn mass and acceleration is thC sa're kinrl

o-

Nickel 3-6
Caicium 12
Aluminium I 2

a) Which elements colrstitute approxirnately

pb
:<

45 secs

80

4(I 50
22 28
I I -15

15 secs
30 secs

.l

g,atcr
Eartlr
':
:1 .:1:r"l' '.
"-*l :l:11'
qen
Cr:ust

acrF

vu

3. Look at the table again and read the following passage:

Ox1'gen, silicon, aluminium

10

approximately 80%

atmosphere.
in the air. but is not one of the most common
elements. liitrogen forms only a small percentage of the crust and
oceans, and the mass of the atmosphere is negligible compared with
the total mass of the Earth.
Air is a mixture of gases. Its composition varies and de pends to a

Nitrogen is the main

102030405060
Temperature in degrees
Centrg rade

f) The solubility of copper

and hydrogen together constitute

of the Earth's crust, sea and

sulphate and ammonia

is

inversely

proportional to the temperature ol the water.

g) -l-he warrner the water. the greaier tlie soluhility ol arnltoitia.
ir) fhe coider the ivater, the less ihe solubility of'copper sulphatc.
i) The relationship between temperature and solubilitv is nbt the
same for ammonia alld copper sulDhate.

ga,s

larse extent on plants and animals which control the amounts of

oxygen and carbon dioxide by photosynthesis and respiration. Air
usually also contains water vapour and dust.
Il the dust is removed, the approximate composition by volume is
shown in the lollorving table:
87

Now look at these alternative ways of expressing probabilities:

Nitrogen
Ox.yger.r

trnert gases (mostiy

argon)

Carbon dioxide

'7Q

o/

2l

".r.,.

(extremely)

(fairly)

0 93 :.l,
0.03','.

There is a/an

(fairly

1- smail cuantities of other gascs

(extremely)

Oxi,gen combines with metals to lorm oxides. In this way oxygell

can be renroved lrom a sample ol ail and the amount present in the

fweak I
J low t
I slight f
I remoteJ

possibility that X will happen.

0%

these statements are true or lalse. Correct the false

statements
a) Nitrogen is one olthe most comlron elements in the earth.
b) The mass of lhe atmosphere is small compared with the mass of
the crust.
c) T'he composition olthe atrnosphere is constant.
d) Air normally contains only gases.
e) The inert gases.constitute approximately i I of the atmosphere.
f) The inert gases include oxygen.

Look and read:

possibiiityl
The probabilityf ihar

(extremely)

X wiii happen

likelihood J

is

(fairly)

100%

trish.

I
t't'oie. J
f

low. )

weak.
slight.

remote,j

nil.

I
0i(

N{ake predictions like these, from the frequency diagram, about the possibility

ol
10

a rainfall

ae
oO
rGO

'iECl

8 cm.

l0 cm.

39
c+

of

6 cm.
4 cm.

8
1

12 cm.

6
tr

4
3
2

more than 20 cm.

less than I cm.
more than 14 cm.
between 6 and l0 cm.
between 1l and 15 cm.

Exantple: The possibility that the district will have a rainfall of

less than I cm is extremelv low.

12345678
Rainfall in March (in centimetres)

This frequency diagram represents one month's average rainfall in

one district over the past 50 years. It shows, for example, that the
district had a rainfall of approximately 8 cm 10 times. How often did
it have a rainfall of 5 cm?
93

94

no

sanple can be nieasured.

Now say whether

lffi')(

,[strong\
l. high j

-'

Section

4. Look at this graph:

5. Read this:

Development

In a given system the chances ol a component lailing alter the first

fir,e thousand hours are one in a thousand. During the next three
thousand hours the chances ol failure unilormly decrease until aiter
eight thousand hoUrs the chances are one in two thousand The
failure rate remains constant for the next lour thousand hours. It
then enters the wearout period and the chances ol the component
lailing in the next three thousand hours increase uniformll' to one
in eight hundred.

?.o

18

: gr
fi It-

1.6

^s 14

S'l

a tz

No*'drarv a graph to plot the changes in laiiure rate as a percentage. l\4ake

the vertical uii, it.r. lailure rate and the horizontal axis the operating hours.

:10
o
a
. 08
I

>\9

fls

6. Look at this graPh:

oo

l0)

upper limil

a4

j-'
5
D0)

o2

-0

2 3 4

5 6 7

B 9 10 11 1213 14

15

Time elapsed (hours)

P;
D'

'I'his graph shows the lailure rate of compoltents produced in

!.) )

given lactory.

Failure rate

i .o

Component size distribution curve

Look at these statements:

i;
DI

The lailure rate at the end of the first hour is approximately 1 i;.
This means that ten out ol a thousanci components are liable to fall
at the end of the first hour of operation.
In other words. the chances of a component failing at the end ol the
first hour of operation are one in a hundred.

A
(I
.-t
"'1

Aa

Now say rr'hr:ther thc lollorving staternL'nls are true or laise. Cot'rect thr iaisc
st:,. te

mc

ts.

[,ook at thesc examples:

ll

)
L

given machine has to produce components with the diameter

rvitl-rin the iimits 49'987 to 49'995mm. The graph above sho*'s the
distribution of the size ol the components'

r) Irour ou1 ol a lhousand components are liable to lail at

thi

3nd

The probabilil,r' of the machine producing a compcnent the diameter

ol thc third hour ol opcrali'rrr.

b) The chances ol a conponent lailing at lhe end ol the thirci noi:r
are one in thlee hur-rdrecl.
c) The f ailure rate at the end ol the filth hour is approximatelr I 1;.
d) Four componenls out of-a thousand are liable to Iail at lhe end

is rvithin thc range 49 99 I to 49992mm is lcrl ligl.

The probabilrl-r'of the machine producing a component thc diamcter
ol which is within the range 49'992 to 49'994 mrn is high.
The probobili 11' ol the machine producing a component the diame ter
of which is rvithin the range 49'994 to 49'995 mm is considerohie.
The probabilill, of the machine producing a component the diameler
of which is within the range 49 995 to 49'996 mrn is lotr'.
The probabilrll' e; ,1.,. machine producing a component the diameter
ol which is greater than 50'00 mm is ni1.

ol which

ol

the fifih hour.

components out of a thousand are iiabic to lail at the cnd oi
the eleventh hour.
r) The f ailure rate at the end of the thirteenth hour is approxin.rately'

e) Six

(]

8:i

sl The chances ol a component lailing at thc end ol tire filtcenth

hour are one irr a hundreci.
h) Of ten thousand components produced, fi..'e hundred li'ouli fail
b1,the end of the filteenth hour.

i
J

.i

.J
r.:liS
di
r! .!t

::.,)

,]

.'.
,L:'

',)