Vector Fields

Mathematics 55 - Elementary Analysis 3

Institute of Mathematics
University of the Philippines-Diliman

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Introduction
The following shows air velocity vectors that indicate the wind speed and
direction at points above the surface elevation in Philippine area on
March 16, 2009 00 :00 UTC.

To each point in the air we associate a vector (wind velocity). This is an

example of a vector field
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Vector Fields

Definition
A vector field on R2 (or R3 ) is a function ~
F that assigns to each (x, y)
(or (x, y, z)) a two (or three) dimensional vector ~
F (x, y) (or
~
F (x, y, z)).Representations of the vector ~
F (x, y) (or ~
F (x, y, z)) with
initial point (x, y) (or (x, y, z)) are called flowlines of the vector field.

Notations :
~
F (x, y) = P(x, y)i + Q(x, y)j
~
F (x, y, z) = P(x, y, z)i + Q(x, y, z)j + R(x, y, z)k
The functions P, Q and R (if it is present) are called the scalar
functions.

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Vector Field
Example
A vector field on R2 is defined by ~
F (x, y) = yi + xj. Describe ~
F by
sketching some vectors ~
F (x, y).
(x, y)

~
F (x, y)

(1, 0)
(1, 0)
(0, 1)
(0, 1)
(2, 2)
(2, 2)
(2, 2)
(2, 2)

0, 1
0, 1
1, 0
1, 0
2, 2
2, 2
2, 2
2, 2

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3D Examples
If ~
V (x, y, z) is the velocity vector
at any point (x, y, z), of a fluid
flowing steadily along a pipe,

If a mass M is located at the

origin and another mass m has

position vector ~
R = x, y, z then
the gravitational force acting
on this object is ~
F (x, y, z) =
mMG
~
R,

k~
Rk3

then ~
V is a vector field, called
the velocity field.
called the gravitational field.

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Gradient Field
R ECALL : The gradient of f :
f (x, y) = fx (x, y)i + fy (x, y)j
f (x, y, z) = fx (x, y, z)i + fy (x, y, z)j + fz (x, y, z)k
Therefore, f is really a vector field and is called the gradient vector
field.
Definition
A vector field ~
F is said to be conservative if it is a gradient vector
field, that is, there is a function f such that f = ~
F.
Such function f is called a potential function for ~
F.

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Conservative Vector Field, an example

Example
The vector field ~
F (x, y) = (y 3 2xy)i + (3xy 2 x2 + 2)j is conservative.
Find all potential functions of ~
F.
S OLUTION : Let f (x, y) be a potential function of ~
F . Then,
fx (x, y) = y 3 2xy
f (x, y) = xy 3 x2 y + g(y)
fy (x, y) = 3xy 2 x2 + g 0 (y)
3xy 2 x2 + 2 = 3xy 2 x2 + g 0 (y)
g 0 (y) = 2
g(y) = 2y + c
Therefore,
f (x, y) = xy 3 x2 y + 2y + c
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Conservative Vector Field, a counter-example

Example

Show that the vector field ~

F (x, y) = 2x + y, 2x y is not
conservative.

S OLUTION : Assume ~
F is consevative and let f (x, y) be a potential
function of ~
F . Then,
fx (x, y) = 2x + y
f (x, y) = x2 + xy + g(y)
fy (x, y) = x + g 0 (y)
2x y

= x + g 0 (y)

g 0 (y) = x y
which is absurd !
Hence, such function f does not exist, i.e. ~
F is not conservative.
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Curl and Divergence

Definition
Let ~
F (x, y, z) = P(x, y, z)i + Q(x, y, z)j + R(x, y, z)k be a vector field on R3
such that all partial derivatives of P, Q and R exist.
1
The divergence of ~
F , denoted div~
F is the scalar field given by
div~
F = Px (x, y, z) + Qy (x, y, z) + Rz (x, y, z)

The curl of ~
F , denoted curl~
F , is the vector field given by

curl~
F = Ry (x, y, z) Qz (x, y, z) i + Pz (x, y, z) Rx (x, y, z) j

+ Qx (x, y, z) Py (x, y, z) k

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Curl and Divergence

Define the differential operator (del) =

(i.e for f (x, y, z), f = fx , fy , fz )

, ,
.
x y z

Then
div~
F = ~
F
curl~
F = ~
F
Notice that the curl is defined only for a vector field on R3 , so to find
the curl of a vector field on R2 , we treat it as a vector field in R3 with
R 0 (third component is the zero scalar function).

