Downloaded from SAE International by Guilherme Fernandez, Tuesday, September 23, 2014

891106

Examination of ATV Tire Forces

Generated On Clay, Grass, and
Sand Surfaces
D. C. Holloway, W. H. Wilson, and T. J. Drach
Dept. of Mech. Engrg.
University of Maryland
College Park, MD

Government/Industry
Meeting and Exposition
Washington, DC
May 2-4,1989

Downloaded from SAE International by Guilherme Fernandez, Tuesday, September 23, 2014

The appearance of the code at the bottom of the first page of this paper indicates
SAE's consent that copies of the paper may be made for personal or internal use, or
for the personal or internal use of specific clients. This consent is given on the condition, however, that the copier pay the stated per article copy fee through the
Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., Operations Center, P.O. Box 765, Schenectady,
N.Y. 12301, for copying beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the U.S.
Copyright Law. This consent does not extend to other kinds of copying such as
copying for general distribution, for advertising or promotional purposes, for
creating new collective works, or for resale.
Papers published prior to 1978 may also be copied at a per paper fee of $2.50
under the above stated conditions.
SAE routinely stocks printed papers for a period of three years following date of
publication. Direct your orders to SAE Order Department.
To obtain quantity reprint rates, permission to reprint a technical paper or permission to use copyrighted SAE publications in other works, contact the SAE
Publications Division,

No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form, in

an electronic retrieval system or otherwise, without the prior
written permission of the publisher.
ISSN 0148-7191
copyright 1989 Society of Automotive Englneers,inc.
Positions and opinions advanced in this paper are those of
the author(s) and not necessarliy those of SAE. The author
is soiely responsible for the content of the paper. A process
is available by which discussions will be printed with the
paper if it Is published in SAE Transactions. For permission
to publish this paper in full or in part, contact the SAE
Publications Division.

Persons wishing to submit papers to be considered for

presentation or publication through SAE should send the
manuscript or a 300 word abstract of a proposed manuscript to: Secretary, Engineering Activity Board, SAE.

Printed in U.S.A.

Downloaded from SAE International by Guilherme Fernandez, Tuesday, September 23, 2014

891106

Examination ofATVTire Forces

Generated on Clay,Grass,and
Sand Surfaces
D. C. Holloway, W. H. Wilson, and T. J. Drach
Dept. of Mech. Engrg.
University of Maryland
College Park, MD

ABSTRACT

A towed tire testing fixture

suitable for use in testing all terrain
vehicle tires is designed and built.
Vertical loads on the tire under test can
be varied from 100 to 400 1bf (445-1780N)
and the camber and slip angles can be
varied from 0 to 20 degrees. In
addition, longitudinal slip measurements
in braking are possible through the use
of a disc brake assembly. Six strain
gage loads cells are used to determine
the force and moment resultants at the
tire contact patch. Data acquisition and
processing are done through a Daytronic
10KUD data pack and lap top PC.
This system is used to test seven
representative ATV tires operating on
surfaces of hard packed clay. Two of
these tires are also tested on short and
tall field grass, and on beach sand.
Information on the lateral force
coefficient, and the rolling resistance
coefficient, as functions of vertical
load on the tire, and slip angle of the
tire, are generated. For the two tires
tested on clay, grass and sand, one
quadrant of the friction ellipse is
determined showing the lateral force
coefficient vs the braking force
coefficient, with slip angle and
longitudinal slip ratio as parameters.

