Welcometoourclass.

Thisisthefirstlectureandinitwewillbediscussingtheimpactsoftheenvelopein
determiningenergyneeds.Firstwewillreviewafewbasicconceptsfromtheprevious
coursebytalking abouttheimpactofclimate,thermalcomfortandpsychrometricson
design.AsarchitectsyouhaveamajorinfluenceonthesizeandperformanceoftheHVAC
system.Thegoalofthemechanicalsystemsistoprovideacomfortablespaceandtodoit
with the least amount of energy To understand your role this lesson will deal with heat
withtheleastamountofenergy.Tounderstandyourrolethislessonwilldealwithheat
transferandhowthataffectstheloadsimposedontheHVACsystem.Bytheendofthis
sessionyoushouldbeabletocalculateaheatingloadcausedbyconductionthroughthe
envelopeandtheloadimposedbyoutdoorair(heatingconvectiveloads).Youshouldalso
begintohaveagoodfeelforwhichloadcomponentswillhavethemostimpact.
Thisweekwillalsostartouranalysisoftheplayersinthegreendesign(highperformance)
process.Thisweekwilllookattheowner.Thereareanumberofdifferenttypesofowners
andthewaytheyapproachgreendesignandwhatmightmotivatethemcanbevery
different.Wewilltalkaboutitalittleherebutwillusethediscussionforumtoreally
exploretheissue.

Thereareafewkeyconceptswewill beworkingonthisweek.Besureattheendofthe
weekyoucandoeachoftheseitems.Ifyouhaveanyquestionspleaseaskearly,Illtryto
getanswersassoonaspossible.

Wehavealotofworktodothis week.Isuggestyoustartearlywiththereading,partof
whichisareviewfromthelastclass.Besuretodothehomeworkitwillbetherealproofif
youunderstandthematerial.Ifyouarerunningshortoftimescanthereadingsinthetext
andreadasmuchofthematerialinthelinksasyouhavetimefor.Besureyouunderstand
theobjectsfortheweekfirst.

I suggestthatyoulookatthislistagainattheendoftheweek.Canyoudoallthesethings?
Ifsothenyouhaveagoodgraspofthelesson.Ifnotanditissomethingyoudonot
understandusetheforumorsendmeanote.Agoodfoundationisimportant.

Ilikethisparticulargraphic,roughlytakenfromthetext, becauseitputsintoperspective
howdecisionsmadealongthepathofdesignimpactenergyuse.Theenvelopeofthe
buildingandtheselectionofmaterials impacttheenergyneededofthebuildingmorethan
anythingelse.Saidadifferentwaytosaveenergy;designagoodshell.Lookatissueslike
buildingorientation,insulation,glasstypeandlocation.Rememberourgoalwiththe
mechanicalsystemsistoprovidecomfortinthisenvelopewecallabuilding.Ifwedontlet
theheatoutorcoldinwereducetheenergyrequired.Howeverthatisnotthesameforall
buildings Commercial buildings have high internal loads so our decision might be that we
buildings.Commercialbuildingshavehighinternalloadssoourdecisionmightbethatwe
wanttolettheheatout,butwecanonlylettheheatoutwhenthetemperatureiscolder
(moreonthatinaminute).
Ournextstrategyafterwehaverefinedtheenvelopeistotakeadvantageofthe
environmenttoreducethemechanicalenergyweneedtomaintaincomfort.Thereare
thingswecandotoreducetheimpactsofbothheatingandcoolingloads.Whenwehave
doneallwecanwiththefirsttwoournextgoalistodesignthemechanicalsystem.The
designofourmechanicalsystemshouldbeasenergyefficientaspossible.Againtherearea
lotofthingswecandotoreduceenergyandsaveenergywehaveused.
Thisclassisfocusonwhatwedointhetopblock,butwewanttoneverloosesightofwhat
wedointheothertwo.Itmightbeagoodideatogobackandlookatthestrategieslisted
for each of these. The chart is in the text on page 9.
foreachofthese.Thechartisinthetextonpage9.

