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Geosynthetics in Civil Engineering

NOVEL SYSTEMS
IN
COASTAL ENGINEERING

Geotextile systems and other methods

- an overview -

by
Krystian W. Pilarczyk

J u n e 1995

9 . 8

NOVEL SYSTEMS IN COASTAL ENGINEERING

Geotextile systems and other methods

- an

overview

by

Krystian W .

pn

Pilarczyk

. BIBLIOTHEEK

Dienst Weg- en Waterbouwkunde

Van der Burghweg
Postbus 5044, 2600 CA Delft
Tel- 015-2 699 363

2 4 JUL11996

HYDROpil
Krystian W . Pilarczyk
Nesciohove 23
2726 BJ Zoetermeer
the Netherlands
Tel./Fax (+31) 79 - 3515930

June

1995

Acknowledgement
The author would like to thank all institutions involved for help in collecting the necessary
literature and permission for publication.

L E G A L NOTICE

This report is prepared by Krystian W. Pilarczyk from the Rijkswaterstaat (Public Works Dpt.),
Road and Hydraulic Engineering Division, Delft, The Netherlands. The views, analyse and
conclusions in this report are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views of the
Rijkswaterstaat and other institutions mentioned in this report. Neither the author and Rijkswaterstaat assume any liabilities with respect to the use of, or for damage resulting from the use of, any
information disclosed in this report.
Limited copies of this report can be obtained at cost from the Road and Hydraulic Engineering
Division of the Rijkswaterstaat, P.O. Box 5044, 2600 GA Delft, The Netherlands;
(Phone +31-15-699-111, Fax +31-15-611-361).

Content

A.

Composite systems using geotextiles

Al.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Bags, Mattresses, Longard Tubes, Geotubes and Geocontainers

Introduction
Short review of systems and applications
Specification of available systems and execution aspects
Design aspects and review of model investigations
Worldwide experience

A2.
1.
2.

Artificial Seaweed and Curtains

Artificial Seaweed for erosion control and scour prevention
BEROSIN curtains for erosion control

A3.
1.
2.

Closure remarks
Conclusions
Recommendations on stability criteria

B.

Other novel systems

References
Appendices
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX

Bags and Mattresses

Geotubes and Geocontainers
Breakwaters
Beach and Dune Protection
Screens; Silt Protection
Sand-fill Structures
Water-filled Dams
Revetments and Erosion Control
Professional help and useful addresses

NOVEL SYSTEMS IN COASTAL ENGINEERING

by
Krystian W. Pilarczyk

ABSTRACT

In general, a coastal structure is planned as a practical measure to solve an identified problem.

Starting with identification of the problem (e.g. shoreline erosion), a number of stages can be
distinguished in the design process for a structure: definition of functions, determination of boundary conditions, creating alternatives, geometrical design and the final choice of functional solution.
After the choice of functional solution has been made the structural design starts including creating
structural alternatives (ie. using different materials and various execution methods). The final
choice will be made after verification of various structural solutions in respect to the functional,
environmental and economic criteria.
Various structures/systems can be of use in coastal and shoreline structures, from traditional
rubble and/or concrete systems to more novel systems as geotextile, gabions and others.
However, there is a growing interest both in developed and in developing countries in low cost or
novel methods of shoreline protection particularly as the capital cost of defence works and their
maintenance continues to rise. The shortage of naturl rock in certain geographical regions can also
be a reason for looking to other materials and systems.
Despite this interest there is little published and documented information about the performance of
low cost structures especially at more exposed wave climate. On the other hand, there is a great
number of small scale applications of such structures (mostly at relatively mild wave climate) in
the United states, where much of the shoreline is in private hands. Also these experiences can be
of a great value for further development of these systems. Fortunately, this US experience has
been evaluated and published in recent years (US Army, 1981, Amstrong and Kureth, 1979, and
Gutman, 1979).
The purpose of this review is to describe the typical aspects related to the design and construction
of geotextile systems which can be of use in coastal and shoreline structures:
For each system an overview is given of structural components and types, relevant tools during
conceptual and detailed design, and some typical material and construction aspects. Where
possible the test results and practical examples of real cases of design and construction are given
in order to illustrate critical points and their possibilities of application.

COMPOSITE SYSTEMS USING GEOTEXTILES

GEQSYSTEMS
Types and Applications

The following types and applications of geosynthetic (geotextile) systems can be distinguised:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

Closed forms/units filled with sand, gravel or mortar: bags, mattresses, tubes, containers
with various applications in coastal engineering (incl. forms for pile jacketing)
Open (matting) bags filled with gravel, stone or asphalt
Geotextile forms/moulds for (circular) sand-filled structures
Geosynthetic sheets/membranes for dune reinforcement
Geotextile curtains for erosion control/relatively rapid accretion of a shore
Artificial seaweed mainly for scour prevention (incl. pipeline protection)
Silt fences with various applications: pollution control, submerged sediment training
structures, surface erosion control
Geocells for surface (slope) erosion control
Geocomposite mats for drainage (incl. gravity beach drainage) and/or slope erosion control
Traditional applications as geotextile filters in revetments and other hydraulic/coastal
structures
Water-filled dams
Other (unclassified) systems (bearer for blockmats, temporary slope protection, landfill
covers, cabling, pins, pipes, connections).

Al.

Bags, Mattresses, Longard Tubes, Geotubes and Geocontainers

1.

Introduction

In recent years traditional forms of shore protection, such as offshore breakwaters, multiple
groyne systems and mass concrete walls have become very expensive to build and maintain. This
has prompted a demand for cheaper, less massive and more environmentally acceptable sea
defence designs (see, Hydraulics Research, 1984).
The geotextile systems as bags, mattresses, tubes and containers filled with sand or mortar can be
a good and mostly cheaper alternative for more traditional materials/systems as rock, concrete
units or asphalt. An overview is given on the existing geotextile systems, their design methods (if
available), and applications. Where possible some comparison with traditional materials and/or
systems is presented. However, due to the fact that the existing knowledge on these systems is
mainly spread within the specialistic companies/manufacturers (and very often kept confidential)
and till now not evaluated in depth, this paper has more a character of an inventarization than a
real evaluation and condensation of the available knowledge.
These new systems were applied successfully in number of countries and they deserve to be
applied on a larger scale. Because of the lower price and easier execution these systems can be a
good alternative for coastal protection and coastal structures in developing countries. The main
obstacle in their application is however the lack of proper design criteria (in comparison with
rock, concrete units, etc.). In the past the design of these systems was mostly based on rather
vague experience than on the general valid calculation methods. More research, especially
concerning the large scale tests and evaluation of performance of already realized projects, is still
needed.
2.

Short review of systems and applications

Geotextile systems utilize a high strengt synthetic fabric as a form for casting large units by filling
by sand or mortar. The first sporadic applications started already in 50-ties. However, more rapid
developements took place early 70-ties. At this moment there is a relative large number of
products of this type on the markt provided by some specialistic companies in Europe, Australia,
Japan, USA and Mexico. Within these geotextile systems a distinguish can be made between:
bags, mattresses, tubes and containers. All of them can be filled with sand or mortar. Mattresses
are mainly applied as slope and bed protection. Bags are also suitable for slope protection and
retaining walls or toe protection but the main application is construction of groyns, perched
beaches and offshore breakwaters. The tubes and containers are mainly applicable for construction
of groyns, perched beaches and offshore breakwaters. They can form an individual structure
conform some functional requirements for the project but also they can be used complementary
with the artificial beach nourishment to increase its lifetime. Especially for creating the perched
beaches the sand bags and/or sand tubes can be an ideal, low-cost solution for constructing the
submerged sill (with a low wave loading). Some concepts are shown on Figure I.
Traditional emerging breakwaters protect the shore but spoil the natural surroundings. As is well
known, underwater breakwaters provide less effective protection but offer some advantages,
namely:
- by breaking the waves offshore, they favour the natural nourishment of the beach and/or
protect dredged-in beach material;
- they do not spoil the water and the beach for swimmers;
- being invisible, they do not alter the view;
- they are of no hindrance to small craft that are characteristic of seaside resorts;
- if openings are signalled by buoys, they permit the passage of fishing boats and pleasure craft.
Underwater breakwaters and sills ( purched beaches) are not easy to construct with traditional
materials. In this respect (sand)tubes, although based on the same principle, are more
1

advanced even by comparison with sandbags, which are only 1.0 to 3.0 m in capacity and are
time-consuming as concerns both manufacturing and installation. On the other hand, hydraulic
filling of tubes allows up to 500 m of sand to be bagged up in few hours.
3

The sand-filled bags and/or tubes can be of use for constructing of groyns. Up till now there is no
reliable design methods concerning the functioning of groyns. When the groyne will work
satisfactorily such groyne can be strengthend additionally (if necessary) to get a permanent
function. If not, the groyne can be easily demolished. In general, the sand-filled structure can be
used as a temporary structures to learn the natural interactions/responses, or as the permanent
structures at locations with relatively low wave attack (H < 1.5m), or as submerged structures
where direct wave forces are reduced by submergence..
The units (if necessary) can be interconnected by bars or by creating a special interlocking shape.
The main advantages of these systems in comparison with more traditional methods (rock,
prefabricated concrete units, blockmats, asphalt, etc.) are: a reduction in work volume, a
reduction in execution time, a reduction in cost, a use of local materials, a low-skilled labour and
(mostly) locally available equipment. That means that in most, not too extreme cases/conditions
the werk can be done by a local contractor under supervision of the specialistic experts/company.

3.

Specification of available systems and execution aspects

In this Section the informations provided by the U.S. Army corps of Engineers (based on the
experience gathered in the scope of the evaluation program called "The Shoreline Erosion Control
Demonstration Act of 1974" and some informations provided by various manufacturers supplemented by additional author's notes, are summarized.
Stacked Bags or Mats (U.S. Army, 1981)
Wave Height Range recommended bu U.S. Army Corps of Engineers: below 1.5 m.
Several manufacturers produce bags and mats in various sizes and fabrics that are commonly filled
with either sand or a lean mixture of concrete for use in revetments, groyns and breakwaters.
While no special equipment is required for sand-filled units, a mixer, and possibly a pump, are
needed for concrete-filled units.
Bags for revetments should be filled and stacked against a prepared slope with their long axes
parallel to the shoreline and joints offset as in brick work. Grout-filled bags can be further
stabilized by steel rods driven through the bags.
The advantage of a bag revetment ie its easy of construction and moderate cost. Sand-filled bags
are relatively flexible and can be repaired if some of the original bags are dislodged. In addition,
stacked bags are suitable as temporary emergency protection measures. Among their disadvantages, they are limited to low energy areas, have a relatively short service life (especially sandbags/mattresses) compared to other revetments, and generally have an unattractive appearance.
Since concrete-filled structures are rigid, any movement or distortion from differential settlement
of the subgrade can cause a major failure that would be hard to repair.
Sand-filled bags are highly susceptible to damage and possible failure from vandalism, impact by
water-borne debris and deterioration of material and seams by sunlight. The smooth, rounded
contours of bags also present an interlocking problem and they should be kept flatter and
underfilled for stability.
Mattresses are designed to be laid flat on a prepared slope, joined together, and then filled. They
form a large mass of sausage-like sand sections or pillow-like concrete sections with regularly
spaced filter meshes for the passage of water. They should always be installed according to the
3

manufacturer's recommendations.
Bags or mattresses should be placed only on a stable slope. While a stacked bag revetment can be
placed on a steeper slope than a mattress, it should not exceed 1 vertical on 1.5 horizontal. A
stacked bag revetment should be preferably two bags thick, for example, with the outside layer
concrete-filled and the interior bags sandfilled. When sand is used as filler material, the bag or
mat fabric, and its seams, must be resistant to ultraviolet light. Where vandalism or water-borne
debris are likely, only concrete-filled units should be used.
Some form of toe protection should be provided, or the toe should be buried well below the
anticipated scour depth. Also, an adequate filter system, such as a properly installed and sized
filter cloth, should be installed.
Sand-filled and grout-filled bags for fixed Breakwaters/Sills and Groyns (U.S. Army, 1981)
Wave Height Range recommended by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers: below 1.5 m.
An important feature of a fixed breakwater is its height, which determines how much wave energy
passes over the structure. In building a fixed breakwater, some settlement should be anticipated in
the structure's design height, the actual amount being a function of the soil type, the weight of the
structure, and type of foundation.
Sand-Filled Bags
Sand-filled bag breakwaters are constructed of stacked bags in a staggered pattern (Figure 2). The
integrity of the structure depends on the individual bags remaining in place and intact. The bags
and seams must be resistant to ultraviolet light to preclude deterioration from prolonged sunlight
exposure. They should not be used where vandalism is expected or where the structure will be
exposed to water-borne debris. Lighter bags (50 kg range), like those used for revetments, are
displaced when exposed to even moderate waves. Larger units, such as Dura Bags, are recommended even through they are more difficult to handle and require filling in place.
A filter cloth should be placed under the bags to reduce settlement in soft bottoms. During
construction, bag-to-bag abutment should be insured to minimize wave transmission through gaps
between bags.

Figure 2 Sand-Filled Bag Breakwater Section (after U.S. Army, 1981)

A stacked bag groin is similar to a stacked bag breakwater. The bags can either be sand- or
grout-filled. As with breakwaters, larger bags are recommended because lighter, smaller bags are
too susceptible to displacement. The recommendations for bag breakwaters also apply to groins.
When installed properly, stacked bag groins have performed well; however, they should only be
4

considered a short-term solution when filled with sand. Otherwise, some extra protection measures
are necessary especially concerning the groin-head (see also experience with a large groin in Gold
Coast, Australia, in Section 5). Experiences with sand bags in Arctic conditions can be found in
(Gadd, 1988).
Grout-Filled Bags
The major advantage of grout-filled bags is that the units hold their shape after the fabric
deteriorates or is torn. Again, use of larger bags is recommended because the smaller ones are
susceptible to displacement. In addition, larger units reduce the number of bag contact points
where openings may develop. The recommendations made for sand-filled bags also apply to
grout-filled bags, except that vandalism is not a major concern.
Some innovative suggestions on the use and design of mortar-filled units for coastal structures are
provided by Silvester (1986, 1991) while Sprague and Koutsouris (1992) provide information on
design of fabric formed concrete revetment systems.
Some types of bags and mats which have been used in the past are described below.
Sand Pillows. Sand Pillows are ultraviolet-resistant bags made from a woven acrylic fabric. They
weigh approximately 100 pounds (45 kg) when filled. Because of their resistance to sunlight, they
are suitable for sand-filling in some areas.
Dura Bags. Dura Bags are large (4 x 12 x 1.7 feet/1.2 * 3.6 * 0.5 m), and must be filled in place
using a pumped sand-slurry or concrete. Their large size makes them more resistant to movement
under wave attack. Fabricated of ultraviolet-resistant material, they can be used in installations
exposed to sunlight.
Sand-sausage matresses (Profix mat. Zinkon BV). Zinkon BV, a Dutch company specialized in
bank and shore protection, has devloped a flexible erosion contrel system composed of filter-cloth
and granular fill material, known as the Profix-system. Profix is a fast and relatively cheap
method. Two tightly woven polypropylene mats are stitched together at regular intervals to give
the design weight of at least 200 kG/m when filled with sand (i.e. mattress with tubes stiched
together at intervals of 0.40 m and an average thickness of 0.20 m). Both filter-cloths must be
permeable but sand tight. Moreover, the outer cloth is stabilized against U . V . radiation. The
required strength of the filter-cloths depends on the exerted hydraulic loads, the slope gradients,
the thickness of fill-material, and the method of construction, sand and/or gravel are very suitable
as fill material, possibly mixed with cohesive additives. Mixing the fill with seeds can promote
vegetation. The empty mattress is spreaded out at the top of the revetment slope and pulled out in
stages, as they are filled, into the water. Dry sand is blown through rubber hoses threaded in turn
into flap covered openings every 5 to 10 m along each tube of the mattresses.
Profix mattresses should be installed according to the manufacturer's instructions.
2

Fabriform Nylon Bags and Mats (construction Techniques. Inc.. USA). The bags and mats are
designed to be filled with a highly fluid, lean-cement mixture. The exterior cloth envelope serves
primarily as a form until the grout hardens. Fabriform is a patented product, available in several
fabric styles, including some mats with filter points (weep holes) to provide slope drainage.
Fabriform mats should be installed according to the manufacturer's instructions.
A number of Fabriform products and applications is given in Figure 3.
The specifications of products can be found in the design sheets provided by the company and in a
number of publications (Lamberton, 1983, 1989). Pildysh and Wilson (1983) describe an
interesting practical case for fabric-formed concrete lining including discussion on a number of
design aspects. Additional and valuable informations on design of fabric formed systems are given
by Sprague and Koutsourais (1992).
5

Fabriform* Articulating N o n Staggered B l o c k Fabric Styles

BLOCK WT.
lb
kg

MAT. WT.
kg/m2 Ib/sf

la

MORTAR
ml/m2 t/cy

100

196

40

12S

275

0.10

ISO

293

60

188

413

0.15

60
60

200

391

60

250

550

0.20

40

Fabriform Filter Point Fabric Styles

Designation
Style

Caet-in-Place
Average
Filter Point
TMcknesa
S p
mm
i n ^ X In.

Coverage Per
Y d ' Mortar
1

m ' Mortar

13.1 m'

5"FP

130

2.2

56

108 Ft.

200

3.5

89

75 Ft.'

9.1 m

8" FP

10

250

6.0

152

49 Ft.'

6.0 m

10" FP

Unimat Fabric Styles

Designation
Style

pic ana locked b p "

PlaatiC Rmq

3
_.,.

Ceit-lr -Place
Average
Thlckneaa
In.
mm

Coverage Per

Cord
Spacing

Y d Mortar

m ' Mortar

3"UM

3"x3"

3.0

75

96 Ft.'

11.7 m

4" UM

3"x3"

4.0

100

73 Ft.'

8.9 m

6" UM

3"x5"

6.0

150

50 Ft.'

6.1 m'

3"x5"

8.0

200

38 Ft.'

4.6 m'

8" UM

Measured by interring wire through eeverel point, ot maximum thlclineaa Immediately after rimng with mortar.

concrete bags
w\

1
Rlter cloth

Shoreline protection

Groins

^Grout backfOI

Structural repairs
Figure 3 Fabriform products and applications

Breakwaters

Bolsaroca. Bolsacreto and Colchacreto (Porraz. 1976. 1994)

A number of getextile-systems have been developed and patented during the last two decades in
Mexico. The three main systems are:
1 Bolsaroca, permeable hydraulic bags or containers/tubes (called Sandtainer) filled in situ with
sand (using pumps to inject a sand-water mixture, which becomes compact once water is
filtered out through the textile); the elements may measure from about 1 m (bags) to even 30
m long (sandtainers) or 3 to 30 tons. The choice of fabric is related to the characteristic of
available sand. To increase the integrity/stability the individual units can be linked by fabric
sheets wrapped over the units by divers during placing/filling, so called "Terraforte" system
(see Figure 4). If the design requires it (i.e. exposed wave attack), the core of a structure can
be constructed with Bolsaroca elements and lapped with a Bolsacreto or Colchacreto on the
outside. These sand-filled units are also an attractive (low-cost)solution for making "test
structures" before the final structural has been found; if necessary, the temporary structure can
be later removed very easily. On the other side they are an ideal permanent solution for
making underwater sills for perched beaches in combination with beach nourishment or as
underwater structures for guiding/controlling of sediment transport.

Figure 4 Terraforte system of linking units

2 Bolsacreto, water-proof flexible formworks (containars) of diverse shapes filled with concrete
(eventually incl. reinforcing). The concrete elements are cast directly on the site at the
designed location/position. The equipment needed for the correct mixing and for pumping is
relatively light, easily transportable and (mostly) locally available (i.e. concrete mixer, pump
and hoses needed to fill the flexible bags/containers). The primary characteristic established for
the mixture is that it should be fluid enough to facilitate pumping at a distance of 200 m or
more. The mixture specifications can be provided by manufacturer. Special designs may be
obtained by interconnecting Bolsacreto elements with cables or bars, thereby greatly increasing
the bonding factor between them. Bolsacreto units are available in different capacities and
weights; the types most frequently used are varying from 2 to 7 tons.
3 Colchacreto, mortar mats formed by textiles that can be articulated slabs or filtering units. In
this system the mortar is injected inside the synthetic container, formed by two layers of
highly resistant fabric to form a lagging. Ther are spacing threads interwoven in both layers
insuring a pre-determined thickness once the form is filled. The colchacreto is used for
stabilization of slopes and beds of channels, rivers and sea shores.
Five different types of mats have been developed up to date, with thickness from 8 to 40 cm,
accordingly to requirements, and they can be combined with each other to comply with the
specific needs of each project.
Series of small articulated slabs are joined toegether by special reinforcements and filtering
mesh to eliminate later subpressure. A flexible mat mostly used for stabilization of slopes
subjected to differential settlement or undermining. The thickness range from 10 to 35 cm.
"E" Standard of uniform thickness (range 10 to 40 cm) for stable soil conditions; if necessary,
prior to casting various drain tubes can be added.
7

"I" This mat has a form of a mesh with free inner spaces (cells). In addition to controlling
erosion, it can be used to plant (to let grow) vegetation in the cells. It is 10 cm thick.
"O" For weighing down and protection of cylindrical elements; its main use is for protection
and ballasting of underwater pipelines. The thickness may vary from 5 to 40 cm and it may be
manufactured for any pipe thickness and used for the lapping of any type of cylindrical
element.
" U " This is a mat with a checkerboard form. When injected with mortar, sand or any other
material, it results in a filtering unit with some weight and it can support diverse types of
structures. It is mainly used for protection against eventual scouring. Thickness range from 10
to 35 cm.
The developments till now were focused on the following four points:
* to develop synthetic fabrics that would withstand exposure to the sea and the sun,
* to devise textile techniques that would produce required component shapes,
* extensive tests on concrete mortar and quality in the fields, and
* laboratory experiments in current and wave tanks.
However, the most important aspect was the experience in the field based on realization and
performance evaluation of a number of projects in Mexico and abroad (since 1971). The lessons
have been drawn from some less successful early projects and gradually the whole technique
related to these systems was improved to such extend that, actually, these systems can be treated
as a good and cheaper alternative to the more traditional methods as rock and prefabricated
concrete units. Also, the realization time is much shorter than a conventional structure.
The systems are designed for optimum use of available local resources, human as well as
materials and (relatively light-)equipment, for economical and simple solutions to erosion
problems (coastal revetments, toe protection of dunes or seawalls, groyns, sills for perched
beaches, offshore breakwaters, pipeline protection, repair of coastal structures, etc.).
With the same philosophy as applied to above systems a serie of other systems have been
developed or are under development. Two examples of these new developments are given below.
In Figure 5 is presented the principe of underwater protection (i.e. sand containers) by the method
called "Seacrete". The structure is covered by a chicken-wire connected to low-voltage electrical
source. The electric field induces some chemical reactions with the sea water due to which the
growth of calcium on the protection wire take place. Within a few months the wire is covered by
a few centimeters calcium rock with a structure similar to the natural coral stone.

Figure 5 "Seacrete" protection method

In Figure 6 is presented the new interlocked concrete container system called "Blocrete" as
alternative for the large coastal structures with a heavy wave attack.
8

',

BOLSACRETO C

HYDRAULIC LAB STUDIES ON COINC NOW (FALL N l

Figure 6 "Bolsacreto" and new "Blocrete" system

BOLSAROCA

(R)
ENSAMBLE PORTABLE
PLATAFORM

SANDTAINER

(R)

Figure 7 Execution procedure of Bolsaroca elements

The important aspect of execution is the necessity of experienced diver(s), equipped with light
diving gear, for underwater switching of equipment and supervision of placing and control of
filling of elements (see Figure 7).
All these products should be installed according to the manufacturer's instructions and under their
supervision. The work itself can be done by a local contractor.
9

Longard Tubes (U.S. Army, 1981, Info Longard, 1985)

Wave Height Range recommended by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers: mainly below 1.5 m.
Longard tubes have been successfully used for many years in coast protection systems in several
countries of the world. The longard system is made up of a combination of tubes of various
diameters, lengths, and orientations, which can be used as groins, breakwaters or walls in coast
protection plans. The stability of Longard tube depends on its weight to resist overturning and on
friction to maintain its position.
A Longard tube is a patented, woven, polyethylene tube, filled with sand at installation (Figure 8)
and available in various diameters up to 2.2 m, and lengths up to 150 m . Like sand-filled bags,
performance depends on the fabric remaining intact, and the tube completely filled. When filled
by means of a special patented procedure (filling degree of about 95 %), the tube is dense and
heavy, yet flexible enough to settle if depressions occur. A properly installed Longard tube is
placed on a woven filter cloth extending 3 m (at least) seaward of the tube. A small 0.25 m tube,
factory-stitched to the seaward edge of the filter cloth, settles under wave action to provide toe
protection.

FILLING PROCEDURE (CROSS-SECTION)

Figure 8 Filling procedure of Longard tube (cross-section)

The primary advantage of a Longard tube is the ease and speed with which it can be filled once
equipment and materials are in place, and comparatively low cost. Repairs are possible using
sewn-on patches. The major disadvantage is its vulnerability to vandalism and damage by waterborne debris. A sand-epoxy coating can be applied to dry tubes after filling to provide significantly greater protection by deterring vandals and preventing puncture holes from enlarging. This
coating cannot be applied to wet tubes. However, the tube must not be allowed to roll after the
coating is applied, as uncoated surface areas would then be exposed, and distortion of the tube
may cause the existing coating to flake off. Other disadvantages are that a large supply of good
quality sand is required to fill the tube, patented filling equipment must be used, and only
specially licensed contractors can perform the work.
When used as a bulkhead, it is designed to protect the toe of the bank from wave attack, and not
necessarily to resist earth pressures. The tube should not be placed directly against the base of a
bank or overtopping waves may continue to cause erosion. It should be placed far enough from
the toe so that overtopping waves will form a sand berm between the tube and the bank. Wave
energy will be absorbed by this berm, and further bank erosion maybe prevented. Placement of
other devices or another tube on top, to increase the structure height and prevent overtopping, is
not recommended.
When used as a groyne or a breakwater, Longard tubes have performed fairly well when
remaining intact. Failure has usually resulted from holes or tears in the fabric and loss of sand
fill. Longard tubes as groyns are probably best as a short term or emergency measure because of
their vulnerability to damage. Tests on models carried out in Denmark on underwater breakwaters
10

made up of longard tubes confirmed their effectiveness, provided that their top elevation is at least
2/3 of the water depth. This means, in practice, that 1.8 m diameter tubes are effective at depths
up to 2.0-2.5 m under M.S.L.
The Longard tube should be underlained by a filter cloth with small tubes factory-stitched to each
side. The filter cloth helps to prevent settlement and reduces the potential for failure due to toe or
heel scour, and the small tubes hold the cloth in place.
The same advantages and disadvantages mentioned for Longard tube bulkheads apply when they
are used as groyns and breakwaters. An added disadvantage is that the protective epoxy coating
cannot be applied to wet tubes so that damages are more likely. Therefore, they should not be
used at locations where the tube is exposed to vandalism or water-borne debris. The damage
eventually caused the entire tube to deflate. Where a singular tube cannot provide sufficient
height, an alternate breakwater system should be used. An example of project carried out to assess
the advantages of Longard tubes used in underwater breakwaters is reported in Section 5.
Some technical specifications of Longard tubes are given below.
Technical specifications of Longard tubes (Info Longard. 1985)
1 Description of materials
Longard tubes shall be made up of two coaxial tubes.
The fabric used for flexible tubes consists of woven synthetic fibres and is UV-stabilized and
resistant to oil, chemicals and rotting. There is an inner tube of impermeable polyethylene. The
tubes are supplied in standard lengths of approx. 100 m. Standard diametres are 25 cm. 100 cm.
and 180 cm. It goes without saying that tubes of another diametre can be woven. When delivered,
the tube material is palletized, and transportation to the site causes no problems.
* Outer Tube
The outer tube shall consist of a tubular fabric of high-density polyethylene and polypropylene,
with additives ensuring maximum tensile strenght and flexibility. The fabric shall be black in
colour and therefore UV-stabilized, completely rot-proof and unaffected by oils and all chemical
agents occurring in coastal zones, lakes and rivers.
The fabric shall have the following characteristics and tolerances:
- Mass
600 g/m +/- 60
- Average No. of
warp threads
20/5 cm +/- 1
weft threads
20/5 cm +/- 1
- Average breaking force:
warp
from
N 490/5 cm +/- 50
weft
from
N 490/5 cm +/- 50
- Average elongation of break 20 % +/- 5
The tube shall have the following characteristics and tolerances:
- Weaving width
2.83 m +/- 0. 1 0
- Nominal diameter 1.8 m
- Length
50 to 150 m according to requirements.
* Inner Tube
The inner tube shall consist of a black, tubular film of LDPE (low-density polyethylene) and
EVA-copolymer and shall have the following characteristics and tolerances:
- Thickness
0.2 mm +/- 0.025
- Width of film roll 2.98 m +/- 0.04
- Nominal diameter 1.84 m
* Filling Material
For filling, the use can be made of materials available on site (more or less fine sands, even if
mixed with fine round gravel). Pebbles and debris over 65 mm in diameter shall be eliminated by
means of suitable screens. Water shall be used to convey the filling material into the tube.
2

11

2 Filling procedure
Longard tubes are supplied folded on pallets. They shall be prepared for filling, the first step
being a careful examination of each single unit. All tubes showing tears, cuts and/or other faults
shall be rejected.
The ends of the tubes shall be properly sealed with clamps and screw bolts.
Each tube shall be provided with No. 2 inlet flanges in the centre and No. 1 discharge flange at
both ends. The flanges shall be fitted in opening as small as possible in size: the operation shall be
carried out hot in order to ensure a clean shear cut without tears which could enlarge, or open
during subsequent handling.
Sealing devices and flanges shall be made of steel and galvanized or protected by a rust-proof
coating. The tubes shall be installed according to the project design.
Sand shall be fed into the tube by the longard injection method or any technique able to ensure
filling to no less than 95% of the theoretical volume, and pressures within the permissible range.
As a rule, filling shall be effected from the centre to both ends and shall be carried out as quickly
as possible, especially when working in water, in order to avoid interruptions due to sudden
weather and/or sea changes.
A special collet shall be clamped and kept in place around the tube since the first stages of immersion in water, to prevent the stress from the feeding pipes from being discharged onto the inlet
flanges, with possible damage to the structure.
The two ends of the tube shall be fastened to two small pontoons so as to keep them on the right
line, and in a higher position with respect to the centre to favour air escape.
A filling machine and special in- and outlet equipment is necessary for the filling. When the tube
has been laid out and connected to the filling machine, you are ready to start the filling. By means
of a front and loader sand is filled into the hopper of the machine, and the sand is carried into the
tube by means of water pressure. The sand sediments in the tube, and the water runs out of the
rear and through the outlet valve. After the sand has sedimented in the tube, this will have a shape
close to a circle and will be hard as a rock.
All filling phases shall be kept under strict control, and the equipment shall be accurately
regulated throughout the whole filling procedure. Before stopping filling operations, a careful
inspection shall ensure that the tube has been filled up to the required volume. The filled tube
shall be finally secured by immediately sealing the four flanges by means of strong bolted lids.
To fill for instance a 100 cm tube of 100 m length, about 120 cubic metres of sand is used. Other
granulate material can also be used for filling. However, dimension of particles must not exceed
50 mm and maximum 5 % of the total amount of filling material should be this size.
A standard centrifugal pump with a capacity of not less than 3,000 litres of water per minute at a
pressure of 2.5 at. must be available during the filling period.
Time of filling will be 4 - 5 hours for a tube of 100 cm diametre, 100 m long, depending on local
conditions and when all preparations are made. It is possible to fill under water as long as the
filling unit is placed ashore or at a maximum of 1 m water depth. So far there is an experience
with filling tubes at depths up to 4 - 6 metres without any difficulties. More detailed information
on underwater filling of Longard tubes is given by Sarti and Larsen (1983).
Some technical features:
* longard tubes - 1.0 m dia. - weight about 2,000 kg. per linear metre and,
* longard tubes - 1.8 m dia. - weight about 6,000 kg. per linear metre,
* longard tubes are supplied in continuous lengths up to 150 m,
* longard tubes have a wide range of construction possibilities - multiple layer in straight line or
curved shapes,
* as the filled longard tubes remain flexible their heavy weight and length provide scour
prevention because the tubes will adapt to changes in surface level, and
* longard tubes have a considerable stability against wave and current action.
12

3 Economical features
Naturally, the cost connected to the individual project depends to a great extent of the nature of
construction needed and the conditions under which you have to work. The total cost will be a
sum of material, labour, and machinery which have to be avialable to make a complete installation, nl.:
1. Tube material either single or twin tubes.
2. Filter cloth tube construction.
3. Filling machine and accessories.
4. Centrifugal pump and hoses.
5. Front end loader.
6. Sand.
7. Three to four men.
8. One supervisor from the company.
9. Freight costs.
The relative inexpensive construction costs of Longard tubes is due to:
* low transport costs because no heavy construction material has to be transported to site,
* filling material - sand and gravel - is usually available at free disposal,
* longard filling equipment is low prices and non-volumenous and most of it is reuseable,
* other equipment - front loader and pump - is simple standard contractor's equipments,
* unskilled labour may be used, and
* high speed filling procedure - 100 m in 1 m dia. will be filled in 4 - 5 hours.
Note: an alternative to Longard system are geotubs and geocontainers (see p. IV).
4.

Design aspects and review of model investigations

In the past the design of geotextile systems for various coastal applications was mostly based on
rather vague experience than on the general valid calculation methods. However, the increased
demand in recent years for reliable design methods for protective structures, and the shortage of
natural materials in certain geographical regions and/or limited dimensions and quality of available
rock have led to application of other systems (ie. prefabricated concrete units, geotextile systems,
etc.) and the research concerning the design of these new systems.
In general it can be said that all coastal protection systems and materials have some advantages
and disadvantages which should be recognized before the choice is made. There is no one ideal
protective system or material. Each material and system has a certain application at certain loading
conditions and specific functional requirements for the specific problem and/or structural solution.
In contrary to the research on concrete units there was no systematic research on design and
stability of geotextile systems. However, the past and recent research in The Netherlands and in
some other countries on some selected geotextile products has provided some results which can be
of use in preparing a set of preliminary design guidelines/stability criteria for the geotextile
systems under current and wave attack. When preparing such guidelines, the following aspects
should be considered:
* the function of the structure * the physical environment
* the construction method
* operation and maintenance
The existing research and design rules have been reviewed. The comparison of stability of various
geotextile systems with more traditional ones (i.e. rock, concrete blocks) and the necessary
parameters for calculation purposes is being discussed as far as the sufficient data were available.
Due to the complexity of the subject and the limitation of the available data it is impossible to give
a detailed review for all application of geotextile systems. However, the information presented
will be of help in preparing the preliminary alternatives and in judgement of applicability of
13

geotextile systems for a problem under consideration. General informations on geotextiles and
design methodology can be found in the handbook (Veldhuijzen van Zanten, 1994).
I. Sandbag stability and wave runup on bench slopes (Jacobs and Kobayashi, 1983, Kobayashi
and Jacobs, 1985a,b)
Sandbag (original test report by Jacobs and Kobayashi, 1983) and riprap (Kobayashi and Jacobs,
1985a) model tests were conducted in a wave flume to examine the effects of berm-type slopes on
the stability of armor units and wave runup as compared to uniform slopes. Since profiles of
natured breakwaters tend to assume a characteristic S-geometry which may be approximated by a
berm-type slope for the easy of construction, incorporation of a berm into the design of slopes
protected with sabdgags or riprap may reduce the required size of the units. Furthermore, a berm
may also reduce wave runup on the slope of a coastal structure. The uniform slopes are analysed
in a standard way. The comparison between the uniform and composite slope test results is
analyzed using a modified Saville's method which accounts for the overall effects of the slope
configuration on the stability of units and wave runup. A simple analysis procedure based on the
proposed method is developed, using so called 'Equivalent Uniform Slope', for a preliminary
design of a berm configuration, because the publications mentioned above are easy to obtain, the
present review is limited to the stability aspects of sandbags on uniform slopes as treated in the
original test report and some overall conclusions from these investigations.
Model investigation and test results on sandbag stability
Model tests on the hydraulic characteristics of sandbags under regular wave attack were performed
in a wave flume. The water depth, h, was taken to be so large (about 40 cm) that incident regular
waves (less than 19 cm) do not break on the horizontal floor. The uniform slope tests were
conducted on 1:3 slope using different underlayer materials and sandbag placement methods
(Figure 9 a,b). The base of a uniform 1:3 slope was a plane wooden slope. For experimental
convenience, an underlayer of 2 in. (5.1 cm) thickness of pressed coconut hair and polymide filter
cloth were laid on the slope base. A primary protection layer of sandbags is then placed on the
filter cloth. Sand and gravel were tried as an underlayer material but it was found difficult to
maintain consistent underlayer thickness since sand and gravel underlayers were deformed under
wave action. The sandbags used in the experiments were constructed by filling fine sand into
sample bags (woven, permeable but sand tight geotextile) of size 3.5 x 5 in. (8.9 x 12.7 cm).
The everage volume was 12 in with variation from 10.9 in (179 cm ) to 13.2 in (216 cm ).
These model units can be treated as prototype units scaled down by 10 in respect to smaller
sandbags or by 20 in respect to larger prototype units.
The saturated surface dry weight of a sandbag was used in the following since the sandbags
dislodged under wave action are observed to be fully submerged and saturated with water. The
sandbags used in experiments were characterized by:
3

- average unit weight of a sandbag

- average weight of a sandbag
- specific weight of a sandbag

y - 120 lbf/ft (18.8 kN/m ),

W = 0.82 lbf ( 3.6 N ), and
s = y/y = 1.92 (7. = unit weight of water).
w

The sandbags were hand-placed on the filter cloth in a single layer thickness with their longitudinal axis parallel to the slope as shown in Figure 9a. In addition, 1:3 uniform slope tests were conducted with the sandbags placed in 50% overlap fashion as shown in Figure 9b. The 50% overlap
requires nearly twice as many sandbags as the single layer placement but it resulted in a noticable
increase of the stability of sandbags as compared to the single layer placement. Hovever, the
number of test runs with 50% overlap was limited. An alternative to increase the stability of
sandbags is to use a composite slope (Figure 10). Site-specific considerations are required to
determine the best alternative.
14

Figure 9 Schematization of test slopes

J breaker b<HPt|C ( 4 . 2 )
b

Figure 10 Composite slope and definition of Equivalent Uniform Slope

Test results. For each of the test setups examined in this study, the critical wave height, H , was
measured for given wave period. The critical wave height is related to dislodgement of sandbags
from the primary protection layer. The corresponding stability number is termed the critical
stability number, N , which is calculated from
c

H,
(s - IXW/7) 1/3

AD,
3

where A = (s-1), is the relative density of sandbags and D ^ = (W/7)" , is the equivalent
thickness of a sandbag.
The calculated values of \S were found to be dependent on the wave period in accordance with
small and large scale tests for riprap. Consequently, N was plotted as a function of the surfsimilarity parameter = tanG (H /L )- which is proportional to the wave period.
Figure 11 presents the measured variation of N versus . The stability is minimum at transition
from plunging into collapsing waves where N,,. is about 2.
K

The upper limit of runup for single layer placement is rougly equal to:
R7H
R7H

for % < 2, and

for > 2

= 0.75
= 1.5

15

Figure 11 Stability functions for single layer and 50% overlap placed sandbags on slope 1 on 3
Note: The stability curve for the single layer placed sandbags is very close to the similar curve as
obtained for the riprap on filter layer and impermeable core (= revetment, see Pilarczyk, 1990).
However, the values for sandbags are about 20% higher (= more stable) than the respective ones
for riprap. It can be partly due to the different (probably lower) permeability of the sublayer.
The stability of 50% overlap placed sandbags is nearly the same as for a single layer at = I,
but it increases strongly with higher ^-values.
The results of full analysis of uniform and composite slopes by using the method of Equivalent
Uniform Slope and some example of computation can be found in the previously mentioned
references. It should be stressed that the proposed method should be used only for a preliminary
design. The results are based on investigations with only one slope (1:3) and regular waves. Most
of the incident waves broke in the form of plunging or collapsing in these experiments. Therefore,
the generalization of stability function (by using ) is still not been fully proved. However, the
similarity with the stability function for riprap justify expectation that these results are very close
to reality. However, the small scale tests by Stephenson (1982) provide a lower stability than
shown in Figure 11. The large scale tests are still needed to verify these results and the method of
analyzing before this method is used for final design of coastal structures.
For the time being it can be concluded that the stability of sandbags with the width-length ratio
not larger than 1 to 3 and properly filled, can be computed in the similar way as riprap.
II. Stability of shore protection with sand sausages on a circular island (Delft Hydraulics, 1975)
The Delft Hydraulics Laboratory has studied the stability of mattresses composed of sand-sausages
with diameter of 0.9 m and 1.5 on a circular island with slope 1 on 3. The 2- and 3-dim. tests on
1 to 25 scale models were carried out with irregular waves. The cross-section of the structure is
shown in Figure 12. The width of mattresses was 5 and 10 m. The width of the test sections was
about 1.5 * mattress width. In the tests the sausages were composed of jute and filled with sand
with diameter of about 150 * 10" m. The filling degree was about 90%.
6

16

1232

sand
all

sausages

measures

90*/* filled,

mean

diameter

placing sand

0.9 m

bags

T14
vary neatly
T 1 S : at random

and

tightly

in m

Figure 12 Cross-section of the island

It is clear that it was impossible to reproduce all characteristics of the sausage mattresses on scale.
The dimensions and weight of the mattress were to scale, whereas the stiffness and the behaviour
of the material inside the sausages and under the mattresses were not to scale. Therefore, the
results of the model with the sand sausages should be iterpreted in a qualitative way only.
For comparison, in the same 2-dim. model some tests (scale 1:25) were also carried out with
gabions (0.9*0.9*3.6 = 2.92 m ) filled with sandbags. The pores between the sandbags in gabions
are estimated as 10% of the overall volume of the gabion. The effective weight of the gabions was
about 5.4 ton with specific weight of about 1.9 ton/m .
The results of both 2-dim. tests are summarized in table below.
3

protection

gabions of 5.4 t

T
o
filling rate

10

10

section width

10

sand sausages

sand sausages

of 0.9 m diameter

of 1 .5 m diameter

10

15

" 9 0 %

100%

10

10

9 0 %

9 0 %

90%

10

15

15

damage to berm
at M . S . L .

