Professional Documents
Culture Documents
and the
Seven Liberal Arts
VOl.UM E 1
or THI.:
ALL EGORY
by RicharJJohnMnl wilh E. L
84
me
"
TI!': ALLEGORY
_IIIJ.
86
by Roben: TUrcan.lO
Ftom these passages it is cltar c/ut while the nomu Ind manyeharacreristics of tbc Olymplan deiti .. have beco n:rained, tbe Olymplan
panthcon has beco intcgn.ted into the tstral. n:ligion whieh penne.res
Neoplarooism, Ncopytbagoreonism, and Stoicism. T heir 1Ibod.. IR
aronnd me rodiac, and tbey are idmtified with celestial bodies. The
rep ..... otalon of Mercury varies from an antltropornorphie bridogroom (S, 35, aod p.usim) and
of che gods, to cbe Neoplaronlc Mind (9'), ro I planet with. f'IXW aod known orbit (8, 'S,
'9). Apollo is Ir une time tbe god of prophecy sitting on o rock I t
Pl.." T""""", Fe. Q<>rp. joSa; /o.Empodocl.., ... JI. [);elo ud W. Knnz,
.do., , _ e <kr'
.., '1:17-9'> ,"po 1'''''8''' ,a.'9> J.,
, Seo abo ... p. ,o.
"Murianus Copolb aod me ('.ocmic Sy=m of di. Etm ........ " J-..M
Rqm..,. SIIId/ts, XXXVI ('1>1'1), 10'-'9 "Die: GOuet d.. M.nian.., CopoJh. un<! de< Ik<>ttukbcr >'OII Pi>c<au." 1M;"
ivwS<",bi&b,li&b. V..#i<b."" V<>r..-hMm, Vol. UI pt. ,'906) .
" "Mortionus Copell. CI Junbliq ... R..... dt. I...u. Imnel, XXXVI ('9j8),
'Jj-j+
RELIGIOllS IDEAS
8,
,0-",
" W.
J.
Dtonm.
88
So>turn 6) Of Egyptian. Libyan, Persian, aod Phoeniciao. gods are syncretized in Apollo (19 1-92) .
The dwelling place. of aH these delties are distribllRd in me sky,
borll in plane aod in clevation, .. a draftsman migllt "'y. Their celestial
abodes are describod O$lying in a planc: around the )60 degrees of tite
zodiac (4S-60) rh.y are also described (1;0-6) 0$ being at differeot
ltvds in ekvanon, frorn the celestial. 'phcre.t>ove the son, ,..Itere the
muot ualred godIllive, ro the regioru between un lQd muon and then
beN,'(en muon I nd (atth, in t descending sal. of belng nntil we =ch
the surftce of tite nI\, inhabired by mankind. Since men', souls Irt
m""" of fire (originaring (rom the divine srm) ;md h'ove rvtunll
rendency ro rille if unhindered by tite body. the purer souls mayo w hen
rdeed from the hody, ucend more or less high in tlW seale of being.
Thos eoncept Ilcin ro the o,ristian COllCOpr of ""lvJ.[;on, o crem. l
folicity merited by life un ea",h, H implicit in thi. originally Neopythag_
oreon .ystem;" .nd related ro rhis C<lncept H the . uitudo of tsettici.sm
wruch condemns tite body as impure, an obstaclt 2nd hindr.mce tO tite
divine fire-an arotude rcjectw in theo'}' by orthodoJ Ouistimiry but
nonetbeless illnUflKial un mucll uf medienl. OIristian thoughr.. We
begill ro lit< anorhu reunn for tite populariry of Mattitnus' work in
moMStc culture.
However, whercas th. Olristian ottoiru wvauon by fo.im, trust in
God's merey, and love manifesred in deeds none of whic h virtUes dem;md inrellettual gifts-tl!e men w ho in MutWtus'
!lttO.in immort:llity are (with the uoeption of H ercole.) men w hose wisdom, io
marre" of religious lore, agriculture, .00 =hnology, or the &eVen Ins,
h25 bcnefited mankiOO. Th. ide;o !:hat an unturorw pcasant, by the
mere qualicy uf bis Iove for God and Hi! =rures, nuy attain sanctiry
and etemal bl!ss, is alien ro MartiaIlUS irnmortaliry in bis eyes H camed
by fame WOII througlt semce, nut by lov. or ionocence tlone. H e \W5
th. Iast Lotill uponem: uf w hat M.lrrou calls
religion uf culrure, "lO
s:alvatioo through p.ridri.. TII. wedding of Mercucy and Phi1ology
allegorizcs the unioo uf etoquence, ;md intellccrual prowcss which
.. F.
"
pp. '0" 6,
,t.";qrm,, pp. ,""" ,.
"
'j.
" Uuno... p.
"W.inorook. P.
'0"
I)Q
To
llave no principIe of unity; it ""ems lo be a nndom grouping oi subjcen in which any ""bstirutioo of one rOl another wouJd be !lO more
significant Illan Ihe sub6titutiol1 of geography fOI Spanish io. rnodem
pupil's COI1l'ge of study. H owe>'er, teachers of lhe eoorly Middle AgesOIssiodorus, Isidorc,Alcuin, lUbaouo Mmrus,john of Solj.bury,T1tierty
of a..mu'..... regarded it:l.S an integrated curriculum widl ""ven cornponenl:l,.n mcessary, Thc otigins uf the curriculum wcre in clusical
lt is well knowo thatthe IlNdy of rhetorle bcgon in the Greck world
of thc fifth
8,<;' and W2S marhted in AthclL'l hy the Sopbisu;;"
AristotIc is reponed to have regvded Zeno:l.S the fnunder of di,lecrle;" grammar, th. wchnical otudy of longuage, of Ihe trymology .od
of words, abo bogan with the Sophists," The mathelnWcal
srudies I n older than thj, bUI it W2$ in clusk.J Athens, espccWly in
fourth-cenrury Athcns, thot thc Iwo groups of srudic:s--the liter:oryaOO che mathamoCld CllII1C oogethet ro foon a curriculum,
The rheroricion Isocnres rego.rded mathematics (in modcnrion) :as an
acceptable propaedeutic ro rhetorieal study," w hile Plato prescribed
that Ihe guardiam of bis republi<: srudy IiteNlUre in thc:ir boyhood
before mey .pprooeh d,. nuthemoo""J .nd dU.lecti",,1 pcriod of their
rnining," lo the nc:tt genc:mion, Aristotle
pupils 10 llave
"Cas.K>dorw I-u..i<m<, 11 ",0, 1_', Isidou E.ymoloz;.. " .,; Alcuin
0.4."..1.. <M;,n.. n, Vol.
coIs. 811-5V; d, po<Ud<>-Bedt. EI.......... _
Pbl!olOpblu J;bri tv (,\Ugne, Pl., Vol Xc. col, "71), IUb..,.,. lIhuruo D< <I<ri<'-"'1m mrrimIi<m< (Migne. Pl., Vol, cvn, cok 195-.,.>tl, Jahn 01 SoIisbu:ry M._
1, 1>: l . ... ' 1, 9- On Thiury, ... tdourd }duD<t!l, "lA f>'I>Iopt ..
EPI"'''''''''''' do Thierty do: Outtr... M<41MwJ $ntdIn, XV! (''1\'V, '1+ f,
.. Su, e., G. Kenntdy, Tk n t>f P...,...u;O" i" 0 ..., chop..,
Satus Empiricus Ad".,._
n Dioge_ Loerti.. Liw.
Df ""
i. m 9- '5a nu. , tIIe period In whlob 1'I0I0', 0."1/'" jo se<.
a.
.'"g/"""
" s.:.
lO
AmidDm
.6t-69-
9'
91
_01,
9l
,<)-, ,.
94
THE ALLEGORY
TUE TI\IVIUM
95
as a modero teadwr does wim Shakespeare), ,IIe,orical figures, erymologr, any pc:rtintn, tUstory or mytholo8Y (esped.l!y for propc:r
""mes), and in general any item of inform:u:iOll which me urulemarul_
ing of. pmicubr word might require.. Such procedure could give
rhe pupils a broad mass of hisrorical, grognphicol, and otller kn"",ledge in the coursc of litervy srndies, and ro that c>:tcnt it provided 2
form of genenl educatlon; bu, thi.s knowledge was inevitlbty <lisorganized, derived haphazardly from single words as mey oo:lUT'ed io
a lirenry coruen. Moreovcr, this procedure coutd ruin thc work 115
lilerature-oever tr(:ting a pass.ge as whole, .JWlys
it,
breaking rhe continuiry, emphasWng ,he trivial tt .he expense of m.
subUme.
lJi.otecrie was often tl"eated in .ntiquiry as ,he coumerpan of rhetorie. The Sto;e 7.000 liad uscd the irntge of ""nd," ,he denched
fin is dialecric, compre$SCd and fom:ful me opon patm is rhetoric,
expansive ond wide_=ging. The plll"J"'"C of diolecric in me curricutum
WIS 10 min me power of reuoning, to discovC1" and {ortify :be argumento whidt rherone would t hen use.. It WU I subject of Utde interest
to orhe ... m.n pruJ"",phers and iI. pl.ce in Ihe trivium was effectively
as the handrrWd of rhetorie. Nor untit the twelfrh century did ir come
into ito glory.
The ne.>:t major study .fter gnmmor, .od fo[ rn.ny m. ottly om.r
srudy, wu rhororic, genenUy according to :be formal ruteslaid down
by acero, wim enmptes drawn frorn ruS spc:eches. The ,eaching of
rhetoric in Martianus' time had not ehanged much since Quinti.lilln:
first the terms, divisions, 2nd rules of rhetoric, thm the clemtnrary
exercises, finally the
and .u.uori.r., Ihe dedan",riollS. The
policial thernes wcrc still d ....wn frorn the exporieoees of he Rornan
Republic or even the earticr Greek dty-state!, though Rom. liad bn
monsrchy for ccorurics; che
themes were stiU those of Quiotilian's day, though law had becorne incr=ingly a spc:cialist's province.
The main areos Jdt to che ontor as field. fo[ his taleoto were display
or:atory and writing.
The D.rrOwnes\ of this edUClltion, JO apparel\[ to lIS,.. we tist ies sub_
Cicero
ti,,,, . 7.
96
j= <mner aOO procwurts, ..coped ehe ootice of tt. t ..chers ond mose
o its studma btause o the gte.e .aentioo it poid, afrer ies foshioo, to
comprehenslveness. D id it not require the srudy of a1l the seveo
am "" e;:seoti.J f"r 10y e<!ucate<! man? Aod if these srudies were
not .. cohereot inteUectual discip1i= bU! as SCf1Ipi of inormation like m= picked up al nndom in Ihe grmllIlO.r class--<l prac<:dure whieh tO us vitiaees their eduaoJlllI nJue--ir does nor mean they
were dismisscd as unimpornme. "Leaming" wu dcsired ,nd tdmired
in I lIWl insofar as it might hclp his onto'1' Mmphors from ostron_
omy, appeoJ. bosed on ethicol ..gomenes, examples dnwn froro
history (or mythology), thesc w ere sought and V31ucd. So ame those
Iwtdboob of many subj<:ets which Martiaou. used as SOUI'CH, pocket
histories Iikc tbat of Valerlus Muirnll$; ond rhough the "encyclopc<lW"
hJ.d h.d. differem genesis, chey eoo were pue ro
'f'/W; ttadition of polymathy, 01
leaming, was ID oldenablished one. H ippios the Sophist in the fifth = ' 1 M.e. hJ.d an
encyclopedic nnge of intereslS;" Aristoue lu.d trie<! and mu<t lu.ve
pnctially
in mureug tite whole fle!d of lcalmng in his
doy; the ochol.!1 o H eUenistic Ak,..nd . Iu.d tried by eondensing tnd
epieomizing t" reduce the fieJd o knowledge to mon2geobJe proportion. N o one, however, ..eros ro hove tried alone ro write an aceaun!
of a11 tru.I is l<nown unril Varro in tite fitst cenNry Le. H is ...orl<s
trtatisc. on che Lorin I"'gulge and 011
eovered nOe only
agrn:uJture bue .Iso a survey of t he
am (including medicine and
architecture),. VJsr eollection of essa)'S in milccd veNe ,00 prole (tite
Mtnipptlm S4tiur), and a long ...oIk, the Amiquiu, which was
primitive encyclopedia. Varro ""'" ernuLoted by Pliny tbe E/der, wb"..
nephew has \eft u. a vivid picture of bis unde'. "..:isson-oud-pasre"
rnethod, bis $laves wouJd read aloud tO him tM works o others, while
he told thern WMI jWlS>ge; ro excerpt tnd capy OUt." Thc c"nsequences s:condhaud informarion, an unctitical approach, ineonsiJtencics, flilure ro acl<nowledge sources, llclc ni stnlctun--ue a foremm o ManiaUlI$. Altbough many lu.udhoob 011 individw.l. subiec ..
OI groups of subjects were pRpared in the inter'Val, fmm lOme of
.. PIolO Hipp/M M4joT 'lI:!b_
.. P1iny <h. Y0""B"
l. S.
:,"'
Liw.
IIH
i9! .
97
which
did ruS own excerpting, rhere seems ro have oon nO
treatise with tite flInge of Vorro's or
for when Augustine, a'
the same time as Mlnianus, felr impclled ro write on rhe scven libcul
artS, ie wu ro Varro tIlat he turned fOI a mode!. M.rtian\l5' work,
derivW from 50ch oou=s, rllemse lves derivative, could be ptoduced
only in an old .00 ft iling ci<'iliution: cenroes of uue scholanhip.
the whole flInge and depdl ofGreek l1ld R oman learning, lie behind ill
stock definitio,," lts ,rivi.liti.. Ind ;noo"";',enci.., "Are ill rhy eonqucsa, glories, triumphs. spoik, .hrunk ro , m,li,do m ..... re?"
Becawe TIu
was later used as a school rext, it ha. often
be.n tiS\lmod W have been written .. such. Yee ill range i, TOO wide
and its tr..tment too inadcqu.ote, compare<! with the scopc of the
BeCluse
anciene school telTII we Imow, fOI tlm ro have been its
i, conc.ins mmy Neoplaronie and Neopyrh.gorem elcmencs, ir might
appear ro have been I contriblltion for rhe pagan opposirion ro Christianiry; but I r besr this would Ipply only tu me first two books; the
Iasr ,",veo are ideologicolly
and the work . . . whole Ms no
polemicaJ Of etegtTcol purpose or all. &cause it appeared in rime of
crisis and collopse, ir has betn dlought to have betn ineended . . .
surnmory of the lcaming o Intiquity. an Mencydopcru.," ro be trlnsmined co pom:tity before ehe barbarian invasionl: but .gajo che scopc
is roo narrow and deliberately restr;ted. FurthemlOR, such plan
presumes. degree of foresighr and a .eme of foreboding of wmch
MllI'Tianus giV'CS no indicarlon.
These demonts are nor ro be di'reg:o.rded: rhe seveo liberal i rts wc:re
t e base . &chool curriculurn ; the work is rhar of a pagoo using Neoplaronist tenns; ir did appear at. time of cri5is. Bur these f..tures are
not 50fflcient ro explain che won.:. In the words of C1audio Leonardi:
The
<he ......... lU<h he n"t.ik and .,." <Xpllin it i< """ only ounom
of erudition or Neoploroni<t Ioim; io: i< "" ucirud< <>1 "&",,,I.n<" rulrur< ....d
........... of ,.u.justifict.tioo .od
by pultng rytI!jng 00
1, jo .
q""""" of h......., ottltudt .nd cWtut'Sl l'<OCtioo ckuly .. pllrublo In
momen, o/ decl&rcd crisis or &c.deo<:< dof..... by <he puodiRf! of .u "",,',
.'ptoperty". o..., oe<:<UIII1!1rioll oi leo""",."
<Id."""
98
fetrures of he work. For {tUs =n. ir covers allhe seven 1ibem lIftS
traditionally "occssary to Ih<: formation of lO educaled mano For bis
reason, ir empJoys the language and so/le of pelhntic displo.y, rhe tor_
tuousneu . nd bombas! of " wtit<::r straining ro imprc .. bis reade .. with
his literuy skiUs, and to show off his Imowledge of G reek terms,
G=k proper ntmeS, Greek dedensions. For mis reasotl, does. OOok
on tite seven lnS have a gludy mylhological fnmework, Joden Ind
frctted with olk:gory, to our eyes $O disproportion.", in siu and inappropriare ro the main body of the work. !Wrti.nus is dispbying his
leaming, in a rcligious eontext, perhaps ro win for him..clf the im_
mortality ha Plato and AIiscotle, Cicero and Varro, Ichicved. And.,
bis bults, bas he not becu to $OIJlC exletlt ,nceo/fuI'
with.n
THE TJl.lVIUM
PI'-
obo
TUE TII.IVIUM
99
!hip in antiquity, wcre tbCJJlKlves pupils of the StQics Ae1ius StiJo and
Posidonius, respecrively." There were a Stoic Ipproach tO
and
I Sroic theory of grarnmar, just 3S there wu a Stoic logic; IUd, by
thcir scholarly inte=r in tbese fields, combined with dteir srudies of
comIology .nd th.ir quasi-religious philosophy, the Stoics had the
most UnpolW1t inf)uence in esrablisrung in the minds of the general
edUC3ted public both me connection bctween die trivium and tite quadrivium and the counecrian between the sU'en
ond phiJosopby,"
In V inO'. encyclopedia and acero', meroricol worb, gramnu.r, daleerle. aud rhotoe .re me only
subjects whieh find
a pl.ce in me prognm oi
T his refIects thcr aC<:epted position
in the
f>4MeilJ, in which they rc.maiu unril Maro.nus' tim . ...
