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a,*
, F. Zwick
Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies, Institute of Energy Technology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology,
ETH Center, ML J 36, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland
b
ABB Corporate Research Ltd., Segelhof, 5405 Baden-Dattwil, Switzerland
Received 1 June 2002; received in revised form 30 January 2003
Abstract
Open-cell metal foams with an average cell diameter of 2.3 mm were manufactured from 6101-T6 aluminum alloy
and were compressed and fashioned into compact heat exchangers measuring 40.0 mm 40.0 mm 2.0 mm high,
possessing a surface area to volume ratio on the order of 10,000 m2 /m3 . They were placed into a forced convection
arrangement using water as the coolant. Heat uxes measured from the heater-foam interface ranged up to 688 kW m2 ,
which corresponded to Nusselt numbers up to 134 when calculated based on the heater-foam interface area of 1600
mm2 and a Darcian coolant ow velocity of approximately 1.4 m/s. These experiments performed with water were
scaled to estimate the heat exchangers performance when used with a 50% waterethylene glycol solution, and were
then compared to the performance of commercially available heat exchangers which were designed for the same heat
transfer application. The heat exchangers were compared on the basis of required pumping power versus thermal resistance. The compressed open-cell aluminum foam heat exchangers generated thermal resistances that were two to
three times lower than the best commercially available heat exchanger tested, while requiring the same pumping
power.
2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Metal foam; Porous media; Heat transfer; Open-cell aluminum foam
1. Introduction
Flow through porous media has been studied in
detail ever since Darcys publication in 1856
(Darcy, 1856). His work described the uid ow
pressure drop across a porous medium as a linear
function of the ow velocity and material permeability. Since then, a series of improvements have
0167-6636/$ - see front matter 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.mechmat.2003.02.001
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Nomenclature
A
C
CTE
D
FS
K
L
M
Nu
P
Q
R
Re
T
V
W_
c
f
h
j
k
area [m2 ]
form coecient [m1 ]
coecient of thermal expansion
[m m1 K1 ]
diameter [m]
Full scale
permeability [m2 ]
length [m]
compression factor []
Nusselt number (dened in Eq. (12)) []
pressure [bar]
volumetric ow rate [m3 s1 ]
thermal resistance (dened in Eq. (12))
[K W1 ]
Reynolds number (dened in Eq. (4)) [
]
temperature [C, K]
velocity [m s1 ]
pumping power [W]
specic heat [kJ kg1 K1 ]
friction factor []
convection coecient [W m2 K1 ]
Colburn factor (dened in Eq. (10)) []
thermal conductivity [W m1 K1 ]
Lage (1998). An end result of the nearly 150 yearold work in porous media is the widely accepted
equation (Eq. (1)) which governs the pressure drop
of a uid passing through a porous medium.
DP
l
V qCV 2
L
K
The term DP is the pressure drop across the medium, L is the length of the medium in the ow
direction, l is the dynamic viscosity of the uid, K
is the permeability of the medium, V is the clearchannel (Darcian) velocity of the uid, q is the
density of the uid, and C is the form coecient of
the medium.
The extension of the uid dynamic work in
porous media in a channel to include simultaneous
convective heat transfer can be traced back as far
as Koh and Colony (1974); Koh and Stevens
m_
q
w
Greek symbols
D
dierence []
a
thermal diusivity [m2 s1 ]
e
porosity fraction (range 100 P e > 0) [%]
l
dynamic viscosity [kg m1 s1 ]
m
kinematic viscosity [m2 s1 ]
q
density [kg m3 ]
Subscripts
c
coolant
con
convection
cs
cross-sectional
e
eective
f
uid
hyd
hydraulic
inlet
inlet
outlet outlet
p
perimeter
pl
plate
s
solid
th
thermal
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This increase in overall eective thermal conductivity of the soliduid system to a level above that
predicted by Eq. (2) was shown in the 2-D conduction model by Calmidi and Mahajan (1999).
Noting the inuence of the structure on the thermal conductivity of the metal foam matrix,
Boomsma and Poulikakos (2001) developed an
2. Experiment
2.1. Apparatus
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Fig. 1. (a) Open-cell aluminum foam (T-6106 alloy) in its as-manufactured state with a porosity of e 92% and approximately 6 mm
diameter pores (ks 200 W m1 K1 ). (b) Close-up view on an individual cell of the aluminum foam depicted in (a). (c) Open-cell metal
foam similar to that shown in (a), but after compression by a factor of four. (d) Close-up view of the compressed foam depicted in (c).
Note the altered form of the individual cells that had originally resembled the cell in (b).
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through which the heat was conducted and eventually convected into the coolant stream. The
characterization of the open-cell metal foam heat
exchangers included measuring the temperature of
the heater block, the temperature of the heat
spreader plate, the coolant temperature at several
locations in the coolant ow, the power delivered
to the heating device, and the pressure drop across
the heat exchangers for various coolant ow rates.