-7.5 m when H

>

4.3m

4.3m

4.6m

4.6m

4.4m

5.3m

5.8m

4.6m

damage to
protection when

>

highest step (H )
$

4.3m

5.2m**>

5.2m

5.2m

5.8m

*)

only the mattress of 5 m width

**)

the sliding-down of the mattresses started at the mattress of 5 m width

5.3m*
5.3m

In this table, the damage to berm at M.S.L.-7.5 m relates to sandbags of 2.7 ton (see Fig. 12).
With peak periods, T , of wave spectrum of 8 and 10 s the lifting of sausage-mattresses started
alredy at H > 2 m. The mattresses with 0.9 m sausages were locally lifted about 0.5 m with H,
= 5 m and T = 8 s and about 0.75 m with H = 5 m and T = 10 s. The mattresses with 1.5 m
sausages were lifted about 0.25 m with H, = 5 m and T = 8 and 10 s.
For H > 5.2 m resp. 5.3 m the matress of 5 m width was removed because of sliding caused by
uplift forces.
0

17

The initiation of movement of gabions (5400 kg) for slope 1:3 started at H of about 3 m
(additional tests on slope 1:2 indicate initiation of movement at H = 2 m for T = 8 and 10 s).
Maximum wave run-up for mattresses amounted to about 6.5 m with H = 2.3 m and T = 10 s,
and about 7.5 m with H = 3 m and T = 10 s. The wave run-up on the island protected with
sand sausages is about 1.5 times the wave run-up on a gabion protection.
s

The final conclusions are formulated as follow.

2- dim. tests:
1 The sand sausages are more stable than the applied gabions. The stability increases with
increasing sausage diameter.
2 An increase of the mattress width increases the stability.
3 Lowering of the berm of sand bags increases the significant wave height for which damage is
initiated on this berm.
4 The wave priod has no noticable influence on the stability of the sand sausages and the berm
of sand bags. The mattresses were lifted during all tests.
5 The point of maximum lift-up of the mattresses appears to be the connection point at M.S.L..
This point reacts as a hinge.
6 Both the amplitude of lift and the distance, across which the mattress is lifted, increase with
decreasing sausage diameter.
7 In the present tests no significant influence of 90% and 100% degree filling of the sand
sausages was observed.
8 No conclusions could be drawn with respect to the behaviour of the material under the
mattresses, but the consequences due to the "heaving" of the mattress above the underlying
sand should not be underestimated.
3- dim.tests:
9 The stability of the mattresses in the 3-dim. tests is about the same as found in the 2-dim.
tests. The mattresses appear to be stable up to H = 6 m for both T = 8 s and T = 10 s. The
berm of sand bags appears to be more stable in the 3-dim. tests than in the 2-dim. tests.
10 Wave attack with T = 8 s appears to be more dangerous to the protection (more overlaps
separate) than wave attack with T = 10 s.
s

Note in respect to p. 4 and 9: the recent research on block revetments on geotextile and sand as
subsoil has indicated that for waves larger than 1.5 m the sandy subsoil becomes unstable due to
the local liquefaction. To avoid this a certain weight of toplayer is needed accordingly to criteria
mentioned in (PIANC, 1992). In the discussed case with the mattresses and at these wave
conditions the 0.9 m sausages can be probably applicable only when lying on gravel.
To obtain some general figures comparative to other systems the equivalent thickness of mattresses
will be assumed as equal to D = 0.75 D (D = sausage diameter) and the relative density A =
1; this will provide the stability factors in order of:
eq

(a)
H /A 0.75D ~ 2
and
* 2.0 to 3.0
(b)
H /A 0.75D ~ 4.5
and
{ * 1.5 to 2.0
( is a surf-similarity parameter / breaker index)
s

for starting uplifting, and

for collapsing/sliding.

For mattresses on sandy subsoil the requirement (a) should be followed toegether with a check
acc. to geotechnical criteria mentioned in (PIANC, 1992).
III. Foreshore protection mattresses
* Stability
For the first approximation of stability of sand- or mortar-filled mattresses (i.e. ProFix or

18

Fabriform mats) of more or less uniform thickness the formula proposed by Pilarczyk (1990) can
be used:
H /AD
s

eq

= c cose*

for < = 3

(for > 3, the values calculated for = 3 can be used)

where: H = significant wave height, A = Relative density of the mattress, (p - p )/p ,
=
equivalent (average) thickness of mattress, c = stability coefficient defined at = 1, a = slope
angle (it can be neglected for slopes milder than 1 on 3) and = surf-similarity parameter. The
density of mattresses (p ) can be assumed 2000 and 2300 kg/m resp. for sand and concrete (A
resp. 1 and 1.3). The max. value of coefficient 'c' depends on the failure mechanism and the ratio
between the permeability of the mattress and the permeability of the subsoil, k n / k , :
c = 4 (max. 6)
when le^k,. < 1 with the uplift of mattress and deformation of subsoil as
main failure mechanism, and
c = 6 (max. 8)
when k ^ / k j > = 1 with the deformation of subsoil as the main failure
mechanism.
s

The range of c-values follows from the research projects of Delft Hydraulics with placed block
revetments/block-mats and different type of mattresses. It should be noted that the uplift can
already start at c = 2, but it is so small and of such short duration that it will no result in a
serious damage to the mattress protection. Therefore c = 3 to 4 can be treated as a design value.
In special cases as large mattresses of temporary use and/or when some deformation of the subsoil
can be accepted or the subsoil is more resistant to deformation (i.e. clay) the higher values of V
can be chosen (max. 6 resp. 8). The research described under No. I (large mattresses on circular
island) can be illustration of such case. Using these high c-values the structure should be
controlled on sliding, and in most cases it will require a special anchoring of mattresses.
It is important to mention that Delft Hydraulics in cooperation with Delft Geotechnics and
Rijkswaterstaat (Public Works Dpt.) has developed a more accurate calculation methods (numerical- and simplified analytical- models) allowing calculation of uplift and sliding for different
composition of revetments, and thus different kn/lCj-ratios. The stability increases with increase of
permeability of the mattress; that also means that the existing products can often be improved by
introduction of more filtration points. However, it is important that the filtration capacity will not
be spoiled during execution. The quality control on that point is very important.
To avoid subsoil deformation the geotechnical criteria given in (PIANC, 1992). should be
followed. The susceptibility of the subsoil to a downslope migration can be reduced by:
- incorporating a granular filter between the mattress and the subsoil, and/or
- increasing the weight of the mattress.
The minimum zones of slope protection against wave attack are mostly determined by max. runup and run-down.
* Other design criteria
The total overview of design aspects and criteria for mortar-filled mattresses is presented by
Sprague and Koutsourais (1992) and the reader is directed to this publication. Stability of sandfilled mattresses (i.e. ProFix mattresses) can als be calculated in the way as described above. The
detailed design specifications on ProFix mattresses for current and wave conditions can be found
in (Delft hydraulics Laboratory, 1983 and Tutuarima and van Wijk, 1984). However, for real
projects the exact specifications (incl. permeabilities) of products are needed for a proper
judgement of their applicability for a case considered. These informations can be provided by the
manufacturers and/or specialistic contractors. The selected list with professional addresses at the
end of this report will be of help for orientation.
19

IV. Stability of breakwaters constructed with Geotubes or Geocontainers (Delft Hydraulics/Nicolon, 1994);
* Executive's summary of model investigation
Nicolon bv commissioned DELFT HYDRAULICS to conduct physical model tests (2-dim.) with the
purpose to assess the wave heights and the currents at which groyne and breakwater structures
consisting of (patented) geocontainer or -tube elements fail under various boundary conditions.
When referring to both geocontainers and geotubes the term "element" is used. A structure
consists exclusively of either geocontainers or geotubes. In case of geocontainers the sand is filled
free into a geotextile form which top is stitched after filling. The degree of filling is less than for
geotubes. In case of geotube the sand is pumped under the certain pressure into the tube
(permeable but sand-tight) as sand-water mixture.
All tests have been carried out using a linear scale (nJ equal to 20. The geotube and geocontainer
models were manufactured of Nicolon geotextile with quality number 66641 (mesh size of about
100 microns). Main dimensions of the tested products (models):
geotube
model

geocontainer

corresponding

model

f u l l s c a l e (m)
height
width

0.108
0.188

2.15
3.75

corresponding
f u l l s c a l e (m)

0.09
0.42

1.80
8.40

Note: the length of elements was equal to the width of flume (1 m i n model, 20 m prototype)

a)

SKETCH OF THE WAVE TESTING SITUATION

water

depth

registration

direction
o l current

Lflojs

point

r e g i s t r a t i o n point
water depth
in front of
structure

b o t t o m profile

h)

SKETCH OF THE CURRENT-TESTING SITUATION

Figure 13 Flume test-facilities; a) waves, b) current

The geocontainers and geotubes were made of woven geotextile (mesh size 100 microns) and
filled with sand to such a degree that the above mentioned height and width dimensions were
obtained. The tested structures consisted of several layers of parallel geotubes or geocontainers.
The so-called 4-3-2 structure had four containers or tubes in the bottom layer, three in the next
layer and two in the top layer.

20

Geotextile can be manufactured using fine to coarse fibres. Which type is to be used depends on
the required dimensions and the grain size of the sand which will be used as filling material.
The sand with which the geotubes and geocontainers were filled consisted of ordinary sand. This
ensures that the internal friction of the geotubes and -containers is well represented and that model
scale rolling motions are similar to those of the full-scale rolling motions. The grain size of the
sand used during tests in waves was D = 150 /xm. During the tests in currents the grain size was
D = 200 /xm to avoid sand lekage during tho tests in strong currents.
50

50

Tests in waves
The tests in waves were carried out in the Scheldt flume. The testing situation with waves is
depicted in Figure 13. The length of the flume is 55 m, the width 1 m and the height 1.2 m. The
flume is provided with a random-wave generator which is capable of performing both translatory
and rotational motions by means of a hydraulic actuator. The command signal represents a random
signal with a predetermined wave energy density spectrum. A system developed by DELFT
HYDRAULICS compensates for reflected waves at the wave board. This system eliminates standing
waves and basin resonance. Two boundary conditions were varied:

the significant wave height,

the water depth over the crest of the structure.

The tested structures consisted of three layers of elements. The bottom layer contained four
adjacent elements, the middel layer contained three adjacent elements and the top layer contained
two adjacent elements (Figure 13). This structure is referred to as the 4-3-2 structure. The applied
wave spectrum was of the Pierson-Moscowitz type. The significant wave height was increased in
steps until the structure collapsed or until the highest obtainable significant wave height had been
reached.
Results
Element

Water level
over crest

Significant wave height H /A D .

periode at instability

Geotube
(D = 2.15 m)

0.0 m

Geotube
Geocontainer
(D = 3.75 m)

3.5 m
3.5 m

1.7
2.5
3.1
4.2
3.3
4.2

m/
m/
m/
m/
m/
m/

5.7
7.1
9.0
9.1
7.3
9.0

1.58
2.32
2.88
3.91
1.76
2.24

s
s
s
s
s
s

eq

1.05
1.55
1.92
2.60

Remarks

minor motions
0.4 m displacement
no further displacement
rapidly collapsed
minor motions
0.4 m displacement

Note: Equivalent thickness is assumed as equal to (0.5 to 0.75)D for geotubes and 0.5 D for
geocontainers, and the relative density A = 1; assuming further the equivalent slope as equal to 1
on I, the surf-similarity parameter (breaker index) will be about = 5.5 (surging breker). These
informations can be of use for comparison with the stability of other systems.
Tests in currents
Two boundary conditions were varied:

the flow velocity

the waterdepth over the crest

21

Two structure types were tested. The 4-3-2 structure and a so-called 3-2-1 structure. Compared to
the 4-3-2 structure the 3-2-1 has one element less in each layer. The flow velocity in front of the
structure was increased in small steps until the structure collapsed.
Results
Structure
geotube
4-3-2
geocontainer
4-3-2
geocontainer
3-2-1

Initial water level

over crest
0.56 m

Flow velocity infrontof

structure at point of collapse
('u' over the crest)
(difficult to measure)
0.57 m/s

3.50 m
4.70 m

1.42 m/s
1.70 m/s

(4.4 m/s)
(4.0 m/s)

3.50 m

1.34 m/s

(3.6 m/s)

* Design considerations of Nicolon Geotubes and Geocontainers (Nicolon, 1994, Sprague, 1994)
Tube system. Geotube is a sand/dredged material filled geotextile tube made of permeable but
soil-tight geotextile. The desired diameter and length are project specific and only limited by
installation possibilities and site conditions. The tube is delivered to the site rolled up on a steel
pipe (see Figure 14). Inlets and outlets are regularly spaced along the length of the tube. The tube
is filled with dredged material pumped as a water-soil mixture (commonly a slurry of 1 on4) using
a suction dredge delivery line. The choice of geotextile depends on characteristics of fill material.

FILLED ON LAND

Figure 14 Filling procedure of Geotube

The tube will achieve its desired shape when filled up to about 80%; a higher filling grade is
possible but it diminish the friction resistance between the tubes. The final shape of tube can be
estimated by method given in (Delft Hydraulics, 1973, from a graph elaborated by Silvester,
1985, 1990) or approximated method given by Bogossian et al (1988) (see also Perrier, 1986).
The major design considerations include sufficient geotextile and seam strength to resist pressures
22

during filling and placement impact,and f a b r i c / s o i l compatibility. Additionally, long-term U . V .

resistance, resistance to abrasion, tearing and puncturing (including vandalism), and tube flattening
resulting from the consolidation of sediments within the tube.

Figure 15 Geotubes in dike design, project Leybucht, Germany (construction period 1987 - 1990)
Tubes can be filled on land (e.g. as dikes for land reclamation, bunds, toe protection or groyns)
or in water (e.g. offshore breakwaters, sills of perched beaches, dikes for artificial islands or
interruption of gullies caused by (tidal)currents). The tube is rolled out along the intended
alignment with inlets/outlets centered on top. An example of application is shown in Figure 15.
When a tube is to be placed in water, the effects of buoyancy on the tube geotextile prior to filling
as well as on the dredged material's settling characteristics must be considered. In order to
maximize inlet/outlet spacing, an outlet distant from the inlet may be used to enhance the
discharge of dredged slurry and thereby encourage and regulate the flow of fill material through
the tube so that sufficient fill will flow to distant points.
Commonly, the filter geotextile (against scour) and flat tube are fully deployed by floating and
holding them in position prior to beginning the filling operation. The filter geotextile is often
furnished with small tubes at the edges when filled with sand holds the filter apron at place. This
apron must also extend in front and behind the unit, commonly 1-2 times the filled unit width.
Container systems. Geocontainer is a mechanically-filled geotextile and "box" or" pillow" shaped
unit made of a soil tight geotextile. The containers are partially prefabricated by sawing mill
widths of the appropriate length toegether and at at the ends to form an elongated "box". The
"box" is then closed in the field, after filling, using a sewing machine and specially designed
seams. Barge placement of the site-fabricated containers is accomplish using a specially configured
barge-mounted crane or by bottom dump hoppers scows, or split barges. The containers are filled
and fabricated on the barge and placed when securely moored in the desired position (see Figure
16). Positioning of barge for consistent placement - a critical element of constructing "stacked"
underwater structures - is accomplished with the assistance of modern surveying technology.
These large containers are applied, anong others, for foreshore erosion control along the river Old
Meuse in the Netherlands (200 m site-fabricated, sand-filled geotextile containers) (Rijkswaterstaat-Nicolon, 1988). A similar solution is recently also applied for stabilization of Mississippi
underwater banks. More design informations on containers can be found in (Hendrikse, 1994).
3

23

THE GEOCONTAINER IS A SPECIALLY DESIGNED VERY LARGE SAND CONTAINING BAG FITTING INTO A SPLIT-BOTTOM BARGE.

H.Wm.

TOP-VIEW

A-n

hold-capacity: 240m

ACROSS-SECTION A:A

7 50 a.

geotextile

^, ~- ~
J

5.27m.

T {
3.085 m.
2.50 mi

Figure 16 Filling procedure of Geocontainers

The

advantage of these large barge-placed containers include:

Containers can be filled with locally available soil which may be available from simultaneous
dredging activites.
Containers can be relatively accurately placed regardless of weather conditions, current
velocities, tidal movements, or water depths (one of the main advantages in comparison with
Longard tubes).
Contained material is not subjest to erosion during and after placing.
Containers can provide relatively quick system build-up.
Containers are, therefore, very cost competetive (for larger works).

*
*
*

When applying Geocontainers the major design considerations/problems are related to the integrity
of the units during release and impact (impact resistance, seam strength, burst,abrasion, durability
etc.), the accuracy of placement on the bottom (especially at large depths), and the stability. This
last aspect has been somewhat clarified by the research described above.
When applying this technology the manufacturer's specifications should be followed. The
installation needs an experienced contractor.

24

V . Bolsacreto: mortar-filled containers (Mexico), (Porraz et al, 1979)

The Bolsacreto (BC) mortar-filled containers (large bags) can be provided from 3 to 30 tons.
One of the main factors hindering a more widely spread use of the elements, carried out with
specially designed textile containers, was an absence of sufficient research which could back the
size and thus weight of the individual units to be used and the way these should be placed for
given ocean environment characteristics. Specially since the way these elements are shaped and the
way they are accomodated inhibit the use of Hudson's formula, being it unrealistic to think in
terms of a certain K coefficient. Trying to change this situation an intensive investigation was
carried out in 1977 in the test facilities of the Engineering Institute of the University of Mexico.
D

Hydraulic laboratory tests

The tests were carried out in a 2-dimensional hydraulic model. A typical cross section of a
breakwater was constructed using BC elements at one end of a 70 m long wave flume, 60 cm
wide and 120 cm deep. A wave generator, capable of producing 0.8 to 3.2 sec waves with heights
up to 20 cm (regular waves), was located at the other end. In front of the generator a wave filter
was placed to avoid short period waves to cross and to damp reflected waves.
To determine the model scales several effects were considered, among them: required wave
height, weight of the BC elements, and the channel's bottom (depth). It was decided to reproduce
waves of up to 9 m (15 cm in a model) with periods ranging from 8 to 18 sec.
The chosen linear scale was L = 60. The dimensions of the 3-tons BC elements were chosen for
this study: 3.37 m long by 1.37 m wide and 0.30 m high, with specific weight of mortar of 2200
kg/m3. The size of the model containers was: 5.62 x 2.28 x 0.5 cm with the weight of each
model unit of 13.51 grains; the specific weight required for the material to fill the BC element
was 2140 kg/m3. The BC elements were then made out of polyethylene material and fill led with
mastic until each one had exactly the 13.51 grams required.

For tht 2nd alternative tht stones were covered with plaster
Two layers of Bolsacreto
Wave characteristics
8
T
18 stc
1
M
4.5

K valuta for slopes were 2:1 and 1:1

Have characteristics

F i r s t alternative with two arrangements of tht elements, second

with one only (bags with longest axis toward direction of waves)

8
1

T
H

18 sec
5.2 *

H at toe of the breakwater

b) Alternatives III

and IV

l ) Alternatives I and II

Figure 17 Scheme of test sections

It was decided that in order not to use too many bags the section should be constructed using
bricks for the core and then a thick layer of gravel, over which two layer of bags were to be
placed. In order to avoid that overtopping should affect the water level on the oposite site a tube
was installed under the breakwater. The first test section was of a combined type, with adequately
big stones on the 1:10 upstream access slope of the structure, and from there upwards two layers
of BC elements were placed over the stones (see Fig. 17a.). This was done to observe how the
containers are placed directly over the stones and to analyze their behaviour under wave action.
Once this section was studied the 1:10 access slope was covered with plaster and the rest of the up
25

surface left covered with BC elements.The next section studied was one like the first one but the
bottom of the flume was raised up to where the containers started (see Fig. 17b). For both cases
2:1 and 1:1 slopes were reproduced.
Note: from the test results it can be deduced that the 1:1 was steeper than the slope 2:1, thus the
latter must be interpreted as l(ver) : 2(horiz).
Tests Results and Conclusions
The object of these was to study, from a qualitative point of view,
the stability of the BC elements according to their relative positioning as to the direction of the
incident waves. Therefore, they were placed with their longest axis parallel and perpendicular to
the crests of the waves. Tests carried out with models of 3 tons BC elements in a wave flume,
with 2:1 (1:2!) and 1:1 slopes, with breaking and non-breaking waves, with heights from 3.0 m to
9.0 m showed the following results:
1 BC elements resisted in the model 3.5 m waves with a 1:2 slope and 5.0 m with a 1:1 slope.
2 It is assumed that results are quite on the conservative side since in prototype the BC elements
will develop a much greater friction. It is also important to point out that these Bolsacreto
textile formworks had special patented devices to almost "interlock" BC elements which were
not reproduced in the laboratory tests.
3 The steeper the slope, the smaller will be the surface of the BC elements exposed to wave
action and the bigger the weight they will receive from the overlaying ones.
4 The BC elements tended to move easier when they were not receiving the full weight of the
overlaying ones, therefore, care must be taken with the foundation so as to avoid settlements.
This may be done using filters, with in-site hydraulically filled sand containers ("Bolsaroca"),
or other elements equally suitable for erosion control, such as "Colchacreto" mortar-filled
mats or sand mats.
5 To avoid movements of BC elements on the crest, concrete monolyths may be constructed,
bigger bags than on the rest of the structure used or anchor them to the main body.
6 Since the head of a breakwater is the most exposed section the voids must be avoided. For
this purpose it is recommended that the BC elements be placed and filled alternately so as to
insure a homogeneous structure.
As a result of these hydraulic laboratory tests a set of curves was obtained, both for the 2:1 (1:2!)
and 1:1 slopes, by analitically analyzingthe stability for each given wave condition. These
generalized set of curves are shown in Figs. 18a,b and they serve the purpose of allowing the
designer to estimate the required weight of the individual BC elements, given the design wave
characteristics. Likewise, runup was also measured, analyzed and graphs drawn for both slope
conditions; they are presented in the original test report.
It was detemined from the tests that the main forces acting on the containers were: weight of the
overlaying elements, which engenders friction, thrust due to wave action, uplift pressure and a
force named of sustaintation, due to the stream of water flowing downwards when waves retreat.
It was shown that stability of the elements is due mainly to friction between them and that most
critical conditions occur at the line corresponding to lowest wave level, where BC elements tend
to be pulled out and at the crest of the structure when there is overtopping.
Failure at the lowest water elevation is avoided by using BC elements of adquate weight, which
can be now calculated from curves which are the result of carefully plotting each test condition
and which will effectively serve the purpose of providing the designer with an adequate tool.
Failure of the BC elements at the crest can be avoided by using bigger containers than for the rest
of the structure, constructing a conrete monolyth or anchoring them to the ones under them.

26

BOLSACRETO

<R)

(
C.

Y *
JL X _

Slop* 2:1
"Bolsacreto" elejents were placed
, from t l t v . - 6.0
to 6.0 end frora
. etev. - 6.0 a to 5.0 layer of plast
ms placed.
/Depth at the to* of th* structure - 15 . .

0.5

Slope 1:1

.MAV-03t\^\-r0.omfoy

"Bolsacreto" elements placed from elev.

14 to - 5 B.
Depth at toe of structure: 5 .
Lo
N
Eo
W

'Lo Length of waves in deep

water
H Height of wave at toe of - structure.
Eo Uave energy in dep waters

Length of waves in deep water.

Height of wave at toe of structure
Wave energy in deep waters
Weight of "Bolsacreto" element per
meter weidth.

H 4Z443-Z75o(^J-i t O O S t t r f t y *

Wher* : f voluewtric wight of water in

kg/aO
U Height of "Bolsacreto" eleawflt per ewter
width.
,
i
Design Curve Valid for "Bolsacreto" Elements, Patented in
U.S.A. and Other Countries

Figure 18 Weight of BC elements as function of (L , E , H)

0

With this system, called "Bolsacreto", an important number of works have been carried out not
only in Mexico but in many other countries around the World, like Venezuela, Kuwait, Nicaragua, Colombia, Dutch Antilles, etc., and have behaved excellent, even under extremely severe
ocean conditions. Examples have also been cited as to other practical uses the BC elements have
been used, besides groins, jetties and breakwaters, like protecting and ballasting pipelines, dock
repair, protection of bridge-piles and construction of spoil contention structures.
Among the recommendations, the fact that detached or offshore break waters be constructed using
these elements, as many times these kind of structures are hindered by costly and complicated
construction methods, while carrying out the job with these elements could put them in a low-cost
category. Also, shore home owners affected by coastal erosion can help themselves, with only
their neighbors' assistance, by using light and easily rented equipment and buying their mortar or
concrete directly from premixers, working during weekends to construct their low-cost and
adequate protection works, following an approbate design and using the proper elements. Results
will be neat solutions which will effective and quickly protect their properties.
Till now, the "Bolsacreto" elements are designed by using these test results together with the
experience gathered from a number of projects (see Section 5).
Note: Due to the very small scale of model tests (1:60) these results should be only treated as a
qualitative indication. Much more important is the practical experience with these systems which
till now survived with a limited damage a number of storms and hurricanes with predicted waves
in a range of 2.5 to even 5.0 m. It should also be noted that actually (1994) some additional
model tests on a larger scale are being carried out.

27

VI.

Breakwater of concrete filled hoses (Delft Hydraulics, 1973)

Civil and Marine Limited (London) developed its own method for constructing breakwaters and/or
seawalls by using concrete filled nylon hoses (tubes with diameters up till 2.50 m). The model
tests were carried out at the Delft Hydraulics Laboratory in 1970. In the first concept the
breakwater structure is formed by placing long tubes (hoses) in layers upon each other, so forming
a triangular structure with the top crest with or above the still water level. The tubes will be
launched from a pontoon, the cross sectional shape and the longitudinal profile of the tubes will be
fully determined by the gravitational forces.
As the stability of the upper layer in the first concept proved to be small, the modified concept
was developed in which the length of the concrete filled tubes was limited as the tubes were
placed in line (or in "criss-cross" pattern) with the direction of wave attack (thus perpendicular or
at about 45 to the breakwater axis). In this way a type of vertical faced breakwater wall with
limited width was formed. In the modified concept the tubes are moulded up to its desired length
in a supporting structure which is suspended from two pontoons on either side of the breakwater.
The tubes can be placed at each arbitrary location by lowering the tube in its supporting structure.
Both concepts were investigated in a wave tank for different boundary conditions, whilst at the
same time the most appropriate lay-out of the structure was determined. To determine the
feasibility of this method, two alternative designs for the breakwaters of Scheveningen and
Europoort were tested under original wave conditions.
* Shape of tubes
For calculation of required number of tubes for a given height of structure, the knowledge of a
real shape of the tube after filling and placing is necessary. The change of cross section of the
tube depends on the static head of the wet concrete. Assuming that during the laying procedure the
concrete can be regarded as a liquid with a density of 2200 kg/m and that the nylon tube can be
regarded as an impervious flexible shell, the so-called shell theory can be used to compute the
shape of the concrete filled tubes. From these calculations follows that the ovality of a tube of D
= 2.5 m on horizontal bottom is 2.10 * 2.70 m in case of a maximum static head of 5 m, whilst
ovality is 2.25 * 2.60 m at the static head of 8 m. The shape of tubes at the different positions is
presented on Figure 19. Recently, Sivester (1985, 1990) prepared a graph allowing determination
of shape of sand- or mortar- filled tubes based on some experiments with water.
3

Figure 19 Cross sectional shape of concrete filled tubes in subseqent layers

28

* Model investigations
The basic tests, serie A l , (tubes parallel with the breakwater axis) were carried out with regular
waves on scale 1 : 25 and 1 on 10. Both scales provided the same critical wave height. For
further research (modified concept) scale 1 on 25 has been fixed.
Two shapes were applied; a flatter one (I), and a more circular one (II) (see Figure 19). It follows
from the basic tests that the flatter tube (shape I), can withstand about 10 % higher waves.
Apparently this higher stability is a result of the flatter shape which gives the tube a somewhat
larger base-width and a higher stability against overturning. For the research with modified
concept only flatter tubes were used.
Two structure heights were investigated, one structure built up starting from a base of 8 tubes
(which results in a total height of 16.6 m for shape I and of 14.1 m for shape II) and a structure
with a base of 4 tubes (which results in a total height of 8.4 m for shape I and of 7.3 m for shape
II). From a comparison of the identical tests inwhich only the structure height was changed, it
appears that the total height of the structure does not have a significant influence on the stability
of the top layer.Two water depths were applied, a water flush with the top of the structure and a
waterlevel about the height of one tube below the top of the structure.
From the basic test results it appears that in case the waterlevel is about one tube-height below the
top of the structure the structure can withstand critical wave heights at least 20 % higher (H/AD
1.2 or H/AD = 1.6 for T = 9 and 12 s, H/AD 1.6 or H/AD^ - 2.1 for T = 8 s) than
in case the waterlevel is equal with the top of the structure (H/AD = 1 to 1.1 or H/AD ~ 1.3
to 1.5 for all wave periods, T = 8, 9 and 12 s). An explanation for this is that the top load does
have a favourable effect on the stability of the tube at the still waterlevel, although the standing
wave height in front of the structure increases somewhat for the lower waterlevels, which becomes
apparent from the increase of the reflection coefficient.
eq

eq

Note: the effective weight of emerged tube is higher than in submerged condition. The equivalente
(average) thickness of these tubes was about D = 0.75 D; by using D ^ instead od D the
stability numbers can be used for comparison with other units as bags, mattresses, etc. Because
the slope is close to 1 on 1, the waves were in surging area (non-breaking conditions).
eq

The following wave periods were used during the model-investigation; for the structure with a
base of 8 tubes T = 8, 9 and 12 s respectively and for the structure with a base of 4 tubes T =
6, 8 and 9 s. From the tests follow that the longest wave periods are most dangerous for the
stability, due to the fact that reflection coefficients are generally higher for the longer wave
periods. Moreover velocity forces appear to be higher for the longer wave periods due to the
longer time during which the water is flowing over the top layer.
The density of concrete in these tests was 2020 kg/m .
3

To improve the stability of tubes laying parallely to breakwater axis the following measures were
applied in the tests of serie A2 (scale 1 on 25, shape I, structure height 14.1 m and T = 12 s):
a) increasing the witdh of the structure with one, two and three tubes on top;
b) increse of the density of the concrete (2700 kg/m ) in one and two tubes on the top; and
c) widening of the structure with the two or three top tubes connected by rods through the tubes.
The results are presented on Figure 20 with the test no. T31 (from serie A l ) as reference. The
rigid connection of the tubes (T36 and T37) provided a considerable increase in the stability (at
least factor two, (H/AD = 2.5). Failure of the structure occurs due to loss of stability of the
single tube at the leeside just below the connected tubes. After that the connected top layer starts
tilting. This explains small differene between the two and three tubes connected.
3

29

7.0

Shcxpe L

T= 42 s
SO

tip ~ * " t h

lb

C D

UCD

T34

density
-

2.?OOk / 3
9

-XT 32

T33

(SB

nrn ~t~
CDCD
T33

~~T36

C$5&~"*~T37
Oil tlltl waterlevel flush with top
ef the structure

number of holes in top layer

Figure 20 Critical wave heights for improved breakwater lay-outs (serie A2)

i
(^)

1 1 1 1 ;

maximum possible wave conditions

no damage

(!)

"STABLE

Waterlevel

wove period
T In s

flush with top of 2-Om below top

of structure
structure

9.0

Longitudinal axis
Perpendicular t o

42.0

breakwater axis
Longitudinal axis under angle
of 4 5 * t o breakwater axis

42 O

( t r i s s - c r o s s " pattern)

I
s.o
breakwater width

I 1
ISO

HO.O
b In m

Figure 21 Critical wave heights for the modified concept, serie B (non-breaking waves)
30

As the stability of the breakwater built from concrete tubes parallel with the breakwater even after
some improvements (serie A2) appeared to be rather low, a modified concept was studied in
which tubes of limited length were placed perpendicular or under 45"(criss-cross pattern) to the
breakwater axis. Thus the individual tubes were forming a kind of vertical faced gravity wall.
During the model investigation emphasis is laid upon the determination of the required breakwater
width (which is related to tube length) in order to guarantee stability of the upper tubes under nonbreaking wave conditions. Results of tests, expressed as critical wave height, are presented in
Figure 21. In a number of cases no failure of the top layer occurred due to limitation of wave
height by waterdepth (encircling symbols). From comparable situation on Figure 20, especially for
a width of 8 m, it follows that the "criss-cross" pattern (with tubes about 1.4 longer) does not
have influence on the stability in comparison with the perpendicular placed tubes.

ALTERNATIVE CROSS SECTION " EUROPOORT BREAKWATER

measure* in meters
depths r e f e r r e d to M S L

Figure 22 Alternative cross-sections for "Scheveningen" and "Europoort" breakwaters

In order to be able to compare the performance of these breakwaters of concrete "sausages" with
traditional breakwater designs, the stability of two alternative designs of recent breakwaters
(Scheveningen and Europoort/Rotterdam), in which concrete filled tubes were incorporated in the
superstructures, were investigated in model under the same conditions as original design (Figure
22). The design conditions were H = 6 m (depth limited) with T =12 s and H, - 8.5 m
(comparative H = 10.5 to 11 m) with T = 14 s. The results are presented on Figure 23. The
critical wave heights are somewhat lower than in comparison with the results for non-breaking
conditions in serie B (Figure 21). Up to a tube length of 10 m results can be directly compared
with the results for serie B. The lower critical wave heights for alternative breakwaters are mainly
5

c r

31

due to the higher wave reflection (as result of the higher top level). Starting from a tube length of
10 m, stability of the top layer highly depends on the breaking wave conditions (dynamic loading)
in front of the structure (Scheveningen case) and the shoaling of (non-breaking)waves on the
foreshore (Europoort case), which does increase the wave height in front of the structure.

