Assigned Problems for Chapter 2- Atomic Structure

And Related Study questions & Answers

Part 2- Custom Text, pg 448-449

Structure of Materials- An Introduction

Assigned text problems based on material covered in class: #2-6, 2-7, 2-8, 2-9, 210, 2-11, 2-12, 2-13, 2-15, 2-16, 2-17, 2-18, 2-19,2-20, 2-21.
Other Assorted/related Questions
#1. Consider how the three fundamental types of materials (i.e., metals,
ceramics, and polymers) actually complement (as opposed to duplicate)
one another. As an engineer, explain why this is of value.

All metals are electrical conductors, with some (e.g., copper and
aluminum) being better than others (e.g., iron and titanium). Some ceramics
are modest conductors, but nowhere near as conducting as the worst metals.
Polymers are seldom conductors. Ceramics have far greater resistance to
melting and environmental attack (e.g., corrosion) than either metals
or polymers, and also tend to be much harder (i.e., resist wear). On the other
hand, they are almost always unable to tolerate impact (i.e., are brittle),
while metals and polymers tend to be tough. Some polymers are very
stretchy (e.g., rubber). For engineers, no matter what properties a particular
design calls for, there is likely to be a material from among these
three that provides what is needed most. In those cases when mixed
properties are needed, these three material types can be mixed to
create composites.
#2. Consider the human body. What types of material are each of the following, and
explain your answer:
a. Bones?
b. Teeth?
c. Cartilage?
d. Skin?
e. Hair?
[HINT: In some cases, fundamental types may be mixed to create composites,
so explain how and why this is true and of value.]

Bones are a mixture -- a natural composite -- of hard, strong, but

brittle ceramic (i.e., hydroxyapetite), tough collagen, and air cells (for
lightness and vibration-dampening). Teeth are all ceramic (enamel) on the
outside and a mixture of softer minerals in the inner dentin (a calcified bodytissue), with a living polymeric pulp at the core. Cartilage is a non-vasculated
(bloodless) collagen-based material, that is entirely polymeric, and
based on proteins. Skin is a polymer-based living material built from
epithelial cells created from proteins. Hair is a protein fiber, and, so, is
polymeric, but not "alive" in any real sense.

Are there any naturally occurring metals in the body, as actual structures?
While the body uses metal, from various mineral sources in a well-balanced
diet, such as calcium, iron, magnesium, sodium, and potassium, it contains
no metallic material.
#3. Give 2 or 3 examples of each of the following interrelationships:
a. How processing a material alters its properties?
b. How a material's properties influence the choice of a processing
method?
c. How processing can be used to favorably affect a final product's
performance?

a. Bending a metal paperclip back-and-forth makes it harder, stronger,

and more brittle, until it eventually breaks with repeated reverse bending
(1), hammering an initially soft metal (such as lead, copper, or aluminum)
makes it stronger and harder (2), stretching many polymers/plastics
(such as low-density polyethylene used to make trash-can liners) makes
them stronger and more difficult to stretch farther (3), and stretching or
bending initially-transparent polymers makes them less transparent and
more opaque (4).

b. Inherently hard and brittle materials, such a ceramics and glasses, cannot
be formed by hammering or cold bending like inherently softer and more
malleable metals can. Inherently high-melting ceramics cannot be melted
and cast into shapes like metals can, and metals cannot usually be softened
by modest heating to allow easy molding into complex shapes like many
polymers (e.g., thermoplastics) can.

c. Nylon or Dacron polymer strands can be drawn to form extremely strong

"monofilament" fishing line. Metals can be cold-worked (e.g., by rolling into

sheet, drawing into wire, or bending into shapes) to increase their strength.
Wood can be dried in a kiln to make it harder and stronger, and less prone to
warping in service.

#4. Following the rules for filling shells and sub-shells of the wavemechanical model of the atom, write the electron configurations
(e.g., 1s2, 2s2, 2p6 for Ne, At. No. 10) for the following four elements:
a. Strontium (Sr), At. No. 38
b. Antimony (Sb), At. No. 51
c. Xenon (Xe), At. No. 54
d. Lead (Pb), At. No. 82

There are three common conventions by which the electron configuration of

an atom can be shown: (1) from lowest to highest energy, using the principal
quantum number and sub-state letter (s, p, d, f, etc.) with the number of
electrons in each; (2) by grouping all sub-states having the same principal
quantum number and indicating the number of electrons in each group; and
(3) by listing only those sub-states containing electrons beyond the
preceding inert element. Hence, for the elements requested:
a. Sr At. No. 38
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s2
1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p65s2 [2/8/18/8/2]
[Kr]5s2

b. Sb At. No. 51
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p3
1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d105s25p3 [2/8/18/18/5]
[Kr]5s25p3

c. Xe At. No. 54
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p6
1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d105s25p6 [2/8/18/18/8]

d. Pb At. No. 82

1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p64f145d106s26p2
1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d104f145s25p65d106s26p2 [2/8/18/32/18/4]
[Xe] 4f145d106s26p2

#5. The basis for the organization of the elements into the periodic table format,
first conceived by Mendeleev and, subsequently, modified by others, is the
repetitive (or periodic) similarity of certain physical properties and chemical
behavior. Look at the elements in Group IV and list values for and explain the
following properties and chemical characteristics from top down:
a. Chemical valence
b. Type of bonding within the solid phase of the element. [HINT: See
section 2-4.]
c. Density (in g/cm3)
d. Melting point (in C)
e. Electrical conductivity in (-m)-1

Val.

Bonding

Density

MP

El. Cond.

(g/cm3)

(C)

(-m)-1

C (diamond)+4

Cov.

2.25

3550

1x105

Si

+4

Cov.

2.33

1414

1x103

Ge

+4

Cov.

5.32

938.3

2x103

Sn

+4

Cov.-Met.

7.17

231.93

9.1x106

Pb

+4

Met.-Cov.

11.35

327.46

4.8x106

Google search: "Electrical

www.periodictable.com.

conductivity

elements"

and

check

out

Are there any trends in any of these properties from top to bottom of the
group? What trends?

Yes. Valence is always +4, although Sn and Pb, as metals, can exhibit other
valence states. Bonding becomes less covalent and more metallic at Sn to

Pb. Density increases with At. No./At. Wt. within the Group. MP decreases
from C-diam. to Sn, and then shows an anomaly with Pb, reflecting bond
strength. Electrical conductivity increases down the Group to Sn, with
another anomaly at Pb. C, Si, and Ge are intrinsic semiconductors, while Sn
and Pb are conductors.

#6. Give two of your own examples of materials or substances that are held
together (i.e., are bonded) by each of the three sub-types of Van der Waals'
secondary bonding.

The three sub-types of Van der Waals' secondary bonding, with two examples
each, are:

Permanent dipole/permanent dipole, as found in solid HCl and HBr, or

any molecule comprised of radically different size atoms, so that
charge distribution leads to a polar molecule.
Permanent dipole/induced dipole, as found between H 2O and Cl2 or H2O
and F2.
Induced dipole/induced dipole or London dispersion forces, as found in
solid F2, Cl2, and Br2, as well as in solid inert gases, such as Ne, Ar, Kr,
etc.