Basic Laws Overview

Ideal sources: series & parallel

Resistance & Ohms Law
Denitions: open circuit, short circuit, conductance
Denitions: nodes, branches, & loops
Kirchhos Laws
Voltage dividers & series resistors
Current dividers & parallel resistors
Wye-Delta Transformations

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

Ideal Voltage Sources: Series

v1
= v1+v2
v2

Ideal voltage sources connected in series add

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

Ideal Voltage Sources: Parallel

v1

v2

= Smoke

Ideal voltage sources cannot be connected in parallel

Recall: ideal voltage sources guarantee the voltage between two
terminals is at the specied potential (voltage)
Immovable object meets unstoppable force
In practice, the stronger source would win
Could easily cause component failure (smoke)
Ideal sources do not exist
Technically allowed if V1 = V2 , but is a bad idea

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

Ideal Current Sources: Series

i1

i2

= Smoke

Ideal current sources cannot be connected in series

Recall: ideal current sources guarantee the current owing
through source is at specied value
Recall: the current entering a circuit element must equal the
current leaving a circuit element, Iin = Iout
Could easily cause component failure (smoke)
Ideal sources do not exist
Technically allowed if I1 = I2 , but is a bad idea

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

Ideal Current Sources: Parallel

i1

i2

= i 1 + i2

Ideal current sources in parallel add

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

Resistance: Dened
All materials resist the ow of current
Resistance is usually represented by the variable R
Depends on geometry and resistivity of the material
A cylinder of length
and cross-sectional area A has a resistance:


R=
A
where
R=
=

=
A=

Portland State University

resistance of an element in ohms ()

resistivity of the material in ohm-meters
length of cylindrical material in meters
Cross sectional area of material in meters2

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

Resistance: Basic Concepts & Assumptions

We will always measure resistance in Ohms
Ohms are denoted by the greek letter Omega:
Examples: 50 , 1 k, 2.5 M
Conductors (e.g. wires) have very low resistance (< 0.1 ) that
can usually be ignored (i.e. we will assume wires have zero
resistance)
Insulators (e.g. air) have very large resistance (> 50 M) that
can usually be ignored (omitted from circuit for analysis)
Resistors have a medium range of resistance and must be
accounted for in the circuit analysis
Conceptually, a light bulb is similar to a resistor
Properties of the bulb control how much current ows and how
much power is dissipated (absorbed & emitted as light and heat)

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

Ohms Law
v

R
v

Linear
(Ohm's Law Applies)

Nonlinear
(Ohm's Law Does Not Apply)

As with all circuit elements, we need to know how the current

through and voltage across the device are related
Many materials have a complicated nonlinear relationship
(including light bulbs): v = f (i)
Materials with a linear relationship satisfy Ohms law: v = mi
The slope, m, is equal to the resistance of the element
Ohms Law: v = iR
Sign, , is determined by the passive sign convention (PSC)
Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

Resistors & Passive Sign Convention

i
v
+

i
-

i
+

i
+

Recall that relationships between current and voltage are sign

sensitive
Passive Sign Convention: Current enters the positive terminal of
an element
If PSC satised: v = iR
If PSC not satised: v = iR
Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

Other Equations Derived from Ohms Law

v
Ohms law implies: i = R

Recall p = vi. Therefore

v
v2
p = vR = R
p = (iR)i = i2 R

Resistors cannot produce power

Therefore, the power absorbed by a resistor will always be
positive
1 = 1 V/A

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

10

Example 1: Ohms Law

i2

1.61 mA
6 k

2 k

- 0.5882 V +
+
10 V

10.59 V
-

i2
v6
R4
v2
i8

v6

3.38 mA
2 k
-

v2

+
+

8 k
i8

5 mA

13.53 V

R4

=
=
=
=
=

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

11

Short Circuit as Zero Resistance

i
Circuit

i
+
V
-

+
0

Circuit

0V
-

An element (or wire) with R = 0 is called a short circuit

Often just drawn as a wire (line)
Could draw a resistor with R = 0, but is unnecessary and adds
clutter

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

12

Short Circuit as Voltage Source (0 V)

i

i
+

Circuit

0V =

Circuit

Vs

0V
-

= Smoke

An ideal voltage source Vs = 0 V is also equivalent to a short

circuit
Since v = iR and R = 0, v = 0 regardless of i
Could draw a source with Vs = 0 V, but is not done in practice
Cannot connect a voltage source to a short circuit
Irresistible force meets immovable object
In practice, the wire usually wins and the voltage source melts (if
not protected)

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

13

Open Circuit
i
Circuit

0A
+
V
-

Circuit

V
-

An element with R = is called a open circuit

Often just omitted
Could draw a resistor with R = , but is unnecessary and would
add clutter

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

14

Open Circuit as Current Source (0 A)

0A
Circuit

+
V
-

+
0A =

Circuit

V
-

= Smoke

An ideal current source I = 0 A is also equivalent to an open

circuit
Could draw a source with I = 0 A, but is not done in practice
Cannot connect a current source to an open circuit
Irresistible force meets immovable object
In practice, you blow the current source (if not protected)
The insulator (air) usually wins. Else, sparks y.