90

/
y

>

J1

'

I
Is
J

to

>

/ \
Y

s
-

4.0

3X3

jI
I
waterlevel

wave period
T In i
" Scheveningen
breakwater "
"Europoort
breakwater"
|
O

|
SO

N X P + O.Sr

N . A P . + 4.5m

<o

42

14

14

'
... _ l

(OO

|
(SO

breakwater width b in m
Figure 23 Critical wave heights for the alternative breakwaters
* Conclusions and recommendations
1 A breakwater or seawall composed of long concrete filled tubes appears to have a very low
stability against wave attack perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. The single concrete filled
tube on top is easily tilted from the underlying two tubes by overturning moment of the static
and dynamic wave load on the upper tube. Stability of the upper tube was lost at wave heights
which were equal to the theoretical diameter of the tube (H/AD = 1).
2 The stability of a structure with a triangular cross section hardly increases if the complete
structure is widened (the tube on the back-side rolls down) and/or the density of the concrete
is increased. Widening the top of the structure together with a rigid connection of the top
tubes will give the best increase in the overall stability of the structure.
3 The stability of the structure increases considerably if the tubes are placed perpendicularly or
under an angle to the breakwater axis. In the absence of breaking waves, critical wave height
for this lay-out were about equal to the breakwater width, whilst the individual length of these
tubes and the possible interlocking effect of the subsequent layers appear to be of no influence
on the beginning of failure. The occurrence of breaking waves in front of the structure (waves

32

breaking on foreshore) reduces the stability of the upper tubes considerably.

4 When using a breakwater of concrete filled tubes as a alternative design for the breakwaters of
Scheveningen an Europoort( with waterdepth of 9 and 15 m resp. and significant wave heights
6 and 9 m resp. with wave periods between 10 and 14 s), a breakwater width of 15.0 to 16.0
m and 20 to 25.0 m respectively was required to fulfill the stability criteria. Compared with
the actual block wights which have been applied in the respective breakwater designs, the
stability coefficient of the concrete filled tubes appears to be very low.
Note: due to the absence of armouring it is very likely that for long tubes (say longer than 3 *
D) also cracks will occur; some reinforcement should be recommended.
5 By comparing costs and benefits of traditional and alternative designs an economic evaluation
of the feasibility of the proposed construction method was possible.
The results of all tests indicate that a structure of stacked concrete filled tubes is inadequate as
a breakwater for heavy wave conditions, due to its low stability when exposed to direct wave
attack. An application of concrete filled tubes may be considered for moderate wave conditions (if economically preferable), or when the tubes are not directly exposed to wave attack,
as in case when used as a submerged breakwater. It is preferable to carry out additional tests
on the stability for a particular design as foreshore geometry, wave characteristics and specific
configuration of a structure (incl. composition/pattern of units) are of main importance for
stability.

5.
I

Worldwide experience
A review of sand and mortar-filled fabric bags and tubes (Hydraulics Research Ltd., 1984)

This review is a shorter version of a literature survey into fabric containers filled with sand or
mortar and used in a coastal environment as prepared by Hydraulics Research Laboratory in
Wallingford in 1984. It was part of a general review of novel or low cost methods of shore
protection. The review is mainly based on the experience in the United States of America
(especially the US Army Corps of Engineers). Only some examples on offshore breakwaters, sills
and groyne systems, and the main conclusions from this evaluation are presented in this section.
OFFSHORE BREAKWATERS AND SILLS
Breakwaters made of sand bags, Longard tubes, etc, have been used successfully in the United
States of America, under conditions of low tidal range and low wave activity. Under gentle wave
climates such structures may not only attenuate waves but can also encourage the accretion of
sediment between them and the shore. Even the relatively fragile nylon containers filled with sand
have proved to be effective under suitable conditions. One of the problems is that such structures
can 'work' themselves into the underlying sediment. The amount of settlement may be high.
At Kitts Hummock, Delaware Bay, large sand bags were placed as an offshore breakwater on a
silt bed and despite the use of filter cloth were subject to settlement of 0.3 to 0.6 metres. Despite
the reduction in crest height the offshore breakwater seems to have caused the accretion of
sediment in its lee.
The breakwater was constructed with large (1.2m * 3.7m * 0.5m) nylon bags laid in pyramide
fashion on a filter cloth to a hight of 1.5 m above the bed. The bags were layered 3-2-1. Small
hold down sand bags were laid on the ends of the filter cloth to keep it in place. Mean tidal range

33

1.6 m and max. wave height 0.66 m.

At Kitts Hummock profile measurement during the monitoring period showed that no significant
change in beach levels took place above the still water line, so the shoreline was in fact not
sheltered by the intertidal accretion.
Offshore sills or breakwaters have proved to be most effective when used in combination with
beach nourishment schemes. The retention of a 'perched beach' not only helps to reduce wave
attack but is clearly beneficial from an amenity point of view. In a number of cases such
structures also appear to have attracted sediment accumulation on their seaward side.
At Basin Bayou, Florida, a 61 metre Longard tube (1.75 m dia.) was sited some 60 metres
offshore in a depth of about 1 metre (Figure 24). It was laid on a filter cloth which was itself held
down by two 0.25 metre diameter tubes stitched along both the landward and seaward edges of the
cloth. Both the large and the two small tubes were hydraulically filled with commercial sand. The
crest level of the breakwater was about 0.1 metres above mean low water and was submerged to
about 0.4 metres at high water. Mean tidal range 0.15 m (0.46 m at spring) and max. wave height
1.2 m.
The Longard tube was very effective over a 9 month period until vandalised; a sand spit formed
in its lee. In fact it was considered that the breakwater may have been sited too close to the shore
and that continued extension of the spit in the long term may have eventually cut off littoral drift
thereby starving the downdrift beaches of sand.

75mOIA

LONGARD

TUBE

MLW

INITIAL POSITION

'

F I L T E R CLOTHS
0 25 m DIA L O N G A R O T U B E S

TYPICAL

LONGARO
NO

POSITION AFTER
TOE S C O U R

SECTION

SCALE

Figure 24 Longard tube installation at Basin Bayou, Florida

At Alameda, California, a 100 metre long Longard tube was used in conjunction with an
artificially created tombolo. Tidal range 1.95 m and max. wave height 2.1 m. The toe of the
structure was at mean lower low water while its crest was approximately 0.15 metres above mean
higher high water. Additional height was given by laying bags filled with sand-cement mix (ie.
mortar) along its crest (Figure 25). Although this was perhaps not a particularly stable configuration the breakwater held the artificially created tombolo in place for some months until the
structure was badly damaged as a result of vandalism.
34

SHORELINE DRIVE
6

INITIAL BEACH

LONGARO TUBE
MLLW 0

90
METRES

HOLDOWN FILTER TUBES

Figure 25 Offshore longard-tube breakwater and tombolo - Alameda, California

Offshore breakwaters and sills made up of sand-filled bags are perhaps somewhat less effective
than structures made of Longard tubing. The problem with all fabric bags is that they are easily
damaged. Small bags can be expected to deteriorate progressively as they become ruptured or are
displaced by wave forces. Larger bags are, of course, more stable but are also susceptible to
damage. A n example of the comparative effectiveness of small and large bags used in offshore
breakwater construction is in the demonstration project carried out at Basin Bayou, Florida. Basin
Bay lies on the north shore of Choctawatchee Bay in an area of shallow water and small tidal
range (0.46 m at spring tide).
Wave heights at this site average 0.3 metres with a maximum of the order of 1.2 metres. A
breakwater was constructed here, about 60 metres seaward of mean low water. It stood 1.5 m
high and was constructed in pyramid fashion. It had a crest approximately 0.75 metres above low
water and about 0.3 metres above high water; it was in three sections. The northern most section
consisted of Dura-bags (weighing about 3000kg when filled), the centre part was built of 45kg
'Sand Pillows' and the southern most section consisted of Advance bags, also weighing 45kg each.
After one month the section built with Advance-bags had lost 0.3 metres in crest height and after
three more months another 0.3 to 0.6 metres. Damage was not only the result of bag displacement
but also because the seams pulled apart, allowing sand to be washed out. The Sand Pillows fared
somewhat better but were also partly dislodged, this being helped by the coating of algae which
they had acquired. The Dura-bag section suffered little damage except for one bag which became
torn and lost most of its sand. Some 15 months after construction this part of the breakwater was
still intact.
The problem of vandalism can be a major one and this is clearly demonstrated at the Basin Bayou
site. A 1.75 metre diameter Longard (see Figure 24) tube was installed south (downdrift) of the
sand-bag breakwater and at a similar distance offshore, hence subject to approximately the same
hydrodynamic forces. It was built early in December 1978. In the following July only minor
damage had been noted. Less than one month later, however, a 12 metre segment had been
damaged as a result of the outer fabric being slashed with a knife. Deterioration of the structure
and loss of sand fill then continued until the Longard tube became almost completely submerged.
Thus, although the outer fabric is strong and resists wave impact forces well, it can be easily torn.

35

In conclusion one can say that sand filled fabric containers can be quite effective as offshore
breakwaters or sills; but they are by no means vandal proof. They appear to be best suited for use
as submerged sills, etc, where they are relatively inaccessible. Surface piercing structures may
have a lifespan of several years before fabric deterioration sets in. Their life can be increased by
using mortar as fill.
Along the coastline of the United Kingdom very large containers would have to be used to
withstand the impact by water action and their skin would have to be reinforced to resist damage
by wave borne debris. Abrasion by angular beach material is likely to reduce the lifespan of
sand-filled containers to a matter of months. The very much larger containers required to
withstand wave action probably also precludes the use of mortar since the filling of such
containers in situ or handling them into position is likely to lift this type of structure out of the
'low cost' category.
GROYNE SYSTEMS
Most of the comments made about the suitability of fabric containers for use as breakwaters apply
equally well to their use as groynes.
Longard tubes are perhaps somewhat more resistant to damage than sand bags and have been used
with varying degrees of success as groynes in the Great Lakes of North America. The following
example demonstrates, however, that these also are prone to vandalism.
At Ashland, Wisconsin, a system of six 30 metre long groynes consisting of a 1.75 m dia Longard
tube, placed on filter cloth with 0.25 m dia holddown tubes stiched to each side, was built along a
400 metre length of shoreline bordering Lake Superior (Figure 26). Max. wave height was 1.2 1.5 m. The downdrift (most westerly) groyne stayed intact from the date of installation in June
1978 to September 1979. Some damage then occurred during October 1979, but despite this, it
continued to trap sand up to the end of the period of monitoring in May 1980. The adjacent
groyne suffered a much worse fate. It was damaged very soon after construction and the outer
fabric then unbraided progressively. In May 1979, a large hole had opened up and sand loss
continued so that by May 1980 the whole tube had become so deflated as to be totally ineffective.
The performance of the third groyne (eastwards) was similar to that of the westernmost one and in
May 1980 it was still intact and trapping sand effectively. Groynes 4 and 5, on the other hand,
like groyne 2 had become completely deflated by the end of the two year period of monitoring.
Groyne 6 was also severely damaged during this period, being initially vandalised by a shotgun
blast. Failure of four groyns was mostly attributed to (1) ice floes, (2) floating debris and timber,
and (3) vandalism. To improve performance it should be recommended to treat all dry surfaces
with sand-epoxy resin to keep the fabric from unbraiding once it is ruptured.
Nylon bags filled with mortar have been used effectively as groynes under mild wave conditions.
Although most of the fabrics available do have a short life, if they are sufficiently porous to allow
some leaching to take place then they allow the units to bond together before the fabric deteriorates. The bonding strength varies but it is generally insufficient to hold large structures intact if
differential settlement takes place. In more severe wave conditions, reflection from the faces of
the groynes is likely to occur and the resulting beach scour will be difficult to control.

36

* 0*25 m d i a LONOtTdra rutc

> 1
If 1

\
! < U A * M tHO

' o r va*-I
IOU.

run

75m

L B H U D

nuis

WITH U M

' .\
13

GROIN

'

E N D OETAIL

SECTION

A-&

TYPICAL

PROFILE

OF GROINS

I. 2 ANO 3

TYPICAL

PROFILE

O F GROINS 4 . 5 AND 6

Figure 26 Longard tube groyne at Ashland, Wisconsin: profiles and details

37

CONCLUSIONS
1. Sand-filled flexible containers are very prone to vandalism and to damage by wave borne
debris and therefore we would not recommend their general use on the open coastline of the
United Kingdom. Since they are easily transportable they may however prove to be useful in
plugging gaps between dunes, filling in dune blow outs, etc. We recommend that they should
be considered only as temporary protection, even in sheltered areas. The lifespan of all fabrics
is affected by chemical deterioration under the action of ultra violet light. American experience is that woven acrylic and nylon bags survive exposure to sunlight best, and under ideal
conditions may have a lifespan of eight years or more. Spun-bonded propylene and hessian
bags, on the other hand, may have a lifespan of only one or two years.
2. Containers filled with mortar are clearly more durable and less easily damaged. The 'inter
module' bonding can give way when such structures are subject to differential settlement or
are overtopped by wave action. Their use should therefore be confined to areas of low wave
activity. Filling and careful placing of these containers is clearly very labour intensive and
would put all but the smallest of such structures out of the low cost category.
3. Nylon bags, Longard tubes, etc, have been used successfully in the United States as shore
parallel sills located near low water and used in conjunction with beach nourishment schemes.
Here they are less prone to vandalism and less damaged by wave action. At most of the
American sites, wave activity was low to moderate, and the tidal range was small. We have
grave doubts as to their ability to survive for any length of time on the UK coast.
4. All in all, we (the reviewing authors) consider that the use of fabric containers filled with sand
or mortar is rather limited. We would not recommend them except as emergency works.
Note:
These conclusions are more pessimistic than the conclusions in respect to the Italian experience
with the Longard tubes (see p.II) and the Mexican products (Bolsaroca and Bolsacreto, see p. Ill)
and their range of application.
In this context three other publications reviewing low-cost systems are worthy to be mentioned.
Amstrong and Kureth (1979) present a short evaluation on performance of Longard tubes in the
United states and in Europe. The authors conclude that the Longard tube appears to have enough
favorable observations to now define it as a concept that has moved from the "unusual" to a
position of some respectability as a very competetive shore-protection concept.
Gutman (1979) presents good and bed examples of application of sand-filled fabric bags as
revetments/bulkhead, groyns and sills for perched beaches. He concludes that the sand bag
structures, if designed correctly, are stable (ie. large bags, 3 * 4.6 * 0.5 m, were stable when
subjected to 1.8 m breaking waves), free from major settling, durable, and resisted to ice, but yet
easily subject to vandalism and damage by foot or vehicular traffic.
Ray (1977) describes the first large (prototype) scale tests performed by US Army Corps of
Engineers on stability of sand-filled nylon bags. Not only the testing but also the preparation of
bags (filling procedure, filling grade, release of air, determination of weight, bag integrity, form
change, installation of bags) was a problem. It could be recommended to read it for someone who
has no experience with these systems. He concludes that using the bags 8 by 5 feet (1.52*2.44m)
when empty (7 by 4 by 1.1 feet when filled with damp sand to 75 % of capacity) with the weight
before immersion of 2629 pounds (1200 kg), the stable breakwater for H = 6 feet (1.8m) and T

38

= 6 to 10 s in 12 feet of water (3.7m) should have the following size and geometry:
(a) when the crest is equal to S.W.L. (structure height 12 ft.); crest width of at least 21 feet
(6.4m), or three rows of bags and a seaward slope no steeper than 1 on 5,
(b) an emergent breakwater with 16.4 feet height (5m) in 12 ft. of water: crest width of at least
14 feet (4.2m), or two rows of bags wide and a front slope no steeper than 1 on 5.5.
A number of weak points of above mentioned systems can be omitted when the actual knowledge/experience will be applied in the design and technological improving of these systems
including such aspects as fabric choice, fabric coating, filling method, installation techniques, and
stability criteria.
II Experience with Longard tubes in Italy
PROTECTION WORKS OF THE SACCA DEGLI SCARDOVARI (ROVIGO), 1982-1992
(Italian Ministry of Public Works, 1992)
Intervention for the reconstruction of the sandy island at the sea mouth of the Sacca degli
Scardovari, between the mouth of the Po di Tolla and that of the Po della Donzello, is incorporated in the wider problem of protection and/or reconstruction of the deltaic islands (sand banks)
which form a circle around the whole arch of the Po delta, and which over the last few decades
have been affected by a progressive and consistent phenomenon of erosion. This phenomenon has
important consequences, as the disappearance of these formation deprives the delta of its front line
of coastal defence. It has therefore become necessary to establish a type of intervention which can
give a global and integrated solution to the technical and environmental problems, while
respecting the local coastal ecosystem (see Figure 27).
The low bearing capacity of the part of the banks lying above water level and the absence of depth
around them, make it extremely difficult to work using traditional methods. It has therefore been
necessary to adopt geotextile tabular structures of a Longard type filled with sand or silt, which
have the advantage of using local materials, without the necessity of outside supply.
Filling takes place using pumps which pick up the sandy material from special hoppers and put it
into tabular structure, which is done by means of a sand/water transportation.
Longard pipes are available in various diameters up to 2.30 m and in various lengths up to 100 m.
When laid in various combinations, they form hydraulic defence structures capable of trapping the
shifting sands always present in the felta, with which they built up considerable deposits defended
against erosion byt he pipes themselves.
When combined with plantations of native species such as privet, tomarisk, etc., which had
disappeared because of the excessive lowering of the bars, these structures provide defence
perfectly integrated with the environment.
* Description of the work
The hydraulic device made to defend and reconstruct the sand banksis essentially formed by:
a) a line acting as a breakwater situated in the open sea at depths of 2 to 3 m under M.S.L. (about
150 m offshore) and formed by Longard tubes of 1.80 m in diameter and 100 m in length, spaced
40 m, and planimetrically arranged so as to oppose the prevailing winds (see Figure 28);
Note: the depth limited waves up to 1.5 m can be expected.
b) a system of transversal panels combined with a discontinous parallel barrier, to obtain the
natural re-rooting of the shorline. The pannels, placed every 100 m, are 100 m long and are
formed by Longard tubes of 1.0 m, placed on a filter for stabilization of the seabed having a
width of 3.75 m; the discontinous barrier is formed by tubes of 1.8 m dia. and 70 m length;

39

SEZIONE TIPO
CROSS SECTION

Figure 27 Lay-out and cross-section of realized project at Sacca degli Scardovari

c) continous ridge, situated in the area of the original waterline, formed by a Longard tube with a
diameter of 1.8 m, laid on base filters having a width of 7.5 m, so as to guarantee a height of
between +1.2 m and +1.5 m above the average sea level;
d) system for consolidation of the sand bank, formed by transversal lines, with spaces at intervals
of 200 m or 300 m, placed as a continuation of the panels, and by a continuous parallel base
along the inner waterline towards the lagoon, formed by a Longard tube having a diameter of 1.0
m, so as to form banking up containers to be filled with artificially transferred sand.

tube (dia. 1.8 m)

GENERAL DESIGN

Figure 28 General pattern of Longard tubes

40

* Realization of the work

Started in 1982, the works were let out on conctract in four successive sections, forming to date
the reconstruction and defence of the sandbanks for a total extent of 4 km, one quarter of which
situated to south of the river mouth. This slow progres in the works has made a gradual insertion
of the works themselves into the natural environment possible, thus reducing to the minimum
possible impact on the ecosystem of the delta.
In 1992, the works relating to the final restoration of the mouth and to the hydro-geological
reclamation of the bay were partly performed, also with the aim of improving the cultivation of
mussels which is already going on.
Working machinery: 1 refluent suction dredger, 1 pontoon equipped for the underwater laying of
Longard tubes, 3 pieces of special equipment for filling the longard tubes on land, 1 tug, 1 motor
barge with excavator, 5 tyred shovel loaders and 1 bulldozer.
Working time: in all 15 working month over a period of 10 years.
Main quantities: 17,600 m Longard tubes of various diameters, 7,000 m filter mattresses of
various width, and also a large amount of stone, geotextiles, dredged material, etc.
Contractor: Ing. Giuseppe Sarti & C. S.p.A., Bologna.
Two other Italian projects with Longard tubes will be only briefly reviewed.
SHORE PROTECTION AT MARINA DI MONTEMARCIANO (ANCONA) 1984 (Longard,
1985)
The numerous projects developed by the Marche Region to combat widespread erosion along the
Adriatic coast include the protection of approximately 1 km of the shore in the province of
Ancona. The shore, which is rather steep, is made up of sand and gravel.
The aim of the project is to reduce and, if possible, prevent the onset of heavier erosion,
following the construction of emerging stone breakwaters more to the south.
The longard configuration consists of a double row of underwater breakwaters made up of tubes
1.8 m in diameter and 50 to 70 m in length, spaced at intervals of about 20 m parallel to the
shore. The first row is placed at a distance of 40 m from the shoreline in 2.1 m of water, the
second at a distance of 70 m in 2.5 m of water. The gaps in the two lines are staggered (Figure
29). As yet, the installation has been working so well that sand is building up on the shore.
20 E

30 '

DETAIL OF THE GENERAL DESIGN

Figure 29 General pattern of Longard tubes

PROTECTION OF A BATHING BEACH AT CAORLE (VENICE) 1985 (Info Longard, 1985,
Sarti and Larsen, 1983).
The project concerns the protection of a 1 km long beach at Caorle, a resort centre in the vicinity
of Venice. Owing to heavy erosion, every spring the beach had to be nourished to allow adequate
exploitation during the bathing season. To avoid yearly sand replacement, the Venetian Region
41

developed a project aimed at protecting the beach without spoiling its beauty. Underwater
breakwaters have been used to this purpose.
100*"..

I. 100

400 aa

GENERAL DESIGN

\ longard tube (dH. 1.8 m)

Figure 30 General pattern of Longard tubes

As shown by the above sketch, the longard configuration consists of eight 1.8 m diameter tubes,
100 m in lenght. They run parallel to the shore in a north-south direction, at a distance of 130-140
m from the beach and in 2.0-2.2 m of water, exception being made for the penultimate tube at
either end, which is placed 15 m behind the others. The four central breakwaters form a 400 m
long solid line.
III Mexican experience with "BOLSAROCA" and "BOLSACRETO" elements
For more than twenty years groins and jetties and breakwaters have been being constructed not
only along Mexican shorelines (about 20 projects) but also in several other countries around the
World. And just to emphasyze this point some examples will be very briefly cited (Porraz,1979)
of some of the most outstanding works carried out with these BC elements, alone or combined
with other ones developed within the technology known as Operational Design Systems (ODS
Tech). More recent and detailed informations can be provided on request by the manufacturer.
Nicaragua: 1974 - Construction of access breakwater and ferryboat pier in San Jorge Harbour,
where main structure was built with the sand-filled elements and armor of BC elements on slopes
and crest, to allow two traffic lanes.
Venezuela: 1976-77 - Construction of 2100 m long breakwater in Maracaibo with 4 ton BC
elements, which acts also as a spoil contention structure with which 1,747 000 m3 of dredged
material served to reclaim 67 ha for recreational facilities.
Kuwait: 1977 - Construction of 600 m long breakwater for "Stella Polaris" floating hotel project
of the Gulf-Marriott International hotel chain, using 3.5 ton BC elements protecting core of
"Bolsaroca" sand-filled elements, with which material dredged from the navigation channel served
to reclaim 5 ha of very valuable land for turistic facilities purposes. Toe of the structure was
protected with another ODS-Tech device called "Colchacreto", which are in-site-mortar-filled mat
revetments.
IV Large geotextile groyne North Kirra Beach, Gold Coast, Australia (Jackson, 1987)
* Description of project
In 1984, the Gold coast City Council decided to install a temporary groyne at Kirra beach with an
expected lifetime of at least 5 years during which time the longterm solution for this seriously
eroded area would be investigated and implemented. Intensive investigation were made into the
42

practicality of installing a sand filled geotextile groyne which would be easily removed and would
be compatible with the exposed conditions (up to 5 m deep-water waves) and intensive recreational activities.
In order to evaluate potential designs and risks and as a small groyne (40 m long by 1.2 m high)
was also required at another place (Broadwater), a geotextile groyne was designed and installed
utilising Council's 6 inch (150 mm) suction dredge before the construction of the large groyne
(31).

OPOc7

P/P

Figure 31 Filling procedure of small groyne

TUBS OEUIIS

Figure 32 Lay-out and cross-section of geotextile groyne at Gold Coast

43

The main groyne is about 120 m long, 12 m wide at the base and 5 m high, and consists of
number of stacked tubes of 1.2 m diameter in 5 layers (see figure 32). The 1200 gram weight
needle punched geotextile (Terrafix 1200) with a tensile breaking strength of 44 kN/m was applied
for the outer liner and impermeable woven polyethylene fabric with a breaking strength of 38
kN/m for the inner liner. The maximum plane strain strength of the composite membrane was 65
kN/m.In the cross section the tubes were wrapped by the Terrafix geotextile diaphrams (forming
an envelope). The tubes were compartmented to prevent an overall liquifaction condition occurring
and to localised the effect of eventual damage. The groyne was installed (in dry pit) in 1985. The
work location was protected by the temporary sand-dikes. The bottom was excavated to 2.5 m
below the M.S.L.. Before lying and filling tubes a filter layer was prepared by rolling out the
geotextile on the bottom and providing the outer tubes for scour protection.
The groyne was tested on scale 1 on 25 at the New South Wales Water Research Laboratory. The
structure was stable for the design deepwater wave of 5 m only at zero angle waveattack. Under
wave attack of 22.5 to groyne centerline the groyne was stable as long the water level was below
the base of the top layer tubes. However, at higher still water levels submerging the top layer ,
complete failure by bulk lateral removal of the top (3 tubes) and subsequent next lower two layers
occurred for deep water waves of only 3.75 m.
The cost of the groyne was somewhat less than a conventional rock groyne despite the experimental character of this project.
* Performance
Vandalism was evident within the first month of construction of the groyne. The first efforts were
knife cuts along the top surface and these were easily repaired by Council's crew using geotextile
patches with contact adhesive.
After storms (2.5 to 3 m waves) some slumping/deflating of the end (head) had occurred and an
inspection underwater revealed a large tear caused by the excavator bucket teeth. As the groyne
was compartmentised the problem remained local. The hydraulic smoothness of the groyne proved
popular with the adjacent surfing beach users and was used as a water slide by children. In
January 1986 a large knife cut some two to three metres long was observed on the second bottom
tube near the end. The compartmentisation effectively localised the problem until the damaged
tube collapsed sufficiently for the tube on top to be displaced sideways tearing the envelopeand
causing a major collapse of the end 20 meters. During the collapse the end nose seams broke
allowing large areas of fabric to float free. In August 1986 30 pieces of large 4 by 1.2 m
diameter sand filled geotextile bags were placed at the head around and over the damaged section
and the whole repaired area covered with a sand-asphalt mix. However, further subsidence has
occurred and most of the sand-asphalt mix has been lost.
Whilst the problem with vandalism and the inadequate nose (head) details have led to the almost
total collapse of the seaward 30 m, the groyne which has since been subjected to 5 m deepwater
waves ( with breaking waves at the groyne-head of about 2 to 2.5 m) on several occasions is still
performing satisfactorily.
Overall observations of the prototype has shown that although some changes/improvements need
to be made to the detailing of the head and protection against vandalism, the concept is viable,
particularly where suitable rock is not economically available or access problems exist. The
existing problems could be overcome in future designs building on the observations of the
behaviour of this prototype groyne.
44

Artificial seaweed and Curtains

1. Artificial Seaweed for erosion control and scour prevention

Seaweed in historical perspective
The field observations provided that in some coastal areas the natural seaweed plays an
important role in retaining sand along the coastlines due to the reduction of the shear
stresses exerted by currents and waves on the seabed. This fact was the base of the idea
to produce and apply the artificial seaweed for erosion control.
The first users of artificial fibres for erosion control and/or to prevent marine scouring
date back to the 60-ies (England, Denmark, Netherlands). The artificial seaweed was
composed on polypropylene tape (having a specific gravity of less than one), 3 to 10 mm
wide, connected edge to edge to form a continuous serrated sheet. In some cases dozens
of tapes were bundled together to form individual tufts of seaweed. Fronds varied from 1
to 2 m in length.
One of the main engineering problem was the anchorage of the seaweed on the bottom.
The unproper anchorage was also the main reason of the failures with this system
(Rogers, 1987). In the first US applications on the Atlantic coasts the fronds were
attached to a rope grid, which was anchored with individual lead weights and concrete
anchors. This anchorage system failed within several months of operation. In other case
the bunched fronds were anchored to steel frames. The project was destroyed within
several months by northeast storms. The connection between the individual bunches and
the steel frame failed. Another problem was the limited buoyancy of fronds which
diminished with time in exposed or shallow conditions due to bio-fouling with marine
organisms or debris.
The main research on artificial seaweed have been continued in Europe in 70-ies.
Research and field testing has been conducted in the Netherlands, England, Denmark,
Norway, France and Germany. The extensive review on these developments is given by
Rogers (1987). Some of his findings are incorporated in present review.
In the Netherlands, research on artificial seaweed has been conducted in cooperation with
the Shell Plastics Laboratory, Nicolon Geotextiles Company and the Rijkswaterstaat
(Dutch Public works Dpt.), (Bakker et al, 1972). Research has concentrated on the use of
seaweed as a low-cost alternative to rock mattresses to control tidal scour and/or to
prevent scour around man-made offshore structures. Also some (less sucessful) attempts
have been made to application of the artificial seaweed for control of beach erosion.
In 1964, Shell developed a gas injected polypropylene material that has much greater
buoyancy. Polypropylene normally has a specific gravity of 0.9. Gas injection reduces the
specific gravity to 0.2, substantially increasing the buoyancy. The added buoyancy was
found to reduce sinking when the material fouled with marine organisms or debris. In
scope of this joint project Shell provided the polpropylene, Nicolon manufactured the
seaweed (Nicolon, 1985) and the Rijkswaterstaat installed and monitored the tests
(Fig.35).
Paralelly with the prototype testing some model investigations at the Delft Hydraulics
were conducted with purpose of better understanding the physical mechanisms of erosion
control by an artificial seaweed (Delft Hydraulics, 1973), (see figure 33). The flume
studies for Nicolon indicated that continuous screens of seaweed, perpendicular to the
current were more effective than tufts of seaweed at intervals. It was theorized that the
seaweed reduced sediment transport by absorbing part of turbulent shear stress with the
46

Ft
shear stress due to turbulent
water movement
total shear stress to be
transferred to the bottom

(a)

seaweed

F..t g . I t0

field

shear stress
transferred to the
bottom through the
seaweed

(b) shear stress

,
Schematic representation of the seaweed effects

_._

stncted mixing path

e to seaweed

(c mixing path

stream with seaweed

a m without seaweed

S I r C

supply boat

35 m
wot*rdpth
#

currant

target at. t e a b o t t o m

INSPECTION VIEW CF ARTIFICIAL SEAWEED

LAIO AROUND 2 0 O K I I I I SUBMARINE PIPELINE

AT

fro.

a-v

fronds. The reduced shear stress transferred to the bottom sediments resulted in reduced
bed load. A similar reduction in turbulent vertical mixing within the boundary layer
established by the seaweed reduced suspended sediment transport as well. Tufts were
found to have less effect on the current velocity because of increased turbulence between
the tufts.
Several methods of installation were developed depending on the water depth, current
velocity and wave climate (see an example in figure 3$) The material was placed in tidal
channels, prpendicular to the direction of flow, in hopes of trapping enough sand to form
a dam across the channel. Water depths most frequently ranged from 3 to 15 metres.
Several were placed in intertidal locations at low tide. One test was placed around a
submarine pipeline at a depth of 30 m. Peak current velocities were 1 to 1.5 m/s. the
seaweed fronds varied in length from 1.5 to 2 m. Fifteen to 50 rows of units were
installed.
The anchorage system consisted of a fabric tube, approximately 0.15 to 0.30 m in
diameter, filled with either sand of gravel. Individual tapes are attached edge-to-edge to
the length of the tube, providing, in effect, a serrated sheet of seaweed. Both tube and
seaweed frond are generally 1.5 to 2.5 m. Linear composites eventually settled on two
different designs depending on the application. For free standing applications, bundles of
polyproylene tape are attached to a filter fabric base on a 0.5 m grid. The fronds are
available in variable lengths. The fabris is than anchored with steel beams or concrete.
For use around offshore structures, the free end of the seaweed is weighted and the fixed
end is supported from above on welded steel frames attached to the structure.
These anchorage methods were developed relatively early and were sufficiently successful
to conduct specific tests on artificial seaweed as an erosion control method.
Large prototype tests were evaluated by Bakker et al (1972) and ten Hoopen (1976).
Results of the experiments were mixed. The capacity of the artificial seaweed was not
enough to control the large scale changes naturally occuring along the strongly eroding
shoreline. However, as the overall conclusion, the Dutch tests indicated that artificial
seaweed could be effective in controlling current scour in secondary tidal channels and
localized scour around man-made structures. It may be a lower cost alternative to rock or
concrete control structures. While several of the tests were conducted in significant wave
climates, the effect was primarily on the current and did not show any effects on waveinduced currents or shoreline erosion. Similar results have been obtained in other
European countries.
Interest in the use of artificial seaweed to control shoreline erosion was rekindled in the
United States sometime around 1976. Large scale laboratory tests (Ahrens/US Corps,
1976) and a number of field studies were conducted with mix results (see, Foreman,
1986, Roberts, 1987).
The experience from US and European projects indicate that the artificial seaweed can be
successfully applied for scour prevention around the legs of offshore platforms and around
offshore pipelines when the anchorage is designed properly (i.e. Linear Composities,
1986). Applications of artificial seaweed to beach erosion control were till now less
successful. There were often no discernable differences between the shoreline protected
with artificial seaweed and adjacent unprotected shorelines. The materials appear to be
48

inadequate to survive moderate to high wave activity. One of the main reason for that was
again the problem with anchoring. Due to the high forces of breaking waves in a surf
zone the necessary anchorage needs special expensive measures which makes this system
less competitive with more conventional solutions.
The final remarks and conclusions based on Roberts's review (1987) can be summarized
as follow.
European and US experience indicates that artificial seaweed can be used to reduce
current scour in certain conditions. The seaweed must be well anchored, densely placed in
large beds having stable flotation sufficient to allow normal fouling for extended periods
of submergence and be strong enough to withstand substantial forces and abrasion in the
marine environment.
Field results have shown both successes and failures.
Successes have been reported in reducing tidal scour in inlet channels and controlling
localized scour around offshore structures such as oil production platforms and submerged
pipelines.
To date, every documented seaweed installation has been shown to be ineffective in
controlling shoreline erosion by waves. Deterioration of the units by abrasion and wave
activity has been a consistent problem. Anchorage methods have been found to be
inadequate in higher wave exposures.
Morever, a very dense and wide field of artificial seaweed with long fronds would be
necessary to attenuate typical storm waves sufficiently to protect a shoreline. A variety of
problems must be solved for such a seaweed field to be effective. The structural loads on
the seaweed are substantial and effective anchorage remains a formidable problem. Also,
like most geosynthetics, seaweeds are sensitive to ultraviolet light and their lifetime is
limited in direct sunlight when floating on the surface. Such a seaweed field would
present substantial hazards to both navigation and swimmers, but would be a significant
fish attraction. While somewhat more feasible than the first nearshore applications from
an engineering perspective, the seaweed density and width (area) of an effective field
again would undoubtedly be more expensive that other erosion control alternatives.
It should be concluded that artificial seaweed has consistently proven ineffective in
controling shoreline erosion. In this respect it is useful to repeat the final statement
(warning) by Roberts: "Artificial seaweed has, at several times, been offered as an
interesting method of potentially controlling shoreline erosion. Unfortunately, all of the
evidence to date indicates it is not an effective alternative".
Some additional informations on experience with the artificial seaweed and the alternative
solutions with geotextile curtains hanging on beams of the legs of offshore platforms can
be found in (SUT Seminar, 1980, and River and Harbour Laboratory, 1976)

49

New developments:
* Artificial Sea Grass (Seabed Scour Control Systems Limited)
The past experience with the artificial seaweed indicates that the most promissing
application for this product is prevention of localized scour at offshore structures
(platforms, pipelines, etc.). The wave induced currents are there of a limited strength
(less problems with proper anchorage), because of larger depths no problem with U V resistance, and less problems with effect of fouling and debris. That also explains why the
recent developments and applications are related (limited) to that area.
The product which actually successfully operates on the markt for offshore applications
has a form of a underwater artificial sea grass field/mats (developed in 80-ies), and is
known as Seabed Scour Control System (SSCS, 1995). Based on the artificial seaweed
concept of "arrested sedimentation" SSCS system (mat) suffers none of the drawbacks of
similar previous systems. It has superb positional stability, it is not prone to phylloplankton colonisation, it requires no special tools or skills for installation and it actually serves
to enhance its own effectiveness and that of other conventional sea defence forms.
The functioning principles are straight-forward; buoyant fronds floating upright from the
seabed act to reduce seabed and near-seabed current velocities, encouraging the deposition
of transported (eroded) seabed material. In conjunction with this action, at relatively
shallow water the fronds also interfere with wave-induced orbital forces, effectively
causing waves to break early and thus reducing the impact on threatend shorelines,
breakwaters, etc.
Following intensive research and development and taking into account the past experience
with artificial seaweed, SSCS has created a more reliable method for scour prevention.
This system is based on building stable mass fibre-reinforced sand bars (banks) within the
seaweed fields. These bars are created by mats of polypropylene fronds that have a dual
action. They apply viscous drag which reduces the current velocity so that particles of
material are deposited into the mats - thereby building up a cohesive underwater sandbar
(bank) around the structure to be protected. Such sandbanks created closer to the shore
may act as submerged sills and may:
- remove long-shore drift by creating refraction conditions,
- produce a series of fiffraction patterns, thereby reducing wave impact on fore-shore, and
- simply divert erosive current forces in less harmful directions.
This technique employs chemically inert materials to create a flexible barrier to retard the
flow of water.
The SSCS scour control mats are
to a depth of 1 m. The system
velocities in exess of 10 knots (>
rated into flexible concrete block
wave dissipation.

retained on the seabed by anchore hydraulically driven

has been designed and tested for stability in current
0.5 m/s). The flexible fronds-mat can also be incorpomats to provide added effectiveness in stability and in

The main applications are in protecting fixed offshore platforms, mobile rigs and
pipelines from the effects of scour. The SSCS system may also be employed in defence
50

F i

3^

RELIABLE ANCHOR.
The special anchor developed and patented by Seabed
Scour Control Systems (as illustrated here) is driven into the seabed by an
lydraulic hammer gun. On the withdrawal of the I metre long spigot, current
wees, pulling on the anchor straps, erect the anchor plate at a right angle to
he strap. In this position, the pull-out strength is I tonne at I metre depth in
;and. A demonstration of laying the mat and dnving the anchors is shown on the
ight.