GRAMMAR
er,,.,..
100
s..
n
obono ... .., .
.. Soe po Do 1.......
0'",,""1 oloo 90 )-6; ,o. 010.
poi ...
C!tAMMA!t
w,
e.ight po"" of spccch. Subscquent Lacin grunrrwianIlldd little of signir""nce tO the work of VltrO nd P-I.liemon. The .pprolch of the
liner, which survives molit fuUy in tbe treotisc of Otorisius, is cvident
in rnosr bler gnunrnari.ans, induding Monianus.
Martionus' ranumr begins with a Wmition of tite $COpe of the
wbjcct, then moves into on exrum.tive discumon of lemn, their
p"""'0le positions in worus, Ind lteir pronunciation. Syn.bles lre nert
<SCussed. Wil11 comider,ble memion id tO pronunduion Ind
aa;enru.otion. Tite di5Cussion of final iJlbblcs is cnncinued through
e""h of be po"" o spccch. giving {he r.:ader sorne introduction tO the
<ledensions of nouns amI the conjugations of verbh These ropics ore
conside",d at g""'ter length in Morcltnw;' nen oecrion, on anaIogy as
.pplied firsc ro nouns .nd adjectivcs, then ro veros. The trelOse coneludes wim One section on anomaly, complaely diferem in Ufl.
frorn the rtSt of che trtatise.
The lOmees of Martianus' Book 111 lttve liceo moroughly invcsti.
g:lted by Wilhehn Longbein," foUowing :m .:arlier study by Jollann
Jrgensen. u The srudy is rntde particululy difficult, not to say in
ronclusive, I.>ecausc our $urviving LItio gnrnmatical tre:otises are
rnainly of che fourm century A.D. Or bter,.nd che most one can do is
compare Manianus wim each o tItese and construct hypot:ltcKs ro
aplain sUnibrities or differences..
There ue many pointo of correspondenc. between Manianus' third
book .ud me work of Diomedes (dating from tite later fourth cenrury
A.D.), which JUrgenoen apbins by supposmg tila! both borrowed fmm
comrnon ""urce. "I"his nu.y be true, but the source, ir :my, Iu.s pero
ished. As Langbe.in points out, motcOver, there lre aIso many cotrCspondroccs lletwern Mattianus and Charisius, Muimus V1cturinns,
Servius, and oc leur one anonymoWl Imllor; and they Canoot In be
shown ro de"""nd froro one cOnnnon source . Funhermore, Martianus
differs from Diomcdes in his definirlon o .yU.ble, in distinguishing
lhe thrcc porto of syJable, in distinguishing me foor gcner. of jwIc.
and in details o rile
of
including his UKnion
.. o.
c"""""", "."
p,;oIt!,H ",aL M
102
The
inf[uenee of chis book _ppcars ro have heen very sligbt.
GRgory of T ours" mentio"" M.artianus a, a lnsic
in the seven
uts, including gnnunar, buc the Rference is cursory lDd implies no
'pecial use of Mart:ianus' Book 111. Diclt, in bis edicion of Martian......
.. H;.. .., i>f ,h. F.""k, ,<>. J' .
.. Pp. '06. 'oS. "o, ",. "J.
GRAMMA R
"3
vr
.. Bib! .... fondo 1... MS u \IO. poblisbed by Con E. L""" .. [)wu;1ud: al<> ...
n.o oaribmion '" Martn ot Loon ..,d ti>< idenriflCOtion of
futtllor ".."...ml'" " by J..., P ..... ''U Commcnulro do M...-cin de LooD .....
I"<rIlWC do M>rtwiU. <Apcllo.XU '9JJ), pp. 417-19- 5<>C obove, pp .
su In M ..
lAr_.
.,1I..aod64
104
(n01l. 7i, '08, '40), '40) 2nd the fJteenth-century copy .ssociate the
M.ortianus possages willl Book 11 of C..sio<;lorus' 11IStitutionu and othcr
gramrnadcll moteM.
The p;crure ;. fairly clear. Book lilas a ",hole WIIi oalnmst unuscd.
W ....t valoe could ;t llave .... d for people ro ",110m Donsrus' far superior grall"ll1U.r "WU I ""ilabk The treltrncnc of pronunciadon "WU
found useful " nd "WU oflen 'I0oled; "nd a tundbook made op of Cassiooorus' Instiruti01lts II, J ulius Severitnus, t me....1 computo!, and
excerpu froro Mtrtianus (JDO-<}, JI '-'4) .... d minor vogue.
O!ALECTIC"
..
1)Jc-d.
DIALECTlC
'"s
.. R. Robinstm, PIMQ',
Eorl;.. DW.&tic,
.. l/>id., JW'.
P. 7"-
106
me
.. PbuJ.", '69-74-
.. W. ond M. Kneo1e, rile o.wJ9pm.:m of Logie, P. '4" Ariotodt D< SDpbimds Ekn<bil 's"!)-J7; p..., Eutb,dmmJ, poaim.
,w1';" ...
DIAI.ECT I C
J07
puu science of logic lod the practica1 Itt of disputation become intxuicably =gled.
As hdr 10
devclopment,
compendium of dialectic
1ppears e:rcessivcly wcighled wilh irrdevanl logical UIlItcrial, if viewed
U a debating manual, Or sadly contaminatcd by ies sub,erviernx ro
rheroric, if vicwed as tbe inrroductioo ro logic wlUch it more nearly
".emblco. lo aliditioo. tus work, in keeping m,h ,he Ioog tr1ditioo of
which i, is pln, neludes 1 good deal of. more
philo<ophical
eh.neter.
is because of che circulllSWlce rhar Aristode'. early
work rhe C4ttgories wu pllced by rus edirors or the heiod of che more
stri<:t1y logical work$ De intt1"f"tutwru, Prior md POr/mor ,hu,/y/es,
and T opies (of wruch the Sopbitricd Rtfut..ti<>ns originally formed
pan) . As rueh ir ..",ed as I geoe"" iotroductioo tO logc .od philosophy in the AristoteliQn uadition. lo MartiilllU5, secaoos JSS-S) are
bascd Illtimately on the
The preceding distincri"", of
genus, species, differenm, accident, proprium, and ddinirioo ()4<1-49)
.re derived ulrimatcly from tbe doctrine of che predicables in Aristotle'.
ToMt." Their position is due to Porphyl)'" influentia11mrodu&tWn
rO tbt c.,ugori6, wriueo io tbe rhird ccorury A.D. M.m.nus' discus,.joo of how the ,ingle tenns previously discussed are C<lmbined into
complete s e o = II1d .specio.Uy into assertDrC propositioru <388-<}6),
hll its disWlr ancestl)' in Arisrotle's D t i1Ittrfnffllfiont, and in PlatO'S
&phi$! hefore chat." The ""'luare of
(4D'-J) is u1timotely
derved from rhe same work o Aristotle, whlle lile Jfucussiou of the
convenion of
(397""4"J), Uke thar of che three mood.s of
eattgorical ')'llogism (.i>4-'J) , is descended from me Prior AnIIly,ics.
lo this last_ru.med work Aristodc hod introducedlettet'S of che .Iphabet
ro stand as variables in rus infuencc pmerns. l o thls ""'y he Qchicvcd
both clariry and geneniliry, ;as wcJJ os showing thtt syUogi.tie rcasor>ing was vilid by virme onJy of ia fonru.l eharactt.ristics. Martitous
iIIld hi. 10Ur refl= Aristode's earJier pnctice of giving specific
eumples ("All justice is advaougeous") which are ro be undcrstood
in a gtmul nunner ("AlI A is B") . That M.rtianus mows no twiU"ette:\ll of Aristode', modal logic;" oot SIIrprisiog, On the ocher hillld hit
failure ro treat ot fallacies, which would be highly rtlenot ro dispuu-
nm
lO Arirtod. Top;C1
.. S.pbin
l.
'-<J.
lOS
"'9
phrutus appea .. ro hay. bcgun investigating atgII=nts "from hyD I AL I\CT IC
r.
*'
110
.. o;.,g.:.... Lttrtitu l.
'117.
.. KnooIe,
,,.
D I ALE CTI C
i
US1t
of
io
M.m.nus,
il is resernd fo. tbc lcacIing (compln) p<anUo: of a
hypodlttieal $yllogism (<t ' ,.) .00 imroduecd wichoul ddinion o. nplomOOn. c::!caO'1 _"' of lile ttnn {Ind abo the UfOcialed lmtI
-Pl;O (o.
.rullQr premise) wim thc ..1M mailing 15 Matlianus
"'gesa that l. mly go tw:k ro tus leaeoo L. AoIi ... &il", who WIJ
lito .he ItaCOO of Vlrro.O\ Stilo's book, nR in the IICcoood cenlUf)',
"'"1 elurly unknown ro M.rtimu:s, .nd Monlanus' di$cuuion of lhe
hypothetial syUogism iI
likely ro be Varroniln. Whether
Vuro Is being ",cd dircctly it is impoosiblc lO .y. It is nottwonhy,
b(lwcver, thu 011 bu, mc third of thc te"en modCI of thc hypothcticol
by Mutilnus corr.. pond with me list in Cicero's
Iyllogiom
T flIU," ond tlu.t thc one discrq>oney con be .ttributtd ro Cicero's
misundcnundingoi tlle diffucoas
lhe ro". bask Sroic infetenec schtmatl. and thc li5t of kVm " ..en in onrnc other manuoI." In
thc si.nh <'CtKllry Ca..iodOfU$ a<:crptftI a oimilat liIl of ....ro hypothcticall)'lloaisuu from a wod: by Marins Vietorinus." lne differ_
rn<:CI
sufrocitntly grut ro ududc Victorinus OS Manianus' ..... rce.
Cas:siodonu mcntioru In e=nd.ed WOfk by
otherwisc unkflOWll
Morall ... of Cardu,i" of which two bool<s were dcyoted lo Stoic
propositio ... l logio: .00 were followed by I booJ.: 00 "miled" syllogimu:. The use 01 so fulla ,reotment by M.friln", Ken\I unlikely, bUI
COMO! be rukd out, in view of his including
"bit potssage on m;xed syllogisms (..,,), nO doubt inend.d ro gil'C the
suggarion nf the grcoter profundities ",hich eould be !leall with if
nnly Mcn:ury In<! Athcru. would .11ow more time.
n.e Varroniln "'nn prt>laqWmr be1on-s ti) IC'ries o( rebted lUmS
whcn thc l'O/)t is k(pt constaD! and the ",.. ninr .I(mI by vo.tying
<O
QOt
.. P. '77.
.. 0. ............ , . J7ff.s.. 0100 Rbnt1rie .,
.. A.t .. Gdliooo ,f. .. s.;,,'. _
'"" _ _ _y .... i00i
.',..... _ tbe ..... "..14(,' '" "",..... d witIo ......
. ,s.
o. .>""'",,,","'. ..t,;do
IU
D1ALECTlC
"l
'.,,_,.
.."..,.,..,
"'*" fIk'd
114
ne
Martianus,
Evcn tbis, our mas! confulenr .ttriburion of sonrcc, mnst, however,
remain $\Ibject ro doubt. This , becawe tltere are ,,","ges in Martianas
.-
,,,, ,--
1""0'"
J, P. >:ni:
Lom/>"oij
DIALECTIC
115
which are exp,msions of the material in Apuleill!, ,.. and other pesages'" wherc Apulcius expreases file thought not ooly moa clearly
dlJn Mlrtianus bOl also more briefly. The possibititr of common
ArisrottlWt $Ource cannot be rouUy acludl. If, howcver, Apuleius
is uuty M.rtimus prinle ...urce, oue Cln only wish dIJe Martianus had
plogiariud IJIOre whotcheane<lly, sinee Ihe copy in no way improves
upon !he presumed original
The inOuence of Martianu$' Book IV emuges oorly from a srudy
of l.eooardis cemU$.
lrom Ihe cntire lk nuptiif, fiffWl of!he
manu5Cl"iptll he Iist:s contlin IH oc part 01 Book IV .." T wo of these (1lO$.
76,105) ore fngmenc.ry, md one otIIer (no. ll) consists of notes fmm
Hook IV. Tbe rcmaining twelve conWn either the entire book oc !he
.nOre teehnicoJ discipline, omitting !he alJegorical setting. Thirteen
!IWluocripts ore dote<! betw<en he nineh and t\velfth centuri ., witb
Ihe biggest concentntion (five manuscripts) in !he tenth =ry; NO
are doted bnwceo !he fourtttn!h aud sixtttnth nrones. Two nanuscripts (nOl. '35 Ind '16)
from Fleury in the mmh or tcmh
nrury; One (no. 151) from westem Fnnce and oo. (no. 105) froro
OrJ6m.'llt!he same time; one (no. 17') from Be.: in Ihe [Welfth century. JI would stem !h.e Ibis book enjoye<!. a vogue in northwc:stem
Francc up to the end 01 !he eleventh = r y bm w.. litt!e used alttr
Ihe dnmatic developmene of togic from dIJe time omvard.
ItHE T OR IC
.-
j!l9 ....
DO ".,.",...".. In
... Ci. lo< insta"" .. tlI. 011" '"" of tht ptiIIciplo of ''minimtJ in=pr"0t2<ion", qu"';"'" id potWi",,,,,, ."""""MJdum, quo4 .......... Iu/m inuIk........
Whf_ pro
IU:ciptw (1tbrti>.nUl j96) IDd pro p.r<kWrl
wJtt, quJ" ,""Ws ." Id
1m.... , ..eI"..-., quo4 minus en (A.poleius P"'; iH<>66; <d. Thomu, p. m) .
, " Nos. 19, 19, 'j, '9.]6, 'Ol, "' "8. Ijl, [JS, [oS, Ijl. '7" 'Oj")9' .. Se ..
Keno<dy. pp. ><i, jU"
<.a.
116
me-
... Rb#orl&." 11 "" ....... do Capbn. PO.. bnt ... A. E. DougIo<. "0""0'"
;" tbo Rb<tori& ., HmAJi_ _ Eridooce of la Dote,
Qru lO' '" IU.
X (1\)660). PI'- s-t!. which 0fJU<S {JI: dore of olMm, S" Le. it _IIIW.
c,.m,..
RHETORIC
"7
118
influeru:e un MartiaoU$. At the same time tnd .iter, appeared 2 number o I...atin handbooks on rher.oric, many of wlUch have bun collcaed by Halm.'" In genen.l they bcar the pme re.latiomhip ro he
major authots os do hlUldboob in the othor ancient subjccn ro the
primary SOlll'C<'i;
them we fUld 2 grand concoctioo ai acero and
Quintilisn with Ihe subtJcties, oflen imperfectly undusrond, of rhe
fU'St- and secood-eenrury Greeks, and sometimos, loo, with stuins
more directJy descended from Hennagoras."'" It is on men sudl t i
rhe.e chat MartianUll drcw.
'The two principal <tudies ni the lIOlll'Cts of Martianus' Book V are
thosc of H inb' " and Fiochor"" From Hinb' srudy, thc more pene_
IrWng 2nd precise of thc NO, lre taken the following cooclusi"",,:
D. inw1Iri_ wu prime oource fOf MamanWl, both os
din:ct sourcc of tbeory .nd as oUenng I fnroework for a ue;We on
rheroric. MartilnUll
to make frequent dircct use of lhe De ",.
in ros
chlpcets when tteating thc definitions and the
divisions of rheroric. He takes fmm it SQII\C cktnents of the rheory nI
constirntions and tIle subdivisinns of q1lJ/iun. And fin2lly he U5C5 it for
hls tr<:atnlCllt uf uordium, ptOpositiOIl and pamtion. Martianus .Iso
uses acero'. De oraron lUId OrQtor especiolly for the rreannent of
CIpIession, mcmory, and delivery. Olllitccary stylc he borrows. lime
ftom D Ol1lltw and minor gralIUJl3rWts alld long passage on figum
(scction 5' )-)7) froro A<Juila ROlllanus.
Besides thae fairly obvious SQurces are $Ome Je!lS ealy ro ul\COver.
Hinb'" $hows M.art:UnUll' use of cornrnenllrie$ by Marius Victorinm
00 Cicero', Dt im.>emione and TqpieJ. n.cse, while adding
bur
confusion ro Mam.nus' theory, give us firm evidence for dating his
work; far ViClOrinWl, after his conversion ro Christianity, was affecJCd
by the edict of the Emperor Julian in )61 forbidding amstians ro
tcach in the schools, .nd in !ti: last yean Victorinm wrote tbeologieaJ
""
lini Miamos.
,<-<
JO""'''
". s...
IIHETORIC
"9
no
w=
,s..
u......,
RHF,TOII[C
'"
able ro enmine only briefly tbe basic reJigious idea. "ud me union
bctween them "nd me seven tmltises. The ",t<lkowes of Marmous'
work, in conteot and ;0 sryJe, have beco poioted out almndandy, yct
when one speculattl on me intwt of tbe work ss a whoJe, one may
",en enncur wim Miss Le Moine Wt ir is a "g=>d attempt" and ss
such
ro stand in tbe long tn.dition of works which are ronsciously designed ro presenr a synthesis of tbe total panero 01 die
cosmos-"'"
,.. bid .
p-
>91
PART 111
The Quadrivium
O. Geometry
u,oa. me bridesmaid Ge<J(tIctry ",.k"" hcr entr.nce joro the celestilal lWl. rwo
attcndanm' 'ppear, bearing In
sprinldcd witb greenish powder. This object, i is explained,
is dc:signcd foc deUntaring geometric figures and can .Iso rtpresent
the cirdos of the world, gr.at and smaU. Geom<try coter.!, carrying
a r""'ita' in he. rigbt Iwtd wd globe in he .. left. T he globe is
replica of me universe, wtought by Archimedes' lund.' In ir
.wcus'
d<a"'u., disfU'I.