THIS PAPER PRESENTS INFORMATION on

the forces generated by seven all terrain
vehicle (ATV), tires, when operating on
surfaces of hard packed clay, grass and
sand, as functions of slip angle,
longitudinal slip, vertical load, and

vehicle speed. In a few tests, the

aligning torque as a function of slip
angle was also determined. All of this
information was generated in support of
the ATV study being conducted by the US
Consumer Product Safety Commission, and
are essential elements used in the
development of an accurate handling model
for an ATV.
Any dynamic handling model for an
ATV requires information about the forces
and moments generated between the ATV
tires and the operating surface. A free
body diagram of an ATV showing the forces
and other important parameters is given
in Figure 1. This figure shows a three
wheeled ATV negotiating a right-hand
turn. For a steady state turn, ie.
constant forward speed, the force and
moment equations of equilibrium can be
solved to determine the conditions under
which a turn is possible, if the
constitutive relations between the normal
loads, slip angles, tire forces, and
moments are known. Twenty equations
result after including the kinematic
constraint equations, the constitutive
relations and the six equilibrium
equations. A four-wheeled ATV requires
the solution of twenty-seven equations.
As can be seen, what initially seems to
be a simple problem becomes extremely
complex in short order. It should be
evident that the solution to this problem
is only as good as the input data: the
forces and moments between the tires and
ground.
There is a wealth of information in
the literature on the mechanical
properties and the forces generated by
automobile and truck tires.

0148-7191/89/0502-1106$02.50
Copyright 1989 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.

Downloaded from SAE International by Guilherme Fernandez, Tuesday, September 23, 2014

891106

The book Mechanics of Pneumatic Tires (1)' deforms as it does during acceleration,
is an excellent example.
braking or a turning maneuver, forces and
moments are generated in the plane of
contact. These forces are highly nonlinear functions of the deformation, and
are specific to the tire construction,
inflation pressure, tread pattern and
normal loads.
The tires on first generation ATVs
also served as the suspension system of
the vehicle. This meant that they had to
have a soft spring constant in the radial
direction, which in turn led to the use
of carcassless tires. In addition, the
contact patch was large, thus lowering
the contact normal stress. This allowed
the vehicle to operate on very soft
terrains. The enveloping properties of
these soft tires also allowed the vehicle
to travel over small obstacles such as
logs and rocks. A disadvantage to these
early tires was that they would deform
extensively with time.
Today, most current ATVs have a
mechanical suspension consisting of a
spring and shock absorber assembly or
assemblies at each end of the vehicle.
All future ATVs will be required to have
some mechanical suspension. As a result,
tire construction has changed as the
designers have attempted to optimize the
combined effects of tire spring and
damping with those of the mechanical
However, tire construction, tread design,
suspension. The current generation of
operating pressure and surface conditions
ATV tires have carcasses, and come in
are significantly different for passenger
radial or bias-ply construction.
In an
car and ATV tires; and, while the trends
examination of nineteen tires studied as
are similar, little can be extracted from
part of this project by Holloway (10),
this information and applied to an ATV
the initial radial spring constant of
analysis. There has been research
these tires went from 171 to 345 lbf/in
conducted with off road agricultural
(30-60 N/mm). Older tires were not
tires and test fixtures; work by Crolla
available for testing, but we would
et al. (2), Schwanghart (3,4), Stephens
expect that their radial spring constants
(5), Mcallister (6), Sommer et al. (7),
would have been lower. The new tires
Horton et al. (8), Wismer et al. (9) is
still maintain the "balloon" appearance,
representative. Once again however, the
low operating pressures, and the
characteristics of the tires and the
enveloping properties of the earlier
operating loads are sufficiently
ones.
different from those of ATV tires to
Because there was no information in
necessitate a study specific to ATV
the literature on the forces generated in
tires. There was virtually no
the contact plane by these tires as they
information in the literature pertaining
deform, it was necessary to build a
to the low pressure type of tire found on
testing fixture to examine representative
ATVs. These tires typically operate in
ATV tires under normal usage conditions.
the 2-5 psi (14-34 kPa) range.
TIRE TESTING FIXTURE
A tire is a complex composite
structure. It is made from a variety of
The tire testing fixture design
ply materials oriented in various
consisted of a triangular steel frame
directions with multiple layers embedded
that mounted to the rear bumper of a
in a rubber matrix. When the tire
towing vehicle. A top view sketch of
this apparatus is shown in Figure 2. The
tire is located at the rear apex of the
*
Numbers in parentheses designate
fixture, and adjustments allow the slip
and camber angles to be varied. Normal
references at the end of paper

Downloaded from SAE International by Guilherme Fernandez, Tuesday, September 23, 2014

891106
loads are changed by stacking 50 lbf (222
N) weights on the fixture just slightly
forward of the tire location.

