Above 500 degrees C a pyrometer

-the term pyrometer is used for temperature measuring instruments above 500 deg
Celsius
Below 500 degrees C a thermometer
-the term thermometer is used for temperature measuring instruments below500'Celsius
State the temperature range for which rnercury is used
Mercury Thermometers cover a Wide temperature range from -39 oc to 600 oc, the
instruments upper temperature range may be extended though the introduction of an
inert gas such as This introduction of an inert gas ficreases the pressure on the liquid
Mercury and therefore it's boiling point is increased, this in combination with replacing
the Pyrex Glass with Fused Quartz allows the upper temperature range to be extended
to 800 (1472 cannot be used below the temperature at which it becomes solid, -38.83
oc (-37.89 OF). If the thermometer contains nitrogen, the gas may now down into the
column when the mercury solidifies and be trapped there when the temperature rises.
making the thermometer unusable until returned to the factory for reconditioning. To
avoid this, some weather services require that all mercury- in-glass thermometers be
brought indoors when the temperature falls to -37 'C (-34.6 OF).To measure lower
meteorological temperatures, a thermometer containing a mercury-thallium alloy which
does not solidify until the temperature drops to -61.1 oc 78 OF) may be used.
Names the fluids which can be used for the measurement of lower of
temperatures
In measuring very low temperatures, Alcohol is used as an alternative for mercury
thermometers. The alcohol thermometer is an alternative to the mercury-in- glass
thermometer and has similar functions. Unlike the mercury-in-glass thermometer, the
contents of an alcohol thermometer are less toxic and will evaporate away fairly quickly.
The liquid used can be pure ethanol, toluene or pentane, depending on manufacturer
and working temperature range. Since these are transparent, the liquid is made more
visible by the addition of a red or blue dye. Ethanol-filled thermometers are used in
preference to mercury for meteorological measurements of minimum temperatures and
can be used down to 80 'c (-94 Of). For toluene -800C to 700C and pentane can be
used to -196'C. The physical limitation of the ability of a thermometer to measure low
temperature is the freezing point of the liquid used, remember alcohol freezes at -114.9
(-174_82 Of).

Describe the principal features of thermometers based on the filled system,

including:
A Filled System thermometer is a temperature device consists of liquid. vapor or gas
filled types. All utilize a bulb connecting a capillary and usually a Bourdon tube
mechanism responding to pressure change from volume variation for pointer or pen
operation.
Mercury in steel
A common type of liquid-filled system utilizes mercury in steel which can be pressurized
for high temperature duty to 600'C. Such devices are most useful for remote sensing
and telemetering back to a central instrumentation panel. The capillary bore is about
0.02 mm and the scale is generally linear but calibration must allow for heat variation.
Power is sufficient for pointer pen or transducer operation.
Vapour pressure
Vapour pressure thermorneters commonly use Freon, alcohol or ether which partly fills
the system as liquid and the remainder is vapor filled. Measurement of vapor pressure
gives an indication of liquid surface temperature and Is usually used in the range
500C to 2600C, with the upper limit fixed by the critical temperature of the liquid which
must have a low boiling point (high vapor pressure). The scale is non-linear; ambient
variations can be neglected but there can be appreciable time lags and the device is not
well suited to remote indication.
Gas-filled
Gas-filled thermometers usually employ nitrogen or helium under highpressure:pressure
is proportional to absolute temperature at constant volume. The usual temperature
range is 500c to 4300c and the scale is linear, Compensation for ambient temperature
variation is difficult. When used as a sensor linked to a pneumatic transducer it is a very
effective device.

Describe the principal features of a bimetallic thermometer

The bi-metallic element consists of two strips of different metals, with different thermal
expansion coefficients, inseparably joined together. This strip is spirally or helically
wound with one end fixed to the of the thermometer, and the other attached to the axis
of a pointer. Measurement of temperature is made with the bi-metallic system inside the
temperature sensor. Temperature variation influences the bi-metallic strip such as to
rotate the pointer; this rotation is indicated on a dial. Main disadvantages are they are
not very accurate and they are not suitable for measuring lower temperature as the
metals and metallic alloys show nearly same expansion or contraction in lower range of
temperature.
State that Ole range and accuracy varies according to the material used in the
detecting element
The accuracy of the bimetallic thermometer depends upon what metal or alloy used for
the bimetallic strip. Metals used in bimetallic strips are: Brass and Nickel-Iron alloy with
chromium & manganese for High expansion and for Low Expansion; Invar (alloy of
nickel & iron) is used.
Sketches and describe a resistance-type measuring instrument based on the
Wheatstone bridge
The electrical resistance of a metal varies with temperature and this relationship is
usually expressed as pa PO (1 + at)), where PO Is the specific resistance attemperature
CC, PO, Is the specific resistance at temperature OOC and a is a constant which
depends upon the metal and is called the temperature coefficient of resistance. Figure
1.2 shows diagrammatically a resistance type of temperature measuring unit using the
well-known Wheatstone bridge principle. rlr2 is a variable resistance used for balance
purposes; at balance we have:
r Is the resistance of each of the wires and since each wire will be subjected to the
same temperature variation along its length their resistances will always be equal.
When the temperature detecting element is subjected to temperature alteration ts
resistance alters and the bridge balance is upset. By using the variable resistor rlr2
balance can be restored (i.e. galvanometer reading returned to zero) and while this

