Physical Quantities and Unit

Base Units
o Mass (kg), times (s), length (m), temperature (K), current (A), amount of substance
(mol)
Units
o Femto (10-15) Pico (10-12), nano (10-9), micro (10-6), milli (10-3), centi (10-2), deci (10-1),
kilo (103) mega (106), giga (109), tera (1012)
Density of Water
o 1000kgm-3
Diameter of an atom
o 10-9
Diameter of an nucleus
o 10-13
Diameter of a proton
o 10-14
Diameter of an electron
o 10-15
How to reduce random error when measuring diameter of a wire
o Take several reading along the length of the wire and obtain an average diameter
What instrument measures a very small length
o Micrometer
What instrument measures resistance
o Multimeter
Scalar Quantity
o Only has a magnitude
Vector Quantity
o Has a magnitude and a direction
o Examples
displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, force, impulse, weight, torque,
electric current, electric field strength, magnetic field strength
o Power?
Power is not a vector quantity
Systematic Error
o An error in readings which is repeated throughout at experiment, which is due to an
error in the measuring instrument and is predictable
Random Errors
o An error in the readings due to the observer, which can be eliminated by averaging, but
is not predictable
Accuracy
o Refers to how close the measurement is to the true value
Precision
o Refers to the degree of uncertainty in the measurement
Mechanics
Displacement
o Distance moved in a particular direction.

 Speed
o The distance travelled per unit time.
Velocity
o The displacement per unit time.
Acceleration
o The rate of change of velocity.
Force due to gravity acts in the
o Vertical plane
What force acts in Horizontal plane?
o No force acts in the horizontal plane
Free Fall
o The downward motion of an object under the influence of the force of gravity with a
constant acceleration
Slope of Distance-Time graph
o Speed
Slope of Velocity-Time graph
o Acceleration
Area under Velocity-Time graph
o Total Displacement
How to find average speed on a distance-time graph
o Take coordinate of last point on straight line and plug values into an equation
How to find average speed on distance time-graph when line is not straight
o Draw straight line and find slope of straight line
How to find area under velocity-time graph when line is not straight
o Draw a straight line and find the area under the line and count the number of boxes
above the line to find the total area
How to obtain the acceleration at a given time on a velocity/time graph
o Draw a tangent on the graph and on the slope of the tangent
Newtons First Law of Motion
o A body will continue in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless an
external resultant force acts on it.
Newtons Second Law of Motion
o The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the resultant force acting
on it and the change takes place in the direction of the force.
Newtons Third Law of Motion
o Every action has an equal and opposite reaction. (If one body exerts a force on another,
it will experience a force by the other body, which is equal in magnitude & opposite in
direction and of the same kind.)
Which law follows another law
o The first law follows the second law
Mass
o A measure of a bodys inertia
Force
o Rate of change of momentum
Weight
o It is the gravitational force exerted on an objects mass.
Principle Of Conservation Of Momentum

o The total momentum of a system remains constant before & after a collision, provided
that no external force acts upon the system.
Elastic Collisions
o A collision in which both the total momentum & the total Kinetic Energy of a system is
conserved.
Inelastic Collisions
o A collision in which the total momentum of a system is conserved, but the total Kinetic
Energy is not conserved.
Up thrust
o It is the resultant force on a submerged object due to the upward pressure of the liquid
applied on it.
Centre Of Gravity
o The point on an object at which the entire weight of the body seemingly acts.
Moment
o It is the product of the force & the perpendicular distance between the pivot
Torque Of A Couple
o The turning effect caused by two equal & opposite forces when their line of actions are
different.
The Principle Of Moments
o The sum of clockwise moments taken about any point is equal to the sum of anticlockwise moments taken about the same point when a system is in equilibrium
Potential Energy
o The ability to do work by virtue of stored energy
Kinetic Energy
o The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion
Difference between gravitational and electric potential energy
o Electrical potential energy is when a charge is moved and work is done on a charge in
an electric field
o Gravitational potential energy is when a mass is moved and work is done on the mass in
a gravitational field
Internal Energy
o It is the total of the microscopic Kinetic & Potential energies of the particles in a
substance.
Internal Energy of an ideal gas
o It is the total kinetic energy of the microscopic particles in the gas
Impulse
o It is the product of a force & the time during which the force is applied.
Work
o It is the product of a force & the distance moved in the direction of the force.
Power
o It is the rate at which work is done.
Efficiency
o It is the fraction of the useful power output obtained from the total power input.
Density
o It is the amount of mass per unit volume of a substance.
How can energy be lost
o Energy can be lost in the form of sound or heat

 Forces in a triangle are in equilibrium if..