Following SAE convention, the tire forces

are referenced to the x'y' axis, and in
subsequent discussion of the forces, the
prime superscript notation will be
dropped. Fy is the lateral side force,
and Fx for a free rolling tire is the
rolling resistance force. Five fullbridge strain-gage ring-type loads cells
were constructed and fastened between the
bumper and fixture using spherical rod
ends at both connections. The cells have
a resolution of 1 lb (4.5 N) and were
designed to safely withstand an overload
of up to 1000 lbf (4440 N). These cells
measured the Ax, Ay, Az, Bx, and Bz
reactions. Using this information Fx, Fy
and Fz can be determined. A sixth cell
(not shown in the figure) was mounted to
the steering arm, and it measured a
component of the aligning torque, Mz.
The nominal weight of the fixture with a
mounted ATV tire was 115 lbf (511 N). A
photograph of the apparatus mounted to
the tow vehicle is shown in Figure 3;
also seen is a fifth wheel which measured
the vehicle speed. Rotational speed of
the tire being tested was determined by a
tachometer-generator mounted on the
wheel-axle shaft.
There have been many improvements
and additions to the test fixture and
electronics during the course of this
project. The first design did not have

3
braking capability, and so some tires
were only tested for their lateral force
coefficients as functions of slip angle
and vertical load. For these first
tests, the force data from the load cells
was acquired on strip chart recorders. A
plotted data point was then taken to be
the average of an eighty second-test, run
at fixed conditions of slip angle and
weight at a nominal towing speed of 10
mph (16 km/hr). In order to generate a
range of data for a particular tire, the
vehicle would be stopped; the weight or
slip angle would be changed, and a new
test run begun. This procedure obviously
took some time, and the data reduction
was quite laborious.
When a disc brake assembly was added
to enable the determination of the forces
generated during braking, a DC driven
linear actuator was also added to the
steering arm so that the slip angle could
be swept during a run. Camber
information still required mechanically
adjusting a mounting plate. In turned
out, however, that for the purposes for
which this data would be used, the
variation in results with camber change
was not necessary. As a result, all of
the data presented in this paper was
taken at 0 degrees of camber.
Improvements were also made in the
data acquisition and processing. In its
present form, the signal conditioning and
data acquisition takes place through a
Daytronic 10KUD data pack which is
interfaced to a Zenith 183 lap top PC.
Software was written to calibrate the
load cells, and to control the data
acquisition process. Typical data sample
rates are about four times a second for
eight channels. Once the vertical load
on the tire is set, and the tow vehicle
is up to speed, the operator may either

Downloaded from SAE International by Guilherme Fernandez, Tuesday, September 23, 2014

4
sweep through the full braking range or
through the full range of slip angles. A
test may still last eighty seconds, but
greatly increased amounts of data are
collected and are immediately available
for further processing or viewing. In
general, the first fifteen seconds of the
test are used to establish the free
rolling conditions since the rolling
radius of the test tire decreases with
increasing vertical load.
A test record of braking and lateral
force coefficients vs time during a swept
brake test is presented in Figure 4.

As can be seen there is considerable

variation in the braking coefficient
during the test. This is due to slight
unevenness of the test surface, and to
the design of the test fixture. The
former is easily understood but the later
requires some explanation. The test
fixture was mounted to the bumper of the
tow vehicle twenty inches above the
ground. If one visualizes a side view of
the fixture, and considers the summation
of moments about the mounting axis,then
it is clear that as the braking force
increases, the vertical load on the tire
must decrease, since there is only a
static downward load consisting of the
test fixture and any added weights. This
changing vertical force creates a slight
vertical oscillation of the tire
assembly, and near tire lock-up this
causes the tire to alternately skid and
roll. For the test of Figure 4, the
maximum F2 value was 306 lbf (1360 N ) ,
the minimum was 221 lbf (983 N), and the
average was 265 lbf (1180 N). As a way
of removing this artifact of the test