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Curl and Divergence

Consider a velocity field ~

F in a fluid flow.
Particles near a point P(x, y, z) tend to rotate
about an axis in the direction of curl~
F (x, y, z). If
~
~
~
curlF = 0 at P, then F is said to be irrotational
at P.
The divergence represents the net rate of change (with respect to
time) of the mass of fluid flowing from P per unit volume, i.e.,
div~
F (x, y, z) measures the tendency of the fluid to diverge from P
(sink/source). If div~
F = 0 at P, then ~
F is said to be incompressible at
P.

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Curl and Divergence

Example

Determine the curl and divergence of ~

F = y 2 , 2y z, xyz .

S OLUTION
div~
F

~
=
F

=
, ,
y 2 , 2y z, xyz
x y z
(y 2 ) (2y z) (xyz)
+
+
x
y
z
= 2 + xy
=

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Curl and Divergence

Example

Determine the curl and divergence of ~

F = y 2 , 2y z, xyz .

S OLUTION
curl~
F

~
=
F

=
, ,
y 2 , 2y z, xyz
x y z

i
j
k

= x
y
z
2
y
2y z xyz

= xz + 1, yz, 2y

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Some theorems
Theorem

Let ~
F (x, y, z) = P(x, y, z), Q(x, y, z), R(x, y, z) be a conservative vector
field. If P, Q and R have continuous partial derivatives, then
curl~
F =~0.

P ROOF. Suppose ~
F is conservative. Then there exists f (x, y, z) such
that P = fx , Q = fy and R = fz .
Also, since P, Q and R have continuous partial derivatives,
fxy = fyx , fyz = fzy , fxz = fzx .
Therefore,
curl~
F

i
j
j
k i
k

= x y z = x y z

P Q R fx f y f z

= fzy fyz , fxz fzx , fyx fxy =~0

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Some theorems
The converse of the previous theorem is not generally true. That is,
if curl~
F =~0, it does not follow immediately that ~
F is conservative.
However, we have the following :
Corollary
If curl~
F 6=~0, then ~
F is not conservative.

We have seen from a previous example that ~

F (x, y) = 2x + y, 2x y
is not conservative. Indeed,

i
j
k

~
curl~
F = x
y
z = 0, 0, 1 6= 0

2x + y 2x y 0

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Some theorems
Theorem

Let ~
F (x, y, z) = P(x, y, z), Q(x, y, z), R(x, y, z) . If P, Q and R have
continuous second-order partial derivatives, then div(curl~
F ) = 0.

P ROOF.
div(curl~
F ) = curl~
F

=
, ,
R y Q z , Pz R x , Q x P y
x y z
(Ry Qz ) (Pz Rx ) (Qx Py )
=
+
+
x
y
z
= Ryx Qzx + Pzy Rxy + Qxz Pyz
= 0
since if P, Q and R have continuous partial derivatives, Pyz = Pzy ,
Qxz = Qzx and Rxy = Ryx .

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Some theorems
Recall the following definitions
Definition
1

A curve C is simple if it does not intersect itself.

A curve C is closed if its initial and terminal points coincide.

A region D is connected if any two points in D can be

connected by a path that lies entirely in D.

A connected region D is simply connected if every simple

closed curve in D encloses points that are in D, that is, D has
no holes.

closed but not simple

connected but not simply connected

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Some theorems

Theorem
If ~
F is a vector field defined on a simply-connected region D R3
whose components have continuous partial derivatives, then ~
F is
~
~
conservative if and only if curlF = 0.
P ROOF. See Calculus, Early Transcendentals Sec. 16.8.
Corollary

Let ~
F (x, y) = P(x, y), Q(x, y) be defined on a simply-connected region
such that P and Q have continuous partial derivatives. Then, ~
F is
conservative if and only if Py (x, y) = Qx (x, y).

P ROOF. Exercise.
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Exercises

Determine whether or not ~

F is conservative. If it is, find all
potential functions for ~
F.

a. ~
F (x, y) = ex sin y, ex cos y

y
b. ~
F (x, y) = yex + sin y, ex + x cos

c. ~
F (x, y) = y 2 , 2xy + e3z , 3ye3z

Find the curl and divergence of the vector field.

i (x2 y)k
a. ~
F (x, y, z) = (xyz)

b. ~
F (x, y, z) = ln x, ln xy, ln xyz

Assuming that the appropriate partial derivatives exist and are

continuous, show that div(~
F ~
G) = ~
G curl~
F ~
F curl~
G
2

~
Consider the vector field F = y , 2y z, xyz .
a. Find all points P(x, y, z) such that ~
F is incompressible.
b. Show that ~
F can not be the curl of another vector field ~
G.

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References

Stewart, J., Calculus, Early Transcendentals, 6 ed., Thomson

Brooks/Cole, 2008

Dawkins, P., Calculus 3, online notes available at

http ://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/

Gierach, M., Graber, H., Caruso, M., Remote Sensing of Environment,

117(289U300)
, 2012

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