5i

structures, shore protection schemes, river flow control, bridge pier stabilisation,
protection for large diameter outfall pipes, and other applications. The mats, once in
position with the fronds floating vertically from the base, act immediately. The seabed is
stabilised immediately and the fibre-reinforced bank begins to build up, forming a
permanent natural barrier which protects the underwater installation and further strengthens the anchorage of the SSCS mat. This system, proven in a number of projects,showed itself to be reliable under various hydraulic conditions.
The key benefits in stabilising and protecting submerged structures and pipelines with
SSCS-mats are:
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*

Lower installed cost compared with currently used systems

'One-off only cost - providing a permanent engineering solution to scour that does
mostly not require follow-up maintenance
Stops scour immediately upon installation
Progressive build up of permanent mass fibre reinforced sandbank
Environmentally acceptable: the sandbank contours follow and blend into the river or
seabed, and does not affect marine life or vegetable growth or fishing
Effective in deep or shallow water
Impact damage protection by cushioning structures with energy-absorbing sand
Load Bearing solution - natural agitation of fronds creates a high degree of sand
compaction.

A rolled-up mat (5.8 metres long and 140 kilograms of weight) is lowered from a vessel
using a down line (see figure 36). The exact positioning of mat under water is executed
by two divers.
The special anchor developed and patented by SSCS (figure 37) is driven into seabed by
an hydraulic hammer gun. On the withdrawal of the 1 metre long spigot, current forces,
pulling on the anchor straps, erect the anchor plate at a right angle to the strap. In this
position, the pull-out strength is 1 tonne at 1 metre depth in sand. A demonstration of
laying the mat and driving the anchors is shown on the figure .
On pipelines and jackets, existing vessels can be used to instal the SSCS system, such as
those used for the annual inspection programme. For the stabilisation of jack-up rigs, the
divers and facilities already on the rig can be used. In all cases, only SSCS equipment
and engineering input willbe required.
A typical mat of 5 * 5 metres comprises approximatelly 1.5 million thread filaments in
the 25 sq.metre. Buoyant frond material is made of U V stabilised polypropylene, fully
tested as 'chemically resistant'. Specific gravity is about 0.92. Material is fully fibrillated
and with profiled film. Buoyant fronds are attached to grid of polyester cross- and
anchor- straps in successive continuous rows providing substantial and unbroken overlap
of frondsto those in the neighbouring rows. Frond length (height when deployed) of the
lines of buoyant frond material is 1250 mm. In riverine (and other special situations)
lesser frond heights allied to a proportionate increase in frond density (spacing) in the
frond rows may be used. A "Safe Net" frond release is provided for diver and safety
requirements.
52

Mat Specification

-Control SystemsLimited

Seabed Scour
Control Systems
Limited

Fi ci-,58

Harfreys Road
Harrreya Ind. Estate
Great Yarmouth
Norfolk NR31 OLS

Tab 01493 443380 Fax: 01493 443390

Mats are available ex-stock in the following sizes and are manufactured from
Polyester and Polypropylene. The anchors are zinc plated steel.

TI2
5m

ANCHOR (8 off)
DEPLOYMENT PLAN

ROLL

Net Deployed weight 45 kg

Gross Packed weight 100 kg
Size packed
5.8 m X 0.35 m0

- 2.5 m -

T25
ii

ANCHOR (16 off)

DEPLOYMENT PLAN

-
ROLL

Net weight
85 kg
Gross Packed weight 140 kg
Size packed
5.8 m X 0.5 m0

Sm

T30
Sm

ANCHOR (24 off)

DEPLOYMENT PLAN

ROLL

Net weight
125 kg
Gross Packed weight 180 kg
Size packed
5.8 m X 0.55 m0

7.5m

CONTINUOUS & OVERLAPPING LINES

OF BUOYANT FRONDS

BASE BLOCKS - Thickness

150. 300 OR 450mm

F i q . j g

SECTION - FROND FLEXIFORM M A T T R E S S

OVER 16 P/UNE WITH PIGGY-BACK UMBIUCAL
Not To Scale
-

Mats are available ex-stock in the following sizes (see figure 38):
Type 12
Type 25
Type 30

having 8 anchors
having 16 anchors
having 24 anchors

5.0 * 2.5 m
5.0 * 5.0 m
5.0 * 7.5 m

Each mat is composed of the following materials:

B R E A K I N G STRAIN

COMPONENT

DIMENSIONS

MATERIAL

Fronds

0.05*1.25 m

fibrolated polypropylene

WEIGHT

90 kg

Frond line

0.05*5.00 m

woven polyester

1.3 tonne

3.0 kg/line

Cross straps

0.05*7.00 m

woven polyester

6.0 tonne

0.2 kg/line

Anchor line

0.05*1.00 m

woven polyester

6.0 tonne

0.2 kg/line

Anchors

As
21
46
16

0.8 kg/anchor

0.15*0.20 m steel

an example, the mat type 25 comprises:

frond lines
- total weight
lin m webbing (cross straps and anchor straps)
anchors
- total weight
Net mat weight

21 * 3 = 63.0 kg
46 * 0.2 = 9.2 kg
16 * 0.8 = 12.8 kg
85.0 kg approx.

Practically no maintanance is required: the fronds will not decay and the anchorage is
permanent. The SSCS mat may be employed cost-effectively in a wide variety of
situations. The system is economic in use, with comparatively low installation costs.
* Frond Flexiform Mattress (combined frond and flexible concrete mattresses)
In case of more heavier hydraulic conditions (i.e. velocities higher than 1 m/s, specific
angle of current attack), especially in case of protection of offshore pipelines in shallow
water where the effect of shoaling waves should be taken into account, the protection
often needs more rigid structure. For this purpose a new mat called "Frond Flexiform
Mattress" has been developed which combined the buoyant frond mat and flexible
concrete mattress. It combines all the best features of both products in one, and in
particular offers both instant protection and the build up of long term fibre re-enforced
consolidated cover.
The flexible concrete mattress base consists of high strength concrete segments linked
together with a network of high strength polypropylene ropes to form a continuous
flexible concrete barrier. The frond lines are than attached to this base mattress (see
figure 39). The individually profiled concrete segments provide a high degree of flexibility in two planes and allow for complete protection of subsea structures with the fronds
preventing edge scour and internecine block scour by providing a consolidated sand bank
build up over the mattress. The "Frond Flexiform" mattress is suitable for most applications, such as pipeline cover, pipeline hold down, riser elbow protection, and for the long
term protection of structures and bridges.

54

Fig. 40

pi ppWccx-Ko v\s

S S C S

PC pe-livaes

55

wia/b.5

proV e.cKovi

Mattress specifications:
Standard block thickness: 150, 300 and 450 mm with a standard block density: 2.4
Tonnes/Cubic Metre (lightweight and heavy density options are also available from 1.8 to
3.6 T/m3).
Approximate weight
Thickness
150 mm block
300 mm block
450 mm block

per sq. metre on installation (standard density)

In air (tonnes)
Submerged (tonnes)
0.275
0.152
0.510
0.279
0.770
0.430

This initial submerged weight will increase in time due to the material bank formed by
the fronds giving a total submerged hold down of 1 t/sq.m or more.
Standard mould sizes are 10 * 3 m in plan area. Mattresses may be manufactured in any
size within mould dimensions subject to standard block sizes.
For lifting and overside the integral lifting loops connected to re-usable quick relase
frame are applied.
Additional 1 tonne SSCS ground anchors may be attached at corners or edges to provide
the additional edge hold down to increase protection capability (e.g. against trawling).
* Underwater screens
The most recent development concerns the application of a number of small geosynthetic
floating screens (grids), ie. 1.5 m height and 3.0 m width, placed in certain pattern along
the sea bed ( Huygens etal, 1994, 1995). However, their impact on shore evolution/protection has been studied only in laboratory conditions. Laboratory application whereby a
field of screens was installed between groynes was validated as giving positive results
under severe storm conditions.

2.

BEROSIN curtains for erosion control

BEROSIN stands for 'better erosion inhibitor'. It is also the registered trade mark
(patents applied for) since 1977. The BEROSIN curtain is a flexible structure made of
various woven geotextiles which after placing near the shore and anchoring to the bed
catches the sand transported by currents and waves providing accretion on a shore and
preventing the erosion. The proper choice of permeability of geotextile creates the proper
conditions for sedimentation of suspended sediment in front/or under the curtain and at
the same time allowing the water to flow out without creating too high forces on the
curtain and thus, on the anchors. The quick sedimentation process will help to minimize
the forces on the lower edges of the curtain. Special open pockets on the surface at the
lower edge of a curtain are filled with sand already at the beginning of sedimentation
process functioning as anchors. For placement purpose of the curtain some of these
pockets can be initially filled with sand, gravel, slags or other materials providing an
initial anchoring; if necessary some additional ballast can be added. To allow the process
of catching sediment the upper edges are equipped with the floating capacity (with depth
56

compensation) adjusted to the specific flow conditions and the depth. The curtains must
be prepared and executed strictly to the specifications prescribed and under professional
supervision of the Berosin office.
The Berosin curtains can be provided in the length of 10 to 100 metres (or even more)and
the height of 0.5 to 5.0 metres or more. The length of curtain measured along the shore
is practically unlimited. There are BEROSIN systems in various configurations:
A . BEROSIN underwater curtains (vertical system, 1977-1982)
B. BEROSIN underwater halls (horizontal system, 1991-1995)
The principles of both systems are illustrated in the enclosed figures (Figrs. 41 A , B ) .
The main possibilities of application of BEROSIN systems are:
*

Berosin can be used to stop erosion and to rebuild eroded zones in rivers and in
coastal areas, both on beaches as well as underwater, because Berosin catches sand.

Berosin may be used to normalize meandering rivers.

Berosin may be used to deepen shipping lanes and gulleys.

Berosin is safe on tourist beaches; it is safehaven for small marine animals and it can
even stimulate fishery.

Berosin textiles are lightweight and easy to install with 2 divers and with local
workers. No cranes, no pontoons and no stone-dumping will be needed where Berosin
is used.

Berosin is highly cost-effective. In many cases it will cost no more than one-third of
other marine protection works.

Berosin is an innovative method in erosion control. It was invented and improved by

the observing of the sedimentological processes and more than 35 years of practical
experience.

Based on this experience a professional help can be provided during the design and
execution of the projects with Berosin systems. Also, the transfer of knowledge and
cooperation/participation in test projects is possible.

There are many systems for control of coastal erosion. Beach nourishment is one of the
most natural and friendly solution. However, the beach nourishment is very often also an
expensive defence system with a limited lifetime. In many situations the BEROSIN can be
a less expensive and more permanent solution, especially for very remote areas. It does
not mean that BEROSIN is the answer for all erosion problem. It should be treated as a
potential alternative to more standard/conventional solutions. A test project to start with is
recommended.

57

BEROSIN not only stops the local coastal erosion but also it (re-)build an already eroded
coastal zone or river bank in a natural way and in a short time. Simply by using and
guiding the principle of natural sedimentation. Mostly without or with limited side
(flanking-)effects if properly designed. The side effect is a common problem associated
with more conventional rigid systems like groynes, jetties, revetments and breakwaters.
A number of projects have been executed with BEROSIN curtains in Germany and in the
Netherlands for coastal protection, protection of offshore pipelines and river bank
protection.
Example of placement procedure
A . Vertical curtain
1.

2.
3.

The Berosin curtain, e.g. 200 * 4 metres, is folded as a complete package, with
floating components (floaters) and ballast, on a deck of a pontoon. The pontoon is
properly anchored (in four directions) to provide a fix position.
A tug-boat of 150 to 300 P K pull the curtain (fold by fold) into the water somewhat
upstream of the projected line.
The curtain is equipped with:
a. a distance wire between the curtain and the shore
b. a tow-rope between the curtain and the shore
c. temporary floaters for placement procedure.

Within few minutes the curtain is floating along the projected line and on a required
distance from the shore. The sea-side (lower-) edge is sinking due to ballast and depthcompensated floaters. The curtain becomes overstrained by slowely moving tug-boat and,
during this procedure, the anchor block of a weight of 500 to 1000 kg is launched along
the tow-rope to fix the position of the curtain. The curtain is now at the proper depth and
position. The anchor block and other ballast can be removed, if necessary, by using
divers and deckwinch.
B. Horizontal curtain
The BEROSIN horizontal systems are easier to install, and they catch sand in huge
quantities and in a short time. For realization of Berosin project the following components
can be applied (an example):
* 200 grammes of Berosin texile per sq. metre,
* 5.000 sq. metres fit into a 6 metre container,
* about 5 metre workboat with 20 H P and a waterpump of 5 H P ,
* a team of 2 qualified aqualung divers and 2 workers.
The workboat is functioning as a floating platform for a team of divers.
At first, the anchors are placed accordingly to the required scheme/plan. Next, the
horizontal BEROSIN curtain (shield, cover) is spread (at proper sea conditions and/or at
proper slack tide) by a small workboat and two divers. The four edges, equipped with
some depth-compensated floaters, are properly anchored (point by point) at the projected
lines. Than, the lower edge is sinking to the required position. The sedimentation process

59

fill-in the open pockets on the curtain providing a firm anchorage.

The floaters at the upper edge in combination with upper anchors provide the necessary
inlet opening for sediment which will be accumulated under the BEROSIN curtain.
Because the highest sediment concentration is close to the bottom, the inlet height is
mostely less than one third of the local water depth. The proper inlet height can be
eventually determined in the course of a test experiment.
The ground-anchores are injected into the ground to the depth of 1.5 m or more providing
a high anchoring resistance. Mostly about 40 anchors are used to anchor a geotextile sheet
of 25 by 25 m. The strong permeable woven polyetheen geotextile is used for production
of the curtains. The edges od the curtains are specially reinforced to resist the anchorage
forces and provided with special loops for connection with anchor-ropes. The proper
permeability of Berosin textile allows water to escape.
The horizontal system can also be applied directly on the beach (in swash zone); the
sediment transported during the run-up phase (or during high tide) will be accumulated
under the cover of Berosin during the run-down phase (or by tidal currents during
decreasing of tide). It will provide verv rapid growth of the beach. In that case, however,
the system can be affected by the vandalism especially in touristic areas or by the ice
movement.
In case of coast of Vlieland (the Netherlands), some of the horizontal curtains placed in
the intertidal zone have provided a growth of a beach/foreshore of 0.5 to 1.0 m within a
week while others within a few weeks. It was also recognized that the sheets (curtains)
can be easily damaged in vicinity of rock due to abrasion (one curtain was connected to
the existing rock groyne). On the other hand, the heads of the existing groynes were
badly damaged and the beach between the groynes was eroded during the storms while
the area protected by the curtains remainded in proper condition.
It seems that this system can provide a low-cost measure for steering of the morfological
processes. However, more prototype experiments in various wave climate are needed
before the final conclusions on the effectiveness and durability of this system in various
design conditions can be drawn.

60

A3.

Closure remarks

1. Conclusions
*

A n objective of this review is to show that a large variety of reasonable "low cost"
alternatives for shore protection are available. That does not necessarily mean they
are "cheap". In fact, practically any properly implemented shore protection method is
expensive. The term "low cost" simply means that the various measures are commensurate with the value of property being protected and they are among the lower
priced options available. Whether a solution is considered a low cost alternative or
not, however, is up to the individual or community installing it. The cost of the
project must be weighed against both the objective and subjective value of what is
being lost to erosion.

The methods described here are usually appropriate for use in sheltered waters with
mild wave climate. However, a number of solutions/methods have also potential
possibilites for application in more exposed (open coast) situations. Use of these
structures in such areas is only recomended when based on the detail studies and
proper stability calculations supported by reliable model investigation.
The technologies related to geotextile systems have been utilized extensively in
Europe, Northern America, Mexico, Japan and Australia, producing often successful
installations but only few technical details. Some manufacturers and contractors are
inclined to protect know-how to preserve market advantages. Therefore, to effectively
commercialize these technologies it is necessary to uncover the technical details.
Technically the methodologies have shown to be feasible but there are design and
constructibility uncertainties that still must be addressed.

A number of weak points of above reviewed systems can be omitted when the actual
knowledge/experience will be applied in the design and technological improving of
these systems including such aspects as fabric choice, fabric coating, filling method,
installation techniques, stability criteria, and life-time.

The intention of this literature search is to uncover, as far as possible, the technical
informations on these systems and make them available for the potential users. It will
help to make a proper choice for specific problems/projects and it will stimulate the
further developments in this field.

There are more applications of geosynthetic (geotextile) systems in coastal engineering than those mentioned above. It is going too far in the scope of this book to
review all of them. However, the main other applications are illustrated in the
appendices. Reprint of some publications is included when available.

There is a rapid development in the field of geotextiles and geotextile systems and
there is always a certain time gap between new developments and publishing that in
specialistic books. Therefore, it is recommended to follow the professional literature
on this subject (Journal of Geotextiles and Geomembranes, Geotextiles Congresses,
Coastal Engineering Congresses, etc.) and manufacturer's brochures for updating the
present knowledge.
61

2.

Recorrimendations on stability criteria

* Sand and mortar filled bags

For the time being it can be concluded that the stability of sandbags with the width-length
ratio not larger than 1 to 3 and properly filled (> 70%), can be computed in the similar
way as riprap. It is recommended to calculate the stability acc. to Pilarczyk's formula
(Pilarczyk, 1990) with stability coefficient c = 2.5, nl.:
H / A D = c cosa

1/2

for < = 3 ,

(for > 3, the values calculated for = 3 can be used),

where: H = significant wave height, A = relative density of the bags, (p - p )/p , D =
average thickness of bags, c = stability coefficient defined at = 1, a = slope angle (it
can be neglected for slopes milder than 1 on 3), { = surf-similarity parameter equal to
( H / L ) , and L = wave length. The density of bags (p ) can be assumed 2000 and 2300
kg/m resp. for sand and concrete (A resp. 1 and 1.3).
s

1/2

Note: Sand-filled units applicable till H = 1.5 m (max. 2 m).

s

* Stability of foreshore protection mattresses incl. sand-sausage mattresses (Profixmat)

For the first approximation of stability of sand- or mortar-filled mattresses (i.e. ProFix or
Fabriform mats) of more or less uniform thickness the formula proposed by Pilarczyk
(1990) can be used:
H /AD
s

eq

= c cosa "

2/3

for < = 3

(for > 3, the values calculated for = 3 can be used)

where: A = relative density of the mattress, D^, = equivalent (average) thickness of
mattress, c = stability coefficient defined at = 1 (definition of other parameters is the
same as above).
The value of coefficient 'c' depends on the failure mechanism and the ratio between the
permeability of the mattress and the permeability of the subsoil, kjk^:
c

= 4

c = 6

when kj}^ < 1 with the uplift of mattress and deformation of subsoil as
main failure mechanism, and
when kjk^ > = 1 with the deformation of subsoil as the main failure
mechanism.

The range of c-values follows from the research projects of Delft Hydraulics with placed
block revetments/block-mats and different type of mattresses. It should be noted that the
uplift can already start at c = 2, but it is so small and of such short duration that it will
no result in a serious damage to the mattress protection. Therefore c = 3 to 4 can be
treated as a design value.
In special cases as large mattresses of temporary use and/or when some deformation of
62

the subsoil can be accepted or the subsoil is more resistant to deformation (i.e. clay) the
higher values of 'c' can be chosen (max. 6). The research described in (Delft Hydraulics,
1975; large mattresses on circular island) can be illustration of such case. Using these
high c-values the structure should be controlled on sliding, and in most cases it will
require a special anchoring of mattresses.
Note: sand-filled units applicable till H < = 1.5 m.
s

* Geotubes and Geocontainers

Delft Hydraulics/Nicolon, 1994, H2029). The tested structures consisted of three layers
of elements. The bottom layer contained four adjacent elements, the middel layer
contained three adjacent elements and the top layer contained two adjacent elements. This
structure is referred to as the 4-3-2 structure. The applied wave spectrum was of the
Pierson-Moscowitz type. The significant wave height was increased in steps until the
structure collapsed or until the highest obtainable significant wave height had been
reached.
Results
Element
Geotube
(D - 2.15 m)
Geotube
Geocontainer
(D = 3.75 m)

Water level
over crest
0.0 m

3.5 m
3.5 m

Significant wave height

periode at instability
1.7 m / 5.7 s
2.5 m / 7.1 s
3.1 m / 9.0 s
4.2 m / 9.1 s
3.3 m / 7.3 s
4.2 m / 9.0 s

IL/A D,,,

Remarks

1.05
1.55
1.92
2.60
1.76
2.24

minor motions
0.4 m displacement
no further displacement
rapidly collapsed
minor motions
0.4 m displacement

Note: Equivalent thickness is assumed as equal to 0.75 D for geotubes and 0.5 D for geocontainers, and the relative density A = 1; assuming further the equivalent slope as equal to 1 on 1, the
surf-similarity parameter (breaker index) will be about = 5.5 (surging breaker). These
informations can be of use for comparison with the stability of other systems.
* General stability criteria for geotubes filled with sand or mortar
Based on small scale investigations by Delft Hydraulics ( Breakwater of concrete filled hoses, M
1085, 1973) and other literature informations, the following stability criteria for geotubes can be
formulated:
- tubes on the crest (at S.W.L. or submerged) lying parallely to the axis of breakwater
H /A B - 1
s

where B is the width (horizontal ovality measure) of a tube; one may roughly assume B = 1.1 D
(original diameter of a tube).

63

Note: when the crest layer is composed of two tubes connected artificially to each other (i.e. rebars) the equivalent width is equal to 2B.
- when the tube is placed perpendicularly to the axis of a breakwater the stability can be
approximated by
H /A L = 1
s

where L is the length of a tube.

Note: sand-filled units applicable till H = 1.5 m (max. 2 m)
s

Due to the absence of reinforcement in the mortar filled units it is very likely that for long tubes
(say longer than 3D) also cracks will occur; some reinforcement should be recommended or an
equivalent length should be taken equal to L < (3 to 4) D.

64

OTHER NOVEL SYSTEMS

65

OTHER NOVEL SYSTEMS

B.

There exist a number of other novel and/or low cost materials and methods for shore protection
(gabions and stone mattresses, open stone asphalt (Fixtione), used tire pile breakwaters, sheet pile
structures, standing concrete pipes filled with granular materials, concrete Z-wall (zigzag) as
breakwater, geotextiles curtains (screens), and various floating breakwaters ( incl. using tires),
etc. Most of them are extensively evaluated and documented (US Army, 1981, Hydraulics
Research, 1984, Maccaferri guidelines (Agostini et al, 1981), PIANC publications, etc.).
However, more recently, a new family of prefabricated concrete elements as SURGEBREAKER
offshore reef system, BEACHSAVER reef and WAVEblock elements have been developed.
Only gabions and these new prefabricated concrete systems will be briefly reviewed here.
Gabions
Recommended Wave Height Range in respect to direct wave attack: below 1.5 m.
Gabions are rectangular baskets or mattresses made of galvanized, and sometimes PVC-coated,
steel wire, in a hexagonal mesh (Figure 42) subdivided into approximately equal sized cells,
standard gabion baskets are 1 m wide, and available in lengths of 2, 3 and 4 m and heights of 0.5
and 1 m. Standard mattresses are 0.17, 0.23 and 0.3 m thick, 2 m wide and 6 m long. On reqest
other sizes are also possible. Nominal mesh sizes are from 50 to 100 mm.

Maccaferri Reno Mattress

Maccaferri Gabion

OT7m

Figure 42 Typical forms and sizes of gabions

At the job site, the baskets are unfolded and assembled by lacing the edges together with steel
wire. The individual baskets are then wired together and filled with stones of diameter larger than
the mesh size. The lids are finally closed and laced to the baskets, forming a large, heavy mass.
One advantage of a gabion structure is that it can be built without heavy equipment. Gabions are
flexible and can maintain their function even if the foundation settles. They can be repaired by
opening the baskets, refilling them, and then wiring them shut again.
The disadvantage of a gabion structure is that the baskets may be opened by wave action. Also,
since structural performance depends on the continuity of the wire mesh, abrasion and damage to

66

the PVC coating can lead to rapid corrosion of the wire and failure of the baskets. For that
reason, the baskets should be tightly packed to minimize movement of the interior stone and
subsequent damage to the wire. Rusted and broken wire baskets also pose a safety hazard.
Gabion structures require periodic inspections so that repairs are made before serious damage
occurs. To insure best performance, use properly sized filler rock. Interior liners or sandbags to
contain smaller sized material are not recommended. The baskets should be filled tightly to
prevent movement of the stone and they should be refilled as necessary to maintain tight packing.
Gabions should not be used where bombardment by water-borne debris or coarse sediment is
present, or where foot traffic across them is expected. Stability of gabions/matresseses can be
calculated accordingly to criteria mentioned in (Pilarczyk, 1990). An example of gabion application is given in Figure 43.

Figure 43 Perched beach with vegetation and gabion revetment (after US Army, 1981)
The groin or breakwater should be underlain with filter cloth to inhibit settlement and all baskets
should be made from PVC-coated wire mesh. A gabion mattress should be provided around the
structure to protect against scour. Tight packing of the stone is particularly important to avoid
large distortion of the baskets under wave action. Tiers of baskets should be tied together with
appropriately sized wire to prevent shifting of upper tiers over lower tiers.
A typical cross section a gabion breakwater is shown in Figure 44.

FURTHER UNDERCUTTING
F R O M SCOUR.

Figure 44 Gabion breakwater section (after US Army, 1981)

67

Surgebreaker (US Army, 1981, Kakuris,1983)

A Surgebreaker is a modular device constructed with weights about 4000 pounds (2 tons), precast,
reinforced concrete modules with vent holes to release wave pressure buildup. The patented
triangular modules are 4 feet (1.2 m) high and long, and 6 feet (1.8 m) wide. They are designed
to be placed side-by-side (typically in water of 1 to 2.5 m depth) on the existing bottom with the
flatter sloped face of the device toward the waves (Figure 45). Installation must be performed by a
specialized contractor (these units are often placed by helicopters).
Surgebreakers, with sloped front and back profile and tapered openings, are intended to absorb
enough wave energy to prevent erosion of the shoreface, but allow enough passage of energy to
transport sediment to the shoreline area; the energy transfer with this pervious sill design should
assureproper wave overtopping and proper control of the flow through the enclosed passageways.
It is also expected that such permeability will eliminate most of the sinking and scouring that often
undermine a solid-faced structure by removing sediments, and will create accretion both seaward
and landward of the Surgebreaker.
a-nrJTFAKERT In Action
Ftrvous Design Allows Far.
A)TOweOveropping
Ij caarikdEaagy
TiaiisfamBsxisnare

run

Figure 45 SURGEBREAKER
At the number of locations at the United States this system was installed at the end of 70's and in
the 80's (i.e. the Gulf Coast of Florida, Lake Forest and other locations in Illinois) and proved to
work satisfactorily under mild to moderate wave conditions (H < = 1.5 m). However, the
installation of this system in Honolulu (Hawaii) has failed because of more extreme wave
conditions and lost of foundation stability due to scour. More specific informations on performance of this system can be provided by the US Army Corps of Engineers.

68

Beachsaver reef (Info Breakwaters International, 1993)

The Beachsever is a patented shoreline protection device which works in conjunction with natural
wave action to reduce the rate of beach erosion and extend the life span of beach replenishment
projects. The reef is a derivation of a simple emergent breakwater design, positioned parallel to
the shoreline and submerged below the level of mean low tide by approximately six feet (1.8 m).
The reef is modular and can be extended to varying
lengths, depending upon the beach which requires
protection. Each module is 10 feet (3 m) long
(alongshore) by 15 ft. (4.5 m) wide by 6 ft. (1.8 m)
high (see Figure 46). It is made of precast concrete
and each module weighs approximately 21 tons.
This device may act as a natural reef providing a
protected breeding ground for marine organisms
within its internal cavity .

Figure 46 BEACHSAVER element

BEACHSAVER REEF

Figure 47 Principles of BEACHSAVER reef

The cross section of the reef module includes several notable features (Figure 47). The modules
interlock by a mortise-tenton joint which prohibits lateral, vertical and horizontal movement. The
ridged, seaward sloping face of structure dissipates up to 30% of the incident wave energy while
avoiding the production of significant reflected wave energy. This feature, in addition to
submergence, greatly reduces both the wave-induced force on the structure and the amount of
scouring at the seaward toe. The patented system of ridges effectively eliminates toe scour by
remrning small amounts of sand with each wave to the toe of the structure. The crest of the
structure is curved upward on the landward side so as to channel wave-induced return flow
vertically toward horizontal openings along the top of the reef. This configuration, known as the
"backwash flume", is designed to direct a vertical jet of water upward during the return flow.
This return flow is sediment-laden during storms events. The induced "curtain" of water inhibits
the offshore migration of the beach berm during storms, essentially cycling the sand back onto the
beach.

69

Testing performed at the Stevens Institute of Technology in New Jersey in Spring of 1992
indicated that the reef limited the offshore movement of sand during periods of forceful waves and
increased the likelihood of sand returning to the beach during periods of calm.
The system utilizes its submerged weight, low center of gravity and wide, saw-toothed bottom for
resistance to overturning and sliding. During wave tank tests performed at the University of
Delaware in 1991, it was found that wave forces greater than those found in nature were required
to overturn the reef.
WAVEBLOCK (Haras et al 1993, ADI Limited 1991, Ortech, 1988)
Waveblock is a steel reinforced concrete modularized structure designed to dissipate the energy of
waves. This patented modularized structure, which weights is about 4 tons, consists of horizontal
platforms interconnected with vertical columns equally-spaced and arranged in a checkerboard
pattern (Figure 48). The actual unit measures 1.22 * 1.83 * 2.44 m, however, the dimensions and
weight of the units can be adjusted to allow for different degrees of exposure to wave action and
they can be manufactured locally using local materials and labour.
The Waveblock system has been in operation on Lake
Huron since 1987. It was designed to dissipate the
energy of incoming waves while simultaneously retaining most of the suspended sediment load carried out
by these waves. A test section of 40 units was installed (48.8 m) parallelly to the shoreline, in approximately 1.0 m depth of water. The monitoring works
have proved that the structure effectively absorbs
wave energy, effectively acumulates sand on its landside to generate a stable beach configuration, and
effectively accumulates sand on its offshore side
while ont impending littoral drift process. These units
are now firmly embedded in the sand beach.
Figure 48 Schematic illustration of a WAVEBLOCK unit
It was also obsered that the units themselves were in good structural condition (a few fragments of
the concrete slabs were broken probably by ice), there was very little evidence of abrasion, and
that some blocks were out of alignment by as much as 0.25 m.
The most promising situations for application of the Waveblock seems to be sandy coastlines
experiencing loss of sand under wave induced littoral drift, with modest tidal range and wave
climate. If the project is a small one, where risk exposure is acceptable, a full scale installatio
might be undertaken after a visual site assessment by a coastal engineer. On the other hand, where
a major installation is contemplated, good engineering practice would call for a comprehensive
technical assessment with scale model tests, or limited full scale tests, prior to implementation of
the complete project. Fluctuation in water level as a result of tidal action, or over longer cycles,
must be taken into account in planning and design of a system (ADI Limited, 1991).

70

REFERENCES

71

REFERENCES
ADI Limited, 1991, Inspection of Waveblock shore protection system on Lake Huron, Ontario,
prepared for 24th Annual Marine Engineering Seminar, Vancouver.
Agostini, R., A. Bizzarri and M . Masetti, 1981, Flexible gabion structures in river and stream
training works, Maccaferri, Bologna.
Ahrends, J., 1976, Wave Attenuation by Artificial Seaweed, Miscellaneous Papers, No. 76-9,
CERC, US Army Corps of Engineers, Fort Belvoir.
AKZO, 1991, Armater, Enkamat, Company Publications, Arnhem, the Netherlands.
Alexiew, D. and Kirschiner, R., 1995, Stability of final cover systems with geosynthetic clay
liners, Huesker Technical Information, Gescher,Germany.
Anscombe, R. and Howard, M . , 1993, Installation of a Polyethylene Outfall Pipeline,
11th Australasian Conf. on Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Townsville, Australia.
Amstrong, J.M. and C L . Kureth, 1979, Some observations on the Longard tube as a coastal
erosion protection structure, ASCE, Coastal Structures '79.
Anwar, H.O., 1967, Inflatable Dams, J. Hydraulics Division, ASCE, H Y 3, May.
Bakker, W.T. et al, 1972, Artificial Seaweed: coastal and submarine pipeline protection studies
with stretched polypropylene foam strands, Shell Plastic Laboratory, Delft, the Netherlands,
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Bogossian, F., R.T. Smith, J.C. Vertimatti and O. Yazbek, 1982, Continuous retaining dikes by
means of geotextiles, Proc. 2nd Intern. Conf. on Geotextiles, Las Vegas.
Breakwaters International Inc., 1993, Beachsaver reef, Product information,Flemington, NJ
Brian, E.W. and Dowse, P., 1979, Hydrostatically supported sand coastal structures, Coastal
Structures '79, ASCE.
Davis, G.A., D.J. Hanslow, K. Hibbert and P. Nielsen, 1992, Gravity drainage: a new method of
beach stabilisation through drainage of the watertable, Proc. Coastal Engineering Conf.,
Venice.
Delft Hydraulics Laboratory, 1973, Artificial weed as bed protection, Report M 1162, February.
Delft Hydraulics Laboratory, 1973, Breakwater of concrete filled hoses, Report M 1085.
Delft Hydraulics Laboratory, 1975, Artificial Islands in the Beaufort-sea: M 1271 part III, comparison of stability of shore protection with gabions and sand sausages (2-dim.); M 1271 part
V, stability of shore protection with sand sausages on circular island (3-dim.).
Delft Hydraulics Laboratory/Delft Soil Mechanics Laboratory, 1983, Stability of ProFix sand
filled mattresses under wave action, Report of model investigation (for Zincon B.V.), R 1903.
Delft Hydraulics/Nicolon, 1994, Stability of breakwaters constructed with Geotubes or Geocontainers, Two-dimensional model tests, Report on the model investigation, H2029.
Delft Hydraulics, 1995, Open Taludbekledingen (Open Revetments):
- stabiliteit van geosystemen (stability of geosystems),
- stabiliteit van zand- en betonmatrassen (stability of sand- and mortar-mattrassen),
Report H 1930 (in Dutch), commissioned by the Rijkswaterstaat.
den Hoedt, G., Metz, H.E. and Voskamp, W., 1987, Cost-effective building of breakwaters using
geotextiles, 2nd Int. Conf. on Coastal and Port Engineering in Developing Countries, Beijing,
China, Vol. I.
den Hoedt, G., Metz, H.E., Veltman, M . and Voskamp,W., 1987, Cost-effective reduction of
sedimentation and maintenance dredging using geotextiele flow diversion screens, 2nd Int.
Conf. on Coastal and Port Engineering in Developing countries, Beijing, China, Vol. II.
Dette, H.H. and Raudkivi, A.J., 1994, Dune Protection, Inter. Symposium "WAVES '94",
Vancouver, Canada (see also, 24th ICCE, Kobe, 1994).
72

Deron Austin of Jessup, 1992, Steep slope protection using geocells, Geosynthetics World,
April/May.
Foreman J.F., 1986, Generalized monitoring of SEASCAPE installation at Cape Hatteras Lighthouse, North Carolina, Miscellaneous Paper CERC-86-2, US Army Corps of Engineers,
Vicksburg.
Gadd, P.E., 1988, Sand bag slope protection: design construction and performance, Arctic
Coastal Processes and Slope Protection Design, ASCE.
Gutman, L . , 1979, Low-cost shoreline protection in Massachusetts, ASCE, Coastal Structures '79.
Hall, C D . , 1992, The contemporary approach to the role of vegetation in erosion control,
Geosynthetics World, April/May.
Hendrikse, C , 1994, Geocontainers; report test programma (prototype), Van Oord ACZ Nicolon.
Huygens, M . , de Wachter, D., Verhoeven, R., Himpe, J., Buyck, S. and Wens, F., (1994),
Underwater screens for shore protection, Symposium WAVES, Vancouver, Canada.
Huygens, M . , de Wachter, D., Verhoeven, R., Himpe, J., Buyck, S., Wens, F., de Putter, B.
and de Wolf, P., 1995, Model simulation of the impact of underwater screens on shore protection, PIANC Bulletin No. 86.
Hydraulics Resarch, 1984, A Review of Novel Shore Protection Methods, Volume 2 - Sand or
mortar-filled fabric bags, by J.M. Motyka and J. Welsby, Wallingford, England.
Haras, W.S., 1993, A wave -energy dissipation structure for shore protection and beach generation, recovery, and stabilization, Coastlines of Canada, Proc. 8th Symposium on Coastal and
Ocean Management, New Orleans.
Italian Public Works, 1992, Coasts, Harbours and Lagoons Protection Works.
Jackson, L . A . , 1987, Evaluation of sand filled geotextile groyne constructed on the Gold Coast,
Australia, Proc. 8th Australian Conf. on Coastal & Ocean Engng., Launceston.
Jacobs B.K. and Nobuhisa Kobayashi, 1983, Sandbag stability and wave runup on bench slopes,
University of Delaware, Dpt. of Civil Engineering, Research Report No. CE-83-36, July.
Kato, M . and Hamanaka, K . , 1993, Analytical and Experimental Study of Characteristics of
Textile Sheets Structure, 11th Australasian Conference on Coastal and Ocean Engineering,
Townsville.
Kakuris, P.A., 1983, Surgebreaker offshore reef systems, product info and evaluation, Chicago.
Kazimierowicz, K . , 1994, Simple Analysis of Deformation of Sand-Sausages. 5th Inter. Conf. on
Geotextiles, Geomembranes and Related Products, Singapore.
Kobayashi N . and B.K. Jacobs, 1985a, Stability of armor units on composite slopes, ASCE, Jour
nal of Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Vol. I l l , No. 5, September.
Kobayashi N . and B.K. Jacobs, 1985b, Experimental study on sandbag stability and runup,
ASCE, Proc. Coastal Zone'85, Vol. 2, pp. 1612-1626.
Lamberton, B.A., (1983), Fabric-formed revetment technology opens new engineering opportun
ities, Geotechnical Fabrics Report.
Lamberton, B.A., 1983, Fabric forming for underwater concrete, ASCE, Proc. Coastal
Structures'83.
Lamberton, B.A., 1989, Fabric forms for concrete, Concrete International, December.
Linear Composites, 1986, Erosion Control Systems, ICI Fibres, Product literature. North York
shire, England.
Longard, 1985, Flexible sand-filled tubes used for constructing underwater breakwaters in coast
protection plans, Company publication.
Maccaferri, 1988, Gabions (product information), Maccaferri publication, Bologna, Italy.