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

15

Conductance
Sometimes conductance is specied instead of resistance
Conductance is a measure of the ability of an element to conduct
electric current
Inverse of resistance
G=

1
R

i
v

Units: siemens (S) or mhos (
)

1 S = 1
= 1 A/V
v2
p = vi = i R =
R
i2
2
p = vi = v G =
G

v = Ri

i = Gv

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

16

Circuit Building Blocks

Before we can begin analysis, we need a common language and
framework for describing circuits
For this course, networks and circuits are the same
Networks are composed of nodes, branches, and loops

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

17

Branches Dened
6 k

2 k

10 V

2 k

8 k 5 mA

5 k

Example: How many branches?

Branch: a single two-terminal element in a circuit
Segments of wire are not counted as elements (or branches)
Examples: voltage source, resistor, current source

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

18

Nodes Dened
6 k

2 k

10 V

2 k

8 k 5 mA

5 k

Example: How many nodes? How many essential nodes?

Node: the point of connection between two or more branches
May include a portion of the circuit (more than a single point)
Essential Node: the point of connection between three or more
branches

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

19

Loops Dened
2 k

2 k

6 k

8 k 5 mA

10 V

5 k

Example: How many loops?

Loop: any closed path in a circuit

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

20

Overview of Kirchhos Laws

The foundation of circuit analysis is
The dening equations for circuit elements (e.g. Ohms law)
Kirchhos current law (KCL)
Kirchhos voltage law (KVL)
The dening equations tell us how the voltage and current within
a circuit element are related
Kirchhos laws tell us how the voltages and currents in dierent
branches are related
They govern how elements within a circuit are related

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

21

Kirchhos Current Law

i1

i2

i1 + i2 i3 i4 + i5
i1 + i2 + i5

i3
i5

i4

= 0
= i3 + i4

Kirchhos Current Law (KCL): the algebraic sum of currents

entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero
The sum of currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the
currents leaving a node
Common sense:
All of the electrons have to go somewhere
The current that goes in, has to come out some place
Based on law of conservation of charge

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

22

Kirchhos Current Law for Boundaries

2 k

6 k

2 k

i2

i1
8 k 5 mA

10 V

5 k

i4

i3

i1 i2 + i3 i4
i1 + i3

= 0
= i2 + i4

KCL also applies to closed boundaries for all circuits

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

23

Example 2: Kirchhos Current Law

2 k

6 k

i1
10 V

3 k

i6

i3

8 k 5 mA

5 k

i8

Apply KCL to each essential node in the circuit.

Essential Node 1:
Essential Node 2:
Essential Node 3:

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

24

Kirchhos Voltage Law

M

Vm

= 0

m=1

Kirchhos Voltage Law (KVL): the algebraic sum of voltages

around a closed path (or loop) is zero
Based on the conservation of energy
Analogous idea in hydraulic systems: sum of pressure drops and
rises in any closed path must be equal

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

25

Example 3: Kirchhos Voltage Law

2 k

10 V

v2

6 k

+
+
v8
-

v6

3 k

8 k 5 mA

- v3
+
VI
-

+
+
v4
-

5 k

Apply KVL to each loop in the circuit.

Loop
Loop
Loop
Loop
Loop
Loop

1:
2:
3:
4:
5:
6:

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

26

Comments on Ohms Law, KCL, and KVL

Ohms Law:
KCL:
KVL:

v = iR

 In = 0
Vm = 0

Much of the circuit analysis that we will do is based on these three

laws
These laws alone are sucient to analyze many circuits

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

27

Ohms Law for Fluids

Ohms law applies in uid mechanics
For turbulent ow, the pressure is related to the rate of ow
squared - not analogous
For laminar ow,
r 4 P
Q=
8L

P =

8L
Q
4
r

where
Q = ow rate (m3 /s)
r = pipe radius (m)
L = pipe length (m)
P = pressure drop (kN/m2 )
= dynamic viscosity of uid

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

28

Ohms Law for Fluids Continued

If we dene R =

8L
r 4 ,

then

P
Q=
R

P = R Q

This is Ohms law for laminar uid ow in a pipe

Kirchhos laws also apply to fluid networks
Analogs
Resistor Pipe
Voltage source Pressure source
Current source Flow rate source
Capacitor Fluid capacitance (tanks)
Inductor Fluid inductance (inertia)
Transformers Fluid transformers (change in pipe diameter)
But there are no uid analogs to transistors or op amps
Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

29

Example 4: Applying the Basic Laws

2 k

v2

10 V

6 k

v6

5 mA

+
vI
-

Find v2 , v6 and vI .

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

30

Example 5: Applying the Basic Laws

2vo

4 k

io
12 V

4V
6 k

vo

Find io and vo .

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

31

Example 5: Workspace

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

32

Example 6: Applying the Basic Laws

70 k

i7
10 V

20 k

+
v3
-

i2
30 k

5 mA

i3

+
vI
-

Find i7 , i3 , i2 , v3 , and vI .

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

33

Example 6: Workspace

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

34