,,6
THE QUADRIVIUM
le.""J""
'.qt<ilw.
GE O METay
" 7
Dona bu,
(O ,
,.JI
...,...,.
, 7<'). TOj.
f.,.. _
"e '
7.
u, ..
.,,6,
.
_
...
C
'.'
,
......
""'*" ....""" """'.cipll'"l'"
tho ui,'" ........,..... :o tho
oo>d oool, .... 'o ......"a, /hin............
My_), .....". ...._
booII .. _ic.
.. do< ....... qooodm-',,,n,
1'00"'''y I"'" orJ, _ P"P'
1"""- ......... ""
OC>
1/, ocI.
I.E>"
lO
,'.,iN. ocI.
lld!ay) .
s... oIxI.., p. ,.
ood
,,'
TU I': Q UADlll'lUM
he """,Id
geomury is no< knoown. ði.......110 cune
U. Minian ... and ..... thc fir.u wrirer 10
lM u""
did complete. DI ,!<'JUUII;" U pan of hiI oet: 01 quadri"'"m maooo1s.u
n.,;, work _ trlIlSIf;oo 01 olI or put of EueIld', Ekmnu. As
ofeen I I medien] l.in fngnotlltil ol g<'OMCa')' tutn up ond are found
ro ... KCUnt<: translaOll$ uf Euclid, dlCY m: ItnUllly considcred
by scllolan ro be vcstigcs of Boedui venion." Rut, lo!
sfWl see.
tltere are sorne fmly faithful tranSlatiQnJ uf Eucldean propositions
(widloul me proofs) in Muo.nus' venth hook, whlch show thll
good t..tin IftOsl' Oru of al leut pottions uf me EInnnu. w_n in
.Drtence befo", lIoethius'
Cassiodoml muchos cvcr JO lighdy
011 thc diJciplinc: uf geomeay (/"rrin.rio ... , 1. 6) tnd his ueaanent
"",''d ha... COOlttib.n.ed nothi:lg to contomporo.ry Imowlodgc uf tht
"*
subjea.
Why <:lid MartWms peder geognphy 10 eOmetir u. subjea for
Itis Dt gt_nir and why did be inrmduce moR Eoclidetn mucrial
in Book VlI lhan in Book VI ? Eao:h al hiI brid s".ids is ... imp<a
Ji.oly .",e Iody and tKh holds 10M iD !cGthy dio<:oane.. Mun.RusHlo'1d DOt, .. Cu,iodorus <lid, give. twO-pag-e. dacunin lreI.l
mtfI( ro romeUY. H. had ro find sorne subj= ro mI OUt Book VI
ro IIQrmtllenth, and onc dw: would D<H: repo:l his readus. The Eudid" Of &.tIUuo' '1""dr;'ium dio o. ....
.u"-rl,. ond pen of tbo
0# ""'11"'1.... >mUk.
(dio ' - olenn <110""",, .... Iooc,); di. D. , ... ".. ,,"
.......... ;.,
&Dd tito book ""
<h<><>th Ioot, lo
d to.
fo< <Ul el tlM lino. twv...,.b &IId ....... ., "'" r<""<"Y ''100: _ _ tbo
edWon el (J. P,lodlcia; fo<.
el &etbiuo qadririoam boob, _ SabI,
f...,_ ru""'"
r,
w.u ........
T"
V_
''1,.
"P ((;oIdc.
p.
-+. _....
El,,..,
..,. Mario
e" .,
Ii",/Uh 1 . . , ..ti r.... _ .... 'ha .. tMiIoIo. >9'l6l. Go, .......... tbo
" .._
iD iho fol " ._., 0Dd boono ..... tho)I1>tIoGi 10"'11 m ' ... ...
11 ttIio tIoooio jo - ..... ;, _ d indO , . . truo... """'" _ (1'
l1000 .... _ . . ...,.,...... _ _ he <' " 1 d lIio o. ."."''''
lO
""'"" _nOOO boo ........... lO Mutio.......,.", in
Book" V( <hu .. 1I0oI< Vll, ..... di.otIclt 1Iook VII ....... !. iho ....... """ m ol
Fadjcl", .."",dol. So< <'r.
l' .8; 1. L Hoibo'l' Un....... nbkbt/ldl.
Sttdino ' " ' FMItIiJ ILtipo;,. ,88.), pp. '0').
.,.J. _
GEOMETRY
"9
',!hwl
TUI': Q UADRIVIUM
'JO
even more popular than itl well-\nwwn forebear. And, as we have _no
Martianus furmer digcsted che work of Solion. ond Pliny ro produ
me gcogra.phlcal txCUrsus whicb fonns me bulk o BOlOk VI.
The geognpmcd writings of me Greeks reflttt two ""Iiem CtlLrural
pencJunt foc tbeorctical stu.ms, including mathemacia, ond. love for, and de>C1ldcnc<: upon, the sea. In matbt:matical
geognphy they were outstanding. Thc accomplishmenr:s of mrosth(;nes, Hipparchus, Ptolnny, and others ranlo: high in !he history of
grodcsy.1t D=ripave gtognphy, 011 tIle otile. hand, Wa5 not a w. Udevdoped or wdl_defined fidd. From che begUllting me di";nctiol15
bctwecn history and geognphy w= blurrcd; hisrorims lil: Hero<!otw ugular!y introduce<! gwgn.phical
and geog pbers
fele Impclkd to deal with lswrical backgrouods." Grc.k treotise. on
geognphy tended from .. rliest times ro assume the fonn of pt"ritglm, a 5IlI'VCy of cicles, peoples, and COllOtnes uranged in the order
char. navigaoor would come upon
he saiJed che coas< of che
Medituranean IJld oucu seas. The commo .... t starting poin. foc such
surveys wu che Str.l;t o Gibraltar." A ptritguis natunlly gav. di ...
proport:iomre attcndon ro
regions, ro tIle neglect of the imcrior.
Geognphical writings of rbc classical period are now represente<!
oolr by fragmentl Or by borrowings in =ndary sm1l'<:"'. T ite literature surviving froro the Helltnistic Age is writtcn almost exclusively
on popular leve], and hu a standardiud fonn. Introduaory chapm
contain stereotyp:d doctrines (lf mathematictl ge(lgnphy, Nch as .re
fmmd in thc handboob (lf Thcon o Sinyrna, Geminus, .nd Qeomcdcs:" thc le";.] sphere and circlcs
define<!, and the positions
" Fo< dMo .
o/ di. _ti< o/ ...... _
... uiccl geoscop ....... "". Tll=.."., chapo. V ood XI; ..,d
H. Bunbt>ry, A Hin .., ., AtJ&i<m a"'vqhl,
....po. XVI, XVII. ood xxvm .
.. F. W . WoIbonl< .... wrjlt<1l brilliaot orticl. with
irWhto JItO die
populu tr'djtiom o/ G,...k cognpby: "Th. G""I!,"phy o/ Polyhlllo. Cw,;co
""'...
IX (>941),
11. onribnteo <be geognphksl digr...>oo ...
nrumsI f..""" of hiororiogroplly '" tII. n>ethodo o/ the srory-<dler.
b I ionol Pnnon, Enl, 1"';"" HitwrlMu (Orlord, '939), P. In, thlnI<s di..
11"
"' "", Por;",.';' (e. l"" a.c.), th< <.ru...: Greok googrophic:d ceolio<.
"'" ",""" begun .. """oy"' Gibftlru .
.. T ' - <d. Hiller. pp. """11; Gemio.., o..po. IV, V, XV, XVI; Clto<nod<.
e.
e....
..,.,.,
l.
"J.
GEOMET!l.Y
3'
of planetlry orbits and che carth are locatcd then lollow disemsions
of tilo locadon ol me carth'. zones of human habitadon and me dirision ol he mown world into hrcc condmnt'l. Polybius interrUpts me
oi his HistOrUl, use beiore IUnnibal's crossing o me Alps.
ro introduce a digrcssion (J.)6-)8) on the tItree continenoll divisions.
Sc:nbo, afeer historical introduetion, devotes fifteeo of me "venteen
booles of his O:ogrpby oo. descriptioo of che conntries of the world.
Bnt nest:led betwcen bis historical inttoduction and regional desaiption is a Jengthy chapeer (,. S) containing all che stueotypeB of
popular handbook 00 eosmography, che .lIape "nd che ZOIlC$ oi heaven
and earth, che rehdve position and siu: o me earth, che four zones of
huma.n habitWon, " coasCll SIIrvey of me Irnown world, and lasdy
discussion of che climates and me bours ni dayUghr lit eaeh of che P'lnlJet. It che time oi che solstice. A similar introduction to C<lsmography
is found in che pseudo-Aristordian Dt mundo.
The Rom.ns mad. theiI" fim emnsive contacts wim che Greek io_
tdlecrual world in che =nd Wltury I.c. Bcing unable ro comprehend
che meoretical ueatiscs oi che thinkers Uke Fntostheneo and Hippar_
chus, they depended upon populanw-s for thcir tech.nical infornu.tion.
WriteIs ni rhe fim centuri.. I.c. and ...1>.. gave. <:anoUlcal form to Latin
gt'Ographical treatises, diriding them into two P'I"CS' . concise OCO)\Iot
of tilo dernents of mathematical geograpby, and. chorography of che
mown world, prepondcrandy of eouul rcgions and coruisting Iargely
of lisa oi phcc namcs, with remorles about U<OCi<tted persons OI things
irnerspcrsed. Sinee me RolIW"IS lwI linle or no interest in geomctry
and thcir C<lnqutSts lUId adrninistrativc operations were eondue... d in
me interior more rhan in coastal regions, ir is cltar titar Roman grograpllen blundered in adhering ro t=!iUonal parteros of Grcek geog_
nphy. Fonnal Lo.rin ehorograpllies wue of linle use ro provincial
administraron and milit:ary commonders, who dtpended instead on che
daUI compi!ed by MOlCU$ Agrippa in a grOIll2.Uc survey oi che higb_
way' and proYinees oi me Empirc, eonducted under me sponsoHhip
of Augusrus. The Iesula oi this survcy were made u.iJable in itineraria and C<lpi.. of rhe master map, one of whlch, the "Peutinger
T1ble," survive:s in a late form.
Mela offers rile ilinten traecs of mathematical gcography in few
sentenees in me opening ellapter of his DI ritu Drbis (c . ....D. 4'). H e
'l'
titen move& on ro
mease:..
."
GEOMETRY
.u.
sebo'...
""bi.
sictl f"""'IleJo .... Macrobiuo Co'fflj""u"", <r. SmhI, p. '5'" m. ..nb oecu""'"
poiDt in OJ>IC<; PI'"
tho eutItlo Ol tito _
of m. uninl"X; m. oenttt jo
t/u; lIUddlo ond tM mlddl. jo di. bo,rom o <he uni...,...; p...... oncipodeo ""..
.m.J ...
P. ..... !he....... lo", "11100" of l'nInwI ""bi<otion.
ond lnDS>"Us<.ly oppooed ro - ' " od!er. Seo oloo below, p. ,;76. bidore fE'l'
""'"/llM . 0;61
<h. e l . . - of boDe """""'S'"pby _ J.eqner FOIln.iD< ..... dt..""d _ I."gtt.y obap<et ro <han;" hio ,"'-_ d. S,,u, 11,
Hio eIobo .....
providoo ...... oi puoIWo in cl...nJ ond modievtl
<limo""
'34
TIfE QUADRIVIUM
"0_",0.
Gi:OMETRY
'35
. .
'0."""",.;.'
""d.
,-,.v,
.dmu-.
J'..-" ,_,
me
"""".t.m
veo'
, l'
THE QUADRIVIUM
Solln\lll."
Spain seIS
,,6,<#.)
.. Ibooc of 1'aIIdoniw.
.. Compar$ M..... ""' occotmO of Spoin (6'1"J widt PIlny'. (J. (\.8, ,6-,1, ...
lI>'O) ond Sollnui ('J. '-9)
.. Dicui1, <he fIn< Fnnkisll geog'&ph". ,."".. """"Y of die 'O'OtId (u.
...hid> depeods "1"'" Solin.. ....t PIiI>y ond sino "" Infotmstion oborn: B.. trio
..,d Suony. Se. Di&tJi/1 U/nr J. """"". ",bU urr.., od. G. Potthoy, PI' 4N1.
GEOMETRY
'37
ser the foan and content of world geognphy (oc ova a thoU3llJld
Y" .
oo
__ [""""'l.
n.'.
,"
$llores of thc Northcm Ocean. Le" thau hundted words u( requlred
TRE
ca rweep post Gennany. BriWn, tite is1a in itI minity, .nd G.nl,..,d
ro
ro Gibnltar (666). Martianus did not llave Pliny's stantint
and wu cxhonstcd by che time he IUched Spain. PUror g<lvc aJmosc as
much Ittcmion ro western Spain and Lusiunit oro bis hO\tlCWllrd COUl\iO
<4- ',o-JO) as he liad ro castn Spain on me ""y out (). 6-.8).
Tbe soulhem perngtm follows itnmediatcly, written in me same
scyle, altbough for this survcy Mutianus was depending more he:avily
upon Solinus than upon PUny. Solirlm, purveyor of uD soories, wu.
GEOMETkY
'l9
rus
"""- P!'-7<"7',
.. Dicl< om;", """'y 5oI.in... puoIlcls, bu, """'" of <hcoc C&Il be 'OCOh,I by
ti>< 1....... in
eil jOrt of Solirws.
.. l.eoOU<li ougens .."".
<In"", roen Rotbe<" gIoooeo. 101' tIIc
<en of Book VI; ... "11."""" e l.bnImo Capolls.." pp. 11HI9.
'4"
TIIE QUADlI.lViUM
me
., "o;. Wdtbno des MM1:W:> ... Copoll .. M_'7"<, 111 (o9l6), w"+ Koaro Millu, D1I Vu_ Wtk......,., 111. so.
_ chio _p ..... bucd otO
... OU<J' pr<><ype <hu "' .. Lunbett'. _rk. MiUtr'. tnI>OCribcd eopy o !he
Wolleobttel ""i'f>O .......di imocunte. ro< deu f""';ma o tbo ""'P le<
V"....".., Imol. MD",.,,.,,,,.
Afriul ..
m, m .
"IlI...,...;."u gi""" la UD codico di Mutllno Copdlo.." BodUtthJo dtII'b-
<M.i<J
in. Ro ......
"47) ' D. Ro
'.'
and Roman miles (u ,5oo)' We
GEOMETIlY
.0
.. """"....,. Mat<xUInus i> <he only LIn ...rit ..... 1 know ol bol.".. di.
ptriod of Anbio Whu:nc. ""'" .... ' oJly tead Ptolemy'. MIlT'ph" IIDd be ....
Symn Guek wbo ntb<.r surpri>U>ly cl>ooc ro wrlte la r..do. MutlonoJ ".,.
'\O'I>u. Iodic:otu lID iDdinoliOD ro pcru techoical W<Irl< bb Proiemy's. I..oomrdJ',
temUb _
disc...,. ...... , _
Ptolemy tod MutiIlDUl ("N.... iuuodutci ...
pp. 'lt..,S) ......holly in.lennt. Manlo.u> ond Solinuo we<" no<
wish
Prolomy <rSdicio .... Prol<my'.
onp....d 'Ori<b Posldo.!j'lI ..,d wu pt<Ibobly
.vo.iIobl. ro Pliny in Vorro', writiogo.
L E. Dnbkin, ''Pnoid<Jnino ond <he
Qn;umf..."", of rbc Eartb," 1m, XXXIV ( 'lit}), 1"9'-"
.. M.m.m.. (6,' wriooo "'" di. q-tirr .. oigb. tItouutd fi.. ltortd=I tod
.. vtnty..... n. a..!dwn. oJitor ot <h. Loeb odition ot PIlny, wu an>wuo ot <h.
MmlonoII contOponJen<ea. Rackh>m rudo l.!;c18. ond tus -.gum fo< me Iottr
veniog d j......... do """ Jin " ",",Uct """'- J..,. &onj"", In me lIod edkion ot
PLiny, n, '09I,...d>
000 hU figures fo< <h.
d i v ...... do Ji....
<OtIl. IUckh..,,'. tdiriot> ;, motted by ""deo. miottbt, m.u..'OOlII,
tod mi<rtodingo ot me "".,,,,,,ipto. k is bopeJ "'" die Ion,......n.d Iludo! tdkloo
of PIlny. BooblIIVI, will >OOQ "1'1"'"'" k O"eh< '" clear "1' mIIIy ol ti>< f hy
,.tdiog> ot Pliny"
00 rbc problomo ollDln\Jlcript tronrm""- o Pliny',
n""","'" seo BeaujOll. pp. '44"f6.
p Joidou of Cho.ru. Ollt ot .._
wotb 00 .... rl""d
TIu r.tM.too
S,m.", (c. UI. ' I, Iw ..,,,,I...d. n.o G_k <ni _ cdittd.od tuIIIl...d,...;m
rommenruy, by Wilhcd H. Scldoff O'hiIaddpbia. '9'.,) '
.,.....