73

Nicolon Corporation, 1985, Artificial Seaweed Protects the Seabed, Estuaries and Submerged
Pipelines, Product literature, the Netherlands.
Nicolon, 1995, Personal communications.
Ortech, 1990, Performance evaluation of shoregard's Wave block system:"Breakwall application",
Ortech International, Canada.
Perrier, H . , 1986, Use of soil-filled synthetic pillows for erosion protection, Proc. 3rd Intern.
Conf. on Geotextiles, Vienna.
PIANC, 1992, Guidelines for the design and construction of flexible revetments incorporating
geotextiles in marine environment, Brussels, Belgium.
Pilarczyk, K.W., 1990, Coastal Protection, A . A . Balkema Publ., Rotterdam.
Pildysh M . and K. Wilson, 1983, Cooling ponds lined with fabric-formed concrete, Concrete
International, September.
Porraz, M . , 1976, "Textile Forms Slash Costs of Coastal Zone Stnictures"
Ocean Industry Magazine, October 1976. pp. 61 - 64.
Porraz, M . , Jose A. Maza and Ricardo Medina, 1979, Mortar-filled containers, Lab and Ocean
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Porraz, M . , 1994, Personal communications.
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Onderzoek Waterkeringen, the Netherlands.
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Erosion Control Association, Symposium on Soil Erosion and Its Control.
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Miscellaneous report no. 77-4, US Army Corps of Engineers.
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VXT/HJ 88.168, Publication of Nicolon B.V.
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Silvester, R., 1986, Use of grout-filled sausages in coastal structures, ASCE, J. Waterway, Port
Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Vol. 112, No. 1, January.
Silvester, R., 1990, Flexible Membrane Units for Breakwaters, in 'Handbook of Coastal and
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Applied Science (reprinted from Geotextiles and Geomembranes, Vol. 11, Nos. 4-6).
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Product information of Seabed Scour Control Systems Limited, Great Yarmouth, England.
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Coastal and Ocean Engineering Conference.
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2nd Inter. Conf. on Geotextiles, Las Vegas, U.S.A.
74

SUT Seminar, 1980, Scour prevention techniques around offshore structures, One-day Seminar
on 16 December 1980, Society for Underwater Technology, London.
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ten Hoopen, H . (1976), Recent Applications of Artificial Seaweed in the Netherlands, Coastal
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No. 2.

75

A P P E N D I X

Bags and Mattresses

Technical Specifications

NICOLON

High strength economical

fabric - woven of
spun polyester

Tailored to
individual needs

Ideal for effective,

adaptable, and economical
shore protection
Unlimited applications

Nicolon ' Concrete Bags... t a i l o r e d

t o

fit y o u r j o b ,

n o t

The people at NICOLON have been using concrete bags for

many years, not just making them. They know that every job is different and believe that the contractor must have complete flexibility in ordering concrete bags to
fit his individual job requirements. Applications of these made-to-order NICOLON
bags are limited only by the imagination of the contractor ard the engineer.
Our

i n v e n t o r y .

Bag Geometry is mathematically

complex. It's most easily visualized by
considering the two oxtreme conditions:
1) when the bag has just started to fill and
2) when the bag is filled to the point that
it's nearly cylinderical. When it's nearly
empty (H = 0), R' is zero, R is infinite and
fabric stress is obviously zero. When it's
nearly full, H/ = R = R' and fabric stress
approaches infinity. In practice, fabric
stress doesn't increase rapidly until the
ratio of Height to Width exceeds about
0.5, as shown in the approximation for a
100" wide bag shown here.
2

Fabric Stress

Bag Geometry may be approximated by assuming that the ends of the

bag are cylindrical and that the top
surface of the bag is flat, as shown in the
graph below. All values are approximate
only. No allowance has beer, made for
fabric elongation under stress or for
stress reduction due to buoyancy.
NICOLON should be consulted for recommendations whenever limiting fabric
stresses may be encountered - generally when the ratio of Height to Width will
exceed 0.5.
Bag dimensions calculated as:
C = 2 "FBW" = 1 T H + 2(W-H)

20
- Filled Bag Width W
Flat Bag Width FBW

Fig. 1

40
60
80
100
Filled Bag Width "W", inches
Fig. 2

120

Features:

NICOLON

Tailored to Individual
needs
Unlimited applications
High strength
economical fabric
woven of continuous
filament polyester.

concrete
bags

(continued)

Fabric selection

Reinforcing steel

Ordering bags & fabric

NICOLON concrete bags are normally

produced of high permeability industrial
fabric woven of continuous filament
polyester. Average grab tensile strength,
ASTM D 1682-75, is about 300 Ibs./in.
and porosity as measured by ASTM D
737 exceeds 100 ft. /min./ft. This fabric
is suggested for most applications
where fabric stress is not expected to
exceed 300 Ibs./in. For higher stresses,
a special High Strength Bag Fabric can
be provided. The grab tensile strength of
this fabric averages over 400 Ibs./in. and
porosity will be in excess of 100
ft. /min./ft.

Freshly filled NICOLON bags of concrete

are easily joined by "stabbing" a smooth
pointed reinforcing dowel into filled bag
and inserting the exposed end through
the fabric of the succeeding bag. Two
bags may be joined side-by-side using
re-bar "staples". Bars or full cages may be
inserted in the bags through openings in
the fabric, the opening being closed before filling by means of a portable sewing
machine or zipper. Cages are centered in
the bag by suspending them from the
upper surface of the bag.

All NICOLON bags are custom made to fit

job site requirements. Rectangular bags
are sold at a unit price per ft. , double
layer, flat dimensions. Sizes may be
mixed in a single order. Irregular bags and
those with custom tailored fittings and
attachments are quoted to order.
Inlet valves, attached by fabric flange to
a slit in the surface of the bag, provide
positive self-closure. The tubes may be
inverted to extend outside the bag if desired. Buyer specifies size and location of
inlet valves.

Foundation mats
Groins, breakwaters, and other offshore
structures on soft soil must always be
placed on a foundation mat to provide
support and to inhibit wave and current
scour under the offshore toe. Articulating
Block (ABM) style ARMORFORM'" revetments, as manufactured by the Nicolon
Corporation, offer an effective and economical means of providing this essential
support and protection.

Closed edge
seams

Webbing attachments
Light weight webbing may be attached to
NICOLON concrete bags to serve as:
1) Thickness indicators. A slight depression in the surface indicates to the diver,
working only by touch, that the bag has
been filled to specified height.

Articulating Block
High strength synthetic revetment cable is embedded in cast-in-place concrete blocks, ranging
in weight from 85 lbs. to 675 lbs. each, to form
truly articulating revetment for protection of
slopes subject to consolidation or underscour.

NICOLON

2) Thickness controllers. Multiple webbing straps attached as closely as 12"

centers, sometimes in combination with
external restraining bars between attachment points, permit filling tapered or
irregularly shaped bags.

For jobs involving many small and irregularly shaped bags, experienced contractors may prefer to field cut and sew bags
to size required from flat bulk fabric. This
flat fabric is also used, in combination
with mesh backing and supporting wales,
as an economically installed alternate
to conventional rigid sheeting for underwater form construction.
Flat bulk fabric is quoted in standard 64"
mill widths at a unit price per linear foot,
64" wide.

3500 Parkway Lane Suite 500 Norcross, GA 30092 Phone: (404) 447-6272 FAX: (404) 662-5819

CORPORATION
Printed in USA

FABRIFORM

C O N C R E T E

TECHNICAL

B A G S

D A T A

DESIGN
SHORELINE PROTECTION

1. Molded concrete blocks cast in fabric bags are intended for use in construction of groins,
breakwaters, retaining walls and the protection of lake and ocean shorelines subject to severe
wave action in which they are an effective alternate for quarry stone. They may also be used
as underwater coffer dams or for the repair of concrete, masonry or timber crib structures.
2. Used as waterfront protection over erodable soil, particular attention is directed to the importance of providing security against toe scour and undermining or consolidation of underlying
soil. A layer of filter cloth beneath and behind the blocks may be required. An outboard skirt
with a chain weighted hem may be useful. Fabriform Revetments have been used as a supporting platform under the blocks on soft soil.

STRUCTURAL REPAIRS

3. These blocks can be doweled together by inserting steel reinforcing bars as suggested below.
BLFilMrdMh

4. In construction of breakwater and groins, the top layer of blocks should be oriented in as far
as possible perpendicular to the predominant direction of wave action or "nose-on" to the waves.

INSTALLATION
1. Filter cloth underlayment or a supporting platform of Fabriform Revetment is first installed if
required.
BREAKWATERS

2. Concrete bags are positioned with steel stakes which hold the bags in place during filling and
maintain alignment of the completed structure.
3. Filling of the bags is most easily accomplished with a sand/cement mortar usually containing
about nine sacks of cement and 2300 lbs. of concrete sand per cu. yd. (12 sacks of cement and
1360 kg sand per m ). Leaner mixes are satisfactory providing pumping characteristics are
acceptable. If pea gravel is added to the mix, material cost is reduced, minimum hose size is
increased, and labor cost may be increased.
3

4. To maintain alignment of stacked bags, the joints of which should be staggered, light gage 4"
(100mm) angles may be temporarily secured to the lower layer of bags so that it acts as a sill
to prevent the subsequent layer from rolling forward.

PIPELINE J A C K E T S

5. If reinforcing steel connectors between blocks are required, the bars are first inserted through
the fabric and into the bag containing fresh concrete. The succeeding bag is threaded over these
bags and filled with concrete.

ORDERING INFORMATION
1. All Fabriform concrete bags are assembled to order. Shipment can usually start
within five days from receipt of order.
Seams are folded and double needle stitched.
Specify bag size by length and width, allowing for contraction of the bag as
it fills with mortar. Manufacturing tolerance is plus or minus 3" (75mm) in length
and width.
Specify location of inlet valves and outside diameter of injection hose to be used.
Bags may be shop assembled to irregular non-rectangular shapes on request.
Bulk fabric is available for job site assembly of special bags.
L O C A T I O N * SIZE Of
INLET VALVES

t o be sreanED

In estimating freight costs, it is conservative to use:

Weight - 14 lbs. per hundred square feet of bag area (7kg/10m ).
Cube - 40 cu. ft. per 6,000 square feet of bag area (0.2 m /100m*).
i

Entire Contents Copyright Construction Techniques. Inc. 1992

IMiD^^
d e s i g n

concrete bags

a n d ordering

i n f o r m a t i o n

Fabriform concrete bags

are mill
assembled to order. All seams are folded and double
stitched. All bags are provided with a self-closing inlet
valve to accommodate the insertion of the concrete
pumping hose nozzle. The location and diameter of the
valve to be specified by the customer. On large or
irregular non-rectangular bags additional inlet valves
can be provided at specified locations.

Concrete bag dimensions:

The two graphs on this page are offered as a guide in
determining the size of bags to be ordered for a specific
project, and to determine the volume of mortar required
for filled bag dimensions. The values are calculated only
and do not reflect field conditions which must take into
account some fabric stretch plus contraction of
dimensions as a result of filling the bag with mortar.
It is generally conservative to allow one foot of
contraction in overall length.

40

50

so

W I D T H O F F I L L E D B A G (W(> I N C H E S

Example:
Project requires filled bag dimension to be 10'-0" long by
45" wide by 25" thick.
From the top right graph for a filled width (Wf) of 45".
thickness (T) of 25" and length of 10'-0", the customer
would order a bag 1T-0" long by 60" wide.
From the lower right graph the volume of a filled bag
45" wide (Wf), thickness (T) of 25" and length of 10'-0",
would be approximately 65 cubic feet, requiring 2.44
cubic yards of mortar.

Guide specifications

and suggested
installation procedure are available in the Technical
Data sheet.

Text and Photos Copyright 1991

Construction Techniques, Inc.

^MaiaMBVB

an innovative process of

[[OnTESHJ

c o n s t r u c t i o n

V O L U M E O F PILLED B A G FTVFT L E N G T H

techniques,

inc.

ro

FABRIFORM CONCRETE BAG GUIDE SPECIFICATIONS

SCOPE OF WORK
Work covered by these specifications consists of furnishing all labor, materials, and equipment for placing
Fabriform Concrete Bags at locations described in plans. The contractor shall furnish records of past
successful experience in performing this type of work and shall submit to the engineer for approval a
description of the materials to be used and schedule of installation sequence.

MATERIALS
A. Concrete shall consist of a mixture of cement, aggregates, admixtures, and water so proportioned as to
provide a pumpable mixture. Concrete shall attain a minimum strength as determined by the average of
three consecutive tests of not less than 2,500 p.s.i. (17MPa) at 28 days.
B. Fabric bags shall be made of high-strength water-permeable fabric. Seams shall be folded and double
stitched. Each bag shall be provided with a self-closing inlet valve to accommodate insertion of concrete
pumping hose. Two valves shall be provided for bags more than 20' (6m) long. Fabric filter cloth, if required,
shall be water permeable fabric woven of 1,900 denier producer bulk textured nylon fill in a 1,260 denier
multifilament warp with a thread count no less than 20 x 18 nor more than 25 x 25.

INSTALLATION
Fabriform Concrete Bags shall be cast on a foundation of rock, natural soil, or well-compacted fill. Bags
shall be positioned and filled in such a way that they abut tightly. Joints between bags in successive tiers
shall be staggered. Reinforcing steel dowels, if required, shall be inserted through the fabric into the fresh
concrete within the bag. Succeeding bags shall be stretched tightly and slipped over protruding dowels. Bars
shall be inserted through fabric by parting fibers rather than cutting or tearing fibers.
Backfill behind filled concrete bags shall be lean concrete or well-compacted granular soli. If soil backfill
is used, heavy nylon filter cloth shall be placed between blocks and backfill to prevent loss of soil.
T R A D E M A R K NOTICE: The word "Fabriform'' is a registered trademark of Construction Techniques, Inc.
(CONTECH). This word is to be capitalized or enclosed in quotation marks, or both, whenever used in connection with processes and products described in these specifications.

Warp
Fill
Approx Wt.

FABRIC DESCRIPTION
20 ends/in. (780 ends/m) 1260 Denier Nylon
18 picks/in. (702 picks/m) 1900 Textured Nylon
8 oz./yd. (271 g/m )
J

(ASTM D-3776)

TYPICAL FABRIC TEST DATA (As reported by Independent Testing Agency)

(ASTM D-1777)
Thickness 36 mils (0.9mm)
Grab Strength @ 12" (300mm) per minute Strain Rate
(ASTM D-1682)
Warp: 475 lbs. (2.1 kN) @ 19% Elongation
Fill: 520 lbs. (2.3kN) @ 37% Elongation
Mullen Burst Strength - 990 psi (6.8 MPa)
(ASTM D-3786)
Trapezoidal Tear Strength @ 12" (300mm) per minute Strain Rate
(ASTM D-4533)
Warp: 240 lbs. (1.07kN)
Fill: 240 lbs. (1.07kN)
Puncture Strength: 169 lbs. (0.8kN)
(ASTM D-3787 Modified)
Constant Head Permeability:0.09cm/sec
(ASTM D-4491)
Permittivity: 0.98 cm/cm x sec
Flow Rate: 72 gal/min/ft* (2.9m /min/m )
Porosity: 105 CF/min (3m /min)
(ASTM D-737)
Equivalent Opening Size - U.S. Corps of Engineers CW-02215
#40 U.S. Standard Sieve = 0.0167 in. (0.42mm)
3

092392

NICOLON

zS\EE3@EFORM'
t
^

UNIFORM

SECTION M A T

(USM)

TYPICAL DIMENSIONS, WEIGHTS A N D V O L U M E S

(Values s h o w n are typical only, and will vary w i t h field conditions.)
Uniform
Section
Size

Cord
Spacing

3"
4"
6"
8"

3"
3"
3"
3"

USM
USM
USM
USM

x
x
x
x

3"
3"
4"
5"

Nominal
Thickness

Weight/
Sq. Ft.

3.0"
4.0"
6.0"
8.0"

35 lbs.
47 lbs.
70 lbs.
93 lbs.

Coverage/
Cu. Yd.
Concrete
97
73
49
36

ft.
ft.
ft.
ft.

Availability
Inventory
Inventory
Inventory
Special Order

P R O D U C T DESCRIPTION
U n i f o r m Section M a t (USM) is formed w i t h a
double-layer w o v e n f a b r i c j o i n e d together by
spacer cords and engineered exclusively to
serve as a form for casting concrete erosion control linings. The fabric forms are positioned o n
the area to be protected, w h e r e they are filled
with a pumpable fine aggregate concrete (structural grout).
Uniform Section Mat fabric is w o v e n from
polypropylene slit film yarns, and designed
w i t h the required strength, stability, and filtration characteristics of a superior fabric form. The
fabric forms are constructed w i t h spacer cords
o n closely spaced centers to form a lining of required nominal thickness, bonded cobbled surface, a n d specified w e i g h t to provide strength
and erosion protection. The design criterion for
selection of lining thickness is the same as that
used to determine the thickness of conventional
concrete slope paving.
Relief of hydrostatic uplift pressure, caused by
entrapped and ground water, maybe provided
by inserting plastic weep tubes through the mat
at specified centers. W h e n w e e p tubes are used,
the lower end of the w e e p tube should be
covered by filter fabric or the mat should be
placed over filter fabric.
A t Nicolon's fabrication facilities. Uniform Section M a t fabric in mill w i d t h rolls is factory
fabricated into multiple mill w i d t h panels,
designed to fit site dimensions and topography.

Panels are delivered to the j o b site w h e r e the

installer assembles the panels into a continuous
concrete forming system. Fabric forms contract
as they are pumped w i t h a structural grout.
A l l o w a n c e must be made for this contraction in
estimating the quantity of fabric form required.
Nicolon should be contacted to determine the
appropriate contraction factors for y o u r site
conditions.

V E L O C I T Y - V S - THICKNESS

GUIDE SPECIFICATION FO
UNIFORM SECTION MAT (USiV
1.0
1.1

1.2

GENERAL
SCOPE O F WORK
The Contractor shall furnish all labor, materials, equipment, and incidentals required to perform all operations in connection with the installation of the
proposed Uniform Section Mat (USM) lining in
accordance with the lines, grades, design and
dimensions shown on the Contract Drawings and as
specified herein.
DESCRIPTION
The work shall consist of installing an unreinforced
concrete mat lining, by positioning a specially woven
double-layer synthetic fabric form on the surface to
be protected and filling it up with a pumpable fine
aggregate concrete (structural grout) in such a way as
to form a stable mat of required thickness, weight and
configuration.

2.0

MATERIALS

2.1

FINE AGGREGATE CONCRETE

Fine aggregate concrete shall consist of a mixture of
Portland cement, fine aggregate (sand), and water so
proportioned and mixed as to provide a pumpable
grout. Pozzolan and grout fluidifier conforming to
these Specifications maybe used at the option of the
Contractor. The mix shall exhibit a compressive
strength of 2,000 psi at 28 days when made and
tested in accordance with ASTM C-31 and C-39.

Note: The average compression strength of ARMORFORM cast fine aggregate concrete shall beat least
20% higher at 7 days than that of the companion
test cylinders made in accordance with ASTM
C-31, and not less than 2.500psi at 28 days.
2.1.1 Portland cement shall conform to ASTM C-150. Type
I or Type II.
2.1.2

Fine aggregate shall conform to ASTM C-33, except as

to grading. Aggregate grading shall be reasonably
consistent and shall be well graded from the maximum size which can be conveniently handled with
available pumping equipment.

2.1.3

Water for mixing shall be clean and free from

injurious amounts of oil, acid, salt, alkali, organic
matter or other deleterious substances.

2.1.4

Pozzolan, if used, shall conform to ASTM C-350.

2.2

FABRIC FORM
The fabric forms shall be, as specified, ARMORFORM
*" ' Uniform Section Mat as manufactured by
Nicolon Corporation, or approved equal. Each layer
of fabric shall meet the statistical mean (average)
results as shown below.

Property

Test Method

Unit

Values
USM

Physical:
Composition

PP'

Weight (double-layer)

ASTMD-3776-79

oz/yd

10

Thickness

ASTM D-1777-75

mils

20

Mill Width

in

84/172

Test Method

Unit

Grab Tensile Strength

Warp
Fill

ASTM D-1682-75

lbs

Grab Tensile Elongation

Warp
Fill
Diaphragm Burst Strength
Trapezoid Tear Strength
Warp
Fill
Puncture Strength

ASTM D-l 682-75

Property

Values
USM

Mechanical:
200
200

ASTMD-3786-80 a
ASTM D-1117-80

psi
lbs

ASTMD-3787-80

lbs

ASTMD-4491
ASTM D-4491
ASTM D-4491
ASTMD-737-75

gal/min/sf
cm/sec
l/sec
cf/min/sf

ASTMD-2256

lbs/cord

20
20
475
65
75
60

Hydraulic:
Water Flow Rate
Coeff ident of Permeability |k|
ftrmittjvity|k/l)
Porosity

0.05
1.0
125

Spacer Cord:
Break Strength
1

135(2)

PP-Polypropylene

The Contractor shall furnish the Engineer, in duplicate,

manufacturer's certified test results showing actual test
values obtained when the above physical properties
were tested for compliance with the Specifications.

Note a: The Engineer shall indicate the Uniform Section

Mat size required. Example: 4" USM.
2.2.1 Fabric form material shall consist of double-layer
woven fabric joined together by spacer cords, of
uniform length, to produce a mat with a finished
nominal thickness of ">" * inches, and a nominal
weight of um * lbs./ft. . Spacer cords shall connect
two layers of fabric on teas centers. Points of connection shall be staggered to provide a bonded
cobbled surface appearance.
2

Note b: The Engineer shall indicate the nominal mat

thickness and weight/sq.ft.for the Uniform Section Mat required.
Note c: The Engineer shall indicate the cord spacing for
the Uniform Section Mat required.
2.2.2

Individual mill width rolls of fabric form shall be a

minimum width of 84 inches. Mill width rolls shall be
cut to the length required, and the two layers of fabric
separately joined bottom edge to bottom edge, and
top edge to top edge by means of sewing thread, to
form multiple mill width panels. All factory sewn
seams shall be downward facing as shown on the
Contract Drawing. The grab tensile strength of all
sewn seams shall be not less than 100 Ibs./in. when
tested in accordance with ASTM D-1692-75.

2.2.3 Grout stops shall be installed at predetermined, mill

width, intervals to regulate the flow of fine aggregate
concrete.
2.2.4 Plastic weep tubes, for relief of hydrostatic uplift
pressure, shall be inserted through the mat, at s*
foot centers, at locations shown on the Contract
Drawings. Where weep tubes are required, the

lower end of the weep tube shall be covered by filter

fabric held securely in place or the mat shall be placed
over filter fabric as specified elsewhere in these
Specifications.

Note d: Plastic weep tubes are normally inserted in

Uniform Section Fabric on approximately 5' to
Iff centers, or as specified by the Engineer.
2.2.5 Immediately following receipt of fabric forms to the
job site, forms should be inspected and stored in a
clean dry area where they will not be subject to
mechanical damage, exposure to moisture or direct
sunlight.
3.0

INSTALLATION

3.1

SITE PREPARATION

3.1.1

Areas on which fabric forms are to be placed shall be

constructed to the lines and grades shown on the
Contract Drawings. Where such areas are below the
allowable grades they shall be brought to grade by
placing compacted layers of selected material. The
depth of layers and amount of compaction shall be
as specified by the Engineer. All obstructions such as
roots and projecting stones shall be removed.

3.1.2

Excavation and preparation of anchor trenches,

terminal trenches, and toe trenches or aprons shall
be done in accordance with the lines, grades and
dimensions shown on the Contract Drawings.

3.1.3

Immediately prior to placing the fabric forms, the

prepared area shall be inspected by the Engineer and
no forms shall be placed thereon, until the area has
been approved.

3.2

FABRIC FORM PLACEMENT

3.2.1

Fabric form panels, as specified in Section 2.2 of this

Specification shall be placed within the limits shown
on the Contract Drawings.

3.2.2 Adjacent fabric form panels shall be joined before

fine aggregate concrete injection, by field sewing or
zippering the two bottom layers of fabric together
and the two top layers of fabric together. All sewn

seams shall be downward facing as shown on the

Contract Drawings except with the approval of the
Engineer.
3.2.3 When conventional joining of panels is impractical,
or where called for on Contract Drawings, adjacent
panels may be overlapped a minimum of two feet
pending approval by the Engineer. In no case shall
simple butt joints between panels be permitted.
3.2.4 Lapjoints and expansion joints shall be provided as
shown on the Contract Drawing, or as specified by
the Engineer. Filter fabric with a minimum width of
six feet shall be placed under all lap joints and
expansion joints and shall extend continuously
along the length of the joint.
3.2.5 Immediately prior to injection of fine aggregate concrete, the assembled fabric form panels shall be inspected by the Engineer and no fine aggregate
concrete shall be pumped therein until the fabric
seams and panel connections have been approved.
3.3

FINE AGGREGATE CONCRETE PLACEMENT

Following panel placement, small slits shall be cut in

the top layer of the fabric form to allow for the insertion of the injection pipe. Fine aggregate concrete
shall be injected between the top and bottom layers
of fabric, filling the panel to the recommended
thickness and configuration.
3.3.2 Fine aggregate concrete shall be injected in such a
way that excessive pressure on the fabric form and
cold joints are avoided.
3.3.1

3.3.3 Holes in the fabric left by the remova I of the injection

pipe shall be temporarily closed by inserting a piece
of burlap or similar material. The burlap shall be
removed when the concrete is no longer fluid and
the concrete surface at the hole smoothed by hand.
Foot traffic on the filled mat shall be restricted to an
absolute minimum for one hour after pumping.
3.3.4 Upon completion of the fine aggregate concrete
placement, all the anchor trenches, terminal trenches
and toe trenches shall be backfilled and compacted,
as specified by the Engineer.

UNIFORM SECTION MAT (USM)

ANCHOR TRENCH
UNIFORM SECTION
M A T (USM)

TYPICAL
DOWNSTREAM TERMINAL
(N.T.S.)

TYPICAL
LAP OR EXPANSION JOINT
WITH CUTOFF TRENCH
(NTS.)

TYPICAL
SIDE SLOPE LAP OR EXPANSION JOINT
WITH ANCHOR TRENCH
(NTS.)

"Deutsche Textvorlage fur Geosynthetics World"

23.5.1994

Geotextile Container zur Stabilisierung

der Kolkbdschungen am Eidersperrwerk
von
Dr.-lng. Fokke Saathoffund Dipl.-Ing. Jurgen Witte

Anschrift der Vcrfasser:

Naue Fasertechnik GrabH & Co. KG
Postfach 1441
32294 Lubbecke
Tet: 05741/4008-15
Fax: 05741/4008-S4
copyright by Dr. Saathoff

Saathoff / Witte: Geotextile Container zur Stabilisierung der Koikboschungen am Eidersperrwerk

Seite 2

Dr.-lng. Fokke Saathoff*) und Dipl.-lng. Jurgen Witte**)

)

Fokke Saathoff ist Leiter Anwendungstechnik, Entwicklung, Qualitatsmanagement und

Offentlichkeitsarbeit der Naue Fasertechnik G m b H & C o . K G , Postfach 1441, 32294
Lubbecke

*) Jurgen Witte ist im Bereich W a s s e r b a u der Naue Fasertechnik G m b H & C o . K G ,

Postfach 1226, 49441 Lemforde, zustandig fur technische Beratung und Vertrieb

Zusammenfassung
Fast uberall, wo heutzutage im taglichen Baubetrieb im Wasserbau Kies, Steine oder
Blocke gewahlt werden, kann ein geotextiler Container eingesetzt werden (z.B. zur vorubergehenden Sicherung von Deichschadenstellen, fur die Begrenzung von Uberflutungsbereichen oder als Bauelement im Deichbau). A n das Geotextil eines Containers sind
bestimmte Anforderungen zu stellen, die am besten von Vliesstoffcontainem erfullt werden.
A m Eidersperrwerk wurden die entstandenen bauwerksseitigen Koikboschungen u.a. durch
den Einsatz geotextiler Container stabilisiert. Insgesamt wurden etwa 48000 geotextile C o n tainer eingebaut.
Im Beitrag werden Vorgaben und Hinweise des Auftraggebers bzgi. der geotextilen C o n tainer und der Einsatz dieser Elemente (Befullungseinrichtung, V e m a h e n der gefullten geotextilen Container auf der Baustelle und Einbau) dargelegt. Weiterhin werden Erfahrungswerte (z.B. erzielte Arbeitsleistungen) dargelegt sowie ein Vorschlag zur Standardisierung
der unterschiedlichen geotextilen Container unterbreitet.

Abstract "Use of geotextile containers for stabilizing the

scour embankments at the Eidersperrwerk"
A geotextile container can be used nearly in every hydraulic construction where gravel,
stones or rocks are applied (e.g. for intermediate securing of damaged dam sections, for
limitation of flood areas or as an element in dyke construction). The geotextile of a container
has to meet certain requirements. The best containers to fulfill these requirements are made
from nonwoven fabrics.
In c a s e of the Eidersperrwerk it was decided to stabilize the inner scour embankments by
using -apart from other measures- geotextile containers. In total approximately 48,000 geotextile containers were installed.
This paper describes the customer's requirements and instructions regarding the geotextile
containers and the use of these elements (filling equipment, sewing of the filled geotextile
containers on site and installation). In addition, the gathered experience (e.g. production,
filling and installation quantities) will be presented and a proposal concerning the standardization of the different geotextile containers will be submitted.

Saathoff / Witte: Geotextile Container zur Stabilisierung der Koikboschungen am Eidersperrwerk

Seite 3

Geotextile Container als Bauelement im Wasserbau

Geotextile Container im Normalformat 0.40 0.70 m oder 0.54 1.02 m (oft als Handsacke
bezeichnet) fur die vorubergehende Sicherung von Deichschadenstellen oder fur die
Begrenzung von Uberflutungsbereichen ausgeuferter Flusse sowie geotextile Container fiir
etwa 1 m S a n d (oft als GroBcontainer bezeichnet) sind bewahrte Bauelemente im Deichbau, und werden bereits durch Zitscher im Jahre 1986 [1] als Stand der Technik
beschrieben (Abb. 1).
3

GroBsandsack
Inhalt 1 m
3

Abb. 1: S a n d s a c k als Bauelement im Deichbau [1]

Der Handsack soli nach Zitscher zum Zubinden zwei angenahte Bander aufweisen, die sich
leicht verknoten lassen und die gleiche Lebensdauer wie der S a c k haben. Handsacke
konnen in gefulltem Zustand gelagert werden, urn sie im Katastrophenfall schnell einsetzen
zu konnen.
3

Geotextile Container fur 1 m Inhalt im Format von beispielsweise 1.35 2.70 m mussen
weiterhin folgende Voraussetzungen erfullen:
>

Das Geotextil mul3 eine ausreichende Festigkeit/Robustheit fiir einen maschinellen

Transport besitzen,

>

die Nahte sollten etwa 80 % der Festigkeit des Geotextils aufweisen, und

>

nicht ausreichend UV-bestandiges Material ist nur fur einen befristeten

geeignet.

Einsatz

Nach dem Fullen werden die geotextilen Container vemaht (oder zugebunden). Das G e o textil und die Fullung sind so aufeinander abzustimmen, daB aus dem gefullten Container
kein Fullmaterial ausgespult werden kann, der gefullte Container griffig ist und im Stapel
eine hohe Haftreibung hat. Diese Bedingungen konnen bei ausreichender Festigkeit am
besten von Vliesstoff-Containem erfullt werden, die weiterhin den Vorteil hoherer Dehnbarkeit und besserer Reibungseigenschaften gegenuber Gewebecontainem besitzen.
Nach Heibaum [2] von der Bundesanstalt fur Wasserbau gilt:
"Gewebe bieten den Vorteil hoher Zugfestigkeit, jedoch wirken sie wie ein Sieb
und nicht wie ein Komfilter mit dreidimensionalem
Porenraum. Sind auBerdem
SchuB und Kette an ihren Kreuzungspunkten
nicht fixiert, besteht die Gefahr
des Verschiebens, so daB groBere Offnungen entstehen, die den Bodenruckhalt
an dieser Stelle nicht gewahrleisten.
Ein Vliesstoff bietet als Filterstrecke den
Porenraum eines Wirrgeleges, wodurch FlieBvorgange im Filter in der dritten
Dimension moglich werden. Dieser Effekt ist urn so ausgepragter, je dicker die
geotextile Filterschicht ist. Eine ausreichend hohe Festigkeit ist mit heutiger
Technik auch bei Vliesstoffen
erreichbar."

Saathoff / Witte: Geotextile Container zur Stabilisierung der Koikboschungen am Eidersperrwerk

Serte 4

Zitscher kommt bereits 1986/1989 [1] zur Wertung, daB mit geotextilen Containern wirtschaftlich groBe Boschungsausschlage oder Deichbruchstellen gefullt oder auch Rinnen
verbaut werden konnen, jedoch sind besondere Full-, Transport- und Verlegeeinrichtungen
erforderlich.
Fast uberall, wo heutzutage im taglichen Baubetrieb im W a s s e r b a u Kies, Steine oder
Blocke gewahlt werden, kann ein geotextiler Container -ggf. gefullt mit ortlich anstehendem
Bodenmaterial- eingesetzt werden! Z u d e m werden mit einer geotextilen Containeriosung
ggf. Kiesressourcen geschont, und der damit verbundene oft weite Antransport dieser
Materialien entfallt, d a klassifiziertes Fullmaterial nicht erforderlich ist.
Geotextile Container aus mechanisch verfestigten Vliesstoffen der NAUE
FASERTECHNIK
wurden beispielsweise erfolgreich bei den Leitdammsanierungen Friedrichskoog und
Kaiser-Wilhelm-Koog, der Rifferganzung Kampen/Sylt, beim Kolkschutz a m Weserwehr
Hemelingen/Bremen, der Deichsanierung des Stoerkanals, an der Sohlschwelle
Plattling/lsar, bei einer Elbbuhnensanierung bei Magdeburg, im Kustenschutz auf Sri Lanka
und einer Kolkauffullung der Elbe bei Wittenberg eingesetzt.
Aufgrund der bisherigen Erfahrungen mit der taglichen Anwendung geotextiler Container
werden die in Tabelle 1 dargestellten Abmessungen, Materialien und Nahtformen
empfohlen.

Typ

A
B
C
D
E

A b m e s s u n g e n Gewicht
B (cm) H (cm)
(kg)
54
87
114
135
135

102
177
228
270
270

100
400
900
1500
1500

Volumen
(m )

Material

Nahtfonm

0.07
0.28
0.65
1.25
1.25

Secutex
Secutex
Secutex
Secutex
Terrafix

351-4
551-4
551-4
551-4
800

Kettenstich
Uberwendling
Uberwendling
Uberwendling
Uberwendling

Tabelle 1: Vorschlag zur Standardisierung unterschiedlicher geotextiler C o n tainer [3]

Die angebenenen Gewichte beziehen sich dabei auf 80 % Fullung der Container (Sand
18 kN/m ), die angebenenen Volumen beschreiben das Fullvolumen zu 1 0 0 % . Selbstverstandlich sind jedoch andere A b m e s s u n g e n , Materialien und Nahtformen moglich.
3

Geotextile Container werden dreiseitig geschlossen geliefert. Die zweiseitige Vernahung der
Langsseiten (Abmessung H) wird werkseitig mit den angegebenen Nahtformen vorgenommen. Die eingesetzten Nahtformen und G a m e sind das Ergebnis umfangreicher Untersuchungen im Hause NAUE FASERTECHNIK.
Durch die Art der Uberwendlingnaht und
den moglichen Einsatz veitialtnismaGig dicker G a m e (mit hoher Festigkeit) hat die Uberwendlingnaht konstruktionsbedingt eine hohe Festigkeit. Auf der Baustelle wird die offene
Seite nach der Fullung ublicherweise mit einer Kettenstichnaht durch handelsubliche Gerate
geschlossen. Fiir diesen Fall der Kettenstichnaht sollte als Nahgarn Aramid zum Einsatz
gelangen.
Hausinteme Fullversuche mit dem geotextilen Container Typ D ergaben bei 80 %-iger
Fullung Dehnungen in Umfangsrichtung im unteren Bereich von etwa 13 %. Mit zunehmender Fullhohe nimmt diese Dehnung stetig auf 0 % ab.