891106
fixture, the data has been digitally
filtered by using a simple, equally
weighted moving average method. At each
increment of time, the value of the force
coefficient at that instant plus five
values before and after that time are
averaged to create a new value. These
filtered or averaged values have also
been plotted in Figure 4, and in all
subsequent plots and discussion such
filtered data is presented. The small
values of lateral force coefficient, when
the tire is supposedly at 0 degrees of
slip angle, are a result of the
difficulty in exactly determining this
angle prior to beginning a test. We
appear to be off by about 0.5 degrees in
this example.
The force coefficients for the same
test are shown as a function of
longitudinal slip ratio in Figure 5.

The percent longitudinal slip is

determined by first finding an average
value of the voltage ratios generated by
the tachometers on the fifth wheel and
test tire during free rolling conditions,
and then comparing this value to similar
ratios generated when the brake is being
applied. The range of negative values of
longitudinal slip is a good indicator of
the errors associated with these
measurements, since only braking forces
were applied. An inspection of this
figure indicates an uncertainty of about
3%. This error and the error in slip
angles were deemed acceptable when
considering the final use of the data.
Figure 6 shows filtered force
coefficients as functions of longitudinal
slip for a different ATV tire operating
on the same surface.

Downloaded from SAE International by Guilherme Fernandez, Tuesday, September 23, 2014

891106

5
17 cm tall. Attempts were made to
conduct each run in a region of
undisturbed grass, but this was not
always possible. These tests were
conducted during a very dry summer, and
the grass was still green, but not lush.
Because of limited space, the towing
vehicle speed was 5 mph (8 km/hr).
The sand tests were conducted on dry
beach sand near Cape Hatteras, NC. The
test fixture was mounted to a 4x4 light
truck, and test run lengths were
unlimited. A perforated steel mesh
screen was mounted at the rear of the
truck frame, and served to level and
grade the sand just ahead of the test
tire. The towing speed was about 5 mph
(8 km/hr).
TEST RESULTS
Table 1 is a summary of the tires
and the conditions under which they were
tested.

For this data, the initial slip angle was

9 degrees, and the vertical load during
the test ranged from 179 to 287 lbf (7961280 N) with a test average of 231 lbf
(1030 N). This figure clearly shows the
loss in lateral force capability as more
is demanded from the tire in the
longitudinal direction.
DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST SURFACES
Towing tests were conducted on
three different surfaces. One was a hard
packed surface described as clay, located
at the engineering proving grounds of Ft.
Belvoir in Springfield, VA. This was a
level surface several hundred yards long,
that was periodically graded by the Army.
The surface was a hard packed clay
randomly intermixed with gravel ranging
up to 3/4 inches (2 cm) in size. All
tests were conducted in similar, dry,
conditions. Runs were conducted up and
down this surface in the same positions,
so that after a few trials, the upper
layer of this surface consisted of a fine
powder about 1/4 in (6 mm) thick. Towing
speed was 10 mph (16 km/hr) , although a
few tests were also conducted at 20 mph
(32 km/hr).
The grass surface was located at a
University of Maryland farm near Upper
Marlboro, MD. It can best be described
as level pasture with a mixture of K-31
(a tall tough fescue), wild grasses, and
weeds with some soil occasionally showing
through the turf. Tests were conducted
on mowed grass about 7 cm tall, and a
nearby region that was unmowed at about