Whatmakessenseisnotthesameinallplaces.TheweatherinBostonisverydifferentthattheweatherin
L A l Th
LosAngeles.Themechanicalsystemsneedtofunctionoverawiderangeofoperationconditionswhichare
h i l
d f
i
id
f
i
di i
hi h
greatlyinfluencedbyclimate.Asyouwillseeinaminuteresidentialisimpactedevenmorethancommercial
buildings.IusedClimateconsultantheretolookattheweatherinBostonandhereareafewobservations
abouthowthisimpactstheselectionandoperationofourmechanicalsystem.
A.
B.

C.

Noticethatinthiscasewehave262hoursoutoftheyearwheretheoutdoorairisinthecomfortzone.I
definedthecomfortzoneasfrom67Fto78F.Thisisonly3%ofthetotal8,760hourinayear.
IfIcanuseoutdoorairalone,mechanicalfanbutnootherheatorcoolingIcangetanadditional11%.
ThedownsideisthatthehumiditywillbehigherthatthecomfortzoneifIrancooling.Weactuallyuse
thisfeaturewithoursysteminsomethingcalledaneconomizercycle.Wewillgetintomoredetailina
latterlesson.
Thisleaveuswith643hoursweneedcooling(about16weeksayearwitha40hourweek)and6,864
hourswhenwemightneedheat.BasedonthisinBostonwhatcountsishowwehandletheheating
load!Againenvelopedesignoftenhasalottodowithourheatingrequirements.

Eachdotonthischartrepresentsonehourintheyearandifwelookatthescatterwecanclearlyseethatthe
mechanicalsystemwillspendalotofitstimeinthemiddlegroundbetweenaheatingandcooling
design.Weneedtoconsiderverycarefullyhowthesystemwillrespondtotheconditionsnotatdesign.
ThisconditionispartloadoperationandisthesinglemostimportantelementinHVACdesign.Just
becauseasystemworksgoodatdesigndoesnotmeanitwillworkgoodatpartload.Haveyouevergone
inabuildingonadaywhenitwaswarmandrainingandabuildingthatfeltgreatonahotdayfelt
clammy?Thismightwellindicatethatthesystemcouldnothandlepartloadconditionsverywell.

Hereisanotherwayoflookingattheimpactofclimate.Thefirstchartwithtemperature
rangesindicatesoverthemonthhowmuchthetemperaturevariesduringthecourseofthe
month.LookatamonthlikeAprilwhereweneedbothheatingandcoolinginthemonth.
Thesystemneedstobeabletorespondtothesechangesinclimate.Tobeevenmore
specificaboutthistakealookatthechartsatthebottom.TheblueboxisaroundtheDB
range,whichistheamountoftemperaturechangethattakesplaceonatypicaldesignday
inthatmonth.InBostonthisis15.2degrees.Againthesystemneedstobeabletorespond
to these kind of changes
tothesekindofchanges.
ThetablesatthebottomoftheslideistheASHRAEdesigndataforBoston.Themechanical
engineerwillbeusingthedataintheredblockstosizetheheatingandcoolingequipment.
Thenumbersintheblockaretheonesnormallyused,forheatingthe99.6%whichis7.4F
andforcooling87.6Fwithawetbulbof71.9Fthe1%data.Wedonotsizefortheworst
conditionasthatwouldresultinoversizedequipmentandwouldimpactcomfort.The
99.6%meansthat0.4%ofthetotalhoursinthetypicalyeararebelowthisvalue(35hours)
andincoolingthe1%meansthat1%ofthehoursareabovethisvalueorabout87hours.
Thelastnotehereisthattheblockfordehumidificationwithadewpoint of71.6Fandadry
bulbtemperatureof79.1Frepresentstheworstconditionfromremovalofmoisture.The
worstconditionformoistureisnotthehotdesigndaybutthewarmrainyday.Againthe
system design must be capable of handling these conditions and maintaining comfort.
systemdesignmustbecapableofhandlingtheseconditionsandmaintainingcomfort.

Nowforcomparisonlook attheweatherinLosAngeles.Comparethesameconditionswe
justdiscussed.Canyoumakesomeobservationaboutthedesignofsystemhere?
Therequirementsandthereforethesolutionsareverydifferent.Keepthisinmindaswe
lookatthebuildingsmechanicalsystemsandtheunit/systemfeatureswhichareused.