141
TIIE QUAD1I.IVIUM
...me.
'.. M.m.m..
H..th.l6,. 'fl7
,,,,,A:t
GF.OMETRY
'41
handbook," aJullitiug a rtUOno.ble tense of order, and containing
defmitions and <livi5ions ni me subjecr. We may s.fdy """"me, from
our knowledge of rhe habits of Mnoanus, rhar he <lid not make
rus own compilioon of enncts fron, a brger Eucfidean work but appropnated sorne aln::ody prepued digest, enmples of which Ire di ...
cussed by Tannery," Hearh, lO Gnld:>.t," and UIlman," and reIts of
which are found in Tannery," Bubnov," rhe Friedl. in edioon of
Boethius' mamematicol writings." me Corpus
Gnldat's
e<lioon of a twolftb-century versinn of rhe Ekmrnts
Nation.de, Fonds Iatin lO,'H)" and Geymorut's .<lition of tbe Vero,,"
MartilInus includes m.ny of me r,..ditio"..1 rudimenu
found in medieval digem and extraCts nf che EInn<'1lIP. rhe definitions,
postulates, 100 firn mtu txiom5 ol Boo!< 1; classifiadons of angle$
and of plane l nd solid figuus; . nd 1 few definitiGn. {"'m Boob V,
" Se< .00-. .. "'lbc W ork," n. .
.. MM of I'>ul Tuoery' writingo on geomotry in th< Lotin We", luve beet>
colJe=d PI hit Sd", ...
/r,I , .d. J. L. H .."bug. ..d .,.., rtiIl
W<lrm porull&!. Su "lA. Gomke on XI' oi!de," PI'esp. PI' 91""'" lUId
OUt J. pseudo--iomtrie d. Bob, PI' al
.. Su h.Ir Imoo o/ Enclid"J
Vol 1, lmrodncOtl ood cht.p. viii.
.. TI><- &<1,
T .../irknu
f,,,,/iJ'. El<:moo .. diocnas m. geom<lr)"
iq th< Corpus ,h,.....,_ (pp. )'-J9) .ud m. outhonhip o/ m. "Boethi&n"
nrsIon< of E""Ud (PI' ,.-,9).
0I00 .wyu. <he contmIJ o/ rbc
1M""triu " .mbm<tk... BQm; in fi"" boob.
" Ullimo. P.
ditcusoeo lIoIbuo' EzpomiD " ,4& ."" ' ... fOmt4n6>< (,d
......h <he Cc>da Ao:eriomu (Wolf..,bilncl), whiclt Tonnuy d ... d in <h
.mi> '" oc.""'" e""'-1rie< bur lo..,... <b",d in rbe fillb ot sixtb (pp. z6"'I,): <b.
fWO g<ometties oscrib<d ro BoerhlI1O; ond m. ,.,.., fottbcotnlug Cleyzr>on>r M1oo.
(now publiobed, ... n.
obovc) o/ <he V. mm. frwgm<nl> (p. '7') . UlImJ.n alto
=te", ....,....
El"""""
79""',
,_,B.
Gol"",
ti.,
.ut:t<,
""
"""
...
O"". __.k.,
e...,...
4'
no< compIottd), Vol. I i.Lelptig, ' 9') '
..
PI' S8 fl .
.. Se<..,.,.., n. ' J. L. W. JOM> b" b:luded oN><bu m<dievol ocupt. found
Ir>. """"""ripr o/ Q - iodonzo' /-.,.;...." in hio .......... tion of tbat work, ti"
l .....qdz,-do" 'q DiWw ..., H _ &..dmv. PI'- ,,60'9-
TIfE QUADRIVIUld
'44
X, and XL Also included lre sorne mattUJ that are not found in
Eudid; and, u times, as we sIWI see. MartiaIlUS foUows thc definitions
of Heron of Alenndrill more closcly tban mosc nf Euclid. n.. mdioons o Euclid and Heron dominated medieval geometr)'. It is Iikcly
that me immediate antceedrnt of Martianus' Book VI presented ji CQlIfution ol both UlIditions, just as the antecedtnt ni Book VII probably
p_ted conflaon o Euclidcan md NlCOmaehean trittunttic.
A suitllblc .pp.roach ro trc:atise o this son is to compare le with
che Art germurrilK, a compendiurn ...pposcdIy translatcd fMm Euclid
2IId falscly attributed ro Boetllius, "'lUd\, as UJhnan las ucaldy
shown, tuC115 up with great frequenq;n <XIp;es or c:nnClli in medienl
mmuy coUecri<J... ni
GIl
";!ICe
comparison.
Sorne opening rerrwb abont the derivlOon of linos from il1COrporcal pomtl arul of nnmbus fmm che indi...m,le morw:I (06-7) bear
striking rcsemblance ro Maaobius' dicussion of corpormties lIIld
incorporealities.. md serve ro sIlow the cIose relationslUp betwo:n
Gxmtctry and her sist Arit:hmetic. Then follows thc division of
figure!! inro plane (q,;pedi'm) .00 ",lid (muan), tbe former originating in. point (stmtion), [he tattet in. 1IIrN
Nen
.. tJllinan, pp. .....", prd... to reprd tbo Art , __
=<leased, mItor
""'" l(III"ioIIo, Bocthlus. Tbe tu< ;. fOlllld iI> !he Fricdlein
al lIoechiGo'
votb, pp. 11 .....1. Fricdl<in reprded tbo wruk .. opurious. whi<:b
1, tbo..t.w usualIy
by histruisno o motbolD!rics s.. H_', dhion of
tbo EI........-.u.. 1, 9'1 HeMh, Him><, o{ 0....1,
1, )!9-< The-n:
<:OIIUlns p<oo& of Book 1, &o.. [o), ...-Jence, lIO:<>rdi!lg .., Hwh, thot <he
pooudo-llouhIuo b<d tbo .... o lAtiD <nnSIotion of l''''ld (Henh o """""
of .. *- pon;.- of F""jd) MonIWI Oogett, 0... .1,
Sdenu ;"
P.
coUo <he ..... oltdm> "Wncnrobl< te!>dorinfI:." s..
<he di-, on. of d>io e.. 1".. in Toanery, Sri_., eZlWt<s, PI'- 97-\l!I> ... -[s.
"'"""''''''Y'
'j',
...
"'_
,. 6 ., Ioid= J.
ti.
GEOMETRY
'45
"'"' he wu
.. HeodI (6",1/4,
lII>y bo Illllqne.
in psJ.
",h." (Migno, n, Vol. LXX, col. 6iV Jw .... ..",. foully dmition. 11"'"
("""lid, "'), dUnb "'"' me oocurrc<>c< al oovenl Greok tumO in Mucisouo'
epirom< indic .... "'"' he wu ming. Greok Enc!jd .. n >OUt ond 110><
have beco ro bWno fu< tbo 0P:ru<!I1ioa. Mutioo .. prob4bly couJd tead G=k
w.u <Dough to have derived rus b<id d;g... ftom 00lI>O [odidetn primu, 10m &
""",h lDOt< h'hly .-n>pIion ;, _ he .... follo>ring & lAciB Enclideoo troditioo
whiclt
tbo Gnoek .."'" ond ... hicl\ m-r ha ... origimted iD 80010: IV al
VottO'. Nin<
of ,b, Disci/'IiMI. Vomo " len"...,. fto<n "'" GtlJi\>& 'f"'X""
<loN to .... _
Gnoek
ond Gretlo: Enclidcoo prim<co W<JUld ha ...
bo<D mou
.... i]oh!. ond al reo"'"
to
iD Vomo'. Uy
lhaoinM1ltioJm&' .
.. lIc&1b a;;",,1/4, 1, '5"), IIY"_ he _ittM !he cWsificoon """.'_ iI wu
".,. "'" "' 7 fo. hio par!"*- 00 cl:usif.,.tioc>t al lIoco l>y Heron ood _ _
H""",,,,",,, Goldu, P.
"'''''y
_t>
pp . w-6J.
14
THE QUAORIVIUM
curvcd linos
and romp<.>StO plme fgures, rontained by both sttaigbt and CIIrvcd Iines (miluon)Y< EucIid does not
classify surfaces in general He dooo, of course, distinguish bcfWOCll
.. a. H.ron'l cb.osificrdott. (D.f. 74> imo Inoompoo&te :utd COOIpoolto or. opln.
.,,,, odirioo of the E l _.. l. '1"..
en fi""., _ dUmIm> .. pt>Iph..u .....u., _
H<lnIo.u....
_ , dt ;nto#. tommm... a . .4"
(col. FriodJe" )?J. "" v' s...,..
imo rimpl< &/Id mied. Se< II
tri
f;p,.
Ionulit.
lUJ.
q_"''
..... _
&-.". 14
'Pi"-
GEOMETRY
'47
used eo describe
proportional relaoonships, gublcd Uf reduced in dIe Latin tnnSmissions uf Eudid. fsotls [equaliry): twu lint$ of t<u.llength are compared with thlrd that is of double or t<ual Iength. .. Homologo.
(com:sponding) : magnitudes compared are "in "S' nent" {coll..
comemiu1Jf).O\ An%gos (proportionsl]: a line b.lf as long as onolMr
is twiee 0.510118 as I thlrd. Alogos [disptoportionalJ: Unes ucimer are
equal!lOr bear IOy Otllef noonal rclationship ro eKIt other."
Non Mlr(l..nu< defines and briefly comrn.ots un (7'8) cornmensurabl od incommensunble lines "ud lines commensurabJe "in powcr"
OI "in square," as H eath prden to tnrulllte me EucUdean
Then
foUows a list (po) of the thirreen lr.ind. uf rnrio",l straigbt Unes, in
me order in wbich dtey are found in Euclid."
Martianus' discussion of solid figures is very brief (7' ,n). He gives
EucUd'. definitioll': of a ,..,ijd ond iu ext(emioes," tnd points to me
generation uf I pyramid from a trianglc, a cone OI I cylinder from a
tem\."
",
TU I! QDADRI\'IUM
Euclid."'
Hee [USOIIS in Euclidean principIes concluded lt1d accepted, Geometty dn.ws 11 stt"tight Une 00 !ter aboc:u:s and osks oow onc gocs
constructing on "'Iu.ibtenl criangle upon 11 given straigllt lino 7'4) .
n. pllosopbe.... in th.
imme&>tely recognize cbat sbe ,
.bou.
prel"'ring
tQ
Eudid and rhey bre3k joto acclaUn oI Euclid. Geomeuy, pleoscd with
this 'pprobation oi her disciple, sn,uches fmm his Itmd rus preciOIlS
bookl-which undoubtedly contain me proof. oI all tite propositions
in the Ihineen boob oI the Elm1nIlJ*_ and gives dtem ro Jupiter ..
a tel[tbook for che flll'thcr instruction oI the heavenly eompany
.. Primuy
-dio ti> Pbto Tm... ... H 1>-<:. And ....... ""'" iD ....
Cornford .dition.
" 00 tite qIItSIioo 01 tite UIbeoticlty of Euclid'. rnom. ... II"'". ediclo",
<S., ,,,.,,
.. lo. 1m o<>ciqoky th< ""'" "pIW<>oopb" w .. oppIiod m III<Q in 011 br>1ICbco
ol Iutning, indudiDg soo:h uebnicol fioldo .. otiDing eoglacuing. s.. 0Jrtiua,
p>.
,o,." .
EI_,,....
Whether """,pi<
ol!llt
.,..;loN. in tb< W ...
die twdhb cenwry- tht baic quertion lar 011 in...,..;g.t<>n 01 r.;., geom=y-hss -)'t'I b<en t.IlOW=<I deci<ivdy. tu Mucboll ilig<tt ("Tho Mow.nl
Lt.tin Tru>oItcicmo Imm die Arobio o tbe 8"="" 01 Eucli.d, 1m, XLIV ( '95 11
6-'7) points
inveotigaron hlv. beoo UDlbl. ro pto"o tII. """''"''OC of
""",pi... EI-..". Ac<;o'diog t<I GoId.. (po )7), th< .nillIhIo .. j..Jc.v.. dooo "'"
indic... <hu thtn wo> <n>pIcn! tl'tJl>!odon of do. EItmMu inro Lotin befo
<be Anl>lo: veniono t>e< ..... 1<1>0"", ro th< Wm ., tbt twcUth <eotury. A ..,y
....." .. /o cuuiDly clear duo. lo< Mortiamto Eudid .... oltgeoduy f!pfc, 0<10 o
"tbe
(wmn, .,.,J,uIl. wbose ropuatilm owed IDOIO to tnditioo thao
t<I eoohx
or Oppt<dltioIL
"''''P'-
0" Arithmetic
O"CI Geometry has
het discou,,",. wc anticipare die e n =
of Arithmttic, a sister of Geometry-in hct her cl<WSt.mer. A littIe
earlier (706-7)
expaciated on the binding ties bccween me
twO, obscrving tb,at aI1 mcrtions aboue mattus wlUch progress tO infimty are crpressed elther in numbcrs oc in limos. N umben are _pprchended by the inteJlect., lin by che sight. Numbm belong to
Arithmetic; linear figures, the provin<:e of Geomecry, are dcmonserabl. 00 hu ahacus. Lines Ole begotten ro
and are
fAShloned ineo mmifold perceptible shapcs "that are even elevated ro
The beginning. of
;tlC<)rporeal and Ire .hlpe<!
the
by both meeH.
indivisible nJOll:ld l; rhe bcgcrur Di nurnbers, itsdf
not' nwnbcr, tnd iI not apprehensible. Tlle monad .Iso re>rtfiCn1! In
indivisible Eudidean point, which , likcwisc not tpprebensiNe. N umhe.. are
unle.. they are applied ro objcctS. Thus when
Arithmttic is introduced, tIIe attendants are requestcd not ro remo""
Geometry's t.bKus.
Al she coten me celesWl
Arithmetic is evon more striking in
'ppeanncc than \VaS Geometty with her dau1ing peplos aud celestial
globe. Arithmetie too wean; a robe, hers """"""Ung an "intrico.te
undtrgument tllat holds dnes to tIle OpeNOOns of universal ll:lture,'"
Arithm. tic'. mtcly bearing reflects !ter pristin. origin, 1UIt.c<bting th<l
, Geometty'. obocure umuk k lm.cnded to sbow dut _onomy b obo cloody
,CJ.ted ro gwmetry ond uitIunotio. When Geomeuy ..... fiNf introduecd {Jlk>8,), ........ wearing peplo< oover<d with i<OII",u io figureo eh
rbo
porpooeo'" ,,," mu, Aotroo<HJly .. weJ.I."
ti>< PI ........ ud F"dideut c,,",
><:fU 01 G,...,k.....,,,.,,,.,;c.J tIIeory _ tho ucelI.... d.......oq ", E. J. Dijbtu_
h";" Tb. M ..b4tth.ui"" Qf <Iu w.mJ Pi"""". PI'- !t4.
Huh _tm muhif'lim pIurit_
_
qgtHiu... om-..., qu>
ni", """".. optt ..
..."., oIxHJ<r4t (119) . Tho robe msy oymboliz< pure
oumben, ."d tho under.......... Ih<i< oppJO:ttioo ro <he pbyDcal ...."..w. At k>St
<hio lo tII, .. pl.norioo", 1WnlgiIIo" 1<><. (<d.l.ut&, U. ,ti.
'S"
THE QUAORlVIUM
A third ray and a (ourtlupring out, and so on, up [o n;mh and a tenth
""y-all radiating (rom hu brow in double and triple combimtions.
These proliferate in countkss numbers and in a moment are miraculously retracttd mro che OM..' Tho . cum:n Di Remigius is (lor required
re.r chis oymbolic descriptiOIl to the "",red Pythogon:on decad.'
n.. fir.;r n.y repr=nts che monad or che point, the source Di all
numben Or .n geomettie figures. Th. dcead eOC<lmpassts all nwnbers.
Ir.nd all numbers conftned within ir, "in double and triple combinaclon<," were worshiped a. sacrcJ by Pythagoreans.'
Arithm.uc's fingel'll vibratc >Virh a opd tIlat btun che vision. Shc j,
calculating,' lIld che sum sil. produces is 7'7. Ph.i\osophy
tIlat
Aridu"roc, in chis compuution, is grttting Jupiccr by Iris ver)' own
nam. (7)9).' Thc countless rayo thot 'pring from Iter brow frighten
oome of m e e:mh-bom d.itics standing by. and, f.DCymg thn Arimmm.: i. "prouting l>eads Iike che Hydra, they look ro H ercules for
help. At th.is momeot Pythagom, who is the p;ltlon and authority of
thU 0001<, ;OS Euclid WU of thc Iut, aC<XImpanicl Aritlunerio:: ro me
aW.<:us and holds a torch above her head as .he procceds ro her di...
room. The book on arithmet:ic: tbat foUows originated in twO works
fO
ruutpI"''' ........
..
r"""._.....
Pubol" .... b<ot uplaootioA of the IoIencifIC>ciott of thll onunbor wi<b Japi='
.,..,.. , off... d by Romlgi<>o -.1 lo<; (<<1. L..... 11, (79): Jupiter '" ti>< Greeks ......
lDlown .. H A. P X H IThe 1leinniI>1.
nlllllOric:oJ ni.... of the Gredt: Jettu.
...., H=Ii; k:.; P= .oo; X=-. H=tl l<I0II:=7'7.
n.