Tire 1: KT465 22x11x8 - clay, strip chart

data
This tire was one of the first
tested, and was run at 0,5,10, and 15
degrees of slip angle with six normal
loads ranging from 81 to 290 lbf (3601290 N). It was tested at 10 and 20 mph
(16 and 32 km/hr). Figures 7 and 8 show
the lateral force coefficient when the
tire was tested at these speeds. The
differences in the data for these two
towing speeds are within the variations
in data for tests conducted at either
fixed speed. From this it was concluded
that there is little or no dependence on
speed within the range tested. From this
point on, the tests on the clay surface
were all conducted at 10 mph (16 km/hr).
In both figures, there is a slight
improvement in performance at the lighter
normal loads. This is a trend that is
similar to passenger car tires.
Figure 9 shows the rolling
resistance force coefficient at 10 mph.
As can be seen, the coefficient is about
constant at a nominal value of 9% of the
normal load. The results at 20 mph are
essentially the same. These values are
substantially higher than passenger car
tires, where the rolling resistance force
is typically 1 to 3 percent of the normal
load.
Tire 3: Pro-Am H-Trak, 22x11x8 - clay,
strip chart data
From the results of the testing
described above, it was determined that

Downloaded from SAE International by Guilherme Fernandez, Tuesday, September 23, 2014

891106
in this and subsequent tests, there
should be a finer division in slip
angles, and that angles greater than 15
degrees should be examined.
Results for this tire are presented
in Figures 10 and 11 in a bar graph
format. In these figures, data from two
repeated runs at a given slip angle are
plotted, and increasing vertical loads on
the tire are shown from left to right in
each cluster. Results from the repeated
tests show the variability in the data
for the field conditions on clay.
Figure 10 shows the lateral force
coefficient as a function of slip angle.
The repeatability of the tests is quite
good, with variations that are acceptable
when considering the end use of the data.
It is also noted that at low slip angles,
the tire performance at lower vertical
loads is better. However, at larger slip
angles, better performance was achieved
at the greater vertical loads. At
intermediate slip angles, there is quite
a variation in lateral force coefficient
as vertical load changes. For example,
at 4 degrees of slip, Fy/Fz goes from
0.31 at the lightest load to 0.21 at the
heaviest.
Figure 11 shows results for the
rolling resistance force coefficient.
The differences shown are of the same
magnitude as the experimental variations.
On the average, this tire has a rolling
resistance coefficient of about 0.05. It
also appears to be independent of both
slip angle and normal load.
Tire 4: KT-686 - clay, strip chart data
This tire was the stiffest (in the
radial direction) of any of the tires
tested. Its lateral performance on clay
is shown in Figure 12. Absolute
performance limits for this tire are
similar to those of the KT-465 (tire 1 ) ,
and both are slightly higher than the
Pro-Am H-Trak. In addition, both of the
KT tires (from the same manufacturer)
exhibit less sensitivity to vertical load
than does the Pro-Am (different
manufacturer).
Tires 5a and 5b: Pro-Am H-Trak2 -clay,
strip chart and computer data
These tires are similar to tire 3;
two with different serial numbers were
examined. One (5a) was tested using
strip chart recording of the data, and
the other was tested using the computer
data acquisition system. The lateral
force coefficient for tire 5a is shown in
Figure 13. The performance limit is
nearly identical to that of tire 3, and

Downloaded from SAE International by Guilherme Fernandez, Tuesday, September 23, 2014

891106

large sensitivity to vertical load is

also found for this tire. The average
value of rolling resistance force
coefficient was 0.07, for the range of
vertical loads and slip angles tested as
shown in Figure 14.
A plot of aligning torque, Mz, vs
slip angle as a function of vertical load
is presented in Figure 15. The
determination of Mz requires simultaneous
force data from all six load cells;
consequently there is considerable
scatter in this data. It is interesting
to note that the aligning torque appears
not to return to zero at the larger slip

angles as is the case for passenger car

tires. However, when this information
was used in the ATV modeling studies of
companion papers (11,12) we did force the
aligning torque to zero at 18 degrees of
slip because of the experimental
uncertainties.
A second tire of this type was also
tested using the computer based data
acquisition system. With this system and
the braking capabilities added to the
tire fixture, it is possible to generate
a quadrant of the friction ellipse
showing the cornering and braking forces
generated as functions of slip angle an
longitudinal slip ratio. Figure 16 is
such a plot for tire 5b. Contours of
fixed slip angles are shown along the
vertical axis, and contours of fixed