Ourfirstpointwasthatthegoalisforthesystemtomaintaincomfort.Letsreviewafewimportantpointaboutcomfort.
First comfort is subjective different people and even the same people on different days will describe the conditions as
Firstcomfortissubjective,differentpeopleandeventhesamepeopleondifferentdayswilldescribetheconditionsas
comfortableoruncomfortableeventhoughthephysicalconditionsarethesame.Sincethisisthecasecomfortisdefined
asasetofconditionswere80%ofthepeoplewoulddescribethemascomfortable.This80%valueisusedbyASHRAEto
determineanacceptablelevelforallstandardsthatarebasedonasubjectivecondition.
Thermalcomfortisinfluencedby7factors.Thetemperature,whichImsureeveryoneassociateswithcomfort,isthefirst
thingbutotherenvironmentalfactorsplayaroleaswell.Humidity,eithertohumidortodryinfluenceourcomfort.The
airmotioninthespacealsoinfluencesareperceptionofcomfort.Tolittleairflowandwedescribeitasstuffyortomuch
anddrafty.Theseconditionscanexistevenwhentemperatureandhumidityarewellwithinthecomfortrange.The
surfacesthatsurroundusalsoimpactcomfort,thisisaconditionreferredtoasradianteffect.Thesecanbecoldorwarm
surfacesandagainevenwhenotherconditionsarewithintherangeitcanaffectourcomfort.Asamatteroffactpeople
oftenraiseorlowerthethermostattocompensateforthesesurfaceeffects.Finally,otherconditionslikethe
temperaturedifferencefromourheadtoourtoes.Ifthetemperaturedifferenceistogreatitcanbeacomfortproblem.
Thesearelocalizedconditions.Comfortisalsoimpactedbysomepersonalfactors,likeourlevelofclothingandour
activitylevel.Thesepersonalfactorscanchangeaswellforexampleweoftenwearheaverclothesinthewinterthanthe
summerandthereforetheconditionsofcomfortaredifferent.Ourcomfortisalsoinfluencedbythequalityoftheindoor
airbothforparticulateandodors.
ThecharthasthecomfortconditionsinthecenterandthebasicfunctionsthattheHVACsysteminthesecondcircle.As
welookatsystemsrememberthatthesystemmustmeetalloftheseneedstomaintaincomfort.
Thechartpresentstheoverlappingimpactsofthetwosystems.Intheinsidearetheconditionsthesystemshould
maintainforcontrolofcomfort.Theseconditionsaredeliveredtothespacebytheairsystem.Themechanical
refrigerationcycleworkswiththeairsystemtoremoveheatandhumidityfromtheairsystem.Notallsystemswill
controlallofthecomfortconditionsoftheinnercircle.Aswelookatsystemslaterinthiscoursealwaysgobackandask
howgoodajobisthesystemdoingincontrollingalltheseconditionsandisthelevelofcontrolacceptabletotheowners
requirements.
requirements

Buildingsuseenergyforavarietyofpurposes,includingenvironmentalcontrol(heating,
cooling,andairmovement),domestichotwater,lighting,powerforappliances(plug
loads),andverticaltransport.IntheUS,buildingsrepresentroughly40%ofourtotal
energyconsumption.Asyou'lllearntodayandduringthenexteightweeks,therearemany
simpleandeconomicalwaystoimprovetheenergyefficiencyofbuildings.

10

Thechartsaboveindicatewhereenergyisusedinresidentialandcommercialbuildings.
Since commercialbuildingshavegreaterinternalloadswehaveonlyshownheatingfor
residential.
Takeafewmomentstolookoverthechartsanddrawsomeconclusionsaboutwhat
impactsthedesignthemost.Ithinkoneconclusionneedstobethatresidentialbuildings
arefarmoredependentontheclimatethancommercial.Lookatwhatthelargestload
components are for each situation What do you find?
componentsareforeachsituation.Whatdoyoufind?