A R IT II M E TlC
.S'
that MortWIUS did not consult dircctly: thc 11llroduction 10 Arithmltie by Nicornach ... of
(c. A.D. 100);' and Boob VII_IX of
Eucijd's ElemmtJ, the books dcating wm.. aritlunetic (see . bove,
pp.
T he Greeb recognized two divisions of tite subjcct of arithrnetic,
botlt bcing induded in Aritbrnetic'. presentation: arithmology llIld
arithmetic proper. Arithmology, a srudy o thc mystical propcrtie. of
tite numbcn in rhe decad, de. lr with the attributes, epithets, and rDlIgica!
o( tbese numbcrs, which ir identified with the gods and
witlt I variety of animare and inanirnate obj= Arithmetic proper
was a rigid rnathtm1tical di<ciplinc, u!ating ro the properties and
rheary of numbcrs, .00 involving proofs." N aturilly treatiscs on the
rntgical properties ha<! wider circulatiou duo those on rhe rntthemarical properti(S of numbers. Many of the writers on number deak
oolr witlt .nthmology." It is ro me credit of MarrianUl that he givCl
ADyone
mth< """""" md deruopmo'" 01 Greek orithmetlcobould
consul. tb II:Glem imrodoctO<)' <:bol"=' oruI commemuy by F. E. Robhim in
<he vol .. "", CODtalniog !he OOog.: tru.h,ion a{ """lcomoch .... l. , d .... tIut
M>tti2.. ..... ",ins
SOIItCU, !><'Upo Apulelon' Ion tnnslotlo .. 01
!he 1-.4",,_
Arltbmerk ", hlo
t.rithn:I<tio, """" lIkeIy
digco< al this '" oome odI<r LatiD <nn<IsotL FOl bis Euclid ..... lrithmX:
he ... d """," LuiD d'S , " w< sltolI ....
" Robb\lu (NI_hut. tr. O"Ooge, 1'. , 1) distiol"isheo bttwten ...<horitleo
Iike Eudid, wIIo offe. proofo, oruI
wriIe" lil<c Nie.",..cb ... wbo do
DO<. Seo H-t., Hino" , 08, ",,!he diffen..,.. benvun. m... metbodo.
" Robbi .. (}lic_hut, tt. O"Ooge, PI'" 1"'"9') 1..... thlrtoen OCCOUDI> af arh_
mology, iDduding _
boo'" devoK<! wholly ro !he sul>j', tlu.
......rr.d
., mote .". k ..
formo N".:omochos I-w.U&tioN '" Aritb.....ir dw.
only with orithmedc pI"Op<1". ne """'f'OS<J ...por ... ,...,,-k 011 oritJunolosy,..,tidcd Tlmo., -",.. .n,""""c.., tbo """"""" of ...1ti<:b .,.. known fO ". fmm o
dig= owI. by the ByunriDe ocboW Pborios (JI. ' .Do 87< ood !rom 00 _D_
witb <he .. "'" tille. tboupt ro hu. bten derlv.J lugely /<ODl
Ni(:omodu..' ....... ood co.........,Jy oruibno:J ro UmbIicltu<. Robbim (Ni&o....cm.., n. ODog<. p. S. ) conriden!he .tttibution o liWyone; <h. lotest eWtos01 tbo ODOoymotIS T Im>I....... m Irit""'ttk..
' 9) , V. de FoIeo. deo;.,........ autbur .. poeudo-lurbllcltUJ. Seo N/eoNIum... tr. O'Oogo, PI' 8'41.
fo< ... oceOl'''' of Nicornachos' loa n.,,opmmiL Hoom, Hin<Wl. l, <ti, <epn!o
tite .nonymous <r<a';'" .. . <<>fWion, ollly purioRy du iwd {mm N"lCO""'clu.. '
loa ....., ise.
lo,.
rn-s .....w.
'5'
TIIE QUADRIVIUM
much greatl'r
(1)l-.fl).
ARITHMETIC
'S!
rear."
rearo
6.
.. O.
[. 6. \I: GeIlIoo j . ", n_
.. O . M><:r<>b; .. 1,6. o; Ge\lim). ". "
.. CE. Acrobias 1.6.7"
.. How <flttiv thi< schomo of bobdomodo io is indk... d by tILo [oce duo
..".,. .... ;" c.f:.
I ig tILo boord tu di< 00C0Dd.
.. M>CtObius (l. 6. 7') oddJ u.c.-.... in b.dtb .
.. O. Ah<:robiuI. 6. 1"
S<
TOE QUADRIVIUM
famili2r mm aritlunologic;J1 creatises will wondtt why MarWnus hc:re OmKs me sinh ami
hebdoJl'tl.ds of yeara, regular
fearurcs in other accounl:5. Leonardi .ppeus ro provide me answu:
hidore of Seville (Dt mnntril !S8c-d), who is copying froro chis posThosc
livor, and two kidneyJ." And tite memlxrs of rus body ore:even: head
(including ncck), chest, hoUr, two hands, and twO f t." FOl full
mcasurc Arithmetic add. tltn mere are "ven .t:ars at che edenial
pole." (139)
By Martianus' time .rithmetic lwI aken precedence over gco:metry
in me curriculum of the IAtin schools." From the
tIle
Rornms were intcrested onIy in the puctieal applications o( matbematics.w1 ",el<: nevor.ttr:octed to Greek nulhematiallheory. They
Iooked ro georneay for;es ad>ptability ro surveying. and ro arithmetic
as an.id ro computlltion. White geomctry wu becorning cechnical
spedalty, the IttfllcOons oC arithmc:tic we.., steadily be;ng enhanooj
by sev .... l devdopmenes. Under the Romm emperon the Lacin world
shlred in the revival of Pythogoreansm, with its number symboLism;
.nd thc Iut pogan school <:>f philosophy, Neoplatonism, WI5 intimauly
Jinked with Neopythagorcanism." Thc O>ristim
alter me
Chorch's viCfOry ovu poganism, p1ad .rithmctic in che f1nt position
..
o.l 'LIbor de ,..",....u,'" 1'" "7. 5<. abon, PI'- 19"60.. Mu:robi<Jo
77'
MI>::1000. h. 6. io) .t- "'" dM... che tnUlk but ;"01""'" "'" -.1,,,,,,
rirlU.., bring tbe ",,,nber.., fe\'eII. Anothet .... iter. AnnolioJo, ..... E; .... tb<
ti
=>.
.. ProbUlr "'"
tIto.....-..,
Or{Of"d Chslle.
F",. Noopyth.gor.....", iq Vano\
Leonudo F=ero, Ss ..... dtI "uqor/Jm., PI'- JI ....;+
writine> ...
ARITHMETIC
' ss
H oly TrinitJ, .... d the f;ve book! uf Moses." Sud\ writers were responsible fOf generating in .mdieval Ouistian littruure much involvemem wilh che mystery of numben.
Not ro be uverlooked as I faelnr in tite dominance lhat arithmetic
W3S gsining over che other qmdrivium $ttldies is !he adoption of a new
5chool monua.l. The prcominenl position long held by Euclid'.Ekmrntl
in Grk matbcmatical srudies W85 taken over by
IlftToduct;t}fI in ",hal meage! attention was dC"oted 10 mathematics in the
L.tin schools. Nieomachus' book had uoused imrnediate interesl when
it .pptartd and within a few deades had bcen uarulated mm Latin
by Apulcius. Marrou attributeS the shift in intucst from geometry to
uithmetic ro this book."
Cusiodoruo lI1Id Isidon mnn<d tht onditioral (Von-o>DuI) ",du, tnd ploeed
oridunrtie
of p>mry. Friedmu K6"" .....
-.1 toeh
b&1"", ;" 4 .. Anrih, PI" S....,." ditcUJOCS ch. ordot ond m."g<mettt of qu><Imiom
.. dtey wue trnted t.r dMsicd ond
.umor..
.. Se. r - d i , " ' codici" 960, Ind.. , e_, _ . FOl' bibliog.
Rphr <>ti
Lo Th<tmcliu, "ConlputUS." SfH<uNm, XXIX ('91tl, "')8, """ ro, <nmpI<o of <GhOp"'''' _ (lo8=> Gud S&i.m<" pp. ,6,..s-. n.. impotttJlCe of
....me. ;. olio Cl'ide", [mm <he manr mcmorohIe a.urch
"",<uo"d.. .,., ... ,,. cott:t date lo. &W' 00/1. <he Sy"od o/ WItitby, c.tled
by K"" o...." ;., 66J. A< <me time Orwy ..... fucioS fo< Le", wblk tht q<>etn
wu f=tiog lo< ,,. R.eoot=rion. Tbe COfItI'OY<nics in II<de', dar ..,d die ..,tire
NDg< o rompums llierm<u't bove boen thorooghly stUdie<! by e W. Jones in bis
.dition of B< Ot>_ d. umporibr.
., c...lodrum , _... 8. O. bid"", , .... '_J. And [o<.., el:obor1te dioc..,ioo of
n_t oya>bolism ;., oecuUr 0Dd <llristWt literatllr< in the Mlddl. Aseo ...
Cuttiu<, pp. 5'>1-90 Fot otI>et .ppll ......... of oridunetic oo. fODr2lne, 1, )+i.... .
f o",""," (i,
..... i.<ido<e .. <be ron.d" o/ <be arithmolop:.! orr in <be
oh...,
''''''/M''''''
...
"'""
....
,,6
T"E QUAORIVIUM
00
Imown instan.e of
""'.".
"puno.lir 01
AR I TIIMETIC
'57
11
H e corv:ludes his ....... rks en prime RUmbe.. by urms that they m....
be cGruidered beautiful (7+4) ."
Non c:omes tile uranemene of numben mm .. riel (wrms): fV'St
oerie .. '''9; occ:oncl, '0-9<'; third, 'OCH}OOi fourel\,
Sorne
writers, he notes, i"..lurk '0,000." In lile first series, clle monad ;. noC
.11_.
"." j'
;iIho.... "'!Km'
1, , .. 76-
..
, ..u;., .....
"1_,,- _
..
"prrf-."
,,8
TIfE QuAORIVHlM
M''''' ..
76-s.,
'49"!' ,
.. As 1IOtt<I obo (PI' P-J), )1), it wuaIly 112pptns, whm M U. modo . mee
o brideamId .. tito rpcol<er, th<t M........... irnr<Hl1lc .. mol"" ..... fonnd lo
COflnodorW. J...u!boo"'.
ARITHMETIC
'59
l.ta (147) shc spcaks o 4 as the firse oqual'll numbor .nd 9 :as the
second, .nd sil. poinl3 Out tlat each succusive odd numbcr in a scl'es
progressing fmm the monad mUS{ produce a "'luOfe numbcr_ process
that extends tO infuli<y,"
Alter chis interpoladon M.ro.nus
ro his d"ific.tion of odd
Ind C"cn numben. giving Eoclid', ddinition of .n evcn number <7,
Dd. 6) U one tlat is divisible into I:WO qual parts,lIld the fU"St part
oi Euclid', ddinition of an <><Id numb<r (Dd. 7) as one tlat cannot
be dividcd inro l:Wo quil pam.1O H. then obscrts tltat sorne odd
numben ate
uneveo, lik. J, $, 7; while others (9, 'S, ") ue
Uso multiples oi odd numbers; the Greeks d"'ify thc: lmor as <><Id
times odd. M.rtionU6 gives the correet Greek forffiS for me ttlmll evcn
dpuoo.;). odd times even
... ptto .... ),
times even
lIld even times odd (dpu....:,; ""pt<Joo6<;), adding to the general im
prcssion mat by his time the Nicomachtan handbook tradidon had
not detuiorattd :as greatly as Md the Eudidean tradition.
Nen, and in proper order, come, thc das.meatioo, wim dennitions,
o numben imo (,) prime and incomposite,
composirc in retation
ro themsclves, ()
in relacion ro one 1UlOther, and (4) eompositt
in rebrion ro one momero Tc iirst .nd $IIlJllest mearure oi.1l num
bers is me urut. Numbers ue susceptible of other measure., such as
duplicacion or triplicatiOll. Sorne numbers Mve {heir sole me .. ure in
me Wlit; om.,.., like 4.nd \lo can be dividcd inro om.r numbers; aOO
,ti11 othen, Like 8, MVe more mm 0[[(; measu.re. O uumbers tMt are
cousidered individu.Uy, those tMt have no measure but the unit .re
called prime ond incompositt;" mase that con Uso be meosured by
sorne other
callcd composite in rel.tion ro them,dves." Of
l:Wo or more numben tahn togethet, those,like .I . ud i, that Mve no
cornmon measure a...,p! rhe ullt are caUed prime ro one another;..
e,)
even nwnber."
.. a. ElIdid 7. Del,
....... [J .
iIIId. n.
lllI
a ""
.. a.
nn< IWJII.
160
TRE QUADRIYIUM
and thoK, Iike 9 and n, dut llave sorne odie. eommoll mcasure be,.dt: the wtic, au ca!"d composiu ro onc anodIcr." (750-5')
StiU auother doss;rtation divides numben
rhc perfect, the
supenbundan.c, and rhc deficicnt-the bttu two bcing in Greck 1;Cr'
minology
(bypmtkWi) ....d "underperfcct" (bypbttkim) ." A pufccc number is oue dut is equal lO the som of iq parts,
like 6 ud , 8; a supcn.bun.w.t nu",bu is onc me sum oi whosc para
is greater WII the numbu itself, Iikc "; a dcficicllt number, Iikc 16,
is oue the sum 01 wOOsc pam is les. than the whole. (7H)
Continuing ro foUow the acyle of a systematic tcaclog manual-that
is. setting up his divisious of tcrnlS, dcfining them, and men .Iobo
n.ting'"_MlltiaD.us nen takes up plane ""d solid numben. He lind.
rhat "the Grecia!" can numbe. plan. if it is tIIe produce oi two
numbcn." Th.. f:actofl of a plane numbu are upresenred lIS amngcd
&long two sid.. of a rigbt angle, resemblio.g a nomu [carpenter'.
"'loare):" if one.w. is accnded lO a lcngth of" .... d thc odie. ro J,
thc product is n, repmenccd by thc
muslormcd. Aecord
ing ro me Grecks, he continues, aolid numbu is one which is me
product o thre<: numbcfl." lf ..oove sum ee repmellting l2, yoo
place all denti",,] '1uadrangular surfacc, solid is produccd, rcp-
meo
" a. ibid. 'f' MMtiuuu lono.n EoclId hor<. Nloomaclmo (,. u Wosil"...
odd IIumben ooIy, di-riding <bern iDIo (,) prime ond iDa-tttpo';"'. W --"'Y
.ruI rompo" '" ond <J) .bsol....,. coonposi<e but ru.c;..cly ptnc. See Nlo<>'
D'Oogt, P. 201
.. Euclid (/. Del. u) d..... ooly o
_bus,
tr.
,C!
1OIltU.
sms oc.
ARITHMETlC
.6.
n.
.. a . N>omt<huo "
bt,_mi"',
1, l
.. Th< Gr<:ek term /0<: tbc obIoo. f'S"'" io
[beo:roa><clcl. a.
Nicomachus l . [1. [. Mucianus' o:<pt";"Q I<>t huuomed. f.,..... jo d-.. <UlO"
!hu ... d by Boelhluo IDo
ribmm" l. >6; Fri",U'in od. " j .
.Jur. pon. kmj...,
.. Petmg<>CAI fiuf<o. a. iMd. ,o, OI>dooe Ni<o"",,""', tt, D'Oogt, pp.
'il ' t+
n On obI<><>g olUllbu< lee H ..", Hin.r, 1,
.. Now /oUowio [, .. lid 0./. >J.
.. lc d.id no< <>:ur ((1 MmlDllS ((1 poi'" out eh .. 600 jo o.ho ooli<I ttnIIIbo.
C>XX,ool, if .............. of!he h el. Olck........:led th< .... hue mol, in..,
do"", correct<d M.......... mimo .. ood
eh ...... nuocripa. wtUch 'ud 0::"""
cee. Tlut Mutiamu. ond no< tIr. ootibo .oh<> copltd .........hetype. WK re'PO"''''' rOl <h. miml<e lo ..idom: from , _
b<lo", (7<\,) in wlUch
Mucianuo "Y' oIrt, 1 ond Jo. .,.... th< ...pordimidins ntio ro .... d "" .. Olck lo
doiog m. WDO <I>ins hue oIrt, Kopp chlded Groti"" /ot doPo( in ........iu
(oec obove, 1'- 96).
,,,t/'um,,.,
.'4+
",It
16l
TRE QUADRIVIUM
,06),
".v .
ARITIlMETIC
'6,
the omer ,maUer. The bmr rel.otioo occurs with. a oumlxr tNt tJceed. anomer io a ratio nf members or nf por"" nr acceded by rhe
otl,,:r." Numbers which. beor the relatiou of equality ne preferable
ro orhers, "fOl what coo be better thao 00 eqUJ1?' Tltough the differ_
cnce h.ctw<len two numbe"" greoter aod smaller, is the wne, che ntio
betwun tltOiSC oumbers is contTal)". There is the .. me diiference be
ru'eto J ood 4 as between 4 and 3, but the NOO between t!tose numo
be", i. ooC cm sorne." (758) TIIk \Vill be explained brt!, he soys, bur
the promise iJ; noe kepe.
Following tbe cuscomary procedor. oi lu.ndbook aothnrs, Martianus
no'" el.oborateS on hi, cI.os&ificatioo of the ratio, of oumben: multiple.