A general overview of the experimental apparatus
is shown in Fig. 2. The channel assembly is shown
in detail in two separate views in Fig. 3.
Eight pressure taps measuring 0.2 mm in diameter were bored into the housing at various
locations to measure the static pressure, as seen in
Fig. 3(b). The outermost ports were used for the
pressure drop calculations to avoid the static
pressure variations generated by the acceleration
and deceleration of the uid as it enters and leaves
the metal foam. The other six ports were used as a
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symmetry check of the ow. During the experiments, the pressure variation between the left and
right ports did not uctuate more than 3% and was
therefore neglected.
The metal foam heat exchanger housing was
manufactured from Ryton R4, which has a low
thermal conductivity (0.3 W m1 K1 ) and a reasonable CTE (22 106 m/m C). The static pressure drop of the coolant across the metal foam
heat exchanger was measured by two dierent
dierential pressure transducers corresponding to
their individual pressure ranges. A Huba dierential pressure transducer was used for measuring
the pressure in the lower pressure range, from 0 to
0.20 bar, with an accuracy of 0.5% FS (0.001
bar). For the pressure range from 0.20 to 3.45 bar,
an Omega (PX81DO-050DT) dierential pressure transducer was employed with an accuracy
of 0.25% FS (0.009 bar). E-type thermocouples (chromel/constantan) of 0.15 mm diameter
Oscilloscope
Data Acquisition PC
Rotameter
Pressure Transducer
Pressure
Regulating
Valve
Thermocouples
20.0
Valve Array
USB
Data Acquisition Device
Coolant Chiller/
Recirculator
Coolant Flow Direction
Fig. 2. Schematic view of the experimental setup used to measure the thermal and hydraulic characteristics of the compressed aluminum foam heat exchangers.
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METAL FOAM
PRESSURE PORTS
FLOW
INLET
FLOW
OUTLET
(a)
FLOW
INLET
4cm
7cm
FLOW
OUTLET
(b)
Fig. 3. (a) Cross-sectional view of the foam test housing which shows the location of the aluminum foam heat exchanger, the heater
assembly, and the path of the coolant ow. (b) Top view of the foam test housing depicted in (a) with the lid removed to show the
placement of the foam component of the assembled compressed foam heat exchanger.
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Table 1
Compressed foam physical data (Panel A), uncompressed foam physical data (Panel B)
Foam
Panel A
5%
8%
Compression
Name
2
4
6
8
95-02
95-04
95-06
95-08
90.0
80.0
70.0
60.0
88.2
80.5
68.9
60.8
2
3
6
92-02
92-03
92-06
84.0
76.0
52.0
87.4
82.5
66.9
Panel B
Foam
40 PPI
2.3
2700
92.8
The porosities of the aluminum foams were calculated by weighing them and comparing the
density to that of solid 6101-T6 aluminum alloy.
The corresponding expected porosities were also
calculated by Eq. (3), using the manufacturers
stated initial, uncompressed porosity of euncompressed
and the given nominal compression factor, M.
Table 1 lists both the measured and expected po-
100
Expected Porosity (95%)
Effective Porosity (95%)
Expected Porosity (92%)
Effective Porosity (92%)
90
80
[%] 70
60
50
0
10
M
Fig. 4. Plot of the porosity of the raw foam material which was
used in the aluminum foam heat exchangers. The lines denote
the porosity predicted by the manufacturers stated initial porosity (e) and compression factor (M) based on Eq. (3), while
the individual points are the measured values for the raw foam
material.
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3.2
80
95-02
95-04
95-06
95-08
92-02
92-03
92-06
70
60
50
P/L
40
[barm-1]
2.8
2.4
2.0
1.6
30
1.2
20
0.8
10
0.4
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
P
[bar]
0.0
2.0
[ms-1]
Fig. 5. Pressure-drop curves for the metal foam heat exchangers plotted on a length-normalized (DPL1 ) and actual
pressure scale (DP ) against the Darcian ow velocity (V ).
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Table 2
Flow resistance comparison
Foam
95-02
95-04
95-06
95-08
92-02
92-03
92-06
a
Unbrazeda
K [1010 m2 ]
C [m1 ]
K [1010 m2 ]
rk [%]
C [m1 ]
rC [%]
44.4
19.7
5.25
2.46
36.7
23.0
3.88
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2707
4728
8701
1142
1785
5518
34.4
6.87
3.16
2.52
30.8
8.26
3.95
13.4
7.0
8.7
7.4
10.2
9.1
6.7
1276
2957
5066
4731
1472
2820
3399
2.9
3.2
9.8
5.6
5.0
3.9
5.4
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100
Nu
95-02
95-04
95-06
95-08
92-02
92-03
92-06
f 10
1
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Re
Fig. 6. The calculated friction factor (f ) of the aluminum foam
heat exchangers based on Eq. (5) plotted against the Re as dened in Eq. (4).