Saathoff / Witte: Geotextile Container zur Stabilisierung der Koikboschungen am Eidersperrwerk

Vorgaben zur Stabilisierung der bauwerksseitigen Koikboschungen

am Eidersperrwerk
Urn die a m Eidersperrwerk durchgefuhrte Losung zur Stabilisierung der bauwerksseitigen
Koikboschungen besser zu verstehen, bedarf es zunachst der Erlauterung einiger Vorgaben.
Die Eider ist der bedeutendste Vorfluter des Landes Schleswig-Holstein und mundet in die
Nordsee D a s Eidersperrwerk, erbaut in den Jahren 1967 bis 1973, dient der Sicherung der
Eidermundung vor Sturmfluten, der Verbesserung der Vorflut und der Aufrechterhaltung der
Schiffahrt auf der Eider.
Beim B a u d e s Eidersperrwerkes wurden s e e - und binnenseitig Sohlensicherungen angeordnet. Die Ergebnisse durchgefiihrter Modellversuche legten die Mindestlange fur die
starre Sohlenbefestigung in Stromungsrichtung auf jeweils 150 m und die Neigung auf
1 75 fest. Sich daran anschlieBende, mindestens 30 m breite, flexible Ubergange hatten
nach damaligen Planungen die Aufgabe, moglicherweise entstehende bauwerksseitige
Koikboschungen zu sichem und eine zum Bauwerk ruckschreitende Erosion zu verhindem.
Im AnschluB an die befestigte Sohle entwickelten sich erwartungsgemaB binnen und auBen
Koike [4, 5]. Die Kolkbildungen sind fur das Sperrwerk gefahrlos, solange die flexible
Sohlensicherung ihre Aufgabe erfullt, d.h. ein W a n d e m des Koikes in Richtung starrer
Sohlensicherung verhindert. A n den flexiblen Sohlensicherungen wurden jedoch im Marz
1977 erste S c h a d e n festgestellt. Zur Sicherung der bauwerksseitigen Koikboschungen
(binnen und auBen) wurden von 1981 bis 1991 in Teilabschnitten mehrmals geotextile C o n tainer eingebaut [4].
A u c h d a s W e h r wurde sanierungsbedurftig. Fur die Instandsetzungsarbeiten wurde zeitweilig jeweils ein Wehrfeld geschlossen. Der erforderliche Betrieb mit einem geschlossenen
Wehrfeld ("n-1 "-Betrieb) wirkte auf die Kolkbildung beschleunigend. Bereichsweise wurde
die flexible Sohlensicherung (durch Abrutschen der losen Steine in den Kolk) bis zur Halfte
zerstort. Die flexible Sohlensicherung konnte ihre Aufgabe, sich flexibel an die Kolkrander
a n z u p a s s e n und die starre Sohlensicherung vor Unterspulung zu schutzen, nicht mehr
erfullen.
Seit 1991 hat sich die Kolkentwicklung besonders an der Seeseite beschleunigt (Kolktiefen
bis rd. N N - 3 0 m, d.h. max. 25 m tiefe Koike). Die bauwerksseitigen Koikboschungen wurden
zum Teil s e h r steil (etwa 1 : 1 , teilweise Steilhange). Obwohl an der Binnenseite die Situation etwas gunstiger war (die Kolkentwicklungen wurden durch eine Kleischicht bei NN-17 m
aufgehalten), war es trotzdem erforderlich, zur Stabilisierung der bauwerksseitigen Koikboschungen binnen und auBen
>

eine Filterschicht auf den vorhandenen Koikboschungen einzubringen,

>

u.a. mit dem Ziel der Abflachung der Koikboschungen (maximal zulassige Neigung
1 : 3) eine Auffullung vorzunehmen und diese durch

>

Schuttmaterial zu s i c h e m .

Bei der sich eingestellten Kolkgeometrie mit den steilen Randboschungen waren die sonst
ublichen Bauweisen (z.B. Einbringen eines geotextilen Sinkstuckes) nicht moglich. Auch
Bauweisen wie geotextile Schlauche oder Kissenmatten schieden aus, da ein Fehler ggf.
mehrere Funktionen gleichzeitig auBer Kraft setzt [2]. S o kamen geotextile Container zum
Einsatz.
Die hauptsachlichen Leistungen der aktuellen Sanierung waren [6]:
>

Planum herstellen (incl. etwa 2725 m

Sohlraumungsarbeiten von vorhandenen geo-

textilen Containem),
>

Herstellen und Einbau eines Sinkstucks im FuBsicherungsbereich,

Saathoff / Witte: Geotextile Container zur Stabilisierung der Koikboschungen am Eidersperrwerk

Seite 6

>

Herstellen der 1 m dicken Filterschicht auf der vorhandenen Kolkboschung und

>

Herstellen des Deckwerks (im Bereich der FuBsicherung unvergossen, im Bereich der
vorhandenen Sohlensicherung und ubrige Bereiche mit VerguB).

Die FuBsicherung bildet dabei den Ubergang zwischen Sohlensicherung und bisher ungeschutzte Kolkbereiche. S i e muB Kolkungen, die hier enststehen konnen, nachgeben
konnen, ohne daB das darunterliegende Material ausgespult wird. A u s diesem Grund
besteht sie aus einem Sinkstuck (Faschinenrost mit Geotextil und eingewebten Schlaufen
mit kreuzweise aufgebundenen Wippen im Rasterabstand 1 1 m) mit einer Aufschiittung
a u s 300 bis 1000 kg schweren Steinen.
Fur die Bauausfuhrung verantwortlich ist die ARBEITSGEMEINSCHAFT
SOHLENSICHERUNG
EIDERSPERRWERK
bestehend aus den Firmen ZINKCON
DEKKER
WASSERBAU GmbH Bremen, HEINRICH HIRDES GmbH Bremen und
WASSERBAU
A.C.Z. GmbH Bremen. Abb. 2 zeigt eine Ubersicht der BaumaBnahme, Abb. 3 das ausgefuhrte Regelprofil an der AuBenboschung.

Abb. 2: Ubersicht der B a u m a B n a h m e [7]

1 Peilschiff, 2 Absenken eines Sinkstuckes,

3 Fertigung eines
Sinkstuckes,
4 Fullen von geotextilen Containern mit Mischkomfilter,
5 Einbau von Schuttsteinen (1 bis 4 Tonnen), 6 Einbau von geotextilen Containern durch Sturzer,
7 Verklammerung von Schuttsteinen mit Beton, 8 Schlepper mit Ponton fur Antransport der Schuttsteine, 9 Kustenmotorschiff
fur Antransport der Schuttsteine
(10 bis 60 kg), A AuBenvorhafen,
B Binnenvorhafen,
C Schleuse, D Sperrwerk,
E Richtung St. Peter Ording, F Richtung Heide/Busum, G Lagerflachen
Mischkomfilter, H Baustellenburo

Saathoff / Witte: Geotextile Container zur Stabilisierung der Koikboschungen am Eidersperrwerk

flexible
vorh.
MThw= + 1.53

Sohlensicherung

Abbruchkante

Seite 7

vorh. starre
Sohlensicherung

10

ehemalige Vorderkante

0
MThw=-1.53 m

Sandsacke

vorhanden

Mischkornfliter in
geotextilen Containern

m -27.6

m tiefster Kolkpunkt

--30

Sinkstuck mit Geotextll und Wippen

100

50
Entfernung ab starrer Sohle (m) 4

-20
> 150 m bis
Bauwerkssohl

Abb. 3: Regelprofil der neuen Sohlensicherung an der AuBenboschung [4]

Moderner Kiistenschutz mit geotextilen Containern am Eidersperrwerk

Im folgenden wird die Position
Herstellen der 1 m dicken Filterschicht auf der vorhandenen Kolkboschung, d.h. Herstellen und Liefem eines vorgegebenen Mischkornfilters, Liefem und Fullen von Vliesstoffcontainem, Einbau der mit dem Mischkomfilter gefullten Container in zwei Lagen
(geplant 23000 Stuck im AuBenbereich, 20000 im Binnenbereich) [6],
eingehend eriautert.
Die Filterkonstruktion fur die Stabilisierung der Koikboschungen am Eidersperrwerk verhindert, daB das Sohlenmaterial (Sand) durch die flexible Sohlensicherung hindurchgespult
wird. Der dafur vorgesehene Mischkomfilter besteht aus einem Kies, der so berechnet
wurde, daB das Sohlenmaterial filterstabil gegenuber diesem Kies ist und nicht weggespult
werden kann. D a dieser Mischkomfilter in sich nicht stabil ist und beim Unterwassereinbau
zur Entmischung neigt, kann er nicht lose geschuttet werden. Weiterhin wurde der Kies
bereits wahrend der Bauphase durch die auftretenden Stromungen weggespult werden.
Aus diesem Grunde wurde der Kies-Mischkomfilter in geotextile Container verpackt.
Die geotextilen Container muBten wiederum filtertechnisch betrachtet werden. Gegenuber
dem Kies-Fullmaterial ergaben sich keine filtertechnischen Probleme. Die filtertechnische
Dimensionierung des Geotextils geht vielmehr wiederum vom anstehenden Sohlenmaterial
(Sand) aus. Sowohl der Kies-Mischkomfilter als das Geotextil sind somit filterstabil gegenuber dem anstehenden Sohlenmaterial. Der geotextile Container zum Einbringen des KiesMischkornfilters bietet mit der Wahl eines filtertechnisch b e m e s s e n e n Geotextils eine gute
Erganzung im Hinblick auf eine doppelte Sicherheit [4]. Heibaum [2] bezeichnet die realisierte Losung mit geotextilen Filtem als "Verpackungsmaterial" als "Gurtel zum H o s e n trager". Selbst bei der Annahme, daB der Kies-Mischkomfilter aus dem geotextilen C o n tainer gelangen sollte, ist auch die Auffullung des Koikes aus Wasserbausteinen der
GToBenklasse III gegenuber dem Kies-Mischkomfilter filterstabil. Die Auffullung ist wiederum
gegenuber der obersten Schicht -bestehend aus 1 bis 4 t schwerem Schuttmaterial- filterstabil.

Saathoff / Witte: Geotextile Container zur Stabilisierung der Koikboschungen am Eidersperrwerk

Die

vom

Auftraggeber

geforderten

Eigenschaften

der

geotextilen

Container

sind

zusammengefaBt folgende:
>

Zur Erzielung einer groBeren Rauhigkeit und somit eines besseren Haftverbundes
sind Container aus vernadeltem VliesstofT zu verwenden. Die Hochstzugfestigkeit
nach DIN 53857 betragt fur das Containermaterial sowie fur die Nahte > 25 kN/m.
Die wirksame Offnungsweite betragt: 0.10 <, Ogow ^ 0.25 mm.

>

Als Fullmaterial wird ein gegenuber dem anstehenden Boden (die Koikboschungen
weisen Schichtenfolgen von S a n d und Klei auf; der hauptsachiich anstehende Feinsand hat mittlere Komdurchmesser urn 0.15 mm) sowie den einzubauenden Wasserbausteinen GroBenklasse III nach [8] filterstabiler Mischkomfilter mit der K o m u n g 0.1
bis 100 mm (0.6 < d
<; 1.5 mm, 15 <. d
^ 25 mm und 30 < d
< 60 mm) vorgegeben.
1 0

>

5 0

6 0

Das Einbringen d e s Mischkomfilters in Container soil primar Materialentmischungen

sowie Einbauverluste verhindern. Der Fullgrad der Container betragt 80 %. Die C o n tainer werden mit einer doppelten Kettenstichnaht geschlossen. Die vorgegebene
Fullmenge von 1 m /Container darf nicht urn mehr als 1 0 % uberschritten werden,
damit sich die Container flach auf den Untergrund legen und damit Unebenheiten und
Hohlraume ausgeglichen werden.
3

Die zuerst angefuhrte V o r g a b e der Wahl vemadelter Vliesstoffe beruht im ubrigen auch auf
negativen Erfahrungen mit Gewebecontainem. Heibaum [2] fuhrt dazu aus:
"Als Sack- und Filtermaterial

wurde dem Vliesstoff der Vorrang vor

Geweben

eingeraumt:
>

Zum einen mu8 der Sack als "Filter" gegenuber

weiter Komverteilung
dienen.

dem Fullmaterial

>

Zum anderen soil das Sackmaterial, wenn es schon auf den Seeboden
liegen kommt, dessen Komungen
abfiltem.

>

Zum dritten soli der Full-, Verklapp- und Aufprallvorgang

zu keiner
Beschadigung des Sackes fuhren. Hier ist ein Vliesstoff mit hoher Dehnfahigkeit einem dehnarmeren
Gewebe uberlegen, selbst wenn dessen
ReiBfahigkeit hoher sein sollte.

>

Zum weiteren besitzt der Vliesstoff i.a. eine groBere Rauhigkeit, was zur
Lagestabilitat auf den steileren Boschungsbereichen
wesentlich beitragt."

Z u m Einsatz kam der geotextile Container Typ D der NAUE FASERTECHNIK

KG. Das Geotextil hat die in Tabelle 2 dargestellten Kennwerte.

Secutex 551-4
Rohstoff:
M a s s e pro Flacheneinheit:
Dicke bei 2 k P a :
Hochstzugkraft nach DIN 53857:
Hochstzugkraftdehnung nach DIN 53857:
wirksame Offnungsweite O g

0 i W

mit
zu

GmbH & Co.

Polyester
550 g / m
3.8 mm
25 kN/m langs
30 kN/m quer
70 % langs
60 % quer
0.08 mm
2

Tabelle 2: Kennwerte d e s mechanisch verfestigten Geotextils Secutex 551-4

Saathoff / Witte: Geotextile Container zur Stabilisierung der Koikboschungen am Eidersperrwerk

Seite 9

Z u m Baubetrieb wurden vom Auftraggeber folgendes vorgegeben:

>

Die Container sind bei der Zwischenlagerung, beim Transport, Umschlag und beim
Einbau schonend zu behandeln. Fur die Zwischenlagerung bedeutet dies bei der
Gerateauswahl z . B . Kantenschutz (Polsterung) an Gabeln von Gabelstaplern,
Kantenschutz an Baggerschaufeln, Verwendung von Schuten ohne Verstrebungen
oder sonstige in die Lager- und Abwurfkante hineinragende Bauteile.

>

Verladen auf schwimmendem Gerat, Verbringen a n Einbaustelle, Abwerfen:

E s sollen gleichzeitig n u r s o viele Container abgeworfen werden, daB keine Container
beim Aufprall auf die Sohle platzen - d.h., d a B sie beim Aufprall nicht zugleich durch
Eigengewicht und das Gewicht mehrerer nachfallender Container belastet sind.
Das Sollprofil auf der Boschung und a m BoschungsfuB betragt 1.00 m Dicke (zulassig
0.80 bis 1.50 m).
Steile Boschungen sind auf 1 : 1.5 anzufullen.
Die maximalen Einbautiefen betragen im AuBenbereich c a . 28 m unter N N , im
Binnenbereich c a . 17.50 m unter N N .
Das Einbauergebnis ist durch Vor- und Nachpeilungen nachzuweisen.

Insgesamt wurden in der Zeit von April bis August 1993 etwa 48000 geotextile Container
eingebaut [9].
Abb. 4 zeigt eine Gesamtansicht der von HEINRICH HIRDES GmbH Bremen erstellten
Befullungseinrichtung. A b b . 5 und 6 zeigen die Beschickung des Fulltrichters mit Radlader
und den Schragaufzug mit abwechselnder Befullung der beiden K a m m e m (a 1 m ) .
AnschlieBend fahrt die Befullungseinrichtung urn 1 m weiter.
3

Abb. 7 zeigt die hydraulische Klemmeinrichtung zur Halterung der geotextilen Container
wahrend der Befullung, Abb. 8 das V e r n a h e n der gefullten geotextilen Container mit
Kettenstich-Doppelnaht. Allein die Lange der auf der Baustelle zu fertigenden Nahte, die
ubrigens hier im G e g e n s a t z zur o.g. Forderung von Zitscher [1] eine 100 %-ige Festigkeit
aufweisen, betragt bei vorgegebener Doppelnaht etwa 130 km (ohne Verschlingung
gerechnet, 1.35 m 48000 Container 2 Nahte).

Abb. 4:
Gesamtansicht

Saathoff / Write: Geotextile Container zur Stabilisierung der Koikboschungen am Eidersperrwerk

Seite 10

tu

Abb. 5:
Beschickung des
Fulltrichters
mit Radlader

Abb. 6:
Schragaufzug mit
abwechselnder
Befullung der
beiden Kammern [9]

Abb. 7:
Hydraulische
Klemmeinrichtungen

Saathoff / Witte: Geotextile Container zur Stabilisierung der Koikboschungen am Eidersperrwerk

Seite 11

Abb. 8:
Vemahung der
gefullten
geotextilen Container
mit KettenstichDoppelnaht

Abb. 9:
Verladezange
am Greifer d e s
Hydraulikbaggers [9]

Abb. 10:
Verladevorgang mit
Vorgabe: 3 bis 4 L a g e n
geotextile Container
in jede Schiffskammer [9]

-A

Saathoff / Witte: Geotextile Container zur Stabilisierung der Koikboschungen am Eidersperrwerk

Seite 12

Die Tagesleistung beim Befullen der geotextilen Container betrug etwa 700 Stuck. Dafur
war es erforderlich, etwa 4500 Stuck/Woche im Werk in Espelkamp vorzukonfektionieren.
Der Veriadevorgang der geotextilen Container mit einem Hydraulikbagger fur eine Schiffsladung (204 Sacke) dauerte etwa 1.5 Stunden. Abb. 9 zeigt die Veriadezange am Greifer
des Hydraulikbaggers. Drei bis vier L a g e n geotextile Container wurden in jede Schiffskammer verladen (Abb. 10).
Der Steinsturzer wurde uber Heckanker, Bugstrahlruder und Computerortung positioniert.
Der Einbau erfolgte taktweise. Positionierung und Einbau nahmen wiederum etwa
1.5 Stunden in Anspruch. Der taktweise Einbau der geotextilen Container ist in Abb. 11
dargestellt.

Die realisierte Losung mit den geotextilen Containern wird als vorbildlich und auBerst erfoigreich eingestuft. Weniger als 10 von insgesamt 48000 geotextilen Containern wurden nach
A n g a b e n der Bauleitung beim Sturzen beschadigt [10]. Die negativen Erfahrungen mit
zuvor gewahlten und auch bei fruheren BaumaBnahmen gewahlten Gewebecontainem
wurden bei der Losung mit Vliesstoff containern nicht wiederholt. Zukunftig werden von alien
Beteiligten sicher nur geotextile Container aus mechanisch verfestigten Vliesstoffen bevorzugt werden (vgl. auch [2] und [4]).

Saathoff / Witte: Geotextile Container zur Stabilisierung der Koikboschungen am Eidersperrwerk

Seite 13

Schrifttum
[1] Zitscher, F.-F. (Hrsg.): Anwendung und Prufung von Kunststoffen im Erdbau und Wasserbau.
Schriftenreihe des DVWK, Heft 76, Verlag Paul Parey. 1. Auf lage 1986, 2. Auflage 1989
[2]

Heibaum, M.: Kolksicherung am Eidersperrwerk, Geotechnische Uberlegungen. HANSA, Heft 4,

1994
[3] Saathoff, F. u. Witte, J.: Stabilisierung der Koikboschungen am Eidersperrwerk mit geotextilen
Sandcontainern. Unveroffentlichter Bericht der NAUE FASERTECHNIK, Sept. 1993
[4] VierfuB, U.: Sicherung des Eidersperrwerks gegen Auskolkungen. HANSA, Heft 4, 1994
[5] Dietz, B.: Eidersperrwerk, Natur- und Modellversuche. HANSA, Heft 4,1994
[6] Ausschreibungsunterlagen "Verstarkung der flexiblen Sohlensicherung und Befestigung der Koikboschungen am Eider-Sperrwerk (auBen und binnen)" des Wasser- und Schiffahrtsamtes
Tonning, 1992
[7]

Prospekt "Sicherung der Unterwasserboschungen am Eidersperrwerk" der Arbeitsgemeinschaft

Sohlensicherung Eidersperrwerk (Zinkcon Dekker Wasserbau GmbH Bremen, Heinrich Hirdes
GmbH Bremen und Wasserbau A.C.Z. GmbH Bremen), 1993

[8]

MAK, Merkblatt Anwendung von Kornfiltern an WasserstraBen. BAW Karlsruhe, Ausgabe 1989

[9] Saathoff, F. u. Witte, J.: Eidersperrwerk, Geotextile Sandcontainer zur Stabilisierung der Koikboschungen. HANSA, Heft 4, 1994
[10] van Eenenaam, K.: Unveroffentlichter Vortrag. HTG Sprechtag an der Eider, 3.9.1993

_ J3

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>

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ll

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4Hi
J

H I

> ed

flliilll
si si eIf

Hi

^,

03 Q.XJ

2S

83
9 3 i
o

.2

*55 bC CD

ET I 2 if:S -5
s i * I s "5>-^
3
i f f I I I
s
k
a I a a a a -2
a "8 J J 1 S S1
Sif I f f
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~

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3 to S 73 ^5

APPENDIX

II

Geotubes and Geocontainers

Computation of shape and forces

Technical Specifications

Computation of the shape of the concrete filled hoses /fceXp-*WAa~U&s

Wty

Depending on the static head of the wet concrete, the laying method and the
behaviour of the concrete inside the hose, it is possible that the cross sectional
shape of the concrete filled hose (with a theoretical circular cross section with
a diameter of 2.50 m) will vary from a very flat hump up to a fully circular
cross section.
Assuming that during the laying procedure the concrete can be regarded as a
liquid with a density of 2200 kg/m

and that the nylon hose can be regarded

as an impervious flexible s h e l l , the so-called shell theory can be used to

compute the shape of the concrete filled hoses. This theory has been applied
to calculate the shape of the hose in case the hose is filled under water (see
also Figure 1).
Assuming the concrete level to be equal to the water l e v e l , the resultant liquid
pressure against the shell in a certain point A is equal to:

pa

p "

where
p^

= local resultant pressure in point A

= density of the concrete (2200 kg/m^)

3
p

= density of the water (1000 kg/m )

= the local static head in point A

g

= acceleration of gravity

From the vertical equilibrium of the hose section which is in contact with the
bottom it follows:

Pm

Pb

...
whilst p

Pc " w

weight of the hose under water (per running meter)

*
2
b

where
p

= maximum resultant pressure

p^

= contact pressure

H
m

= maximum static head

= contact width
-

A-

Considering the equilibrium of a small shell-section, rd<p , it follows:

p^xrd<pxl=axlxd(p
or
p

a =

, or r
p

a
PA

where
a tension in the shell
r = radius of local curvature of the shell in point A
The theoretical shape of the hose can be derived with the help of the above
formulae by means of an iteration process. The procedure to be followed in
this iteration process is that first the tension in the shell is assumed, which at
the same time determines the height of the hose. Next the local curvature of
the shell can be calculated step by step by means of the

formula r = a / p .

The assumption of a and the shape of the hose deduced from that are correct
if the height of the hose equals the original assumed height.
With the assumption that the hoses are placed on a flat horizontal bottom, me
cross sectional shapes of the hoses have been determined for static heads of
H

= 5.0 m and H = 8.0 m. Results are presented on Figure 2 . From this it

m
m
.
follows that ovality is 2.10 m x 2.70 m in case of a maximum static head ot
H

= 5.0 m, whilst ovality is 2.25 m x 2.60 m at a static head of H

= 8.0 m

The second and subsequent layers are placed on and between the underlying
layer(s), whereby most probably the contact areas of the still wet hose will
take the shape of the already hardened underlying ones. The further shape can
be calculated in the same way as the hoses placed on a flat bottom. Such
theoretical calculations generally will result in shapes with the long axis wider
as the underlying hoses, placed on a flat bottom, provided the maximum static
head is kept constant (H = 5.0 m and H + 8.0 m). To get a stable and
~
m
symmetrical breakwater these axis should be e q u a l , which for instance can be
m

achieved by a raising of the static head. For the study it has been presumed
that the long axis of the hoses in the subsequent layers will be constant. The
shapes of the different hoses have been presented on Figure 3 .

2-

2.0 O m

C R O S S SECTIONAL SHAPE OF C O N C R E T E
FILLED

HOSES

IN

SUBSEQUENT

WATERLOOPKUNDIG

LAYERS

LABORATORIUM

a-

M.

SCALE

1:50

1085

HG.

ISBN 981-00-5822-5

Fifth International Conference on Geotextiles, Geomembranes and Related Products

Singapore, 5-9 September 1994

Simple Analysis of Deformation of Sand-Sausages

K. Kazimierowicz
Institute of Hydroengineering, Polish Academy of Sciences, Gdansk, Poland

ABSTRACT: The paper deals with simple analysis of deformation of cylindrical shells filled with the material of known
unit weight. The aim of this article is to find a shape of such a shell as function of internal pressure and the height of
cross - section. The solution is found with the help of numerical methods. The obtained results are of some importance in
the analysis of sand-sausages. They were compared with Silvester's ones (1986) and a good agreement was ascertained.

1 INTRODUCTION
Cylindrical shells, filled with sand or mortar (sandsausages) are used for bank protection either in marine or
fluvial structures. Shellsfilledwith water or air, laid across
the main stream andfixedto bed are used for forming
dams. Proper design of this kind of structures requires a
good knowledge of forces in the shell material as well as
the shapes of cylinders' cross-section. The aim of this
paper is a simple analysis of deformation of the structure
that consists of cylindrical shellfilledwith water.

Fig. 1 Cylindrical shell's cross-section

Equilibnum equations for cylindrical shell are following:

2 ASSUMPTIONS
dxrd</>+dtdx
3c
d$

The following assumptions are accepted in this paper:

- there is only the membrane state of stress at the covering
material,
- plane strain state is considered,
- no concentrated loads act on a structure,
- shell's own weight is neglected,
- the shell isfilledwith material characterised by the
known unit weight,
- there is no friction between the structure and the subsoil.

+ p*dxrd<t>

=0

(1)

3 FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM

The aim of this analysis presented here is to find a shape
of shell's cross - section as function of its given height H
and given hydrostatic pressure po=hy as well as computed
membrane force N* (see Fig. 1).

Fig 2 System of co-ordinates

775

Fig 3. Membrane forces

Because of the accepted assumptions there are:

px = 0;
p* = 0;
Nx = Nx+ =
=0
and Eqs.(l) - (3) simplify to the following form:
I

St**

r af>

=0

5 METHOD OF CALCULATION
(4)
5.1 Case A ( p o y H )
It followsfromEq.(6):

(5)

r= */

N+= p -r

(6)

(7)
/Pr

Substitution of No) and pr,fromTablel, into (7) gives:

It follows from Eq.(5) that the value of Ne) does not
depend on <f> and is constant along circumference of the
cross section.

' = - %

. - " A

As we could expect we have obtained the circular cross

section in this special case.

4 SPECIAL CASES
The following three special cases will be considered,
depending on the value of internal pressure at point P (see
Fig.l):

5.2 Cases B(p at 0) and C (p = 0)

e

Eq.(7) also valid in these cases. Because of variation of pr

along the height of the shell (see Tablel), the solution is
not as easy as in the previous case.
In order to compute the cross section it is necessary to
find formulas for the radius of curvature.
There are two methods of dealing with this problem.

A) po yH ;
B) p * 0 ;
C) p = 0
Because of the symmetry of the problem with respect to
the x,z plane we shall consider only one half of the
structure cross section, as shown in Fig.4.
0

5.2.1 Explicit approach

In differential notation the curvature is given by:

(9)

From Eqs.(9) and (6)

differential equation:

Fig. 4 Considered forces

Pw denotes there the resultant forcefromthe other part of
the structure. Tablel shows the basic parameters, i.e. pr.
Pw and No), for the above mentioned special cases.

d*z _ p

one obtains the following

(10)

Table 1 Basic parameters for special cases

p.

r-H

po

forces L ;
diagram V J
-9

The solution of above equation and following boundary

conditions: z [0] = 0; dz/dy[0] = 0 defines the cross
sectional shape of the shell.
For the extremum point of Eq.(10), the value of dz/dy is
unknown, so we must change the procedure and take z as
an independent variable. We get the following equation:

p. = 0

?L
p.

pw

p,*0

po+r-z

PH
O^yHi + poH
0,5 pc-H 0.25>H2+0.5poH

0,5-r//
0.25-?//

d y _
2

dz

776

V/
pr
1+
Nd
dz
K

(11)

5.2.2 Alternative geometrical approach

An alternative approach to that presented previously is
based on geometrical considerations. Let us consider
cylindrical shell's meridian presented in Fig. 5, r> means a
distance measured along normal to meridian from his
intersection with the axis of rotation to middle plane.

For 50 < ^ < 140 we must change the procedure and

take z as an independent variable (y is not proper
independent variable, when d> is close to 90).
Then the system of equations takes the form:

dz

Hi

(18)

dz '

'

Introducing the new variable v = cos^ and using the

2

identity:cos^ = c t g j / + ctg <f> one gets the following

system of differential equations:
dv

pr

dy

dz

' dz

(19)

VT^

In order to define the problem we have to add respective

boundary conditions. They are corrected with the solution

Fig. 5 Cylindrical shell's meridian

There is : ds = r d<j> => dd> =

of the problem for t> = 50.

(12)

where ds denotes the differential length of the shell.

There is also: dy = ds-cos<j>.
dy

Thus: = r-cos

, _^ 1

d</>

(13)

cos<p-d<f> _ ds\n<t>
dy

5.2.3 Length of contact between subsoil and shell

In the case A here is the point contact between the shell
and the subsoil (cf. 5.2.1).
In the cases B and C we have the linear contacts, as
shown in Figs.6 and 7. The lengths of these contacts are
expressed by the following relations:

(14)

dy

Substitution of Eq.(14) into Eq.(6) leads to the following

equation:
d sin d>

dy

2y'(rH'+po)

Q=>y'=

Kr-H'+po)

(20)

pr
(15)

" N<f>

2y-rH

= Q^y =

(21)

which together with the geometrical dependence:

dz
tg<t> =
dy

(16)

defines the problem.

2

Substitution of the identity:tgt)> = sin^/^l - sin <f> and

introducing the new vanable: u = sm<f> we get the system
of differential equations defining cylindrical shell's cross
section in the following form:

_ p
dz _
u
dy~ Nip ' dy V l -

du

Fig.6 Length of contact between shell and subsoil - case B

(17)

We use the boundary conditions: u[0]=0: z[0]=0.

The system of equations (17) gives the solution in the
following ranges of the angle <f> <j> < 50and^ > 140.

Fig. 7 Length of contact between shell and subsoil - case C

777

tensile forces, length of circumference of the cross

section. These parameters are correlated to each other.
2. The method of defining the cylindrical shell cross
section depends on the value of pressure acting inside the
shell (ccases A, B, C).
3. In the case when the value of the pressure acting in its
highest point is much bigger than the value of the
hydrostatic pressure, the cross section of the shell takes
the shape of the circle.
4. In two extreme cases i.e. when pressure in the highest
point of the shell is zero, or when its valu t; is comparable
with the value of the hydrostatic pressure, we can find the
shape of the cross section using numerical methods. In
this article the two types of differential equations were
presented (system of linear differential equations and
second order differential equation), solutions of which
define the shape of the shell cross section. Obtained results
by use of both of them are compatible (i.e. the difference
is lower than 1%).
5. In the paper several formulas defining length of contact
segment between subsoil and shell are presented. Obtained
values were compared with Silvester's data and a good
agreement was shown. The length of contact between the
subsoil and the shell decreases with the increasing values
of the pressure at the highest point of the shell.

6 RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Eqs. (10),(11),(17) and (19) were solved numerically for
different initial parameters and the results were compared
with experimental data presented in Silvester (1986).
Particularly we have compared only the two results: the
tensile force No in the shell and the length of the contact
L' between the structure and the subsoil.
The comparison was made for various heights H of the
structure and various values of pressure po. The results are
shown in Tables 2 and 3. It seems that a good agreement
was obtained because the differences between theoretical
predictions and Silvester's data do not exceed the value of
3%.
Table 2 Tensile force in the shell - comparison of
computed results with Silvester's experimented
data f>= 1,4 kG/m )
3

H[m]
~Tfi
~0^9
"O^i
~0J

h[m]
L27
OM
0^33
0^22

Np[kG]
1,239
0,687
0,409
0,279

T[kG]
1,202
0,693
0,397
0,286

T/NQ

T./NQ[%]

0,970
L009
0^97
L025

3
1
3
2^5

*i
4
1

where:
No- force calculated by use of formulasfromTable I
Tt - value of force in the shell presented by Silvester
(1986)
Table 3 Length of contact segment between the shell and
the subsoil ( j = 1,4 kG/m )
3

H[m]
1,0
0js>
0,8
0. 7

h[m]
1,27
0fi4

0,33
0,22

Q[kG]
1,05?
0,99y
0,95?
Q,89y

L'[m]
0,46
6~64
0,84
0,96

Fig 7 Cylindrical shell's cross-section. Length of

circumference = const; H,po* const

L.[m] L7L. L'/L.[%]

0,46
1,00
0
0~65
O^W
2
0,82
1,02
2
0,94
1,02
2

6. It is possible to calculate the value of the shell tensile

force, which is constant along the circumference, by using
equilibrium condition of die shell in y - axis direction.
Obtained results are comparable to Silvester ones.

where:
L' - length of contact segment calculated by use of
formulasfrompoint 5.2.3
L. - length of contact segment presented by Silvester
Q - weight of material filling the shell

REFERENCES
Silvester,R(1986) "Use of grout-filled sausages in coastal
structures" ASCE Journal of Waterway, Port Coastal and
Ocean Engineering, Vol.112, No.l, January.
Silvester,R& Hsu, JJLC. (1993)"Coastal stabilization.
Innovative concepts".Prentice Hall.
Flugge, W. (1967) "Stresses in shells", Springer-Verlag.
Mika, J. (1981) "Genera computing model of
hydrotechnical
flexible closures"
Archives of
Hydroengineering, Vol.28, No.4, B W PAN.

The following conclusions can be drawn from the

considerations presented:
1. The shape of cylindrical shell's cross section depends on
such parameters as: the height of the shell, the value of
pressure in the highest point, the own weight, the shell

778

Computation of forces on a top tube

]>elfc

\r\yMo**U*-s,

Summarizing the results of the systematic investigation on the stability of the

lay-out with the longitudinal axis of the concrete filled sausages parallel with
the breakwater axis, it can be concluded that the critical wave height is about
equal to the theoretical diameter of the hoses and is nearly independent on the
boundary conditions. Only the reduction of the wave period, lowering of the
waterlevel with respect to the top level and flattening of the cross sectional
shape do have a slightly favourable effect on the stability of the structure.
This comparatively low critical wave height in relation to the relatively large
dimensions of the concrete filled hoses can be explained from a theoretical
consideration of the equilibrium of the top layer under maximum load conditions.
Assuming that for the longer wave periods the overflowing mass of water will
cause a hydrostatic pressure distribution on the frontside of the top hose, whilst
at the lee side the atmospheric pressure is a c t i n g , the static equilibrium of the
top hose can be computed (see Figure ' ) .
The overturning moment, around P , of the wave pressure against the top layer
is equal to:

(H .. + x H J
100
*
c r , t

x h, x - h. x p j
2

C T X

The restoring moment, around P , owing to the weight of the top hose is equal
to:
F x 1 x (p - p ) g x b
c

To maintain static equilibrium it follows that

. < crit ^
3

- l l ^ l
-5

( 1

k )

"

( 1)

Pw
=

Assuming following values for ( p - P ) / P

'
and bj = 1.35 m and k = 45 % , from equation (
c

2
F = 3 . 7 m , hj = 1 .75 m
1) it follows that

< 3 . 0 m to maintain stability of the top hose. This value is i n quite

cnt ^
'
good agreement with the experimental results.

highest water level

,,H

T(H r*iOT cr)

e

i(Her*i^* c7
loweet water level

STATIC
HOSE

EQUILIBRIUM
ON

TOP

OF C O N C R E T E FILLED

OF S T R U C T U R E

WATERLOOPKUNDIG

LABORATORIUM

SCALE
M. 1085

V.50
RG.

In the windflume the undisturbed wave height has been measured in the open
section of 1.0 m width in the centre. Besides that, indicent and reflected waves
have been computed from wave recordings in front of the two breakwater sections
using an extensive record of the wave height profile at regular distances from
the structures. According to the first order wave theory the incoming and
reflected wave height can be calculated from:

H. =

H
+ H .
max
mm

H
whi Ist H

max

- H .
mm

H
and k =

x 100

H.
where
H.

= incoming wave height

= reflected wave height

r
H

= maximum wave height recorded in front of the structure

max
H .
mm

= minimum wave height recorded in front of the structure

= reflection coefficient
-

1 -

HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
GEOTUBE
FILLED ON LAND

GEOTUBE READY FOR FILLING.

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS:
RAW MATERIAL
TENSILE STRENGTH
WEIGHT
400 g/m2
TUBE-LENGTH
400 m.
TUBE-DIAMETER
1.70 m.
MESH-SIZE 0 90 100 microns

WARP:
PE
90 k N / m l

WEFT:
PETP
90 kN/ml

GEOTUBE AFTER FILLING.

NICOLON

GEOTUBE
PROJECT LEYBUCHT

CROSS-SECTION A: A

TOTAL QUANTITY SUPPLIED: 15,000 ml

CONSTRUCTION PERIOD

: 1987- 1990

DESIGN & SUPERVISION

: WASSERWIRTSCHAFTSAMT AURICH, GERMANY

SBNT NICOLON

HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
GEOCONTAINER
THE GEOCONTAINER IS A SPECIALLY DESIGNED VERY LARGE SAND CONTAINING BAG FITTING INTO A SPLIT-BOTTOM BARGE.

24.00 m.

7.00 m.

hold-capacity: 240 m

A~
CROSS-SECTION A:A
5.27 m

6.75m.

7.50 m.

GEOCONTAINER
THE PROBLEM

4.70 m.

ordnance datum

eroded,existing bank
THE SOLUTION
broken concrete

POSITIONING PRINCIPLE
reference-line

i
i
i
i

I1

11

marking-line

11

25m.

distance-rope
winch

River Old Meuse

sounding-vessel with Artemis system

Geocontainers used: 250 units

90,000 tonnes
Sand used
20-40% lower than traditional methods
Cost

NICOLON

31
ONTWIKKELING i

as?

1. 'Specie Shuttle', een nieuwe

methode voor het aanbrengen
van zandworsten (diameter 1 a
2 meter)
2. Continu leg-vulproces voor
het aanbrengen van grotere
zandworsten (diameter 1 a 5
meter)

O N T W I K K E L I N G

'Specie

Toepassingen

Shuttle'

A C Z Marine Contractors heeft daartoe een mgenieus systeem

ontwikkeld dat men " S p e c i e Shuttle" doopte.
Net als z'n bi|na-naamgenoot bij de NASA, is de " S p e c i e Shuttle"
een transportmiddel dat de lading uit z'n ruim met grote precisie kan
plaatsen.
Vanaf een ponton wordt het geheel afgezonken (zie illustratie). Groot
voordeel hierbij is. dat scheepvaart. stroom en golven geen invloed
meer hebben op het aanbrengproces. Ook de diepte of juist ondiepte.
is nu niet meer van belang. Zodra de " S p e c i e Shuttle" in positie
gebracht is. maakt hi] een kantelende beweging, waardoor de
zandworst op z ' n plaats glijdt

TYPISCHE

RIVIERO0ORSNE0E

Dit kan zeer nauwkeurig

worden uitgevoerd,
vanwege een uitgekiend
plaatsbepahng- en
mspectiesysteem
waarmee de " S p e c i e
Shuttle" is uitgerust.

qwr/nste .ajroigptt

De dimensies van
zandworsten die middels
de " S p e c i e Shuttle"
kunnen worden
aangebracht. varieren in
lengte van 20 tot 50
meter en van 1 tot 2
meter in diameter.