is being done another pointer can be moved simultaneously and automatically to give
the temperature Ulis is known as the null balance method Altematively, the
galvanometer can give the temperature reading directly, in this case no variable
resistance rl r2 would be required. For the measurement of ambient temperature
conditions the resistances, apart from the temperature measuring resistance, would
have to be made of a metal whose resistance does not vary with temperature. A metal
which nearly fulfils this requirement is constantan. Resistance thermometers can be
exceedingly accurate. Platinum is the most suitable sensing wire element but copper
and nickel wire are used in the range 1000C to 2000C and tungsten. molybdenum and
tantalum are used to 1200'C, in protective atrnospheres, The platinum element usually
has a resistance of 100 ohms at OOC (hence the term PTIOO), in which case
resistance Of wires is limited to about 3 ohms. Use up to 6000C with twin wires is often
acceptable with the three-wire method used for higher accuracy; measurement is by
Wheatstone, Kelvin or Mueller bridges or potentiometric methods.
Describe the characteristics of a thermistor and the conditions for which it is
suitable
Thermistor is special type of resistor, whose resistance varies more sonificantly with
temperature than it-I standard resistors. Generally, the resistance increases with tie
temperature for most of the metals but the thermistors respond negatively i.e. the
resistance of the thermistors decrease with the increase in temperature. This is the
main principle behind thermistor. As the resistance of thermistors depends on the
temperature, they can be connected in the electrical circuit to measure the temperature
of the body.
Thermistors are mainly used as temperature sensors, inrush current limiters, selfresetting over-current protectors and self-regulating heating elements, A thermistor is
made from a semiconductor material. It is shaped into a disc, a rod or a bead. Bead
thermistors may be only a few millimetres in diameter. Some bead thermistors have the
bead enclosed in a glass capsule.
Sketch a circuit in a thermocouple and describe its operation
A thermocouple is a device used extensively for measuring temperature. A
thermocouple is comprised of at least two metals joined together to form two junctions.
One is connected to body whose temperature is to be measured; this is the hot or
measuring junction. The other junction connected to a body of known temperature;
this is the cold or reference junction, Therefore the thermocouple measures unknown

temperature of the body with reference to the known temperature of the other body.
The working principle of thermocouple is based on three effects, discovered by
Seebeck, Peltier and Thomson. They are as follows:
1) Seebeck effect: The Seebeck effect states that when two different or unlike
metals are joined together at two junctions, an electromotive force (emo is generated at
the two junctions. The amount of emf generated is different for different combinations of
the metals.
2) Peltier effect: As per the Peltier effect, when two dissimilar metals are joined
together to form two junctions, emf is generated within the circuit due to the different
temperatures of the two junctions of the circuit.
3) Thomson effect: As per the Thornson effect, when two unlike metals are joined
together forming two junctions, the potential exists within the circuit due to
temperature gradient along the entire length of the conductorS within the circuit.
In most of the cases the emf suggested by the Thomson effect is very small and
it can be neglected by making proper selection of the metals. The peltier effect plays a
prominent role in the working principle of the thermocouple
How it Works
The general circuit for the working of thermocouple is shown in the 1 above. It
cornprises of two dissimilar metals, A and B. These are joined together to form two
junctions, p and q, which are maintained at the temperatures Tl and T2 respectively.
Remember that the thermocouple cannot be formed if there are not two junctions. Since
the two junctions are maintained at different temperatures the Peltier emf is generated
within the circuit and it is the function of the temperatures of two junctions.
If the temperature of both the junctions is same, equal and opposite emf Will be
generated at both junctions and the net current flowing through the junction is n'ro. If the
junctions are maintained at different the ernfs Will not become and there will be a net
current flowing through the circuit. total emf flowing through this circuit derx.nds on the
metals used within the circuit as well as the temperature Of the two junctions. The total
emf or the current flowing through the circuit can be measured easily by the suitable
device.

The device for measuring the current or emf is connected within the circuit Of the
thermocouple. It measures the amount of emf flowing through the circuit due to the two
junctions of the two dissimilar metals maintained at different temrrratures. In figure 2 the
two junctions of the thermocouple and the device used for measurement Of emf
(potentiometer) are shown.
Now. the temperature Of the reference junctions is already known. While the
temperature of measuring junction is unknown. output obtained from the thermocouple
circuit is calibrated directly against the unknown temperature. Thus the voltage or
current Output Obtained from thermocouple circuit gives the value Of unknown
temperature directly.
Describes the principles Of an optical pyrometer
Until microchips and compact electronic equipment became popular in the 1980s, an
optical pyrometer was what you used if you wanted to rneasure the temperature of
something extremely hot and relatively inaccessible. such as the inside of a steel
fumace or a pottery kiln. It measured the temperature, at a safe distance, by comparing
the radiation the hot object produced with the radiation produced by a hot filament (a
thin wire through which electricity flows. like the wire in an old-fashioned incandescent
light bulb. which glows white when it gets hot).HOW does an optical pyrometer work?
You look through a telescope eyepiece, through a red filter (to protect your eyes). at the
object you're measuring (typically through a spyhole set into a kiln or a Tuyre in a
fumacethe nozzle where air is blown in). What you see is a dull red glow from the hot
object with a line of brighter light frorn the filament running right through it and
superimposed on top. You turn a knob on the side of the pyrometer to adjust the electric
current passing through the filament. This makes the filament a bit hotter or colder and
alters the light it gives off. When the filament is exactly the same temperature as the hot
object you're measuring, it effectively disappears because the radiation its producing is
the same color. At that point, you stop looking through the eyepiece and read the
temperature off a meter. The meter is actually measuring the electric current through the
filament, but it's calibrated (marked with a scale) so that it effectively converts current
measurements into temperature.
Accurate and convenient, they make it easy to measure temperatures of over 30000C
(5400'F) at a safe distance. But, on the downside, they can be expensive, have to be
calibrated property, need some skill to use, and are affected by ambient (background)
temperatures.