Downloaded from SAE International by Guilherme Fernandez, Tuesday, September 23, 2014

891106

longitudinal slip ratio are shown along

the horizontal axis. This plot shows
data only to 12 degrees of slip angle;
however, saturation occurs at about 15
degrees. Braking data for slip ratios
beyond 30% are essentially the same, and
show saturation in this direction. There
is a slight "nose" in the data where the
best braking performance occurs in
combination with a slip angle of 6 to 12
degrees. This is a characteristic that
also occurs with some passenger car
tires.

Tire 6: KT-846 21x7x10 - clay, grass,

sand, computer data
Friction ellipse plots of tire 6 on
clay, short grass, tall grass and sand
are presented in Figures 17-20. This
tire has about equal capabilites in
braking and cornering on the clay
surface. The information on the grass
surfaces tends to be scattered. This is
the result of variability in the grass
test tracks used during the many test
runs required to generate these plots.
The figures only show the results up to
50% longitudinal slip without a
saturation occurring. However,
examination of the raw data shows
complete saturation at about 60%
longitudinal slip. The performance
limits are higher on the grass surfaces
than they were on the clay surface,
because of the interaction between the
tire cleats and the turf.
The sand data in Figure 20 is
especially interesting. The lateral and
braking force coefficients are completely
uncoupled beyond the 10% slip point, and
the reason for this is that the shear
characteristics of the sand dominate over
any of the tire properties. As the
braking torques were being applied to the
tire, it would dig itself into the sand,
and near lock up, it simply became a
blunt plow submerged several inches into
the sand. The raw data shows the braking
force coefficient to be a linear function
of longitudinal slip ratio with a
saturation value of 0.9 at full lock up.
In addition, any increase in slip angle

Downloaded from SAE International by Guilherme Fernandez, Tuesday, September 23, 2014

891106

beyond 12 degrees contributes only to the

braking coefficient because of increased
plowing action.

Tire 7: KT-847 22x11x10 - clay, grass,

sand, computer data
Friction ellipses for this tire on
the four different surfaces are given in
Figures 21-24. The data for the clay
surface is well characterized with about
equal performance limits in both
directions. The data on the grass
surfaces is slightly scattered for the

same reason as given above. However,

there does appear to be a slight gain in
braking in the taller grass.
Like the last tire, the data in sand
shows very little coupling between the
lateral and braking force coefficients.
However, there is a slight drop in the
lateral coefficient with increased
braking at the greater slip angles. This
tire is wider in cross section and foot
print than the last tire, and because of
this, the larger slip angles do produce a

Downloaded from SAE International by Guilherme Fernandez, Tuesday, September 23, 2014

10

891106

greater lateral force coefficient. The

braking force coefficient is a linear
function with longitudinal slip ratio,
and reaches a maximum value of 0.9 at
full lock up.

TIRE COMPARISON AND SUMMARY FOR THE

CLAY SURFACE - In order to quantify and
summarize the lateral force coefficient
as a function of slip angle for these six
tires at a common vertical load, an
equation of the form Fy/Fz = (lexp(C*alpha)} was fit to the experimental
data using a least squares approach.
Correlation coefficients were 0.97 for
the KT-686, 0.98 for the Pro-Am H Trak

and 0.99 for the remaining tires. A plot

of these functions is shown in Figure 25.
In this figure it is seen that five of
the tires have similar performance up to
about five degrees of slip, and that
there is quite a range in saturation
values for the lateral force coefficient.
The two Pro-AM tires cluster together, as
do the three from the KT-465,686,846
series. The KT-847 is unique in that its
slope is noticeably greater.