(759-60), ntios of memh<:rs (759, 16'), and raoos of parts <76.-63). lo
multiples rhere are the noos of doublc, triple, quadropk,
beyond
nllIIlh<r iJ; divided through the .. me ""ps, in reven;e order: 4 is brger
than , by tite doubk ratio and , is srnaller Ihoo 4 by tite ..",e. In
NOOS oi members vorious I\3JDCS are givcn; wheo o brgcr oumber
uceeds smoller by h.olf of tlle srntller (11:6), ir be.", tlle 1"2Iio of
suptrdimWtu
lo tbe mWJer by a third, superlorlM
(hlrpttoo:;); by qUOIrrer, ruperqu.rrtlls (tKlritopW;); by a futho superqumtus; by sinh, tupt1'w:ttu; .ud so 00. Tbe reciproco.! of
dmaJius is called wbdimidius
oi th.e suptrttrtiu$, subrertius ('tTP'W;); ond of the suporquartus, subquM'tus (ltbotStopt<><;)i and SO 00."
Thc: renuindcr of Book Vil iJ; given over brgdy ro numerical
eu""ples. Reoo.ders should no! suppose thlt Martianus' absorptioo in
simple arithmetic, at a levd of tite lowtcr primary sebool gndes, iJ;
otee ....ily char:octeristic of medie:>'i1 scienru.c mind. The same
simple eumple, an: fouOO in Nicorulchus; and Augustine, a precursor
n t<:kooacluu lo '1. ,., uI<a up <he ffiWoo. 01 equllty but do.. not diocwI
diffe=<. Mntian...... in "';"<1 wh .....
by me WOM< "multiple of"
ond '(,etot 01:
,. o.. tilo diffetencco I><ing tilo ..".. bm di< raoo 1><1"8 diffemu: ef. N"ICOmachl><'. '). ,.
" Udd<H ond Soon'. A a,uk-E..,Usb
(Odoro. '!>t") ci= _1'''0:;
.. found la M.nI."u> Mly,..,d d!ey ",.y 1><
""'"
forms, bi< ".."...tioo of di< '"""" bacI! iDro G=k. P. TIUIOUY, "Ad M. lp<llu
Iibrom VII," R....., d. pbiloI.j., XVI (,Sopl, 'J]. sug .... that!bey 1>< omended
ro tite guIor fomu
""d lntcmUiMj><O'l.
,.,.
THE QI1ADRIVIUM
elI'.
and enmplcs." b)
Multiplicacion begins with me smaUcst n.tio (double) and procccds
ro
and largcr anos (triple, quadruple, et<:.), one uceeding another by ratio of rncmber:s of of pans. But the ratio of rncmbers begins
with che superdimidius and proceeds to eh<' supertertius, 5Uperqll2.rtus,
aOO tu evcn smaller ntos. In che ntos, rerrns tMt
minimal are
caBed /l11hmttltl [root-forms )" by the Gr<:eks. The mittinW turnS
of eh<' superdimidius are and J, of eh<' supereertios J and 40 of eh<'
Sllperquartus 4 and 5. (764-66)
Al this poim Martiao.us inuoduccs au atuactive little digression
(767)-dte soun:e js nnlmown, but cm obsuvotion is obviously noe his
mm_on t1Ie scquence of che discoverics of ehe ntias, Multples_r<:
-Mani&nu!'
0IlC0unr,
.. O. N;c.m...huo l . .. . ..so
a. ilnJ. l. '9.6-, l. >l. M.tnWtuo' <en", eorrup< here. Tmnety. "Ad M,c
librum
pp. 17-1, oil...
ni 'W"".
"",,,;,ubot, whl<b Diek .ro.. "'" ...... " hlo .ppuo.....
AI!.ITHMETIC
,6,
.. n..
Pythtg<mon riew o/ ti>< DlODad .. botb oven ..d odd was wI.wy
>d<>pd by popular ,....;Ieh. o. M.. t<>bius l. . 7: n""... od.. Hm.... po ]J; CaI_
cid ... Ji. And ... li...... Ni.."", l. 7" ro. >OOSib1o ..pJanonlona. MllfIluuo bao
iD miod oqUM< (pi .,.) nnmben orisinoti<>g fMm tbe DlODad (. poi<ul ,
.. From ber< w tbe cnd of !be book Mortitnuo folle.... Euclid. propo<irions.
bu, DO[ hU proo/L Euclid dovdol'" hio proot, by lineo;
ill---. by
DumI>en. el. Euclid 9- II!.
.. O . ;'IJ. J9.. el. 1614. u-u .
.. a'"
.""'. 'J .
.. O . lhIJ.
.. eI.1hIJ.
.j.
JI
,66
THE Q UADRIVIUM
.ven."
'l.
.. Ci./bid.
" Cf. <bid. ,<1 a"
. ,""'o J"
.. Cl. iblJ. JJ .
N Cf. ibid. l+.. Ci. Eltdid 7. Dd:. "; N .........hus lo ti . '. n.. o\lll>bu ..n.r... Euclid'.
o.finltion o. primo numboor ond i< gtrded .. prime by t.risoode, bllt in N"ICO",..hu<' ..... tm<nt .ti primo numl>.on
ro the claso of odd nwrt.en. Su
N".,bomochus, tI". 000ge. po r. n. l.
I><l00,
All l THMET I C
,,)
prime in rdation ro eoeh. other. (77S) In <=t2ln casa odds ,00 evens,
like 9 and !l, are composite co ..eh ocher, sinee boch ""se from
triplicotion. Noteworth.y is the faec tha, no even number from cvens,
only cveos from odds, can be eomposit<: with an odd Dumber (776):
9 is Dot composicc with 4, 8, 16, but is eomposicc with 11, 14- Not
cvery odd numh<:r that is composite in relation to itsdf can be eom
posite with cvery Rumber that comes from odds, bttausc: the cwo
numbers may not be divisible by the same measure. Thu:s 9 and So
.re no. composite, bec:>use So does not arise: fmm triplicacion (777).
Theo follows the upid cnunciation of many propositions from
.Euelid's Ekm.,lI>. (718.801) The runsbted st:aCemenCS are wordicr
than che original and aTe not in Euc1id'! order. In place of Euclid's
pl'OOf1, M.m.nus offers numericaI illustr;>tions.
If either o cwo numben; mat ue prime to ..eh. ocher is composite
in rclation to i"",If, a mcasur. of !hac number is not composite wich
the other Dumber (Euclid. 7. 13). If two Dumbers are prime 00 each
o!lttt and onc of thcm multiplies ir,df, thc p.-oduct ",ill he composite
with the other
If two numben!hat ore prime to each other
multiply Ihemsclvcs, the producrs will be prime co ..eh other (7.27).
And if twO numben are prime lO .eh other and Ofl(; of them mul.
dplies jadf, .ud if that numher muh:iplies the produce og:o.in. the re5Ulting numh<:r wil\ not be composite with!hac ocher number (. 27) '
If two nwnbe", are prime ro each ome. and if each onc multiplies
irdf, and multiplies the product ogain. the rcsulting numbe" wiU
also he prime co each other (7. 27) . If two numbe",!hat are prime 00
each other ue added, the !Um of the tWO numhers cannot be com
posite with cithu of the former Dumben <7. ,a). lf two numhers ue
cogeeh.er with a mird and . n are prime tO one anocher, the
product of the tWO nwnben etnnot be composice with the third
number (7. 24) . If numbers do not contain !IOIJle pan- of 2 numbcr,
lbey cannO! be composite with it <7. '9)' If three numben joined
together" are the lout of those which nave !he .:une ntio wieh tltem,
any CWO of mese added together are not eomposite with the third
's
.68
THE QUAllRIVIUM
.. Le, if
.n<!
lOO Le.,if "=1:s,!boa
....., .:=b"..
''1==
")'1"'"
ARITIIM.,TIC
""
tion; if che firse numw measures ti: last, ie mcasurc.s ehe "'OOIld as
wdl, Ind all che othen following it; ir ir meosures che 5eCOnd, it .1so
mta.wrts che Iast Ind che inurvening ones; if rmaUy ir measures any
om:, ir mu,rum- 011 (8. 7) . U IS mOrly numbers os you pleue, beginning
with che unir, are in 1 cominued proportion, os m:my prime numbers
l. measure che la!lt number will mcasure che number which is nen
ro the unie (9.
If as ITIllny numben os yoo pleue, beginning wirh
che unir, are in a continued proportion, che smollor a1ways me:twreS
ehe brger by sorne one of che orher numben lhar are in che same
proponan (9.' 'l . If os many numbers os you pleue, begimting witb
che unir, are in a continued. prQportiQn, ,."d che numbCT nen 00 tlle
unie l; prim<, ehe greatest number will RQe be measured by any
tIwse tllOe are in rhe sarne proportion (9. [ ) . l f two prime numben
measure che ie2se number, RQ other prime number, will rneasure ir
(9- '4)' If 1 sqnart number measures aO<lcher sqllllre number, tbe side
o rhe rU"St ""uore wiU .Iso be rhe measure of che side of ti: orller
(8. [4); Ind if a square oumber does nOt mcasure a square nurnw, che
llide of ooe will RQe melSUre ehe!lide of che other (8. [6). Tf. cube
number measutes anorher cube number, che ,!de of ch. fim: cube will
.Iso m..sure che ido Qf che omer (8. '5); and if one cube numbCT doe,
noe measure another cube number, che sido of che firn willoor measure rhe side of che orher (8. '7) ' Any number chae is m=sured by In_
other number gets che name of the measure from che .. me number
elue ",.kes che mOO$ure (7.37). If 1 number ha, a pan, it will be
measured by a number tllllt h.. the same IWDe OS che pare (7. 8).
Arirhmc:tic brinl:' her discuuro. to an end abrupdy wich short
poem and apologius. os did che OchCT bridesmaids, for being tedio""
and proLill:
,.j.
170
TRI! (JUAD R I VI U M
,.. For .. lc<> .. locin ociet>oe ..... ..,1< ro maimtin. I""'irioo. of rupe<' in
W<=rn Europe. tite T""",w , ..u iD bibJe (ou abo .... P. U, (The T;.m,,,,, ,
me I>ook in Pi>!<>', Iwtd ., Ropbs<!'. po.inring ol me .ncion, pIlo>oopb<n. "Th<
School of A,hens.") Arino<elion "'"... ue widely <llio<minatcd ., Larin eoomo!!""p!tio: tn.diriot>s of !he fino au;m." millcnniom, bu, the bao", ",,,..,,,,,,, ..,d
,,(,,><,pMn. of c-""l!ropt.y ., Ihio petiod _ .,."..
dw> Ariorotellin
clt:ancristics,,,
defmiriv, .dirion af Cakidins by J, H, Wmink oppeated
in '9'1'; Wuzink pbc<o Calciditu u: me el.,.. ol <he _
CtnNI)'- w1<I>out
muc.b
Previomly "" _ gener.tly p"ced io the f;<n holf ol "'" founb
"""",
... Juvenal SIlIir.. 7, 'Jo-J+
De"'.
On Astronomy
TUI! SlLEN<;E following!he acclarnation for Aritbmetic'. discoursc is
brol<en by a 5C<:ne of rowdy brawling. a trave,ty of che rcfin.d
imogery 2nd precious bonter in a seco. by Vergil which may have
inspired !bis on .' Sil.nus, rus veins swollen wim an overdraugbt of
wine, Iw been snoriog through Ar;rhmetic'. l<:cture. Suddenly he
cmiCl a thund.rous belchoTh. enoro party is convulsed witb Iaughtcr.
and pandemonium erupl!;, T hc 3nendool!; of Venus and Bacchus cake
over .00 che wine flo""". &lucy Cupid runs up lO 5jlenus . nd gives
ruS ruddy bald head a mounding clop of che p.lm. Th. besJtccd old
mon 510wly aw.k<:ns and, peeriog Ihrough blood,hot oyes, ,caggers to
hU; feer. He sway' 3nd rcel. abone. che" olumps ro che Ooor. &itrr,
on oro"," from Bacchus, h."ve. Silenus to rus ,houlders and drapes
rus bl03ted body.
a wincskin, aboo! tus neck.
At rhis mornent Marcillft... is .barplr reprimanded by Sarire io!
introducing a b!':l.wl inlo an angust.enate of the god.s when Astronomy
is abour ro discou ... 00 "tht lWIowed plancu,"
Herdsman
Botites," "brilliant Canopus, "the b1azing boros of the .ver-changing
moon," and "tlle slmting belt of Ihc wdiac," .11 pbinly visible from
the gods' notage in the canopy of the heavens. Mamanus responds to
Satin', abuse ",ith . questiom "Am I tu esch_w tU erutor", of me
inugination and not nJi_ve tbe boredom of my readen ",itb !!ODle
minh and droIlecyl Come to your senscs, Satire, ka... off your tngic
... ming, and mke a hint from tbe youDg Pdignian poet: Young
tgJ,:e my advice and omilc." Apoll<l steps OUt to usher in the nut
bridesmaid:
B,I..... thcir eyes . ... ion oppetted,. bollo ... boJl el be.venly Iirbr, fdlcd with
,;;""'_
6. '4,6 n.o T<1'IO , quotcd /rom MutW <Epivom> , ,), wh<> ploinIy _
in me
non line dut be thinb the Pel;gn... po (0.>:1) ofler<d mio odvicc. Mutianu,,
...:ribing me qooa.tioo ro the ".,Iiu """'" _ ."pp<uslng <be intetn'l<diory',
"..,... io lo kcepln wirh the g<......t pnctice al bte Latin and "",di,nI writt:n.
17!
THE QI1ADRIVII1M
"".ior
..,.0
*.
.,,.,.
ASTRONOMY
'71
obligation rwwd Mercury, and sincc bis brido Philology ilio wants
ro hear her, .he wiU bcgin.
Finr it mould be
out tllat Astronomy's rderence ro
major G=k astronomers was a doception pr:octiced by noarly ..u the
Latin handbook aumorities of me Empire and oarly Middle Ages.
Link was known aOOut
G=k writen beyond the awesomcotss
of thcit repuuti<>n. Hipparchus' g=test discovery. mor of me p=sioo of me equinoxcs, is not eveu mcntioned by the Latin writen.
Er.>tost:hencs' brilliout mcthod al coleubtiog !be circornference of the
globo, and the figu he obained ('5',000 stadia), was lcnown in the
Wesr on/y as an isobted dantm. Ptnlemy's
was read ond
me<! rn gond dfcet by Ammianll'l Marcellioll'l in bis H;UOt-;tl, but
Arnmianll'l was t Syrian Greek. not Latin. That Boetltius
sorne Ptolemaic "'ork 00 astTonnmy seems likely from contemponry
and loter U:Srimonics ro soch a ttansLtrinn and a cicle De ft,ologilJ. The
ttansLttiun, if it wn made, wu oot nf the Alm4g<Jf, but nf a sbomr
nunw.1 by Prolemy nr a hartdhook io the PtolemJic tndition.. The
solutioo tn chis vaing quemoo appt1U'5 to a\nit any Ichobr who will
avail himself of. discovery made by Profes5Qr Ullrmn shordy befnre
tus dam.'
the
fnuduleoce of \hrtiaOll'l' citations
meso:
Fin, 1... 111 re ....... <he eridenu fur BoedUon ttmslation ro 0001< on ...
"""""'y by Ptoluny. Boet/us 91"
Jobo hnmt."., 111 th< Prehc< ro hiJ r.m
"",,1<, D. otlmt,,/t '" w""",* ....a... on.<Oto oi tbt
dio<jpljne.
No", "'. hove 'Q ambiguouo tnd fbm:ring k<ter (1'..... ,. tS). odd"""' by c...
<odonI<
'l'Modo,ic'. nom<) '" BoeIhiu<, ,......, Boedti......._
.... oty.
oon )'Ul'I 01 oge, tnd ...1iDg Iho,
me mosici1n. "",1=y tbt ...
"""""'er. N""'-ch.. tIIe uithmcticion, E-.cli<I obe
PI..., "'"
theolotian. luistode tilo !cro;.n. ond """ luchln>tdoo m. rnecloonicion lwI
...a.bIe " I.orin. "'"""" '" Boothlou. Thio ku<.
00< indic .." .. hao
>m<rim<. be<n .. ppoo!. dio< Doetbitu trmd-.! ProI<mf. Almogtn ond "'"
m<dwtical lrOoti= el An:himedeo. Cuoiodo .... ' " ' 00.-;""'1, implUO<d wi<h
Ik><thio:.s' <>J ..... ond '"' <:<>nf""ing p<=ed "tun/ono,.w, ......, ...",mplid>......... Ludy <here ... tIO'O le ...... ro Getbert (Noo.' ond 'Jo [Mignr, PL, a.XIII.
colo. '0), '!JI), " tbt r"", he uf... ro. Bobbio IfWlUICl'ipt WJltlining.Jstnboob oi Bocthiuo De 4ItroI0f' " tb. """,0<1, be .. loo monl< .. Dobl>lo '" mol
oopi .. ro M. M...w.. D. mrolo/to. Victoorimoo D
ond De" .. I ....
M...u .. "" i""enlJy b.." Id_ir...... Monliuo lIoetbi<II, ood jo
'" ..ken by =om tf'ON!<tO<' (I!uri Pnn Lottin, Tbe Lmn. <>f
l'
'69), but R. EUio (o'" Ntm" M 11;. . . . (Orlord, '8911. PI'- "9')0) ond h . E.
ao
bo,,,/<,,
a"bm.
'14
T H I: QU AD R IV IUM
scholars
ro credit them, Qod OUt schob.r recendy mok che
troIlbJe ro point OUt che disc:Rptncies hetween Martianus 21\d
Prolemy.'
