THE GPS

I.

Global Positioning System (GPS) - a U.S. space-based global navigation satellite

system(GNSS). It provides reliable positioning, navigation, and timing services to
worldwide users on a continuous basis in all weather, day and night, anywhere on or
near the Earth.

GPS is made up of three parts: between 24 and 32 satellites in Medium Earth Orbit,
four control and monitoring stations on Earth, and the actual navigation devices
users own. GPS satellites broadcast signals from space that GPS receivers use to
provide three-dimensional location (latitude, longitude, and altitude) plus the time.

The Official Name of GPS is Navigation System with Timing and Ranging – Global
Positioning System (NAVSTAR-GPS). It was developed by the U. S. Department of
Defense, Ivan Getting, and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).

Generations of GPS Satellites - There are five generations of the GPS satellites:
the Block I, Block II/IIA, Block IIR, Block IIR-M and Block IIF.

Block I satellites were used to test the principles of the system, and lessons learned
from those 11 satellites were incorporated into later blocks.

The BLOCK II satellites, space vehicle numbers (SVN) 13 through 21, are the first full
scale operational satellites developed by Rockwell International. Block II satellites
were designed to provide 14 days of operation without contact from the Control
Segment (CS). The Block II’s were launched from February 1989 through October
1990.

The BLOCK IIA satellites, SVNs 22 through 40, are the second series of operational
satellites, also developed by Rockwell International. Block IIA satellites were
designed to provide 180 days of operation without contact from the CS. During the
180 day autonomy, degraded accuracy will be evident in the navigation message.
The Block IIAs were launched November 1990 through November 1997.

The BLOCK IIR satellites, SVNs 41 through 61, are the operational replenishment
satellites developed by Lockheed Martin and will carry the GPS well into the next
century. Block IIR satellites are designed to provide at least 14 days of operation
without contact from the CS and up to 180 days of operation when operating in the
autonomous navigation (AUTONAV) mode. Full accuracy will be maintained using a
technique of ranging and communication between the Block IIR satellites. The
cross- link ranging will be used to estimate and update the parameters in the
navigation message of each Block IIR satellite without contact from the CS. The
design life of the Block IIR satellite is 7.8 years; each contains three Rb atomic

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clocks and have the SA and A-S capabilities. Launching of the Block IIRs began in
January 1997.

The BLOCK IIR-M satellites transmit a second civil signal L2C on the L2 frequency
and the military M signal on the L1 and L2 frequencies. SVN 49 also transmits on
the L5 frequency.

The Block IIF satellites will be the fifth generation of satellites and will be used for
operations and maintenance (O&M) replenishment.

GPS Constellation – As of December 2009, the GPS constellation consists of 32

Block II/IIA/IIR/IIR-M satellites.

WGS84 - The new World Geodetic System is called WGS 84. It is currently the
reference system being used by the Global Positioning System. It is geocentric and
globally consistent within ±1 m. Its parameters are:

Ellipsoid Semi-major Inverse flattening

Semi-minor axis b
reference axis a (1/f)

≈ 6,356,752.314
WGS 84 6,378,137.0 m 298.257 223 563
245 m

II.

GPS Codes

1. The C/A code or Coarse/Acquisition Code is freely available to the public. It is

a 1,023 bit long pseudonoise code when transmitted at 1.023 megabits per
second (Mbit/s), repeats every millisecond. These sequences only match up,
or strongly correlate, when they are exactly aligned. Each satellite transmits
a unique PRN code, which does not correlate well with any other satellite's
PRN code. In other words, the PRN codes are highly orthogonal to one
another. This is a form of Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), which allows
the receiver to recognize multiple satellites on the same frequency.

2. The P(Y) code - The protected or precision code is modulated on both L1 and
L2 carrier signals and is usually reserved for military applications. The P-code
is a very long (about 1014 bits) sequence of pseudo-random binary biphase
modulations on the GPS carrier at a chipping rate of 10.23 MHz which does
not repeat itself for about 38 weeks. Each satellite uses a one-week segment
of this code which is unique to each satellite, and reset each week.

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 3. The (Y) code is a special form of P code used to protect against false
transmissions; special hardware, available only to the U.S. government, must
be used to decrypt the P(Y) code.

GPS Frequencies

1. L1 (1575.42 MHz): Mix of Navigation Message, coarse-acquisition (C/A) code

and encrypted precision P(Y) code, plus the new L1C on future Block III
satellites.