BOOEMKRIBBEN

OPVULLEN

Continu
brengen

leg-vulproces
van grotere

IN E E N B O C H T S E C T I E

T.B.V RIVIERVERBETERING

V A N ONTGRONDINGSKUILEN

voor het aanzandworsten

Z a n d a a n v u l l i r q in verschillende

Tezamen met de " S p e c i e Shuttle" lanceert A C Z Marine Contractors

een tweede innovatie m.b.t. het aanbrengen van zandworsten. Het
continu leg-vulproces. Hierbij wordt vanaf een verhaal-ponton een
zandworst afgezonken en tegelijkertijd gevuld. M.b.v. een zandwaterpomp wordt de zandworst via een persslang volgespoten

fates

Oorspronkelijke

oever

..''.'.v'V'i.

Met name in geval van relatief ondiep water biedt het continu legvulproces uitkomst. D e lengte van de o d deze wijze aangebrachte
zandworst is cnbeperkt De diameter kan varieren van 1 tot 5 meter.

PERSKADES

VOOR

LANOAANWINNING

Zowel de S p e c i e Shuttle" als het continu vul-legproces vinden hun

toepassing o d velerlei gebied:
Tevens

het aanbrengen van bodemknbben t.b.v. rivierverbetering

het oovullen van ontgrondingskunen
stabihsatie van pijpleidingen
het afsluiten van stroomgeulen
kades van landaanwinningsgebieden
offshore goifbrekers. etc. etc

zandfilter

voor

verontreinigd

ponewater

Baggerspecie

KADES

VOOR

BERGINGSLOKATIE

XERHAALRICHTING
P

.'5S .1-

OFFSHORE

GOLFBREKERS

DOOASNEDE A A

ACZ Marine Contractors

Pnone
Telex
Postbus
4200

Telefoon

458
AL

Neaenand

Gonnchem

Telex
Fax

01830-2
25716

01830

acz
2 59

64
nl
31

00

Fax

118301
2

2 64

7 6 acz

11830) 2 43

nl
94

00

A P P E N D I X

Breakwaters

III

APPENDIX III

Flexible membrane units for breakwaters

by
Richard Silvester

reprint from
Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering (1990)
(John B. Herbich, editor)
with permission of the Gulf Publishing Company

C H A P T E R 20

FLEXIBLE M E M B R A N E UNITS FOR

BREAKWATERS

Richard Silvester
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Western Australia
Nediands, Western Australia
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION. 921
FLEXIBLE M E M B R A N E UNITS. 922
DESIGN O F UNITS. 924
DESIGN O F MORTAR MIX. 930
COMPARATIVE COSTS, 933
LOGISTICS, 934
APPLICATIONS, 935
SUMMARY. 936
REFERENCES, 937

Introduction
Construction of breakwaters with rubble stone has been in vogue since this type
of coastal structure was devised in the last century. In more recent decades, as stone
has become more uneconomical in the larger sizes to quarry and transport, it has
been replaced by precast concrete units with a plethora of shapes. The fact that so
many such armor units have been devised points to the fact that none have provided
the stability in the face that was desired. If any particular solution had proved
successful beyond all competitors it would have usurped the market.
The fact is that unreinforced concrete monoliths touch each other in spots and are
therefore subject to rocking with all the heavy impacts that are involved. Cracking
then occurs and the units are halved in weight, making them more mobile by even
smaller waves. Being thrown around, they then proceed to break others and so the
process continues.

Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering

Volume 1: Wave Phenomena and Coastal Structures

Gulf Publishing Company

Houston, London, Paris, Zurich, Tokyo

922

Breakwaters

The method of construction by dump truck at the end of the structure and later
by crane to place the larger units on the seaward and leeward faces requires a wide
surface for vehicular traffic. This access path must be located well above the highest
tide level and reach of storm waves in order that the work, lasting many years, can
be carried out continuously. Breakwaters thus have mammoth proportions to accommodate these constructional needs, much more than is required to prevent wave
overtopping. The face slopes are relatively mild in order to provide stability for units
covering them and hence the cross-sectional area of breakwaters is excessive in
achieving the task of breaking or reflecting waves.
As these structures have been taken into ever larger depths, the demand for bigger
precast concrete units has escalated costs. The quarrying and crushing of stone to
suitable sizes for concrete production, its transport to the site, the mixing and subsequent cartage of units to the breakwater require much energy and equipment. This
has made the provision of breakwaters the largest cost component in the building
of a port.
Many theories have been put forward for the design of units in breakwaters,
treated elsewhere in this handbook, but one significant conclusion reached by
Sawaragi et al. [1] was: "Design formulas in future must take the hydrodynamic
forces produced by resonance into consideration as an external disturbing force."
This points to a new approach in breakwater design that permits large-scale voids
to exist throughout the structure to obviate the use of small-scale material that may
be dislodged in this resonance mechanism.
Another link in the design chain for these large structures is between them and
the supporting bed material. Reflections of waves either normally or obliquely can
scour material from adjacent to the face and cause slumping, perhaps accompanied
by pore pressure build up. This topic is discussed in Volume 2. But the bed in the
vicinity of breakwaters must be given attention if further failures are to be avoided.
Flexible Membrane Units
If progress is to be made in breakwater design, and this must encompass economic
factors, the following requirements appear paramount:
1. Armor units should be designed that fit snugly together, giving resistance to
movement by friction and shape over wide surface areas.
2. Core material should consist of units equally as large as other armor blocks
if they can be manufactured from low-grade concrete.
3. Spaces should be provided between elongated units to permit wave absorption,
reduce reflection, and attenuate upward pressures.
4. The bed seawards of the breakwater should be protected from scouring over
wide widths by an impermeable mat for either traditional rubble-mound structures or other designs.
These various demands can be met by casting in-situ large units whose formwork
comprisesflexibleskins of strong fabric, which is readily available today. Such nylon
or other type of material can be sewn into any desired shape before it isfilledwith

Flexible Membrane Units for Breakwaters

923

a slurried mortar comprising only sand and a cementing mixture. There is no need
for stone to constitute a concrete because the strengths required are much less than
those for precast concrete monoliths. The reason for this is that these membrane
units are not handled after they are formed in place, and they will not rock because
of their intimate contact with each other. The only compressive force required is that
to support the load from above and that due to the overturning moment produced
by horizontal wave forces. This can normally be met with a compressive strength
of limestone or about 0.2 of normal concrete.
Engineers in Mexico [2-6] have pioneered the development offlexiblemembranes
as formwork for cement mortar cast in-situ. Their purpose was to use local unskilled labor in developing countries rather than expensive imported technology.
Although it has served its purpose in this context, it has application in western
economies, where isolated sites with little infrastructure, cause quarrying and transport of rock to be extremely expensive. As good quality material becomes harder to
locate, costs rise very quickly. The use of sand, which is generally available at the
coast, makes for large reductions in cost.
Fabrics are available today with high strengths that can be readily sewn into bags
or sausage proportions of any desired dimensions, resulting in units of very large
weight. The greatest benefit is their assuming the shape of monoliths on which they
rest, so producing a saw-tooth contact which, together with friction over large surfaces, provides good shear resistance to horizontal forces. Suction from waves is
applied only to the ends of these large units, which can extend across the full width
of the breakwater.
The mortar used needs to be a slurry that canflowto all parts of the fabric container without the use of vibrators. Once set, the formwork is no longer required
and hence deterioration of the membrane is of no concern. Thefinalhard-set mortar
must be able to withstand the wear from wave swashing with suspended sand. Mortar of strength equal to that of limestone has sufficient wearability as exemplified
by the resistance of limestone in many breakwaters throughout the world.
As in any engineering structure, costs of alternatives must be considered. In such
comparisons it is not the unit cost (e.g. cost per m ) that is relevant, but the overall
expense of establishment, relative volumes of material, interruption of construction,
and subsequent maintenance that must be considered. Methods of handling the large
rock or precast concrete units involve sophisticated mechanical equipment in the
form of intricate formwork, trucks, and cranes, that require technical know-how,
large quantities of fuel, and good quality roads to the site. The provision of such
infrastructure is all part of the overall cost.
It is believed that longer containers, in the form of sausage skins, have great advantages over the shorter alternative, equivalent to large bags. The overall size of
each homogeneous mass can be so large that it is inconceivable that any wave could
disturb or remove it. The weight of individual units can be such, and their frictional
and form resistance so effective, that even the stability coefficient [7] normally used
in the design of breakwaters becomes irrelevant. Laboratory tests are required to
prove this contention, but if part of the research funds devoted to precast concrete
units could be applied to this new concept, its characteristics could quickly be
obtained. The high compressive, shear and tensile strengths required by precast
3

924

Breakwaters

monoliths are not required for these cast in-situ units, which do not rock or suffer
associated dynamic forces.
.
The trapezoidal shapes of rubble-mound breakwaters cause a variable compressive force on the bed material, which results in differential slumping. Tins is accommodated by the rock material moving to new stable shapes prior to thefinalarmor
units being positioned. Theflexiblemembrane structures are rectangular in shape
and built from the bottom upwards, which therefore apply a more even pressure on
the bed. Hence, differential settlement is not envisaged. Even if some of the interna
segments are cracked by such slight adjustments the volumes and intimate contact
will retain units of large volume or weight.
Design of Units
The specific gravity of these mortar units has been shown by tests [8] to approximate 2.0, which are cast underwater with the outside pressure medium of unit SG.
Tests can therefore be conducted to derive shapes by using plastic containers filled
with water in air. Such verification of theoretical shapes has been carried out as per
Figures 1 and 2, which used the same circumference S = 92 8 cms [9, 10J. The difference in shape was produced by applying pressure heads b, = 17.9 and 39.4 cms.
In Figure 1 it is seen that the height of the water column is just above the soffit of
the spheroidal shape, while in Figure 2 it is 1.7 times this vertical dimension. It is
possible to increase this head to such an extent that the container becomes circular,
but the tension in the plastic, or fabric in the case of the prototype, becomes very

20

S=92.8cm.
b,= 17.5cm.
Theory
o Experiment

>

x cm.

Ftgure 1. Comparison of measured and theoretical shapes for a water pressure head
b, = 17.9 cm.

Flexible Membrane Units for Breakwaters

y cm

S = 92.8cm. \
b=29.4cm.
Theory
o Experiment

/
o

]V
-20

-16 - 1 2 - 8 - 4

4
x cm.

/'

12

925

16

20

Figure 2. Comparison of measured and theoretical shapes for a water pressure head
b, = 39.4 cm.

high. This may cause tearing in the material or the longitudinal seams. As seen in the
twofigures,the experimental shapes match the theory reasonably well.
Relationships were derived and measured between the input parameter of pressure
head (b,) divided by circumference S and the following ratios:
Sausage height/width
Height/circumference
Width/circumference
Cross-sectional area
Contact width at base
Height of greatest width
Hoop tension in fabric

H/B
H/S
B/S
A/BH
B'/B
H'/H
T/yS where y is specific weight of water.
J

The variables are defined in Figure 3 and the parameters are presented in Figure
4. It is seen that A/BH varies very little for b,/S > 0.4, implying that the crosssectional area, or weight per unit length, is virtually the same for H/B ratios from
0.67 to 0.92. Because tension in the fabric increases some 600% over this range, it
appears better to pour aflattersausage in order to reduce stresses, while the crosssectional area remains sensibly constant.
As the membrane tends towards a circular section so the contact width at the
base (B') decreases, while the height-to-maximum cross-section (H) approaches 0.5.
This condition is not recommended because it also involves high-pressure heads of

926

Breakwaters

Figure 3. Definition sketch of sand sausage.

slurry on the joint between pipe and cylindrical sleeve of the container. It is preferable to have a pressure head equal to 150% of the height of the sausage, or b'/H = 1.5
or b,/S = 0.35. This ordinate is specifically drawn to assist in the evaluation of
parameters.
The proportional height at the greatest width (H') has a value of 0.375H for
b^S = 0.35, which permits sausages placed in contact to form below and above
units already in place. This provides an excellent interlocking mechanism. It tends

Figure 4. Dimensionless parameters from theory and experiment.

Flexible Membrane Units for Breakwaters

927

towards 0.5 for large b,/S and also for very small values, which might be used where
a mattress-like cover is required.
As indicated in Figure 5, the sausage layers could be aligned alternately at 45 to
the breakwater axis, to make each unit longer and heavier. This crossing at right
angles permits an undulating surface contact that provides good shear resistance
against horizontal wave forces. Positioning of units in the same orientation should
be directly one above the other in order that they do not sit over spaces between
supports. This can be achieved by nailing empty skins to those already cast. These
will pull out as filling proceeds.
The exposed face should be essentially vertical to prevent uplift forces breaking
the ends of units, which should be loaded with sausages from above. The crosssectional area of the breakwater thus becomes rectangular, but with smaller height

928

Breakwaters

Figure 6. Wave pressures exerted on sausage units above SWL.

than for the equivalent rubble-mound structure. Some overtopping can be countenanced during the more severe storms due to the sausage units withstanding the
forces of sheetflowover them. As seen in Figure 6, the pressure forces from waves
vary in triangular fashion above SWL. The top units must have sufficient weight to
provide the frictional and form resistance to withstand the horizontal forces from
pressure and water friction. The 45 orientation aids in this stability by not having
any single sausage experience the full impact of a wave, which will vary in height
along the breakwater due to the generation process in storm conditions. Oblique
approach also results in wave height variation along the face.
As suggested in Figure 5, spaces could be left between units in the mid-depths to
allow for wave dissipation, with water oscillating through the corrugated channels
both across and along the breakwater. Water could jet through the leeward exit of
these tubes and may transmit some wave motion to this sheltered zone. However,
these jets will be at right angles to each other in alternate layers and hence will
attenuate readily. The exits are rounded nozzle turned inwards and therefore provide
a diffusing effect with reduced velocities. Tests are required to measure transmission
coefficients for various widths of structure and different spacing of sausage units.
The lower three and top three layers should be cast next to each other to prevent
such swashing. This would obviate scouring of the bed beneath the structure and
provide a reasonably smooth surface at the top for access during construction and
later maintenance if required. The spaces so provided should give excellent breeding
grounds for small fish. Barnacle growth will increase friction forflowthrough these

Flexible Membrane Units for Breakwaters

929

conduits and hence will diminish wave transmission over time. Sand could be lodged
in these spaces that could promote the growth of seaweed.
At the end of breakwaters the 45 alignment of units would normally mean that
some of the sausages would be short in length and hence not so stable. This can
be overcome by making them of equal length to those in the trunk, which implies
the construction of a square end comprising units of similar length, as depicted in Figure 7. This shows units placed adjacent to each other, which will make for greater
stability at this critical location.
All breakwaters reflect some energy from incident waves, either approaching
normally or obliquely. This is especially so for long-period swell, which arrives persistently from one direction. Structures consisting offlexiblemembranes will have
vertical faces and, in spite of the perforations suggested, may reflect waves more
readily. This characteristic could be used in by-passing sediment across harbor of
river mouths [11-13] by forming short-crested waves that expedite the passage of
material across the opening. Even for rubble-mound structures bed protection could
prevent scouring. [14, 15].
As noted in Figure 5, this protection could be afforded by similar sausage units
to the breakwater construction. These could be laid parallel to the breakwater face
out to a width covering the zone where reflected waves have heights equal to about
half those of the incident waves. This may extend over a triangular area from the
breakwater tip to a width of 200-300 m at the landward margin. The greatest scour
will occur up to one crest length away from the face in a short-crested system. For
waves arriving normal to a structure where standing waves are formed, bed cover
should be taken out to one half wavelength, where accretion normally occurs.
When laid, alternate sausages should be castfirst,with a space between that is
filled later, so these mold around the initial ones to form a tongue and grooved
joint. This close contact prevents vortices, formed in short-crested wave systems

930

Breakwaters

[16], from penetrating to the sedimentaryfloorand suspending material from beneath the sausages. If rock cover is used these vortices will penetrate the voids and
cause slumping of material, as found by Irie et al. [17].
The mean thickness of these units is dictated by the uplift produced in the troughs
of short-crested or standing waves, which cause the greatest depressions in the water
surface. The pressure beneath this mattress-like structure is from the water column
of mean sea level, while the pressure above is the weight of water beneath the trough.
The greatest uplift will therefore occur at i , i wavelengths from the structure, and
hence cover should be provided for at least one wavelength from the face. Because
the buoyant force is essentially equal to the differential water column, their thicknesses should equate or exceed the trough-to-mean-sea-level height. The interlocking
of sausages, as noted, should provide some safety factor. Here again some research
could determine the minimum values to be employed.

Design of Mortar Mix

The largest cost in fabricating these cast in-situ units is the cement employed,
therefore mixtures that minimize this content or replace the cement with an admixture should be sought. Extensive tests have been conducted [8, 18, 19] to determine
a mix that will provide the necessary strength, which as noted before could be one
fifth of the normal strength of concrete, or equivalent to limestone. Besides the
compressive strength these sausages must withstand the wear of water, perhaps with
suspended sand, from eroding the surfaces. The fabric used as formwork is not required after setting and hence can deteriorate from such wear or from ultraviolet
(UV) rays in sunlight.
Other requirements of the mix are:
1. It must have 100% slump or be a slurry, in order toflowto any part of the
container without vibration.
2. It must provide a tensile strength equal to that of limestone.
3. It must have a specific gravity equal to or exceeding that of limestone.
4. It must be as cheap as possible for the cementing materials available.
The strength of a cement mortar varies with the proportions of sand to cement,
[2, 20, 21] decreasing with increase in the sand component. Due to thefinebeach
sand used, a ratio of 5:1 was used throughout the experiments [8]. This could be
increased if coarser sediment is available. Tests should be carried out for the material
available on the site.
For comparison, limestone samples were obtained from seven different sites,
which varied greatly in strength. One exceeded the others by far and hence was used
as the criterion. Replacements for portions of the portland cement were ground,
granulated blast furnace slag,flyash, and diatomite. Of these only thefirstimproved
the characteristics of the test cylinders. Sand was used both from the beach and
from terrigenous sources. Also, seawater was used in some specimens in place of

Flexible

Membrane

Units

for Breakwaters

931

L E G E NO
X
W/(S*C)

OO
2.5

I.07
0.97

SO

0.76

6.76

O 68

Q2

0.4

0.6

0.8

IO

S/(S*C)

Figure 8. Compressive strength vs. blast-Furnance slag (S) plus cement (C) for variations
in freshwater (W) and detergent X (ml/kg of S + C) for terrigenous sand/(S + C) = 5.0.

freshwater. To reduce the water/cement ratio while maintaining a high slump and
easyflowthrough pumping equipment, various percentages of detergent were added.
Results from the tests on best limestone were as follows:
Compressive strength:
1,335 psi (9.2 MPa)
Tensile strength:
170 psi (1.17 MPa)
Compressive strength for zero scour*: 1,510 psi (10.4 MPa)
1.95
Specific gravity:
Specimens with sand/cement of 5:1 withfinesand, and water/cement around 1.0,
should give a compressive strength of 1,450 psi (10.0 MPa). Cement (C) was replaced
with ground granulated blast furnace slag (S) in various proportions with detergent
(X) added at rates of 0, 2.5, 5.0, and 6.76 ml/kg of cementing agents (S + C) (equivalent of up to 0.676% by weight approximately). As seen in Figure 8, optimum 28-day

* This comparative measure was for a water jet under constant head tor 72 hours.

932

Breakwaters

16

2B

50

IOO

200

300

Age (days)

Figure 9. Strength vs. age for (a) terrigenous sand and freshwater (-) and (b) beach sand
and seawater (--). All cases, S/(S + C) = 0.6 and Sand/(S + C) = 5.0.

strength was obtained with S/(S + C) = 0.6 and X = 2.5. This is equivalent to 150%
more slag than cement. These proportions were then used to compare beach sand
and seawater with tests conducted at 7, 14, and 28 days. Strength with age are
graphed in Figure 9 for terrigenous sand with freshwater and beach sand with seawater. As seen, curves were extrapolated to 300 days with increases of 70% over
28-day strength for this long period. This age characteristic has been observed elsewhere [22, 23]. The reasons for beach sand and seawater providing optimum results
could be the increased content of calcium carbonate in beach sand (15.5%) compared
to 0.1% in terrigenous material. The presence of sodium and magnesium compounds
in seawater complements those found in portland cement [25J.
The mixes used had limited slump and hence it is necessary to extrapolate
strengths for complete slump. This indicated that a compressive strength of 1,720 psi
(11.8 MPa) was possible [19]. The W/(S + C) ratio was also extrapolated for 100";,
slump to give a value of 1.18 with X = 2.5. Tests should be conducted on local sand
with the cements, additives, and detergent available to obtain strengths of this order.
Brazil tests for tensile strength indicated again that S/(S + C) = 0.6 and X = 2.5
gave optimum values when reduced for 100% slump of 220 psi (1.52 MPa), which
was higher than for the limestone specimens. With the same jet conditions as for
the limestone sample, it was found that the mortar specimen required only a compressive strength of 1,020 psi (7 MPa) to prevent scour. This was an improvement
on the limestone with the need for 1,510 psi (10.4 MPa) to achieve this capacity to
withstand wear. The specific gravity of these mortar mixes was related to compressive strength in the same manner as limestone, giving 2.07 for the accepted strength.

Flexible Membrane Units for Breakwaters

933

Thus, the following proportions are recommended as a starting point for testing
agents on-site and from local suppliers:
Beach sand/(slag
Slag/(slag
Seawater/(slag
Detergent/(slag

+ cement) = 5.0
+ cement) = 0.6 by weight
+ cement) = 1.18 by weight
+ cement) = 0.25% by weight

These should give the following values:

28-day compressive strength = 1,600 psi (11 MPa)
28-day tensile strength = 205 psi (1.4 M Pa)
Specific gravity = 2.07
This mixture should give adequate wear resistance against water scour, certainly
better than limestone, which is widely used in marine structures.

Comparative Costs
It is difficult to compare costs of aflexiblemembrane structure with equivalent
rubble-mound construction due to many factors, namely:
1. A specific situation must be analyzed that may not be appropriate at any other
site where material supply conditions differ.
2. The methods of costing equipment in different construction situations may
vary greatly.
3. The purchase price of cement and additives (the bulk of the cost) is determined
by local suppliers and can change swiftly.
4. The wave climate for any area is unique and may determine costs of construction by varying methods.
A comparison has been made between a limestone breakwater enclosing a marina
and its membrane alternative [8]. The cost of the former was known and the same
wave conditions were used in the design of the latter. The breakwater had been
completed in 1978 at a cost of A$ 1,125,000, whereas the cost of the alternative was
derived with 1982 prices. An inflation factor of 2.5 applied to the original estimates
causing it to rise to A$2,8OO,O00. This is one of the unknowns in the equation.
For the mortar version the price of three concrete mixers, one for standby, two
slurry pumps (again one as standby), water pumps, and a compressor to supply air
for divers were obtained. This total was divided by 5 as depreciation for this one
job. Labor costs and fuel were assessed for the duration, which had to be estimated.
The percentages for each item were as follows:
Nylon fabric
Cement + slag
Detergent
Machinery + running cost
Labor
Total

6.3
73.6
2.7
4.2
13.2
100.0

934

Breakwaters

This total was AS2.5, which was 89% of the limestone version using a protective
mat in front of the membrane structure. If this was excluded for a more realistic
comparison this percentage became 64%.
Even with some reservations in the manner of estimating, this new approach
equals or is more likely to be less expensive than the traditional method of construction. However, a final cost of any complex must account for probable maintenance.
During an extreme storm sequence, it is normally accepted that rubble-mound
structures will require some rebuilding. Access of heavy equipment on a breakwater
with massive armor units placed over its soffit can be very difficult. The massive
sausages employed are not likely to rock or be displaced but even if this happens
the establishment cost for a concrete mixer plus pump is extremely small. Slurry can
be pumped the length of the breakwater and hence access by cranes or trucks is not
an issue. Even if an existing rubble-mound structure requires repairs, the use of
flexible membranes, which will mold around existing rocks or precast units should
be considered as an economical proposition. In the United Kingdom such cast, insitu replacements were considered in one case with a formwork comprising 10 sides
to form an almost spherical block. These would touch others at points and be very
subject to movement by waves. A fabric form would provide intimate contact with
those beneath and be very much cheaper. Thus, this new approach to overall construction or for repairs should be priced against alternatives using trucks and cranes
for breakwaters, groins, and headlands.

Logistics
One of the great advantages of this concept is the simplicity of the operation.
Very little equipment is necessary, and it is transportable by trucks of reasonably
low capacity. The cement and additives must be delivered in bags or in bulk. If the
site is near a city, premixed mortar could be delivered by truck and poured into the
pump hopper. But if the structure is in a remote location, perhaps only two concrete mixers, a slurry pump, and a compressor are required. Sand will need to be
brought to the mixers by front-end loader and seawater supplied by a modest sized
pump.
Filling of mixers could be effected by unskilled labour. Pumping through a 3-in.
(75-mm) pipe up to 1,000 ft (305 m) to the point of filling can be carried out. If
longer distances are involved an intermediate hopper and pump could be used.
Divers can connect theflexibleends of these pipes to containers in turn without
stopping the pump. Once the structure reaches above water level, such labor can be
unskilled.
The alternative of establishing a ready-mix complex on site will depend upon the
site conditions and magnitude of the job. Hoppers for sand, bulk cement, and blast
furnace slag would feed mixer trucks that pour continuously into the pump hopper.
It is advisable to maintain a continuousflowof slurry because settling in the pipe
should be avoided. The volume of any container should be such for it to befilledto
a suitable height within, say, 3 hours. This ensures that the mix remains fluid
throughout and provides thefinalshape previously predicted. The output of mixers

Flexible Membrane Units for Breakwaters

935

should match the capacity of the pump used. There is little doubt, from experience
in Mexico, that construction by this method can be much faster than for traditional
rubble-mound construction. Cessation of operations due to inclement weather,
shortage of funds, or labor disputes, does not involve large overheads.
Initial fabric containers placed on the seabed need to be held in place before filling,
perhaps with the aid of concrete block anchors with cords attached to strips of fabric
sewn at intervals along the sausage skins. These layers could be placed in calm
weather with little wave action. Once the first layer is in place, those laid above
them can be nailed to the partially set mortar of other units, the nails will pull out
as pouring proceeds. To permit any excess water on the surface of the mix to be
removed small cuts can be made across the top of the sausage without any ill
effects.
There is no doubt that contractors will quickly learn shortcuts and procedures
to follow, to minimize costs while providing the structure as designed. Where units
are to be placed adjacent to each other, alternate sausages should be castfirstwith
thefinalonesfilledbetween them. As noted for the bed cover, these will then follow
the curved edges of the existing units (See Figure 3) to form an interlocking mechanism. Such intimate contact and interaction is not so readily available even with
the best designs of so-called interlocking precast concrete blocks.

Applications
Because of the great variety of sizes possible, these cast in-situ sausages are applicable to all types of marine structure, no matter how massive. Because overtopping
will not dislodge units at the crown, it could be accepted during the more severe
storms. Many applications for fabric formwork in marine andfluvialsituations have
been described [25] and even forfloorprotection around offshore structures. They
have been used to protect offshore pipelines and support them over rocky seabed
undulations. Scour holes beneath and adjacent to bridge piers have been protected
from wave action by large bag or mattress like units. They have application in causeways for pipes, roads, or dikes for reclaimed areas. In fact, they can be used wherever the traditional but expensive rubble-mound alternative has been used in the
past.
The major advantage of the system is that bulk material used in the construction
is already available on the site, namely the sand. This obviates quarrying in the provision of large rock units, or crushing and screening of smaller stone for use in
concrete. The necessity for infrastructure such as roads is overcome plus the consumption of expensive fuel in transport. For developing countries the expense of
importing technology is avoided. As breakwaters are taken into deeper water the
size of armor units grows, requiring larger trucks and cranes to place them greater
distances out from the breakwater centerline.
The low strength requirement of these cast in-situ structures calls for leaner mixes
and less strict demands on the sand used. The smaller cross-section required to
achieve the hydraulic task of dissipating or reflecting waves, rather than the larger
rubble-mound alternative, whose size is dictated by construction requirements,

936

Breakwaters

makes for a more economical approach overall. Interruptions for short or even
longer terms does not increase costs greatly due to the lower mobilization charges.
The use of more unskilled labor can aid all economies, be they of developing or
fully developed countries.
References 2-6, 25 have been cited where theflexiblemembrane approach has
been applied to modest structures such as groins and some offshore applications.
Pilot studies are now required in natural settings to refine the logistics and exhibit
the advantages or otherwise of this developing technology. The various subsidiary
problems can be overcome if the same research effort is applied to them as has been
available for development of the multitude of precast concrete blocks, which are still
being called into disrepute. Work on soil-cement dams and pavements has application in the sea environment, with slight changes in the slurry mix to be employed.
The increasing cost of traditional methods of construction for breakwaters and the
like calls for a new approach to be experimented and applied.
Summary
The points raised in this chapter can be summarized as follows:
1. The current inquiries into stability of breakwater armor units should be expanded to include new and more economical methods of construction.
2. Such novel approaches should provide permeability within the structures in
order to minimize uplift and scouring forces.
3. Bed protection should be afforded to all marine structures, particularly where
persistent swell or storm waves arrive obliquely to their seaward faces.
4. Constructional units are required that have extensive surface contact to prevent rocking and provide good shear strength.
5. Conditions as in (4) above are provided by large monolithic units cast in-situ
usingflexiblemembranes as formwork, using mortar consisting of beach sand
from the site.
6. This mortar, in the form of slurry for easy placement, needs only the strength
of limestone to withstand the wave forces and wear due to sloshing of water
with suspended sediment.
7. Units of sausage proportions are preferable to those of bag proportions to
provide the weight necessary to impede uplift or horizontal displacement.
8. Shapes and other characteristics of such sausage units when cast underwater
are available for design purposes.
9. These units laid trellis fashion across the structure distribute forces along each,
thereby minimizing the effects of wave action.
10. Spacing of sausages at mid-depths reduces the forces on them, while leeward
waves are minimized by the interaction of vortices from jets at each layer.
11. A mortar mix has been suggested that could lead to economical combinations
of sand, cement, and additives to be tested for each site.
12. Costs of structures using sausage-type units could be less than for rubblemound alternatives, taking both short- and long-term charges into account,
and construction time is reduced.

Flexible Membrane Units for Breakwaters

937

13. Logistics offlexiblemembrane construction require attention, but the reduced

costs of transport, equipment with overheads, technical expertise, and overall
volume of material, should lead to reduced costs.
14. There have been many applications offlexiblemembrane units both on the
coast and offshore, hence their expansion to larger marine structures is
inevitable.
15. Subsidiary problems could readily be overcome if some research funds are
diverted from traditional concepts that are not meeting requirements.

References
1. Sawaragi, T. el al., 1983, "Considerations of the Destruction Mechanism of Rubble-mound
Breakwaters due to the Resonance Phenomenon," Proceedings of the 8th International
Navigation Congress, pp. 3/197-208.
2. Alvariz, J. A. M . et al., 1974, "Breakwater, Rockfill and In situ Rocks Construction with
Bolsacreto System," 4th International Annual Conference on Materials Technology, pp.
1-20.
3. Porraz, M . et al., 1977, "Low Cost Structures using Operational Design Systems," Proceedings Coastal Sediments Conference, ASCE, pp. 672-685.
4. Porraz, M . and Medina R., 1977, "Low Cost, Labour Intensive Coastal Development
Appropriate Technology," Sea Technology, pp. 19-24.
5. Porraz, M . and Medina R., 1978, "Exchange of Low-cost Technology between Developing
Countries," ECOR General Assembly, Washington, D.C.
6. Porraz, M . et al., 1979, "Mortar-filled Containers, Lab. and Ocean Experiences."
Proceedings Conference on Coastal Structures, ASCE, pp. 270-289.
7. Hudson, R. V., 1959, "Laboratory Investigation of Rubble-mound Breakwaters," Journal
of the Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Division, ASCE, Vol. 85, No. WW3, pp. 93 -121.
8. Goh, P. J. P., 1983, "Use or Mortar-Filled Containers for Marine Structures," Master of
Engineering Thesis, University of Western Australia.
9. Liu. G. S., 1974, "Mortar Sausage Units for Coastal Defense," M . Eng. Sc. Thesis,
University of Western Australia.
10. Liu, G. S. and Silvester R., 1977, "Sand Sausages for Beach Defense Work," Proceedings
of 6th Australasian Conference on Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics, pp. 340-343.
11. Silvester, R., 1975, "Sediment Transmission across Entrances by Natural Means,"
Proceedings 16th Congress International Association of Hydraulic Research, Vol. I, pp.
145-156.
11 Silvester, R., 1977, "The Role of Wave Reflection in Coastal Processes." Proceedings
Coastal Sediments 1977, ASCE, pp. 639-654.
13. Silvester, R., 1985, "Sediment By-passing Across Coastal Inlets by Natural Means,"
Coastal Engineering, Vol. 9, pp. 327 -345.
14. Silvester, R., 1986, "The Influence of Oblique Reflection on Breakwaters," Proceedings
20th International Conference on Coastal Engineering, ASCE, Vol. Ill, pp. 2253-2267.
15. Hsu, J. R. C. and Silvester, R., 1987, "Scouring due to Reflection of Oblique Waves on
Breakwaters," Proceedings 8th Australasian Conference on Coastal and Ocean Engineering,
pp. 145 149.
16. Silvester, R., 1974, Coastal Engineering, Vols. I and II Elsevier Publ. Co., Amsterdam.
17. Irie, I. et al., 1986, "Study on Scour in Front of Breakwaters by Standing Waves and

938

18.
19.
20.
21.

22.

23.
24.

25.

Breakwaters

Protection Methods." Report of Port and Harbour Research Institute, Japan, Vol. 25,
No. L pp. 4-86.
Silvester, R., 1983, "Design of In situ Cast Mortar-Filled Armour Units of Marine
Structures," Proceedings 6th Australasian Conference Coastal and Ocean Engineering, pp.
289-291
Silvester, R., 1986, "Use of Grout-filled Sausages in Coastal Structures," Proceedings,
Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering, ASCE, Vol. I l l No. 1., pp. 95-114.
Neville, A. M., 1973, Properties of Concrete, Pitman Press, Bath, U.K.
Yen, T. et al., 1978, "A Possibility of Increased Mortar Strength for Ferro-cement,"
International Conference on Materials Construction for Developing Countries, Bangkok,
Thailand, pp. 665-683.
Bamforth, P. B., 1980, "In-situ Measurements of the Effect of Particle Portland Cement
Replacement Using Either Fly Ash or Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag on the
Performance of Mass Concrete," Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Part 1
pp. 777-800.
Anonymous, Production of Cement from Granulated Blast-furnace Slag (pamphlet), Nippon
Steel Company, Japan.
Montgomery, D. C. and Dunstan, M . R. H., 1981, "A Particular use or Fly Ash in Concrete Rolled Concrete Dams," C/w7 Engineering Transactions, The Institution of Engineers,
Australia, Vol. CE 23, No. 4, pp. 227-233.
Koerner, R. M . and Welsh J. P., 1980, "Fabric Forms Conform to any Shape," Concrete
Construction, pp. 401-405.

COST-EFFECTIVE BUILDING OF BREAKWATERS USING GEOTEXTILES

by
G. den Hoedt, Enka Research I n s t i t u t e ,
H.E. Metz, Senior Port Consultant

The Netherlands

W. Voskamp, Enka I n d u s t r i a l Systems Group

ABSTRACT

The paper describes two new a p p l i c a t i o n s of high-strength

i n the construction of breakwaters.

geotextiles

One concerns the i n s i t u manufacture of heavy concrete armour blocks,

c a l l e d Bikons.
The techniques involved are s e t f o r t h and the economic advantages are
explained.
The other a p p l i c a t i o n i s the use of high-strength, high-modulus
g e o t e x t i l e s f o r r e i n f o r c i n g the s u b s o i l under a breakwater.
Conclusions are given both f o r the t e c h n i c a l and the economical
aspects.

1. INTRODUCTION

With the development of high-strength, low-elongation g e o t e x t i l e s f o r

s o i l reinforcement during the l a s t decade, new highly cost e f f e c t i v e
s o l u t i o n s have been (or are being) developed f o r long-standing
problems i n c i v i l engineering.
In t h i s paper two p o s s i b l e a p p l i c a t i o n s are described of such
r e i n f o r c i n g g e o t e x t i l e s i n the c o n s t r u c t i o n of breakwaters. These
a p p l i c a t i o n s are quite new, by contrast with the more commonly used
g e o t e x t i l e f i l t e r constructions.
One a p p l i c a t i o n i s s t i l l i n development, and concerns the i n s i t u
manufacture of the primary armour l a y e r of rubble-mound breakwaters ,
i n the slope of the secondary l a y e r : the g e o t e x t i l e f a b r i c i s used as
a temporary, f l e x i b l e form f o r the heavy concrete blocks required.
S p e c i a l design charts have been e s t a b l i s h e d f o r the h y d r a u l i c design
c r i t e r i a of t h i s primary armour.
The economy of the system i s twofold: a s p e c i a l heavy crane f o r the
p o s i t i o n i n g of the armour blocks i s not needed, and the construction
time of the breakwater i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduced.
The other a p p l i c a t i o n , a high-modulus f a b r i c f o r reinforcement of the
s u b s o i l under breakwaters has proved i t s value i n p r a c t i c e since
1978. I t provides an extra f a c t o r of safety when the o v e r a l l
s t a b i l i t y or the foundation s t a b i l i t y i s questionable, whether i n
construction or i n l a t e r use. Furthermore t h i s g e o t e x t i l e functions
as a separation l a y e r , so no core m a t e r i a l i s l o s t i n the s u b s o i l .