Astrooomy's discourse, wroch occupies only thirty-niM pages in
tite T elllmer ediclon by Dick, is fragment that brcab off abrupdy.
JlN
w.
long o..... bu, Ullmon poi ..... OlIO: tIut th, ..., 6t''''''17iM 010 .. 00<:<'1"" fiv. boob.
Uufornu>oteJy Prole""" UIhnon
,ud no< la.... an opportUJ<ky or did no<
_ lit ro uamine tht
portiou of tbe lIWlDOCrip< ro <Iornmin< tht
M..ilian, BoetIon, or ProlwWc
of
000""'.
's.. abon,,, o. Jo.
, Dcnk J. <lo Solb Price, Sri<JU:e SiTu:e B'',w... PI' 6-Jl. "'p. mquc importO",," ... Gte<\ mat/oom"in<l pJaue<ary moory .od _yo that "in .U tbe
Imncb .. uf ",ionc. in all tbo o<ba cultures tbe", , no<hi"ll '" _
tIUo ""'1
.,ti..1 01 rdinod ond od<onced cotp<U 01 eotito::Jy motbeInoticoJ .xplllUtion uf
,,,,,,,,,,,.jo<
,ido"
'1'.
_."
n.
ASTltONOMY
'75
'1!.J9), p.
,i.
"E. lIiIJ .., "De Adru!i l'l;cip.t<boi in PloroniI T"""nrn COmm<1lt1ro." Rbri"j,e/m Mu"um. ........., XXVI (,g., ), 8'.119. "'l! ....
di.. Colcidluo
tnndalM {rom Adr-ss<Ju' colGlllOlUU}', no< "TheoD',. Il l1il1,,', ugumtm" is volid
_
mot< ocboWs tcC<p< it-Tbeon b<comes
00 d_
.me.
to c.JoidiuJ'.
"Copernioa DI ttwlUlh>1dbw
<otl..,1um 1.'0.
;.
THE QUADRlVIUM
'1 6
ro propound Ileliocentric oroits for aU me plancts, including die W'tll,
n..
e.,m,
_bJJit_ . . ,tttSin"
_d ,.;.-.
Aril/IlJ'<b_
q_.
0\1'
"'" """"" pl.ao of m. foor el...,..- Knh, boiaJ tite he..ie<t al the lo... elo.
oh. bortom of oh. uniftroe, ud objOClS folling
tU diteaio..
upon tilo ......'. Rltboo fol! toIfO'Ud "'" cootU-<he nodoa tUt .... ""'" .......
m.
(= !>ottom) of the ual.-ene beco"",. <;oIDILlO1lfIIocc in com><>ppbN:
a. PIiay l. "; Oeomeda J. "1 Mocr<>bius C." ......,.., ,. n . , .
.. Tbo ""","in pra <O
by oh. TU.
r"""
......... jo O"<
,.,.,1Ibar
ASTRONOMY
,imi/;s tmtniJ
'77
,mbjlU
"14m pos-
"cireles," we do not intcnd ro convcy a nonon o corpore:al denureations of a fluid mbstancc; we are mereJy iUustnting the ri.<ings and
setrings o pbneelly bodies as they appcar ro \1$ (nos igifUl" circuWs
"O"
" Vot.., p<>imo 10 lOJ>Otbo.r limiation in tho """ 01 onnilluy . phueo in. po<..,. q""",d by A ...... a-m.. (Ame NI,m. . ,o. l.
lo nrMl oimiIori<y
bU<,."d oid>er V...... or Gelli ..
U>spited Morcio<mi thougbt.
" O . The<Jn (ed. Hmo.r), PI' '>9"j); Ooomod .. l . "-U; GeminIa " Col_
cidius 65-68, Moerobius C.-nuM1 l. '5. u _,I, lIdor. . 44-.j.
n..r.
'7 8
TOE QUADRlV I UM
C."OOk""'" ,.
."
.. Moco: b,od""""""'" Jo no< tneO ttoe ...1",;'1 cirdeo dvongh <he conitelbriooo. Howevu, Antlll' Pl:.=" ...... tho bibI< of populu --.mr. doeo
,taco tbo tw<> ttopic> md tbo ",,1"';.\ equ=r iIIlhio woy .
.. Ganinua S. J. G<mimu ond hio =cbu Pooidoniu< lived in
Mon", ...' <ncing of <he Tropie of G'''''''' io m. _
.. _ found .,
""""_.
180
THI': QUADRIVIUM
""'.'"1"'.....
=-
,',
ASTROIi'OMY
dista"".
_,,;$ . .
N_ it
j"., ....;:).
m.
m.
m.
arctic circle
"
,8,
oS interVaJs bclow that, 2nd the cquator i inttrvals bdow the rropic,
wilh corrcsponding intvals IIII.rking tbe Iocation uf tbe wrrc:sponding
parillels in che southem Ilemisphen."
",en
altllough mere are twdvc tqU41 zodiacal divisions, OI sigm, tbere are
only eleven zodiac:tI constelbtioru. Scorpio occupies ir. own space
witl! ", body ""d the opace of Libra with jo. claws. The sign mat
the Rornans can "Libr:a" (!.he Bahncc) Greek wmers refer ro lIS ''the
Oaws". (839) (Aitrooomy's IISt .a,ccment H Jargdy bUI not Ilcogethtr
(:()r=")
\.brtianus Cflunts '9 consttlbtions nonh of the zodigc: Ursa MajO!',
Ur.. Minor, DuC<), BoOtes, Corona Ariadnes, Hercule., Lyu, Cygnus,
Cepb ..., C=io>W, Perscus, Triangulum, Aurig2. Androrncda, Pcgo.NS, Serpentarius, Ddphinus, Aquila, 2nd Sogita. The .. are che con-
_ftT,
'Y"""'"
'0
of. rwelve sigm, ro <he 0l0I<10.,.. thu of. e1e_ According ro s.rn", !he ChaI_
deo", toolo Soorpi<> ond Libra ro be """ Iign. 00< _king equlity of . - . . lo.
o.lI !he . . bnt haviog reprd iot tho Iodmdual ronps of. "'" siga<. voryinj:
fmm '0' ro +'1' in ClItc"t, ",hile tite Ji.&ypti>.. ptefern:d ro """Mer .u .. belng
JO' Ia .. te;tt.
'"
"STROSOMY
compored in
JI '"
bo upect<d. Tbo
'"
Vitruvin<
nndusbnd ;r. (kmi""" (J.8) ..,.",.. " POrthUtt =-u.no ..... odding w dIO
s., P<" ldd In th< htnd of S<.pentHi<a. C>mo. Bu,nicrs, ..,d
Eqrnd< ... di< 1... on ,be aurho'ity of Hippucb.... Ptolemy (iIJm.gm 7. sl, tlso
followillg Hipporchus, ""'""" u, omining Comt. &roniees .. "" "unrorm<d"
uo.dirioW Iist
.".,_
'"
TitE QUADRIVlllM
,.."
f["
.. n.o o:oacopo<!<len<a
.n.
c......
Hm.'1 .,
f...,.,...,,.
,as,
A,..",.."..
.8S
aU me observational datJ of Ar:Im. Thosc pertaining ro the rising ot
01' sign will ;uffi"" os on cumple of !:he dar,: for In !;\lId..e:
ASTROSOMY
w,.., LIbu I
<he
pattiono el Ptguus .<><1 CyJmIs. tbo hoM el
luldromod .. <he mOlllden of Cephtus, CmJs, ond die ......,ders 111 tII. ri .... fu
<bmts .... oetcinlJ. Al ,he ..,... timo tul! el 0 -.... <he right loo< el lIucul ...
Ik><it<o, 011 of Hydro =opt <he ond el tbo t>iI, tnd tho oq';"" pon el Ce ..........
.... rising
liI4,l.
"'IDO
f,,,
..s,)
f,,,,,,
,86
c.on.tlationt thu rio! tnmnndy .nd lCt outicolly b... rIrifur ritIngs thaa
omiDgs; C<HI .......ly. _
thu riso ,u,,;...Ur ond te< ' ....... .....,Iy
sIower
riaingo lban sea;;ngs." 00",.,., ..... vorcdly ond seo ...n inclin><ioc>, ......
IhougIIIf t...
sIigII<
in Coprioorn. QoIV'<'< n... in "/u ha .........
... in ,"1" ha .... H= ....
is mio;""! Leo ,;.." in .'1> houa ood ....
in .'1. bonrs. V""!" rioes in ,'l. h""", 0Dd .... iD "lo hours. Tbc ...... hol ... loo:
Libn. But Seorpio', ri8ng timo is loso Ith&n Viro',l ood IDo duration o ito_
tUog , _tu; it riooI iD
ond .... iD
bonrs. Soittotiut rioes in
J\oDn ond .... in , UI. """" Ii+ll.
""'r
.'1. """"'"
,'l.
.'1..
a..,,,,,,deo ,. 6.
J ,.
...
cum'
" Geminuo 11. 9"") ulsoo tilo..",. <umloo I1Id obo polms to tite b.l ...."'s
01 "'" po;'" He """,""y ouribuus <h. diffetetlOO '" do. obIiqnl<y of <he eelipti< .
.. "TbiJ lo
of me Lotio o::ompil<rs. O. Mocrobiu<' b.-.gr>n tone
_
be pt<t< ..... to uf.... Er_.oo Pooidonius (Co",,,,._, ,. ,o. '0)
'M Arinodc (ild. l. Ij_'6).
ASTII.ONOM ...
'"
ky, aod &gittarius aod Capricom are depr=ed. QS they verge ,,,,ay.
(148-.w)
Marti.ous oow comes tO the planet:s and their motions; thi.!; mbject
i. umaU)' found Wt in tite handhooks .nd occtIpies h.im for the re-mtinder of Book VIII. The planets, be tells lI.5, := seven in oumber.
ne)' requin specia1 attentioo broluse. whereas all huvenly bodj""
are .wept .long with the diunul roto.tion of die celestial sphote, tite
planea have jq .ddicion ti ..... owo motioo in a rev ..... direcciono 'ni.
suo aud the mOOo have been giv.n coundess names by the 11ICes of
mankind. TIte otbcr five planets are I<nown by their rnymol<>gical
names and by me descriptive Mmes giveo ro tltero by the Greeks:
&tum, the
(Ph...,.",); Jupiter. the "B1=:r" (PhJtrhon);
Mus, tbe "Fiery" one (Py,otis); VCDUS. the "Light-bringer" (POOIpborO/); md Mercury. me "Twiokler-" {StiJb(J7l) ." TItese planets requin varying amounr.. of time ro nt2ke up tite disnoce tltat they are
carded Iockward in a single diurnal roanon of rhe sky: the moon a
month; the 5110 year; So. .... m, the out<oooO$t, thitty yeus; aod the
ino:ervening planee;; periods of rime proportioml ro tite distan= they
traverse in thbr omits. (85 '-51) AlIse""n planets are observe<! moving
" Gtrnimls (r. ron) .nd
OJI_
" Moct"'im (Ca'''.'''' ......, '.6. ,,) ".d Ooo<no<ko Iz. j. ,, ) 'p"'k of m.
......<"ptr" a.c."", of ...... o iD GemiDi.
" TI>< derlptl ... n ....... orlJinm:d by m. G",.k " 'r<><><><n<n. <lid _ JO;"
I"'puIarity ... K\jboo,l<y. Puoohly. ond !mi (p. ')1) <>11_ The R.onno dld
1100 '"""'pI: ro rn.ru.I.o .. te<t """'''. Oeero (fk ... ",.. Jeorom l . I_!)) . like
M"";"'", . ..... th< Gre<k fo.",,; lo< od>er oo;e1UI"<1I<" in cl..u.:.d litnotu,.. ...
m. 00"" in ,h. E'ao. litio ... [L 5).-6.
,88
TIfE QUADRIVIUM
ha".
..
uf ....
ptJl<tS.
<
(n. ,?"-,,) ottrib .... "'" "" tbeory ro "muir pIWooopt.< ....""""
by pointing om th .. !ho fiud ..... """'. in ponJItl .,....... ."d "'"
..
tnOOI).
ASTItONOMY
.S<
adminrlon:<>
Venw."d M.rc""Y. ollhouglt <hoy 1>0 ohiIy rising< and .. ttlngt. do no< ....d
tbout ti\< euth lt oll, n.thor they .I>circle ti\< rnn in wer u.oInti=<. T he
".,..., of <htoit ""bU. ;. lO' in ti\< rDD. M rnI. they are """",times .bo ... m.
" " ' ; "",u of.... <bey ..., _ m ir, in dos .ppromn.tion ro m. nrth,..
Venus'
olongstioo [mm"'" rDD ;. <ID< lnd holf oigm." Wben botb
pW>en. M...e. position abo ... "'" su'" Mer=ry ;' clooor ro <h ........, whe:n dtey
are b<low m. ...... V..,.., ;. d.,..... irwmuclt .. ir .....
11'10: "'""1'"
in:orbir [1j7 [."
g""'_
o.
gi_.
."In..""".
'9'
THE QUAD!l.IVIUM
me two ordo:n. He caOs che ORC pladng !he sun second m..
omor, me omer he alls thc
oedor; and he
uplains thc re2$OJl fOI thc division o opinion. H. then goes on ro
gi". on cvcn nguer ""'temenr than Vitturi... abont the circl.. of
Venus Ind Mercnry about tIIe ""n.... Thcon of Smyma discnsscs rival
views which place Mercury and Venus
OI below me 8Ull,
ehanging tIIe positions oi Mercury and Venus with respect ro each
other, and )ata prtsenn two epicyclic I)"tetnl ro expWn thc motiQRS
oi Mercury .nd Venus, che sec<lnd bcing Iike thot .ruibute<l ro
by Catcidius." E,= Ptolemy d..1s with che rival theones
regarding their positiOll'l and che causes oi
confusion, at me opening of Book IX o hi5 Almlgtlt. Ptolemy
the older
mar plaecd them hoth benc.th me SUD ot aU times. Modero ItistoriAns
o Qttonorny have elCpressed IIIrprise rhat Ptolemy did oot see thJ.t
thc rival theorles oould be reconciled by abandoning his SCpaNt:e epicycles for Ven ... ""d Mercury ond by nulring [he SUR the cent:er of
both their orbits, .., Hel'3Clidcs did."
W. mould noe be surpristd, then, ro find hato immediately alter
M:utianus Iw described tIIe heUOctntric orbilS of V mus and Mel'<:Ul)'
.. alumately above aud be!ow me sun, he deals with che rival view$
of luthoriries wbo mlintairoed a tued order oi the planees. Martianus,
uolike he others, does not indicau. prcference. (858)
Astronorny now cclls me wedding guests tIlat she is going ca alculate me size of tite arbits of all the pbnets. "on undemking that
utronomcn consider a diffocult one."" Once tgajn Martianus rnninds
us of thc bridesmaid's presence when Ite is
ca .lepan: from me
standard flandbook rapia. Asttonomy begins with me premise tIlat the
earth'. clrcwnferwce is .o6,OfO sbdia. TIs figure, ,he soys, wtS
abo".
m.
T._.m.",
me
v.....,.,
s.m.".
ASTROllOMY
'9'
by mtos-
""'Q",,,,I)'
'9'
TH[ Q UADRIVIUM
quently, sM conclud..,
(859)
che amee plancts. Assuming that the planelS travel It a unifonn speed.
che SUD' , orbit is 11 times al Iarge as me rnoon's. Mar$' orbit iII titen
14 time&, Jupitcr'l '44 times, and Suum'. JJ6 rimes, as largo as tIle
moon's owt. Talring che mooo', orbit ro be 100 times greater tlum
the earth'. circumference, Saturn', orbit is !:hen Jj,oo times gnattr
than me cin:umfomnce of tho emh. (&60-6,)
Mutianus, retUl'Ing ro CQtlvcntional handbook topies. now takes
up tlle orbilS .ud behavior of eadl of me planm stparately and in
order, beginnlng with tite moon. Thc cycle o lunar pIwes Jasts I
m011lh, but the moon is aiwJY' fully illuminated on che sido facing
the 5IlII.. 00 che thirticth day of iu cyclc ir uve:als none of iQ Iight ro
ir is betWeen B5 tnd me SWl, tnd me illllmilUtW half faces me son.
Thc reuon for me changing phasc' is (hu the moon's COlll'St is lO ODC
.. Tbert ... .,..., .....,.., o .... proced ... In <he INm"""pu. P=u rejooted
tito looJer nnio.., whicb _ _ <he bu.lk of oection 8o In ..vemI edidons,
.. . si- d.. WH;" . .' , >:e ftom MoaobNs
1, >1, "_>1, A", .. lJy
tito at- /o
quoutioa [fOIl) RcmigiIIs'
011 thit 1
8< {ed.
Lua, n. m), a.o-deo (>" , 7S)
brid 0000IU>f oi dolo procedun .. -....I
tito .ppu= diw-. ol tito
be "",,00... tito onubod to tbe
E'yp<WIo. .. doeo
.. Thio 0100 ..... ro OH fd!!IUlu d i e .... ol )6', ............. po"'" tbo!I ddxr
<he ocnolll figuo< or _
udooo
.......-..J ....... *PJ>U'<Dt _
JI' 1'1'
OoH!edto' lJe>,t' ...
C,,,, "",.,.
' "
,m.
gi_. .<t,,,
.><i"....,
fogu...
)<1'
PIdemy', ......