2. L2 (1227.60 MHz): P(Y) code, plus the new L2C code on the Block IIR-M and
newer satellites.

3. L3 (1381.05 MHz): Used by the Nuclear Detonation (NUDET) Detection

System Payload (NDS) to signal detection of nuclear detonations and other
high-energy infrared events. Used to enforce nuclear test ban treaties.

4. L4 (1379.913 MHz): Being studied for additional ionospheric correction.

5. L5 (1176.45 MHz): Proposed for use as a civilian safety-of-life (SoL) signal.

This frequency falls into an internationally protected range for aeronautical
navigation, promising little or no interference under all circumstances. The
first Block IIF satellite that would provide this signal is set to be launched in
2009

Satellite Navigation Message - It is made up of three major components. The

first part contains the GPS date and time, plus the satellite's status and an
indication of its health. The second part contains orbital information called
ephemeris data and allows the receiver to calculate the position of the satellite. The
third part, called the almanac, contains information and status concerning all the
satellites; their locations and PRN numbers.

Satellite Ephemeris - The description of the satellite orbits and clock correction
parameters variable over time used for positioning and baseline computations. The
ephemeris may be broadcast (projected ahead into time and subject to selective
availability) or precise (post-fitted).

III.

GPS Measurements

Pseudorange is the measure of the apparent propagation time from the satellite to
the receiver antenna, expressed as a distance. The apparent propagation time is
determined from the time shift required to align a replica of the GPS code
generated in the receiver with the received GPS code. The time shift is the
difference between the time of signal reception (measured in the receiver time
frame) and the time of emission measured in the satellite time frame). Pseudorange

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is obtained by multiplying the apparent signal-propagation time by the speed of
light. Pseudorange differs from the actual range by the amount that the satellite
and receiver clocks are offset, by propagation delays, and other errors including
those introduced by selective availability.

Pseudo-ranging with Carrier phase Measurements - The period of the carrier

frequency times the speed of light gives the wave length, which is about 0.19
meters for the L1 carrier. With a 1% of wave length accuracy in detecting the
leading edge, this component of pseudorange error might be as low as 2
millimeters. This compares to 3 meters for the C/A code and 0.3 meters for the P
code. However, this 2 millimeter accuracy requires measuring the total phase, that
is the total number of wave lengths plus the fractional wavelength. This requires
specially equipped receivers.

IV.

GPS accuracy is affected by a number of factors, including satellite positions, noise

in the radio signal, atmospheric conditions, and natural barriers to the signal. Noise
can create an error between 1 to 10 meters and results from static or interference
from something near the receiver or something on the same frequency. Clouds and
other atmospheric phenomena, and objects such a mountains or buildings between
the satellite and the receiver can also produce error, sometimes up to 30 meters.
The most accurate determination of position occurs when the satellite and receiver
have a clear view of each other and no other objects interfere.

Sources of GPS errors

1. Ionosphere and troposphere disturbances: These cause the satellite signal to

slow down as it passes through the atmosphere. However the GPS system
has a built in model that accounts for an average amount of these
disturbances.

2. Signal reflection or Multipath distortion: Here the signal hits and is reflected
off objects like tall buildings, rocks etc. This causes the signal to be delayed
before it reaches the receiver.

3. Ephemeris errors: Ephemeris errors are also known as orbital errors. These
are errors in the satellite’s reported position against its actual position.

4. Clock errors: The built in clock of the GPS receiver is not as accurate as the
atomic clocks of the satellites and the slight timing errors leads to
corresponding errors in calculations.

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 5. Visibility of Satellites: The more the number of satellites a GPS receiver can
lock with, the better its accuracy. Buildings, rocks and mountains, dense
foliage, electronic interference, in short everything that comes in the line of
sight cause position errors and sometimes make it unable to take any reading
at all. GPS receivers do not work indoors, underwater and underground.

6. Satellite Shading: For the signals to work properly the satellites have to be
placed at wide angles from each other. Poor geometry resulting from tight
grouping can result in signal interference.

User equivalent range errors (UERE) are shown below:

Source Effect (m) Source Effect (m)

Satellite clock
Signal arrival C/A ±3 ±2
errors

Multipath
Signal arrival P(Y) ±0.3 ±1
distortion

Ionospheric Tropospheric
±5 ±0.5
effects effects

Ephemeris errors ±2.5

Selective Availability (SA) - a feature in GPS that adds intentional, time varying
errors of up to 100 meters (328 ft) to the publicly available navigation signals. This
was intended to deny an enemy the use of civilian GPS receivers for precision
weapon guidance. It was disabled by the Clinton Administration on May 1, 2000. It is
also called Intentional Degradation.