o Triangle is closed
Matter & Thermal Physics
Brownian Motion
o The random zigzag movement of particles constantly colliding with air or water
molecules
Crystalline Solids
o Atoms in a closely packed regular arrangement in an orderly pattern which repeats itself
Ex)Diamond
Polymeric Solids
o Solids with very long chains of atoms. The chains are tangled up, & occasionally have
cross-links between them. Can also undergo plastic deformation. Ex) Polyethene
Amorphous Solids
o Disordered arrangement of atoms and any ordering exists aver a short range Ex) Glass
The Kinetic Theory of Gases:
o Collisions between gas molecules are elastic.
o Collisions between molecules & the walls of the container are elastic.
o There are no intermolecular forces of attraction.
o The volume that the molecules themselves take up is negligible in comparison to the
volume of the container itself.
o Solids
Tightly packed 3-D structure in a fixed shape, very strong intermolecular forces
Vibrate about an equilibrium position
o Liquid
Less ordering than in solids, atoms are free to move & slide past each other
Strong intermolecular forces
o Gas
Move at high speeds
Very weak intermolecular forces, take up volume of container
o How is pressure of a gas produced?
The molecules will collide with the walls of the container and the change of
momentum gives rise to an impulse, whereby the impulses are averaged to give a
constant pressure
Difference in spacing in solids and liquids
o Spacing in solids and liquids is about the same
Spacing in gases
o Spacing in gases is much greater than in solids and liquids
Evaporation
o The molecules on the surface of a liquid with sufficient Kinetic Energy break from the
attractive intermolecular forces of the liquid & escape as gas particles. Decreases
average Kinetic Energy of Liquid molecules
Similarity between Boiling and Evaporation of Water
o They both involve liquid molecules escaping from the surface of the water as gas
molecules
Differences between Boiling and Evaporation of Water
o Boiling of water only occurs at 100*C, whereas evaporation or water can occur at any
temperature

Matter
Youngs Modulus
o how much a material will stretch (strain) when put under a given stress
o Stress/Strain, Force/Area, Extension/Original Length
Elastic Deformation
o Temporary distortion, in which an object returns to its original shape on removal of the
distorting force.
Plastic Deformation
o Deformation which is irreversible
Limit of Proportionality
o The maximum amount of stress an object can wistand, beyond which the extension will
no longer be proportional to the distorting force
Elastic Limit
o The value of stress beyond which an object will not return to its original dimensions
Hookes Law
o The extension produced is directly proportional to the force producing it, provided the
elastic limy is not exceeded
Area under a Force-Extension Graph
o The work done in stretching a material & it is also known as strain energy.
Ductile Materials
o Initially the extension is proportional to distorting force, then a large extension for a
small change in force. E.g. copper
Brittle Materials
o Material undergoes plastic deformation once elastic limit is surpassed E.g. glass
Polymeric Materials
o Does not show linear behaviour. E.g. Polyethene
Ultimate Tensile Stress
o It is the maximum force divided by the maximum force / original cross-sectional area
that an object can sustain before it undergoes plastic deformation
Experiment to prove Youngs Modulus
o 1) Measure initial length using meter ruler and diameter of wire using vernier calipers
o 2) calculate its cross-sectional area
o 3)obtain a set of reading by adding weights to the wire and measuring its extension after
each weight has been added
o 4) plot a graph with stress on the y-axis and strain on the x-axis
o 5) gradient of graph will be Youngs Modulus and repeat experiment so the an averaged
value is obtained
If 2 objects are in contact
o The mean kinetic energies are the same for objects
Waves
Displacement
o The distance moved in a particular direction by an oscillating particle from its rest
position
Amplitude
o It is the magnitude of the maximum value of displacement.

 Phase Difference
o The fraction of a cycle between 2 oscillating particles
Unit for phase difference
o rad
Period
o The time taken to complete one oscillation.
Frequency
o The number of oscillations per unit time.
Wavelength
o It is the smallest distance between two points that are in phase with one another.
(Wave) Speed
o A product of the frequency of a wave and its wavelength
Transverse Waves
o A wave in which the vibrations are perpendicular to the direction of energy travel,
resulting in crests & troughs E.g. (the entire electromagnetic spectrum)
Progressive Waves
o A wave in which energy is transferred as a result of oscillations
Longitudinal Waves
o A wave in which the vibrations are parallel to the direction of energy travel, resulting in
compressions & rarefactions. E.g. sound waves
All Electromagnetic Waves
o transverse waves
o can be polarised
o progressive waves
o all have the same speed in a vacuum
Order of spectrum of colours
o Red has longest wavelength
o Violet has greatest frequency
o ROYGBIV
Electromagnetic Spectrum:
o Radio-waves 103
o Microwaves 10-2
o Infrared 10-5
o Visible light 7*10-7
o Ultra violet 10-7
o X-rays 10-10
o Gamma rays 10-13
Intensity & Amplitude
o The intensity of a wave is directly proportional to the square of its amplitude
Polarisation
o The restriction of transverse waves using a polaroid filter, in which only on plane of
vibrations is allowed through and other is absorbed by the filter
Diffraction
o The spreading of waves when they pass an edge
Stationary Waves
o The superposition of waves reflected at ends & quantity of the speed is the traveling
wave. The 2 waves will have the same speed and frequency.