JJ' ,''''
HC2tb (Aftnld...., p. J',.l, cirio T0"""'Y" opitolon, chlnb thot
do,;<1 bit fisure 100m V..... ond _ ir ..... , d;"'. period befan Hippoldnot.
ASTRONOMY
'9l
side of ... and we glimpse Ihe illuminaled portion 10 an incrtasing degree as me mOGo mo,es away from th. suo. Ar a position opposite
th.,un, rhe mOGo 'ppcars fuUy iUuminared ro USo Mmimus gives the
Greek renos for the pllases: fint appesnnce, menotides
shaped]; OC 90' eastwafd elongation, dicooromos [halfl; at 'H',
ampbikuttor [gibboush "od at ,So",
[fuU moon] . The
same twnes are lpplied in inverse order as the mooo dimini>h"" in size
on ir. returo cour.;c)' In '4 houn; the JUOOO coutses through , 3' of
ir. orhit. During thc S;""" inrervul the othcr pbncts coUr.. t/rrongh
the following porcions of their orbits: Mar!! '/!' ; J upites '/,,11"; 20d
Sarum '/, . (861-6.)
TIte mooo complet"" a circuir of tite zodiae in '7"13 day!" hot
quircs '9'/. day'" ro ovemkc lbe mil, thc rC<1S00 I.>eing that while
the mOGO i. complecing its orbit me suo has moved inro tIIe Oellt sign,
.od .<>merimes in,<> an<>ther sigo beyood. F<>r .:xample, if the mooo
begim 1 cyck io ,he \asr degre<: of Libn, Scorpio, <>r SogitwiU$, it
d".. nol <>vertak. thc suo 'Vin in tIIe sigo immediarely f<>lIowiog,
bur in ,he one airer rh;tt. But becau.e che mn curies thirty or more
dlys in diamerriC<tlly opposire sigos, and lbe mOGo mem.k.. the !\\lO
in '9'/. dayi, me moon will sometimes have conjunction wich lbe
""" Iwice in che SlIIIe sigo. The mono reaches lbe fuU phase 00 the
foU/ttenth, the fifteenth, or, more frequendy, Ihe si1te<:oth day" of
irs cyde bUl when a gttat<::r oumber of days eLopse io Ihe wuing,
there wiU be fe.ver in be wming,:so th.tt lhe sum of day' in a c)"cle
isalwaya lhe same. The period of a lunar yelr is 3$'1 daya (tweln coojnnctions with tite suo); a sobr yea:.. aceed, a lunar y= by JI d.ya,
rhe differeoce being made up by intcrcalaclons. (865-66)
Thtre are [1 ' of btirude in the belt of tilo rodi:lc, l$ pointed out
abono Two planea have deviations rhrongh .11 ,,' , one through as
Utde as 3' , "nd me >un deviacc, fmm the ccliptic ooly in Lihn, where
ir is ddlccted
ro the north of soum." Qne of m e p!anets wich
" Cf. Gtminuo 9- "-11, Mocrobiul. CM'''''''...,. ,.6.
" A. sldeulll puOld.
jj.
"'=J>Ch.
'94
muimum deviation .. thc moon, wbieh ro.nges 6' above or below tite
ccliptic. In es asttnt and deseenc
thc line of me ecliptic, it cucs
the ecliptic &1. vuying angles. Thc moon cannot retum ro me .. me pooi.
tion with mpett ro me $lln-th2t is, ... tite sarne position in che .. me
degre. oi bUnlde-until 'H months (ninetecn years) tuve eLopsed."
Fifty-6ve yean <IR requmd f<:lr the moOP ro mum ro thc sarne
place 011 the same day (Jf che year, in conjunction with thc ..me fixcd
SW'Si ,00 a
of" "grest ycu" is required for tU pJanet. ro rum
to thelr idcntical positiollS with respect ro thc fixed IIWS,'" When the
mOOn Cl"05!ICS lile ccJipric in " nonherly direcon, it .. said ro b. in
axending clcvatioo; when =ming ro thc ccliptic fmm !:he north, in
dcscending tlCVlItiOO; when moving in a soudIcdy dircction from thc
ccijptic, in descmding <kdinuion ond when returning ro tite ccliptic
from the wuth, in a$CCt1ding declination. (867-69)
Thos<: lSIlCS ond d=n15 C<lntrol me eclipses of the sun and die
m<>On. Ji the ascending or descending moon Cto os thc ecliptic 00 me
trurtieth day oi ir. cyde, ir lics directly heneath the SUD with it:s entit"
body and Cluses an cclipee ni !he sun. TIUs .:loes not happen evy
month, b:.>use die moon is usuolly above or bclow me :lipcic 00
Hipporcll ... Itod de"""""",ed dio, "'" In does """ ve..- from <he eclipc. TI><
orto....,." oboetvllOn hu beco attributed to E"donto of QdQ bu< m.y bn.
origin>t<d
rl"'. O .. <he tttOf ..,d ;., ",ido """""....,. in OMiquil:y oo. He>th.
Arist",ebw, pp. '9S-'"", Oy.... Hinor of Anr0nmn" pp. 'H""9j'. To ".. "'"
darom ... videnc. tb... O.....itu'. utrot>01fO)' "'.. pre-Hipparch"" lo ""worrwted.
Compilen iDoorponlUl d,,,, of .",Iy """ ' - vintoJe, a dtoy fouod it. usualIy
dioregudiog ""Y m.:ODIi=nc....... r rnigb. be iDvolnd.
,. Altbcugh Mattianu. .... .... mur! '" tbo: moon'.
d thc
eclip<ic--1I:D<>wn '" utrO""""'" .. thc -.Jiog oJId
10lllU xx'.. ..d
oldooogh OlIO """'f'k revolncioo 01 the <><>deo '" d><i<" "",rwud 1nOl"<meot 010"8
the ocliprio occun nuy ,M yeon (opproEimately ,11'1. J'cat"I -dlns lO EndaI ... ,r'.)'< .... lICcdiog.., Hippotchus). it opp<ln dut Mortioruu' outho.iIy
;. bere nl.ning lO the
cycle" ot 'JJ 1.....,.,. wbidl ..... p"'pooed '"
thc f1fth c<nrury .c. '" brio roW- """ Junu rrors in> "S.cemomt. 00 "'"
MttOIlic c)'<:I. seo Heoth, AriI....eb .... PI' '93""9j'.
,. MIII"tuU:II gi..... no figuro {", di. durttioo of o
yeu, tbc 0Kim0<z0 01
which nry grtotIy ,..;tJo di/k ....... writers. 00 cluAcol m=eo lO tbc 1JIQg .....
.".".. ... th. _
.dion of Cicero'. (JI -..r. tU"""'" n,
F....
nI thc
.....,\lsp'" on.nai' in !he indexes '" tbc volnm<s ot Tborndike'.
"ea<
-mw
ASTkONOMY
'"
tite thirtietb day. ln hice nwmcr the moon b; eclipse<! when it crosses
tlle ecliptic on tite fiftccntlt day, in a position of opposition to the
sun. The sun projccts ia .hadow along tite ecliptic and, if tite moon
lUches thillin. on tite fifteentlt day, a lunar eclipse <>cenr.." Eclipses
Clnnot recu.r within sU: months," fOf cb. moon will not be found on
the ecliptic twice on the ftccntlt Of firse days of ia cycles during
that period:
If. in...........u.g 10 lb< eclipti<: lrom tbc oortb, it come. inoo clo .. loteral proliolity
with lb< ..... 1M do<o _ n>OYC inoo In obouuctiog po.moo, ir is slid ro p>doce
"" .ppr=io>otion jO) tnnSit
tv
but 11. in coming lrom !he
nonh. it do<o move inoo coojunction ..d obotnlcu m. "'n. le b slid ", prodnc<
... tdil'" in D01'tItero Iftnoit ("" ...llIIk"'.. tv flo ...", m>>&p). 1I ir """"" 1<0lIl
thc .,,,.Ib ..,d .loes mo, IDO'" into COI!.joocrion, ir prOOlICOO on opproIimo.tioo in
ooutI><rn ........,
tv lJ\W/>6qI """"'1; ... d i. in "-miDg 10 tho oclipti<:
110m the _ . ir ......... tl>o pot/I of lb< $dIl. It
.. .,. .....,dina ocl;'<
nodo
oIMieq&O ."
'0, " :
'9J-<]7
.. A. PuDokock, A Hin , '" A, ..."""" tL<>ndon, '<p'), l' .pi, Sin. o:h<
......... and pointJ "'" ti.., lb< _len< BobyIon1<nJ WWl 0WU'0 o Ibis IICt.
,,6
TIlE QU.\.PRIV I UM
are of
&:aIll<=
a=ndiog Course ro tIle summc.r uopic in ,8S". day. and iu descending ooutSe in ,80 day"" The (cason (01' this onomaly is tI'oIt me eanh
is Dale ro the son', nIhil, which is more remote ([rom the eardl)
in me uppct" hemisphc- The i!IlI\, U jI moves upWltm OOWlIro GIncer,
g=luaUy brings on wumch; we havo che scorching heat of summcr
while it is in Cancer; and u ir movcs souchward roward Caprioom,
dar' become chillier. FUf antipodeans tbe seuoros ao: revused: summer
,.l
,10'1. in the d
'97
ASTRONOMY
(tite fooM
tajQS." (875"76)
Meroe
Syene"
Alexand.
Rhodes"
R=,
HeJlespOlu'
Dnieper
''..
"
'.
'S
,S
of
"
,."
,,
"
Rhipaetn Mts.
"
Hippuchoo' i ...... fQ1" Sr''''', Rhodet, tnd ti><
11,_
.. W. h.... to dopond rnoialy .poo So:nbo (,. S. 1J-+') fo< infonoorioD ,00...
the ""''1Wu,."" of tho pri<>cipol clim>tes. Scrabo'. "'1"""' io 110( cl ... or CODo
.;,............... of hio pe<lClwK for critici1ing hlo.1ItboritKo. 'O iDI"",,".,. tIu..
Hippare"'" odopted tbe principal cllmotes. 01 En.toethooeo . nd re..,.,<Ied tloo lIours
01 doyllgbc fOl eoeh . ...w.b vuy by hill boun in cluncioo. r.. HOIIigmaruI'. Di<
",/1m KU-. io cueJ:uI sru<ly el tIIe o.d ... ruerenc .. m tbe climalU Seo tloo
IkInbory. JI, 4-'1.. H<>IIigmt.no (pp. so-S') , beJi.-. .. tII .. Mucioous' och ..... 01 cllm .... Jt<mo
froro V.no, for, lIIIlib P1iny. Mortia.nu. U><> tilo G .. ..-wd IOl cU"...." .ud
gi.... G=k
ro .bem.cvm ro tlo. 01\0 thn>.\gII Romo (61<1
l. U.
_ _ tIu., m. oId
Klima VI,
dio micldle of Pontus, bu
becn
ood 10.". V, o:broogh tho Hell.. po .... then becomeo VI, mt.king
room .,. <he """'"'" duoogh Romo IX> beoomo V. Thio leodo him ro concludc
",
TIIE QUADKIVIUM
A$ OIIe dnw. ncar thc polc, days beCOfm longer and nighlll .honu;
consequendy it is ro be = e d mat tborc is pupctual do.ylight Ir che
'l.
'l.
Mercury aOO Venus """" th";r orbits.bout me sun, "off f.O one side,
in cerain nwmcr," and do not encompass me eartb in thcir <><bits.
They are impeJled bad: and forth alternately. n..y are obaerved
rising and Ktting becarn;c tbey ore .wept along by che motion of thc
celestial ""hen:.
Mercury uquius nearly yCa[ to complete lIS oroit l OO moves
through S' nf laticude.lts nwcimum clongation is u " never does ir
gel: IS fat away as twO signs from die sun, ahead of bchind it. Mercury
therd'ore never has acronical risings, fOI these occur ooly ro planets
tllat are Utuatcd dia.mrriC<illy opposirc che sun." Mercury's risings are
inroospicuous and bri.f:. OOe when clongation )'Umia and m e plan
;. not obliteratcd by me run'. brilliant "')'1 . soc<In<! whcn. as it retrOdi.. <he tibie of clbn...,. hod beco rnioed by 00<lIO Wesrun-o,io<=d compilo"
p""iW y Poddoniu< '" NijidJno FiuI.... Seo tJoo Miller,
' ....
.. Pliny tJoo . ... ibit> coofuoion obottt rhe <Iunciort of doyliglrt in <he Iv nonb.
="""
Ii ...... .
acero'. CH _ . Wmmt,
.. n..o.n (ed. HiIIer). p.
61f-'6.
J"""'Y.
'96'.
ASTRONOMY
' 99
grades in ti: WeJt.. it moves into the vicinity of the SWl .00 l.des
from sight. lllese ftrit and bst visibilities recur in the foureb month.
.nd noe alway then. (879-8.)
Venus
completes its orok in 2 period of
ayear. Located
on its own epkyde, ie goes abour
sun.
ir sometimell p:asses,
soflletimes lags bebind. When Venus is in retrognde motion, it takes
longer du.n a ye.. to tr:avcrse its mbit ; but wben it is going in direct
motinn, ie compleee, its course in as linle as deven m'mehs." Wben ir
rises .bead of the run ic is calle<! Lucifer; wben it bInes in tbe evening.
sundown. it ;. calle<! Vesper. Venus, 1iJ, tbe moon, de";"tes
ebrougb an ,,' of che rodiac's Iatitude. les ffillximum doogation is
fOl ' ... Venus is me only une of the ftve pl>ner, like die moon, to asr
lw:low'" and rhe only une ro tinger for. long time before yielding
to the sun', brilliance. In moming risings it frequently arriu lor (our
month$, bur in
WtSt never lUore thm 10 da}'$-" II:! rising:s and bst
v;,ib,litics recur in mn... to ten-month cyelcs. (88!-83)
Marslw;[$ own ",hit.
the SilO', and .bont che earth. whieh
;. eccenttic ro
ormr. Mus complete, a revolution in appro%irnately
two ye.IS. Ir ha motien in brirud. of S' . Like the two plane'"
heyond ;t, ir experiences starions and retrogradations, buc ir has ir. own
apoge<:, first station, and enltatien apan; from the others. Its aposee,
ehe point where
orbit reacllu highesc elevation above the earth, is
in Leo." h,. firsr star,on is "ruque. Because M all;' oroir is c10se ro rhe
,ti
" Among tite G"",k popu1u Iw>dbook oot:bo<>, Gemin.., Oeomedes, Achill ..
Torio .. ond .,...,oo-ArtotIe ci. e <he p<tiod> 01 MetcUt)'."d V..,.... o yeu '"
o y=." &>es Cicero ID ....,.,.. deorKm l . J. Su _
in <he
1'.... edition,
6S. VI",,., ... (9- l. 8-9) gives lOO doY' for Men:ury ond 'sS
O< V""",,; PlIny (l. li-l9) gIves Jl9 ""d lt9 dJ.Y'. w. L. Lorimu (SomI No ..,
"" ,In Ton.( pr. AmtMlo"lh Mrm.to" IOD<>rd, r91s1, pp. "9-jo). has pupued ".10 o/ timos gr.." by me""" outhon. Mortiomls gI_ di. catreer "'plOIl2tion o/ tbe ..n",ionJ In Un....
.. PIlny [,. JI) .... ..,so; The<m d. lIill",), p. 1)7. ond CioIcidi.. '/O hove O' .
TIte carUCl f'"....,;.
t .
.. O. PI.ioy
,.)7 .
.. An unulog _ n ' fOl .., ."do.. """"" 10 _!te, conoId<ring thst cel<&ciol
much more f.",w ro m. ........... dwt lb.,. u. 10 ....
11<1 di" tite
brill.iooc< of V..,u, In tbe ,. ... el o , 1Ue!, ;. one 01 <he ..t:On>pIcoou. of .n cd<&ciol ph<OODl<D" Muimntn brill.i01>C< ;.
Ihorn: 6
doY' p<:<ding 1JId /oIIowiPS inferior """jton<on.
.. a. Pliny ' .
"''''<
.s..
TH E QUADRIVIUM
.wl's. il feol'lh. offeccs of th. sun', rays even at a position of quadnrure and comes 10 a hall al disrance of 90' frorn thc sun on elthor
side." Mus' =It:ltinn OCCUrs in the [Wenty-ninth degrec of Capri-
C(Jrn."
Propitious J upiter, belng higher Ihan the aforem.ntion. d plane!s,
rompIeres its ,"""olmion in rwdv. Ytan and has devi.tion in latitude
of So. lt:s apogec 0CC\ll'I in Virgo and its eulution in the fifleenth
degue of Caneer." Its olevations and depres:sions prov. t1ur thc eanh
is <:<:cenmc 10 in orbit, (885)
Sarum, th. outennost ni the
completes a revolution in
.ijghrly 1= lhan lhirIy yeo", and deVJtts in latirude J' or sometimes
only , . ... 1I has ics apogee in Scorpio .nd its enlcation in the
twentieth dogree of Libra.'" (nS)
.. Cf. l'Ul>y ,. 60, ."d ""'" ,he ""'...po>dence o t<m: trkm .r qw;!.uo
, ...Iit
(Pliny);.,""';" "."J'oItll..
umit (M..-donoo) . The "".
m.,<I1lS ""'''''pondo.""
4dJ.,
'.odwu
M_
....
V_
M""",
Jopitor
,-,
,,'"
,,'
""
,_,o
,,'
,,'
""
,,'
'o'
""
,,'"
,,'
""
w,
ASTRONOMY
me
me
.ho..
su,,"
w"'"