Downloaded from SAE International by Guilherme Fernandez, Tuesday, September 23, 2014

11

891106

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The talents and hard work of several
undergraduates who helped in the design
and construction of the test fixture, and
in the tire testing are greatfully
appreciated. Thank you Scott Schmidt,
Dan Schartman, Greg Thomas, and John
Hamilton.
This project has been funded in part
with Federal Funds from the United states
Consumer Product Safety Commission under
contract number CPSC-C-87-1221. The
content of this publication does not
necessarily reflect the views of the
Commission, nor does mention of trade
names, commercial products, or
organizations imply endorsement by the
Commission.
REFERENCES
1. Mechanics of Pneumatic Tires, Ed.
Samuel K. Clark, US Government Printing
Office, DOT HS 805 952, 1981.
CONCLUSIONS
A towed tire test fixture was built
that measures the forces and moments
generated between ATV tires and their
contact surfaces as functions of slip
angle, vertical load, and longitudinal
slip ratio. Seven tires representative
of those in use on ATVs were tested on a
hard packed clay/gravel surface. Two of
these seven were also tested on a tall
grass surface, a short grass surface, and
on dry beach sand.
Maximum lateral force coefficients
ranged from about 0.5 to 0.7 on the clay
surface with saturation slip angles
varying from 12 to 20 degrees. For the
three tires tested in longitudinal slip,
the maximum braking force coefficient
ranged from 0.6 to 0.7 at a corresponding
slip ratio of 50%. Performance limits on
the grass surfaces were slightly higher.
The data obtained on beach sand was
unique in that the shear response of the
sand dominated the tests.
For the tires tested in side slip
and longitudinal slip, quadrants of
friction ellipses were generated for the
clay, grass and sand surfaces. For the
clay and grass surfaces, the general
appearance of these figures parallels
that for passenger car tires. However,
on the beach sand, the ellipse became a
rectangle, and there was very little
coupling between lateral and longitudinal
force properties of the tires.

2. Crolla, D.A., El-Razaz, A.S.A.,

Alstead, C.J., Hockley, C., "A Model to
Predict the Combined Lateral and
Longitudinal Forces on an Off-Road Tire,"
Proceedings of 1987 ISTVS, pp. 362-372,
1987.
3. Schwanghart, H., "Influence of
Tyre Tread on Steering Forces with Non
Driven Tyres on Hard Surface,"
Proceedings of 1987 ISTVS, pp.627-635,
1987.
4. Schwanghart, H., Rott, K., "The
Influence of the Tyre Tread on the
Rolling Resistance and Steering Forces on
Undriven Wheels," Proceedings of 1984
ISTVS, pp. 872-888, 1984.
5. Stephens, L.E., "Lateral Force
Characteristics of Powered, Steered
Tires," SAE paper 851091, 1985.
6. McAllister, M., "A Rig for
Measuring the Forces on a Towed Wheel,"
J. Agric. Engng. Res., 24, pp. 259-265,
1979.
7 . Sommer, M.S., Gee-Glough, D.,
"Steering forces on Undriven, Angled
Wheels," Journal of Terramechanics, 18,
pp. 25-49, 1981.
8. Horton, D.N.L., Crolla, D.A.,
"The Handling Behavior of Off-Road
Vehicles, Int. J. of Vehicle Design, vol
5, pp. 197-217, 1984.

Downloaded from SAE International by Guilherme Fernandez, Tuesday, September 23, 2014

12
9. Wismer, R.D., Luth, H.J., "OffRoad Traction Prediction for Wheeled
Vehicles," ASAE paper 72-619, 1972.
10. Holloway, D.C., "An Examination
of Tire and Suspension Properties of All
Terrain Vehicles," Report to CPSC on
contract CPSC8612500, 1986.
11. Chen, S.Y., Tsai, L.W. , Chen,
J., Holloway, D . C , "The Steady-State
Handling of Three-Wheeled All Terrain
Vehicles (ATVs)", SAE 891109, 1989.
12. Chen, S.Y., Tsai, L.W., Chen,
J., Holloway, D.C, "Steady State
Handling of Four-wheeled All Terrain
Vehicles (ATVs)", SAE 891110, 1989.

891106