Anti Spoofing - It is the encryption of the P-code signal transforming it to Y-code

which is unavailable to civilian users.

V.

GPS Point Positioning - coordinates of the antenna position at an unknown point

are sought with respect to the WGS84 reference frame. In this method, the known
positions of the tracked GPS satellites (the position of a satellite can be computed
from ephemerides) are being used to determine the position of unknown point using
single GPS receiver by a method similar to the method of resection used in plane
table surveying

GPS Relative Positioning - Computation of the relative difference in position

between two points by the process of differencing simultaneous reconstructed
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carrier phase measurements at both sites. The technique allows cancellation of all
errors which are common to both observers, such as clock errors, orbit errors, and
propagation delays. This cancellation effect provides for determination of the
relative position with much greater precision than that to which a single position
(pseudorange solution) can be determined. It is also called Phase difference
processing.

GPS Surveying Methods

1. Static GPS surveying typically uses a network or multiple baseline approach

for positioning. It may consist of multiple receivers, multiple baselines,
multiple observational redundancies and multiple sessions. A least squares
adjustment of the observations is required. This method provides the highest
accuracy achievable and requires the longest observation times – from less
than an hour to five hours or longer.

2. Pseudo-static GPS - Also known as pseudo-kinematic and repeat occupation,

this relative positioning technique relies upon two or more simultaneous
observations at a point pair, separated by some time interval (typically 60
minutes or more), in order to solve the integer bias terms from the change in
satellite geometry occurring between the repeat observations.

3. Rapid Static Surveying - GPS surveying technique utilizing multiple

observables (dual-frequency carrier phase, C/A and P codes) to resolve
integer ambiguities with shortened observation periods. The method may
also be used for observations with the receiver in motion known as on-the-fly
ambiguity resolution. It is also called Fast Ambiguity Resolution and Fast
Static Surveying

4. Kinematic Surveying- Observations while a receiver is in motion. In surveying

applications, kinematic refers to uninterrupted carrier-phase measurements
following successful solution of the integer ambiguities. This can be
accomplished in a continuous mode where the receiver remains in motion for
precise positioning of a vehicle, or in an intermittent mode where data is
recorded only after a receiver is brought to a stationary point, and the
observations while in motion are tracked as a way to maintain the integer
ambiguities.

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 5. Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) Surveying - RTK is a process where GPS signal
corrections are transmitted in real time from a reference receiver at a known
location to one or more remote rover receivers. In this case, the base station
is located at a known surveyed location, often a benchmark, and the mobile
units can then produce a highly accurate map by taking fixes relative to that
point. It is also called Carrier-Phase Enhancement GPS or CPGPS.

6. Differential GPS (DGPS) – It is a single point code positioning with

pseudorange corrections applied from simultaneous observations at a known
position. One to ten meter accuracy is typical. DGPS requires that a GPS
receiver be set up on a precisely known location. This GPS receiver is the
base or reference station. The base station receiver calculates its position
based on satellite signals and compares this location to the known location.
The difference is applied to the GPS data recorded by the second GPS
receiver, which is known as the roving receiver. The corrected information
can be applied to data from the roving receiver in real time in the field using
radio signals or through postprocessing after data capture using special
processing software.

VI. References:

ftp://tycho.usno.navy.mil/pub/gps/gpsb2.txt
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http://www.rbf.com/cgcc/glossary.htm

http://www.gisdevelopment.net/technology/gps/techgp0030.htm

http://www.survequip.com/what-is-rtk/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Geodetic_System#Updates_and_new_standards

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduction_to_the_Global_Positioning_System

http://www.esri.com/news/arcuser/0103/differential1of2.html

http://www.roseindia.net/technology/gps/sources-of-GPSe-error.shtml

http://www.kowoma.de/en/gps/errors.htm

http://www.directionsmag.com/article.php?article_id=228

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS_signals

http://www.gmat.unsw.edu.au/snap/gps/gps_survey/chap3/311.htm#navmeg

http://onlinemanuals.txdot.gov/txdotmanuals/ess/gps_static_surveying.htm

http://www.maps-gps-info.com/gps-accuracy.html

http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/navinfo/Gps/ActiveNanu.aspx