4Acs
Lp
hDhyd
q
Dhyd
Acon DT kc
kc
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q
Dhyd
Acon Tpl Tc;inlet kc
m_ cTc;outlet Tc;inlet Dhyd
Acon Tpl Tc;inlet kc
10
140
120
100
80
95-02
95-04
95-06
95-08
92-02
92-03
92-06
plate
Nu
[-] 60
40
20
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
V [m/s]
Fig. 7. The heat convection quantifying Nu as calculated in Eq.
(7) plotted against the Darcian ow velocity (V ).
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0.25
100
95-02
95-04
95-06
95-08
92-02
92-03
92-06
0.20
0.15
95-02
95-04
95-06
95-08
92-02
92-03
92-06
plate
10
W
[W]
0.10
0.1
0.05
0.01
0.00
0.001
(a)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
50
Re
Fig. 8. The commonly used heat exchanger characterization
parameter, the Colburn j factor of Eq. (11) plotted against the
Re as dened in Eq. (4).
W_ DPQ
12
DT
Tpl Tc;inlet
q
m_ cTc;outlet Tc;inlet
13
200
10
15
20
95-02
95-04
95-06
95-08
92-02
92-03
92-06
In any heat exchanger design, the heat convection performance of the heat exchanger must be
weighed against the energy required to operate the
system, which is the pumping power in this conguration. The required pumping power was calculated for the aluminum foam heat exchangers at
various coolant ow velocities according to Eq.
(12).
150
100
Rth [K . kW 1]
W
[W]
(b)
0
0
Rth [K . kW 1]
Fig. 9. (a) Plot of the required pumping power (W_ ) dened in
Eq. (12) against the corresponding thermal resistances (Rth ) as
calculated in Eq. (13). (b) Close-up view of the pumping power
versus thermal resistance plot of (a) showing foam 92-06 best
approaching the ideal zero-approaching value for both the
pumping power and thermal resistance.
ant across the heat exchanger. During the experiments, the power losses to the environment did not
exceed 10%.
The thermal resistances were calculated for the
aluminum foam heat exchangers and the bare
plate at various coolant ow velocities and were
plotted in Fig. 9 against the required pumping
power as dened in Eq. (12). Fig. 9(a) is a convenient log plot of the data for a general overview. In
the corresponding plot of the same data in Fig.
9(b) on a linear scale, the optimal design is that
which minimizes the distance from the point to the
origin of the plot. This point was obtained by
foam 92-06, with a thermal resistance of 8.00
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Table 3
Coolant properties at 300 K
Property coolant
Density
q [kg m3 ]
Thermal conductivity
k 103 [W m1 K1 ]
Dynamic viscosity
l 103 [N s m2 ]
Specic heat
c [J kg1 K1 ]
Water
50% waterethylene glycol
997
1034
613
420
0.86
3.19
4179
3302
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1000
95-02
95-04
95-06
95-08
92-02
92-03
92-06
plate
100
10
W
[W]
1
0.2 mm Gap
0.1
0.01
0
Rth [ K . kW 1]
10
12
Table 4
Average uncertainty of coecients (%)
Foam
Nu
ReK
W_
95-02
95-04
95-06
95-08
92-02
92-03
92-06
17.9
13.1
14.5
13.6
16.3
13.7
12.6
19.3
14.5
25.8
14.3
16.9
14.7
15.1
11.8
9.6
11.9
11.5
13.2
10.3
10.3
16.5
16.5
20.6
20.6
13.5
16.5
18.3
21.6
17.3
28.6
18.0
19.1
17.5
18.2
17.1
8.8
7.8
8.5
15.7
9.9
7.9
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References
The coecients plotted in Figs. 510 were analyzed for their associated uncertainties following
the standard procedure outlined in Taylor (1997).
An example to nd the absolute uncertainty value
of f , labeled as wf , which is a function of V and P
is as follows:
s
2
2
of
of
wV
wP
14
wf
oV
oP
4. Conclusion
Open-cell aluminum foams were compressed by
various factors and then fashioned into heat exchangers intended for electronic cooling applications which dissipate large amounts of heat.
Various common heat exchanger evaluation
methods were applied to the data assembled from
the extensive heat transfer experiments, which included the hydraulic characterization, the heat
transfer performance, and an eciency study to
determine the most ecient metal foam heat exchanger conguration for a particular heat transfer conguration. It was seen that the compressed
aluminum foams performed well not only in the
heat transfer enhancement, but they also made a
signicant improvement in the eciency over
several commercially available heat exchangers
which operate under nearly identical conditions.
The metal foam heat exchangers decreased the
thermal resistance by nearly half when compared
to currently used heat exchangers designed for the
same application.
Acknowledgements
It is gratefully acknowledged that this research
was supported jointly by the Swiss Commission
for Technology and Innovation (CTI) through
project no. 4150.2 and by the ABB Corporate
Research Center, Baden-D
attwil, Switzerland.
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