o Nodes are points of zero amplitude, and antinodes are points of maximum amplitude.
Phase difference between 2 points on a stationery wave with the same amplitude
o 0
Principle of Superposition of Waves
o When two waves meet, their resultant displacement at a point is equal to the sum of the
individual displacements at the point
Coherence
o When there is constant phase difference between 2 waves
Interference
o When two waves or more waves meet at the same point at the same time.
Constructive interference
o When 2 waves arrive at a point in phase, a maximum disturbance in the medium is
produced
Destructive interference
o When 2 waves arrive at a point exactly out of phase, a minimum disturbance in the
medium is produced
Conditions for two-source interference
o Sources must be coherent
Meaning of coherent
o Same frequency and similar amplitude
If amplitude of waves in double-slit experiment increases
o There will be no change to dark fringes and fringe separation
o Bright fringes will be brighter
If wavelength of waves in double-slit experiment increases
o Bright fringes will be brighter and fringe separation increases
If source is replaced by white light source
o Zero fringe is white and other fringes an overlapping spectrum of ROYGBIV with red
being the outermost and violet bring the innermost
If separation of slits increases
o No change in appearance of bright and dark fingers
o Fringe separation decreases
Width of slits increased but separation of slits unchanged
o Bright fringes brighter
o Same separation of fringes
Why is there a series of minimas and maximas beyond the slit interference
o A maxima is where constructive interference takes place and minima is where
deconstructive interference takes place
Experiment demonstrating stationary waves
o Using a stretched string to demonstrate a stationary wave
clamp two sides of the string; make sure its really tight
attach one end to a frequency generator
adjust frequency until stationary wave is formed
o Using a microwave to demonstrate a stationary wave
the transmitter produces microwaves
the detector detects the microwaves
we move the screen to vary the distance the stationary wave is formed

Electricity

 Electric Field
o A region where a charge experiences a force
For an Electric Field to be Uniform
o The plates must be parallel
o Force felt be a charged particle must be equal at any point in the field
o Electric field is at right angles to the plate
Electric field Strength
o Force per unit positive charge.
Electric Current
o The rate of flow of charged particles.
Potential Difference
o The energy transferred from electrical to other forms per unit charge and the work done
in moving a unit charge from one point to another
Ohms Law
o The ratio of the potential difference to the current, is a constant, provided that the
temperature remain constant
How to find resistance on a graph
o Take a coordinate that the line passes through and use an equation
Electromotive Force
o The energy transferred from other forms to electrical per unit charge
Kirchhoffs First Law
o The sum of the currents entering a junction is equal to the sum of currents leaving the
junction
What Conservation is it linked to?
o Conservation of Charge
Kirchhoffs Second Law
o Around any closed loop in a circuit, the sum of all the e.m.f. is equal to the sum of all
the pds
What Conservation is it linked to?
o Conservation of Energy
Current in parallel and in series
o Current in parallel than in series as the total resistance is lower
Voltage when resistance is infinity
o 0v
Why is the p.d. across a cell less than the emf of the cell
o Energy is needed to drive charge through the cell
Nuclear Physics
Isotopes
o These are atoms of the same element which have the same proton number, but a
different number of neutrons
Random Decay
o A particular nucleus can decay at any time & count rate fluctuates
Spontaneous Decay
o The rate of decay of a nuclei in unaffected by external factors such as change in
temperature or pressure
Findings of Alpha-Particle Scattering Experiment

o The mass of the atom is concentrated in the positively charged nucleus at the centre of
the atom with the nucleus being small in comparison to the size of the atom
Deflection of alpha-particles in scattering experiment
o Most alpha particles deviated through small angles
o A few alpha particles deviated through angles greater than 90*
Explain the process by which alpha-particles lose energy when they pass through air
o The alpha particle will collide with molecules, which causes ionisation
Alpha particles
o Contain 2 protons & 2 neutrons and have a charge of (+2)
o Speed is 10 to power of 6
o Absorbed by a few centimetres of air or by thin paper
o Deflected in electric & magnetic fields
o Can be detected by a Geiger-Muller tube
Beta Particles
o Has a charge of (-1)
o Speed is 10 to power of 8
o Absorbed by a few millimetres of aluminium
o Deflected in electric & magnetic fields
o Can be detected by a Geiger-Muller tube
Gamma rays
o Strong penetrating power
o A few centimetres of lead halves its intensity
o Speed of light
Quantities conserved in a nuclear reaction
o Momentum, Proton number, nucleon number and the total amount of mass + energy
Mass & Energy Relationship
o In any closed system, the total amount of mass + energy is constant
If there is an apparent loss in mass
o Some energy has escaped in the form of a photon or electromagnetic radiation
Background Radiation
o Radiation from sources other than the source of interest
Ionising Radiation
o Can damage living tissues and cells directly.