2. LOAD-ELONGATION CHARACTERISTICS OF GEOTEXTILES

A frequent d e f i n i t i o n of g e o t e x t i l e s i s "permeable t e x t i l e products

used i n c i v i l engineering".
Although t h i s general product d e s c r i p t i o n i s s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r
d i s t i n g u i s h i n g g e o t e x t i l e s from other b u i l d i n g materials l i k e sand,
rock, concrete, e t c . , i t says nothing about the wide range of
specific properties.
G e o t e x t i l e s are used mainly to f u l f i l one or more of 5 d i f f e r e n t
functions:
- separation
filtration
drainage
- containment
reinforcement
The bulk of g e o t e x t i l e s are used as separation l a y e r s and as f i l t e r s ,
so more user's knowledge i s on record f o r these functions than f o r
the other ones.
The required properties of a g e o t e x t i l e are r e l a t e d to i t s f u n c t i o n
and to the metod of c o n s t r u c t i o n .
Thus, f o r a f i l t e r f a b r i c , pore s i z e and water permeability
( p e r m i t t i v i t y ) - and perhaps a l s o d u r a b i l i t y - are e s s e n t i a l
p r o p e r t i e s , but r e s i s t a n c e to mechanical damage i s required only when
rock i s dumped on the f a b r i c .
For a reinforcement f a b r i c or a containment f a b r i c , i t s t e n s i l e
strength i s the most relevant measure of s e r v i c e a b i l i t y . In a d d i t i o n ,
E-modulus, creep, and d u r a b i l i t y may be important.
A wide range of t e n s i l e requirements can be met by choosing the r i g h t
g e o t e x t i l e m a t e r i a l and the r i g h t g e o t e x t i l e c o n s t r u c t i o n . Of course
not a l l p o s s i b l e combinations of requirements can be s a t i s f i e d
simultaneously.
For the a p p l i c a t i o n s under consideration i n t h i s paper, the
load-elongation behaviour i s the most important property, both f o r
the Bikon blocks discussed i n Section 3 and f o r the r e i n f o r c i n g
s t a b i l i z e r f a b r i c discussed i n Section 4. Thanks to developments
during the l a s t 10 years, woven g e o t e x t i l e f a b r i c s with a t e n s i l e
strength of more than 1000 kN per metre width are now f e a s i b l e . Both
the m a t e r i a l (polymer) and the c o n s t r u c t i o n of the g e o t e x t i l e
i n f l u e n c e performance .
In Figure l ' ) the a t t a i n a b l e load-elongation domains f o r 5-m-wide
woven f a b r i c s are given f o r the most important polymers
(polyester-PETP, polyamide-PA, polypropylene-PP). Since f o r long-term
a p p l i c a t i o n s under (constant) t e n s i l e load creep cannot be neglected,
and since a f a c t o r of safety has to be taken i n t o account, these
load-elongation domains have to be adjusted f o r p r a c t i c a l purposes.
The r e s u l t i n g smaller domains are shown i n Figure 2-''.
Note that f o r high (or even moderate) t e n s i l e requirements, nonwovens
- though e x c e l l e n t f i l t e r s or separation l a y e r s - are t o t a l l y
inappropriate . For high-strength a p p l i c a t i o n s only woven f a b r i c s can
be considered, and, i f small deformation i s another requirement,
mainly polyester ones; when the modulus i s l e s s r e l e v a n t , polyamide,
and, to a l e s s e r extent, polypropylene may also q u a l i f y .
') G e o t e x t i l e s and Geomembranes i n C i v i l Engineering,
ed. R. Veldhuijzen van Zanten, Rotterdam (Balkema), 1986.
6.23 and 6.48.

Figures

The properties of the continuous f a b r i c are not always the sole or

even the most important c r i t e r i o n : a d d i t i o n a l problems can a r i s e when
large s t r u c t u r e s are assembled from g e o t e x t i l e s , as when d i f f e r e n t
pieces of f a b r i c are j o i n e d together t o make l a r g e panels or
three-dimensional o b j e c t s . In that case the strength of the j o i n t (or
seam) w i l l be a paramount c r i t e r i o n .
The maximum seam strength depends of course on the strength and
construction of the g e o t e x t i l e , but the thickness and width of the
g e o t e x t i l e are a l s o important, because they d i c t a t e the choice of
type of sewing machine and sewing thread, and hence define the type
of seam.
The need of j o i n i n g and the type of j o i n t have to be considered very
c a r e f u l l y f o r each p r o j e c t , e s p e c i a l l y with high-strength woven
f a b r i c s . The v a r i a t i o n i n seam strength i s enormous: under c e r t a i n
circumstances a
seam r a t i o (= seam s t r e n g t h / f a b r i c strength) of only 20% i s f e a s i b l e
while under others a seam r a t i o of the order of 50% or even higher
can be obtained.
The common p r a c t i c e i s to place the length of the g e o t e x t i l e s i n the
d i r e c t i o n of the highest loads and to make no j o i n t s i n that
direction.
1500

'

01 IcN/m I

Figure 1

3. THE BIKON-BLOCK CONCEPT

(The name Bikon r e f e r s to a t h e o r e t i c a l block shape composed of a
c e n t r a l c y l i n d e r with a truncated cone at e i t h e r end.)
3.1. Block shape and dimensions
From t e s t s i n which h o r i z o n t a l f a b r i c tubes were f i l l e d with
concrete, i t was concluded that a width-over-height r a t i o of 1.5 i s
f e a s i b l e and appropriate. A rock s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s subsequently
e s t a b l i s h e d a s u i t a b l e length-over-width r a t i o of 2 .
The basic shape of the i n d i v i d u a l block i s therefore:
approx. 1.5 x height
width
length
approx. 3
x height
Computer simulation showed that void r a t i o s over 6% between the
i n d i v i d u a l blocks s i g n i f i c a n t l y
Shape of Bikon blocks
r e l i e v e the i n e v i t a b l e buildup of
water pressure under the blocks.
Simultaneously i t was e s t a b l i s h e d
that a t i g h t i n t e r l o c k i n g f i t of
neighbouring blocks adds g r e a t l y
to the wave r e s i s t a n c e of the
block layer.2)
This combination of requirements
has r e s u l t e d i n the design of
BiKon blocks, where the c y l i n d r i c a l shaped middle sections of neighbouring blocks ensure a t i g h t
i n t e r l o c k i n g f i t w h i l s t the
conical-shaped waists ensure
at l e a s t some 7% of pressurer e l i e v i n g void area.
A second f u n c t i o n of the waists
i s to form hinges i n the c o n t i n uous s t r i n g s of Bikon blocks,
permitting them to adapt to
settlements of the underlying
rubble mound.
T y p i c a l Bikon sections are shown
i n Figure 3.

cross - secf ions

-3-B
C-C'
2) D e l f t Hydraulics Laboratory, report R 1336: Enka sausage blocks:
A s t a b i l i t y evaluation of an a l t e r n a t i v e breakwater armour l a y e r ( i n
Dutch).

Figure 4 p i c t u r e s a model t e s t , on a scale of 1 : 15, performed by

the
Enka Research I n s t i t u t e .
Figure 5 i s a d e t a i l of the v o i d .

Figure 4
3.2. Form design
The form b a s i c a l l y c o n s i s t s i n a tube of the required maximum
diameter, which i s positioned along the slope of the breakwater from
c r e s t to toe and f i l l e d with l i q u i d concrete.
The tubes are made of a high-strength polyester f a b r i c , so woven as
to make a concrete-tight container which w i l l not s t r e t c h unduly when
filled.
C i r c u l a r woven tubes of the required diameter and c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l
strength are c o s t l y , i f they can be produced at a l l . The tubes are
therefore fashioned from the f l a t f a b r i c and closed by means of one
or two lengthwise seams (depending on the required diameter), with ..
the c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l strength of the tube provided by separate r i n g s
of woven b e l t i n g .
Some t y p i c a l dimensions and f a b r i c types are:
Bikon block
Height
Width
Length
Type of f a b r i c
weight
(dimensions i n metres)
(tons)
4.5
0.80
1.20
2.40
Stabilenka 200/100
7
1.00
1.50
3.00
"
200/100
12
1.20
1.80
3.60
"
300/100
20
1.40
2.10
4.20
"
400/100
The upper l i m i t of Bikon weight i s unknown.
The i n t e r n a l strength of the concrete used probably i s the d e c i s i v e
factor.

3 . 3 . Hydraulic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
The h y d r a u l i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Bikon blocks are d i s t i n c t l y
d i f f e r e n t from randomly placed t r a d i t i o n a l armour u n i t s .
None of the regular design equations f o r randomly placed armour u n i t s
are therefore a p p l i c a b l e to Bikon b l o c k s .
By comparison with armour l a y e r s of snuggly placed, smooth,
p r e f a b r i c a t e d rectangular blocks, preliminary s p e c i a l design charts
have been developed as a f i r s t approximation f o r uprush, downrush,
wave r e f l e c t i o n and block s t a b i l i t y of Bikon block armour l a y e r s .
Each of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c parameters ( R 2% / s > d 2% s
r and H /i D r e s p e c t i v e l y ) are p l o t t e d against the surf s i m i l a r i t y
parameter
Besides the t r a d i t i o n a l elements of wave height, slope angle and u n i t
mass, the important i n f l u e n c e s of wave steepness and wave spectrum
are accounted f o r i n the design charts developed.
H

/H

Figure 6 i s a t y p i c a l design chart f o r Bikon block weight, as used i n

our economic a n a l y s i s (see 3 . 6 ) .
Figure 6

_Hs
AD
4

where H = s i g n i f i c a n t wave height

A
P - P
( t? = armour density,
p
&
D
= e f f e c t i v e l a y e r thickness
t g c<
= i n c l i n a t i o n of the slope of the breakwater
l _ = mean period wave length
s

fc

= water
density)

Since the economic a n a l y s i s was made, much more information has

become a v a i l a b l e at the D e l f t Hydraulics Laboratories which can be
used f o r improved design c h a r t s . From the new information the
conclusion can already be drawn that our a n a l y s i s was based on
over-conservative c r i t e r i a f o r the Bikon cases.

3.4. A d d i t i o n a l s t a b i l i t y
The most vulnerable periods i n the l i f e of a breakwater are during
c o n s t r u c t i o n , when the head end i s s t i l l unprotected, and i n the
i n i t i a l period a f t e r c o n s t r u c t i o n , when the s u b s o i l below the
breakwater and the rubble i n the core are most subject to
c o n s o l i d a t i o n . During those vulnerable periods, the f a b r i c envelope
of the Bikons i s s u f f i c i e n t l y strong and durable to add s i g n i f i c a n t l y
to the s t a b i l i t y of the armour l a y e r .
On the other hand, the i n d i v i d u a l weight of the armour blocks i s
l a r g e enough t o p r o t e c t the breakwater i n the very long run, when the
envelopes may have l o s t t h e i r strength or i n t e g r i t y . A d d i t i o n a l
s t a b i l i t y of the armouring during the whole l a t e and e a r l y l i f e t i m e
i s conferred by the c l o s e , p a r a l l e l p l a c i n g and the i n t e r l o c k i n g
shape of the armour blocks.
This a d d i t i o n a l s t a b i l i t y (from the f a b r i c and from the i n t e r l o c k i n g )
augments the design s t a b i l i t y .
I t i s to be noted that the design charts are based on values
e s t a b l i s h e d f o r smooth blocks without f a b r i c or i n t e r l o c k .
3.5. Construction aspects of rubble-mound breakwaters
In by f a r the majority of the world's rubble-mound breakwaters, the
rubble of the core i s trucked over the top of the core dam under
c o n s t r u c t i o n and dumped at the seaward end. In order to do so, a dry
temporary d r i v i n g a l l e y of s u f f i c i e n t width to accommodate a steady
two-way flow of dump trucks must be created and maintained on the top
of the core. In a d d i t i o n to the width needed f o r the t r u c k s , more
width i s required to accommodate the heavy crawler crane that i s
simultaneously needed f o r the job of p l a c i n g the armour u n i t s . A l l i n
a l l , these t r a f f i c requirements may r e s u l t i n breakwater p r o f i l e s
which are wider and thus more voluminous than required f o r t h e i r
p r o t e c t i v e f u n c t i o n and i n t e g r i t y .
As i n d i c a t e d above, the armour u n i t s are t r a d i t i o n a l l y placed by a
heavy crawler crane. These cranes are very s p e c i a l i z e d t o o l s , by
which armour u n i t s of more than 50 tons can be placed with high
p r e c i s i o n and i n r a p i d sequence at distances of over 40 metres
outreach.
The high i n i t i a l and operating cost of such handling equipment i s due
to the f a c t that i t i s very heavy and too s p e c i a l i z e d f o r use i n
general c o n t r a c t i n g . I t i s therefore apt to be i d l e f o r long times i n
between s p e l l s of u s e f u l employment i n breakwater c o n s t r u c t i o n .
The f i r s t consequence of the Bikon system i s that the s p e c i a l heavy
crawler crane can be replaced by standard concrete pumps, truck
mixers and some l i g h t e r t o o l s to c o n t r o l the u n r o l l i n g of the
prefabricated panels with 3-5 Bikon " s t r i n g s " .
Figure 7 i s an " a r t i s t ' s impression" of Bikon breakwater
construction.
Note that Bikon s t r i n g s are completed i n a l t e r n a t i n g sequence: f i r s t
s e v e r a l odd ones are f i l l e d , then the i n t e r v e n i n g even ones. The
r e s u l t i s a p a t t e r n of i n t e r l o c k i n g convex and concave Bikon block
surfaces.
The economic advantage of not needing a heavy crane i s most obvious
when during breakwater l i f e a l o c a l r e p a i r should become necessary.

3.6. Economic aspects

So f a r , d e t a i l e d desk analyses have been performed f o r two p a i r s of
breakwaters. Their object was to provide a f u l l breakdown of the
c o n s t r u c t i o n e f f e c t f o r each of the four (= two p a i r s ) breakwaters
analysed.
In each p a i r of breakwaters, a t r a d i t i o n a l rubble mound breakwater
with armouring of p r e f a b r i c a t e d concrete blocks was compared with a
rubble mound breakwater of comparable non-overtopping
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , armoured with Bikon b l o c k s .
One of the p a i r s consisted of 1,000-metre-long medium-type
breakwaters with the f o l l o w i n g main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :
H.W. water depth = 8 metres
H sign = 3.6 m
H max. = 6.1 m
T = 6 to 9 seconds
Wave overtopping acceptable only i n the severest accumulation of
conditions.
z

The other p a i r consisted of 1,800-metre-long heavy-type

with
the f o l l o w i n g main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :
H.W. water depth = 13 metres
H sign = 5.9 m
H max. = 10 m
T = 8 to 12 seconds.
No wave overtopping acceptable.

breakwaters

In both p a i r s , the most outstanding element of economy was found i n

the speed of progress f o r the Bikon breakwater (see t a b l e ) , as
compared to the r a t e of c o n s t r u c t i o n f o : the t r a d i t i o n a l one.

Type of

Medium

breakwater

traditional
Overtopping c r i t e r i o n
Crown height over
H.W.
(m)
Core volume
(m3/m)
Core volume(ratio)
Construction time
(weeks) *)
Time saving (%)
Number of storm
seasons during
construction
Reduction i n storm
seasons
(%)
Price ratio
x

5
320
1
143

Heavy

Bikon

i
moderate
1
1
6.5
I 427
1
I
1.33
I 80
1
|>40
1
1
1
1
!>50
1
1
0.9

1
1
1 t r a d i t i o n a l I Bikon ~~T
i
1
zero
1
1
11
14
|
890
1154
I
1
1
1.3 1
129
|
243

j>

) e x c l u s i v e of m o b i l i z a t i o n , demobilization and opening up of the

quarry.

40

I
1
2
I
1
50
1
1
0.8 1

In the d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of c o s t s , an advantage of 10 to 20% was

c a l c u l a t e d f o r the Bikon s t r u c t u r e s , e x c l u s i v e of the economic value
of:
- earlier shelter for floating craft
- e a r l i e r p r o t e c t i o n of port area under the l e e of the breakwater
- e a r l i e r r e t u r n on investment.
While the above r e s u l t s are s u f f i c i e n t l y encouraging, even b e t t e r
r e s u l t s can be achieved i n c o n d i t i o n s where wave overtopping can be
accepted.
In the above two p a i r s of cases, the Bikon breakwaters were given a
greater height than the t r a d i t i o n a l ones i n order to obtain roughly
the same degree of overtopping c o n t r o l .
The a d d i t i o n a l heights r e s u l t e d i n approximately 30% l a r g e r volumes
of quarry m a t e r i a l . This i n d i c a t e s that some a d d i t i o n a l 10 to 20% i n
time and money can be saved where wave overtopping can be accepted.
Measures are p r e s e n t l y being studied to l i m i t wave runup on Bikon
slopes.
Moreover, as already noted i n 3.3, the a n a l y s i s f o r the Bikon cases
has been shown to be overly conservative. Since crown height can
therefore be reduced, f u r t h e r savings i n time and m a t e r i a l w i l l
result.
3.7. Present s t a t e of development; future work.
Development has been c a r r i e d as f a r as can be achieved by d e t a i l e d
desk a n a l y s i s and s m a l l - s c a l e t e s t i n g .
Further development would e n t a i l :
- intermediate-scale h y d r a u l i c behaviour t e s t s of Bikon block
armouring
- f u l l - s c a l e or intermediate-scale manufacturing and f i l l i n g t e s t s
of Bikon f a b r i c s t r i n g s .
- f u l l scale or intermediate-scale t e s t s , i n v o l v i n g the unreeling
and weighting of m u l t i p l e Bikon f a b r i c s t r i n g s i n wave and current
conditions.

These t e s t s are planned to be executed i n c l o s e cooperation with

innovation-minded port a u t h o r i t i e s and/or breakwater c o n t r a c t o r s .

rock

~X - ^ "Ch

a-

Figure 7

* q

i*f

A r t i s t ' s impression of Bikon breakwater c o n s t r u c t i o n

4. REINFORCING THE SUBSOIL UNDER A BREAKWATER

4.1 General d e s c r i p t i o n
When a breakwater has t o be b u i l t on s o i l s o f low bearing c a p a c i t y ,
such as s o f t marine c l a y , s p e c i a l measures must be taken t o ensure
the s t a b i l i t y o f the breakwater.
In the design phase the o v e r a l l s t a b i l i t y i s checked, f o r example
using a Bishop r o t a t i o n a l s l i d i n g a n a l y s i s . I f the shear strength of
the s u b s o i l i s not very high, such an a n a l y s i s r e s u l t s i n a design
with f l a t slopes, or even i n the removal (by dredging) of the top
l a y e r s o f s o f t s o i l and i n t h e i r replacement with good f i l l m a t e r i a l .
It w i l l be c l e a r that t h i s method i s very expensive.
In the past, methods have been developed to increase the shear
strength or bearing capacity o f the s u b s o i l by means of mattresses
i n s t a l l e d d i r e c t l y on top o f the s o f t s u b s o i l . Bamboo, fascine or
even r o c k - f i l l e d mesh mattresses are used f o r t h i s purpose.
More recently the use o f a r e i n f o r c i n g f a b r i c i n s t a l l e d d i r e c t l y on
top o f the s u b s o i l has proved t o be a h i g h l y economical s o l u t i o n . I t s
main advantages are:
-

cost savings: steeper slopes can be formed and there i s no need

for dredging to remove s o f t s o i l , followed by replacement of the
dredged m a t e r i a l with good and expensive f i l l m a t e r i a l ;
increased s t a b i l i t y : the reinforcement w i l l r e s u l t i n an increased
f a c t o r of safety against s l i d i n g ;
savings i n c o n s t r u c t i o n time.

A l l over the world t h i s method i s now widely used i n such

a p p l i c a t i o n s as road or railway embankments and breakwaters. The
r e i n f o r c i n g f a b r i c s range i n ultimate strength from 100 t o 1000 kN/m
at an elongation of 10 percent.
They are mostly made of high-modulus polyester yarns.

When a r e i n f o r c i n g mat i s used, the f a b r i c i s sewn together o n - s i t e

to make sheets of approx. 100m length; width i s equal to the width of
the breakwater. The p r e f a b r i c a t e d sheets are i n s t a l l e d from a
pontoon. When a r e i n f o r c i n g mat i s made of p o l y e s t e r , the f a b r i c can
be lowered e a s i l y i n t o the water because the u n i t weight of polyester
i s more than 1 .

Figure 8

Fabric i n s t a l l a t i o n on the seabed

Various p r o j e c t s have been completed using t h i s s o i l - r e i n f o r c i n g

method. Examples i n the South-East Asian region i n c l u d e :
- Suralaya (Indonesia), 1984; r e i n f o r c i n g f a b r i c with a strength o f
400 kN/m under a breakwater with a max. height of 8 m;
- Hong Kong, 1982: 200 kN/m' r e i n f o r c i n g f a b r i c under a
dike/breakwater i n a t i d a l area.
- Hong Kong , 1986: r e i n f o r c i n g f a b r i c with a strength o f 400 kN/m
under a submerged dam i n 10-20m of water, with a 200 kN/m' f a b r i c
i n s t a l l e d crosswise.
1

Figure 9

(11**3

k=n

,1984)

4.2. Example of a p r o j e c t
Port Said Breakwaters, 1978
Port Said i s the entrance to the Suez Canal from the Mediterranean. As
part of a new canal bypass two rock-mound breakwaters of 1.5 km length
each were to be constructed. The s u b s o i l on the s i t e consisted o f an
upper l a y e r of sand over 8 metres c f s i l t and c l a y . E s p e c i a l l y the
weak, t h i n l a y e r s of the middle stratum might give way under the top
load of the breakwaters and t r i g g e r a s l i d e .
This problem would be most l i k e l y to occur during c o n s t r u c t i o n , f o r
example when a crane such as the 165t American Hoist i s at work l a y i n g
armour stones. I f the crane were to stand i n the centre of the
breakwater c r e s t with most of i t s weight supported on one of i t s two
t r a c k s , the s a f e t y f a c t o r would drop to 1.28, which was not acceptable.
By i n s t a l l i n g a 50-m-wide r e i n f o r c i n g mat with an u l t i m a t e strength o f
200 kN/m a t the f i l l / s u b s o i l i n t e r f a c e , the f a c t o r of safety was r a i s e d
to 1.54. Ten l a r g e sheets of Stabilenka 200 r e i n f o r c i n g f a b r i c , each 5
m wide, were sewn together.
The p r e f a b r i c a t e d 50-m wide Stabilenka sheet was folded i n a zig-zag
pattern and h o i s t e d on board of a barge. At the proper l o c a t i o n the
f a b r i c was lowered from the deck to the seabed. A c a r r i e r f o l l o w i n g the
barge anchored the mat immediately a f t e r placement by weighting i t with
rocks.
The work on b u i l d i n g the core of the breakwater was completed
s u c c e s s f u l l y and no l o s s of s t a b i l i t y was encountered.

12 10 B

6 -

Im] *2
0
2
6 10 } F .380 k N
F .290 kN
X . 10 k N / m
F .100 k N
Q

Figure 10

Cross-section through the east

breakwater a t Port Said

For more information on design methods, i n s t a l l a t i o n techniques and

examples of completed p r o j e c t s using r e i n f o r c i n g mats i n various
a p p l i c a t i o n s , we r e f e r t o the chapter on s o i l reinforcement i n
G e o t e x t i l e s and Geomembranes i n C i v i l Engineering,ed. R. Veldhuijzen
van Zanten, Rotterdam (Balkema), 1986.
5. CONCLUSIONS

I t i s p o s s i b l e to manufacture heavy concrete blocks f o r the primary

armour l a y e r of a breakwater on the s i t e by pumping l i q u i d concrete
i n a f l e x i b l e form o f a strong, woven polyester g e o t e x t i l e .
I t i s p o s s i b l e to so shape the blocks that a voids area of the order
of 5-10% i s created, while a t the same time ensuring f i r m
interlocking.
The g e o t e x t i l e has to function only during c o n s t r u c t i o n of the
blocks. During the most vulnerable period of the breakwater, when
settlements occur, the g e o t e x t i l e confers a d d i t i o n a l s t a b i l i t y . In
the long run the weight and shape of the blocks w i l l do the job alone.
Some h y d r a u l i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (Ru, Rd,...) w i l l be e s t a b l i s h e d i n
f u t u r e . Preliminary design charts are based on the most p e s s i m i s t i c
assumption that those c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are of the same order as with
smooth block revetments.
The economy of the Bikon system i s based on the e l i m i n a t i o n of the
need f o r a heavy crane and a remarkable reduction i n c o n s t r u c t i o n
time. Even a p e s s i m i s t i c comparison (non-overtopping Bikon) shows a
cost saving of at l e a s t 10% i n t o t a l breakwater expenditure.
When breakwaters are located i n areas with s o f t s u b s o i l s i t has been
proved i n various completed p r o j e c t s that use o f r e i n f o r c i n g mats
without removal of the s o f t top l a y e r s r e s u l t s i n an improved o v e r a l l
s t a b i l i t y Factor of Safety.
This method i s very c o s t - e f f e c t i v e and r e s u l t s i n a considerable
saving i n c o n s t r u c t i o n time.

APPENDIX IV

Beach and Dune Protection

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FIG. i.

FIG. 3.

Erosion during a storm tide (schematic)

Cross-section of the three-layered membrane installed in the Large Wave

Flume in Hannover

G R A V I T Y D R A I N A G E : A N E W M E T H O D OF B E A C H STABILISATION
D R A I N A G E OF T H E W A T E R T A B L E
G . A . Davis, D . J . Hanslow, K . Hibbert & P. Nielsen
Coastal Engineering Conference, Venice, 1992

THROUGH

Beach watertable drainage is thought to enhance sand deposition on

wave uprush while diminishing erosion on wave backwash. The net result
is an increase in subaerial beach volume in the area of the drain. Previous
experimental work by Chappell et al. (1978) on a natural beach involving
localised watertable drainage concluded that ". . . the evidence from these
experiments very strongly supports the idea that beach aggradation can be
induced by mamtaining the beach watertable at a low level". The larger
prototype drainage/pumping installations used by Terchunion (1989) in Florida;
and Hansen (1986), Vesterby and Parks (1988) in Denmark also strongly
suggest that beach aggradation may be artificially induced by beach watertable
drainage. These installations have all employed systems of buried pipes and
electrically powered pumps. The current paper describes an alternative to this
technology. The idea is to achieve lowering of the watertable without pumps
by enhancing the beach's own drainage capacity or hydraulic conductivity
through the use of strip drains (Figure 1).
Duncan (1964) and Grant (1946, 1948) observed that beaches tend to
erode as the tide
falls and accrete as
the tide rises. This is
Watertable pumped
up by wave uprush
attributed
to
the
effect of the waterLower watertable in the uprush
zone means there is slightly
table and its position
'more infiltration which leads to
beach accretion
relative to the offshore mean water
level. As an mcoming
:DRAIN:
tide rises above the
:The drain transfers water :;
: from the upper beach face;
beach watertable, a proto the surf, thus lowering the : :
portion of the wave
aterta ble in 1he uprush z
run-up infiltrates the
beachface. This results
in a reduction in the
backwash volume and
Figure 1 Effect of the strip drain
net beach accretion,
on the watertable
particularly in the
upper swash zone. As the tide falls, the beach watertable lags behind the
offshore mean water level and thus contributes outflow to the swash zone.
This contribution aids the backwash and causes net seaward movement of
sediment.
:

: :

l l

Stabilization of Beach in Integrated Shore Protection System

HYDRO-PORT94
Hydraulic Engineering Division
Port and Harbour Research Institute, Ministry of Transport
Nagase 3-1-1, Yokosuka, Kanagawa 239

1.35 m

1.15 m

0.135 ra
0.0 m

-0.9 m

Figure 18 Beach profile in model.

Offshore distance (m)

igure 19 Comparison of changes of beach profiles with and without drainage layer.

shear stress due to turbulent

' water movement
total shear stress to be
to the bottom

/transferred

(o)

seaweed

field

(b)

shear stress
transferred to the
bottom through the
seaweed

shear stress

.
Schematic representation of the seaweed ci'iectc.
"
"
B

(c

mixing

stream with seaweed

restricted
due

stream without seaweed

Current

supply boat

two*

correction

at. ioBottom

If
pip* campiotoiy bunwd

Dip* bur4 at intervals

f.

tf r-T'if

10

" *x3 wry thick 150cm protruding

\ / / from tMMtftl/
\ I 1/

V V
pip* *r*#cwd on SMb*d

patch** of *>Md pr 6m' y|/

Ml/SO lo 90cm protruding from MObcd \|[

. f _ W . i u . f

,ow

90cm sucp*nion touted

by tcour leaving a crater

tfj

by SSSSNSM

INSPECTION VIEW CF ARTIFICIAL SEAWEED

LAID AR0UN0 200mm SUBMARINE PIPELINE

to

path

mixing

seaweed

path

Seabed Scour C o n t r o l Systems L i m i t e d (SSCS)

Scour Control for Civil Engineering

Multi-Purpose uses of Scour Control Mats

CONTINUOUS & OVERLAPPING UNES

150. J00 OR 450mm

Seabed Scour Control Systems Limited

Harfreys Road, Harfreys Industrial Estate
Great Yarmouth, Norfolk NR31 OLS, England
Tel. (01493) 443380 Fax. (01493) 443390

Seabed Scour
Control Systems
Limited

Mat

Specification

Mats are available ex-stock in the following sizes:5.0 m X 5.0 m

5.0 m X 7.5 m

Type 25
Type 30

having 16 No. Anchors

having 24 No. Anchors

Each mat is composed of the following materials:COMPONENT

Fronds
Frond line
Cross straps
Anchor lines
Anchors

MATERIAL

BREAKING STRAIN

fibrolated polypropylene
woven polyester
woven polyester
woven polyester
steel

90 kg
1.3 tonne
6.0 tonne
6.0 tonne

DIMENSIONS
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.15

m
m
m
m
m

X
X
X
X
X

1.25
5.0
7.0
1.0
0.20

m
m
m
m
m

3
0.2
0.2
0.8

Type 25 comprises:21 No. frond lines

- total weight
46 lin m webbing (cross straps and anchor straps)
16 No. anchors
- total weight

21 X 3
63 kg
46 X 0.2 =
9.2 kg
16 X 0.8 = 12.8 kg

Net mat weight

85.0 kg

Type 30 comprises:31 No. frond lines

- total weight
73 lin m webbing (cross straps and anchor straps)
24 No. anchors
- total weight

31 X 3
=93
kg
73 X 0.2 = 14.6 kg
24 X 0.8 = 19.2 kg

Net mat weight

125.0 kg

Lightweight core for packing mats (type 25 or 30)

Plastic inner wrap plus hessian outer wrap
Total packaging weight

Gross mat weights:

Type 25 =

140 kg,

Overall mat dimensions when packed:

Type 25
Type 30

5.82 m (core length) 0.47 m (diameter)

5.82 m (core length) 0.54 m (diameter)

Type 30 =

180 kg (approx)

50

kg

kg

55

kg

Combining the
forces of Nature
Following intensive research and development, SSCS has
created a method of harnessing nature to produce an economic,
effective and permanent solution to scour prevention.
This system is based on building stable mass fibrereinforced banks. These banks are created by mats of polypropylene fronds that have a dual action. They apply viscous drag
which reduces the current velocity so that particles of material
are deposited into the mat-thereby building up a cohesive
underwater sandbank around the structure to be protected.
This technique employs chemically inert materials to
create a flexible barrier to retard the flow of water.

Technical

Description

The SSCS scour control mats comprise lines of bouyant

polypropylene fronds which form a viscous drag barrier. The
mat is retained on the seabed by anchors hydraulically driven to
a depth of Im.
The system has been designed and tested for stability in
current velocities in excess of 10 knots.
A detailed mat specification is included in the technical
inserts contained at the rear of this brochure.

-/SW

RELIABLE ANCHOR.
The special anchor devebped ond patented by Seabed
cour Control Systems (as illustrated here) is driven into the seabed by an
ydraulic hammer gun. On the withdrawal of the I metre long spigot, current
>rces, pulling on the anchor straps, erect the anchor plate at a right angle to
ie strap. In this position, the pull-out strength is I tonne at I metre depth in
ind. A demonstration of laying the mat and driving the anchors is shown on the
ght.

Seabed Scour
SLP
=Control Systems' ^^Engineering
Limited
Limited *
F r o n d

F l e x i f o r m

Combined Frond and

Flexible Concrete
Mattresses
M a t t r e s s

The "Frond Flexiform" Mattress is a combined buoyant frond scour mat andflexibleconcrete mattress
available in three standard variants, all have the same continuous and significantly overlapping parallel lines
of buoyant Cbrillated polypropylene fronds attached to, and aligned with, the lines of the concrete blocks.
It combines all the best features of both products in one: and in particular offers both instant protection
and the build up of long term fibre re-enforced consolidated cover.
Theflexibleconcrete mattress base consists of high strength concrete segments Linked together with a
network of high strength polypropylene ropes to form a continuousflexibleconcrete barrier. The frond
lines are then attached to this base mattress. The individually profiled concrete segments provide a high
degree offlexibilityin two planes and allows for complete protection of subsea structures with the fronds
preventing edge scour and internecine block scour by providing a consolidated sand bank build up over the
mattress. The "Frond Flexiform" Mattress is suitable for most applications, such as pipeline cover, pipeline
hold down, piggy-back line hold down, riser elbow protection, subsea wellhead & valve frame scour
prevention and edge security, and for the long term protection of structures and bridges.
Buoyant Frond Material:

UV stabilised Polypropylene. Fully tested "Chemically Resistant". Specific

gravity 0.908 and 0.92. Fully Fibrillated and with profiled film,

Frond Length & Attachment:

Buoyant Fronds are attached to mattress in successive continuous rows

providing substantial and unbroken overlap of fronds to those in the
neighbouring rows. Frond clumps are NEVER used. Frond Length (height
when deployed) of the lines of buoyant frond material is 1250mm. In
riverine (and other special situations) lesser frond heights allied to a
proportionate increase in frond density (spacing) in the frond rows may
be used. A "Safe Net" frond release is provided for diver and RO V safety.

Standard Block Thicknesses:

150mm, 300mm, and 450mm.

Standard Block Density:

2.4 Tonnes/Cubic Metre. Lightweight and Heavy Density options are

also available from 1.8 - 3.6 TES/m
TES/ .

Weights (Standard Density)

& Total Submerged Weight:

Approx Weight/m - on installation:

Thickness
In Air
Submerged
(tonnes)
(tonnes)
0.152
150mm block
0.275
300mm block
0.510
0.279
450mm block
0.770
0.430
This submerged weight will increase due to the material bank formed by
the fronds: the weight of the bank varies according to the seabed
composition. A typical submerged weight of sand particles is 819.5 kg/m ,
but the range is large thus the submerged weight of thefibrereinforced
material bank can vary. For a 5.5m x 2.5m mattress this should be in the
range 13.7 tonnes to 11.4 tonnes - this is additional to the concrete weight,
which with a 150mm thick mattress at standard density would be 2.1
tonnes giving a total submerged hoid down of 15.8 to 13 J tonnes.
3

Standard Mattress Sizes:

Standard mould sizes are 10m x 3m in plan area. Mattresses may be

manufactured in any size within mould dimensions subject to standard
block sizes. For pipeline overlay either 5m or 5.5m by 2, 3, 4, 6 or even
10m is preferred to provide cover 2'/ to 2.75m either side of the pipeline
as well as over & along the line in a single installation.
2

Lifting and Overside

Deployment Arrangements:

Integral lifting loops connected to a re-usable quick

release frame.

Concrete Design Specification: C50-50N/mm @ 28 days. Conforms to the requirements of BS8110: The
Structural Use of Concrete.
3

Additional Ground Anchors:

Additional 1 tonne SSCS ground anchors certified by ABS and LLoyds

may be attached at corners or edges to provide the additional edge hold
down to increase protection capability (e.g. against trawling).

All designs, copyright, tradenames and patents an the property of SSCS Ltd and / or SLP Engineering Ltd.

Engaging Nature t o Protect the Shoreline

River and Seabed
Stabilisation
- River routing and control
of sediment
transportation

SSCS Mots combine with Nature to blend into the environment.

The ability to employ natural environmental

conditions of sediment transportation to form reinforced
soil banks underwater is unique to the SSCS system. This
ability has many engineering applications including flow
training and coastal protection as well as soil stabilisation
around underwater foundations.

SSCS Mats deployed in line to extend the groynes ond combat littoral drift.

Immediate
Scour Prevention
By virtue of this form of construction, once in position
with the fronds floating vertically from the base, the Seabed
Scour Control mat acts immediately. The fronds create a viscous
drag reducing the velocity of the current, encouraging particles
of sand to be deposited into the mat.
The seabed is stabilised immediately and the fibrereinforced bank begins to build up, forming a permanent natural
barrier which protects the underwater installation and further
strengthens the anchorage of the SSCS mat.

Multi-Purpose Usage
No maintenance is required; the fronds will not decay and
the anchorage is permanent. The SSCS mat may be employed
cost-effectively in a wide variety of situations. The system is
economic in use, with comparatively low installation costs.
O n pipelines and jackets, existing vessels can be used to
instal the SSCS system, such as those used for the annual
inspection programme. For the stabilisation of jack-up rigs, the
divers and facilities already on the rig can be used. In all cases,
only SSCS equipment and engineering input will be required.
The main applications are in protecting fixed platforms,
mobile rigs and pipelines from the effects of scour. The
SSCS system may also be employed in defence structures, shore
protection schemes, river flow control, and other applications.
The system adds to, rather than detracts from the
environment, as it does not harm fish or any other marine life,
but creates a natural bank for the growth of all types of flora
and fauna.

MAT DEPLOYMENT.
The drawing on the right illustrates
a rolled-up mat being lowered from a vessel using a down
line. The rolled mat is 5.82 metres long and weighs 140
kilograms.

UPSIDE DOWN. Mat production is inspected at Seabed Scour Control

Systems' plant at Lowestoft When in situ, the bouyant polypropylene frond lines
at 'A in pitch float upwards to form a viscous drag barrier S metres X 5 metres
there being approximately I.S million thread filaments in the 2S sq. metre mat.
(Photo courtesy: Central Office of Information).