11

Therearetwobroadcategoriesofenergy,potentialenergy storedenergythatcanflow
andkineticenergy energythatisflowing.Withinthesetwobroadcategories,different
formsofenergyexist.Eachformofenergyisdrivenbydifferencesofacertainvariable.
Withinthecontextofthiscourse,weareprimarilyinterestedinheatenergy,drivenby
temperaturedifferences.
EnergybecomesworkONLYwhenthereisaflowofenergyfromonesystemtoanother,
and a difference in energy levels (temperature momentum or height) is required for
andadifferenceinenergylevels(temperature,momentum,orheight)isrequiredfor
energytoflow.Workisdrivenbypressuredifferences,andalwaysflowsfromhightolow.

12

Thenextthingweneedtounderstandishowwemeasureheat.Thethermometeris
respondingtothemolecularmotionofthefluiditisin,thehigherthetemperature,the
higherthethermometerreading.

Withthissaid,notethatthereadingsarejustanarbitraryscalethateveryonehasagreedto
use.Thereareactuallytwoscales.One,Fahrenheit,isbasedonwaterfreezingat32 Fand
boiling at 212 F.Thesecondscale,Celsius,isbasedonwaterfreezingat0
boilingat212
F The second scale Celsius is based on water freezing at 0 Candboiling
C and boiling
at C.
Atheoreticalpointhasbeendeterminedatwhichthemolecularmotionthethermometer
measureswouldstopandisdefinedasabsolutezero.Bothscaleshaveasecondscalethat
startsitsreferencepointatabsolutezero,RankinandKelvinrespectively.
Wehavetalkedaboutthemolecularmotioncausingthethermometertomove,thisisheat
We
have talked about the molecular motion causing the thermometer to move this is heat
intensity.Weneedtodiscussasecondconcept:heatquantity.Asthefigureshows,wecan
haveabeakerwithonepoundofwater,at100 Fitwouldhavetwicetheintensityasa
twopoundbeakerat50 F.However,inrealitytheyhavethesameamountofheatenergy.
Weneedtokeepinmindthatbothoftheseareimportantinourdiscussionofheat
movement.
Weneedtodefineatermthatdescribestheamount ofheatenergyandnotjustthe
intensity.Thiswillbeaddressedshortly.

13

ThetermweuseisBtu.Again,thisisjustarelativescaledeterminedbyselecting
universallyaccepted,definedconditions.Theconditionsaredeterminedbytheenergy
requiredtoraiseonepoundofwateronedegreeFahrenheit.

Besurethisisunderstood;wewilluseBtualotfromthispointon.Forexample,howmuch
heatisrequiredtoheat2pounds5 F.Youshouldhavetheanswerof10Btu.

14

Tomakeasimpleanalogy,powerislikethespeedourcartravels,whileenergyisthe
distancetraveled.WeneedatermtodescribetheamountofBtuperunittime.Onewayis
simplytostatetheamountofBtuinaunittime.Thehouristhestandardmeasureand
thereforeonecommontermisBtuh (actuallyBtu/hbutcommonpracticeistodropthe/)
Theothermeasureisthetonortonofrefrigeration.Thisisdefinedastheamountofheat
inBturequiredtomeltoneton(2000lbs)oficein24hours.Atsealevelthelatentheatof
fusionis144Btuperpounddoingthemathresultsin288,000Btu.Thisisoftensimplified
to the number of Btu per hour which is 12 000 Btuh
tothenumberofBtuperhourwhichis12,000Btuh.

15

HVACisallaboutmovingheat.Nextweneedtounderstandtheprocessthatdefinehowheatmoves.The
f
fourlawsofthermodynamicsgovernthebehaviorofenergyandthemovementofheat.Ofthefourlawsthe
l
f h
d
i
h b h i
f
d h
fh
Of h f
l
h
firstthreearepertinenttothiscourse.
Thezeroth lawstatesthatiftwosystemsareinthermalequilibriumwithathirdsystem,thentheyarein
thermalequilibriumwitheachother.Thislawexplainswhyweareabletomeasuretemperatureusinga
thermometer;whenathermometerisputintoaglassofhotwater,theheatfromthewateristransferredto
themetalbulbcontainingthemercury.Theheatfromthebulbisthentransferredtothemercury.Whenthe
mercurystopsexpanding,thenweknowthatthewaterisinthermalequilibriumwiththemercury,although
thetwoarenotinphysicalcontactwitheachother.Thislawwasestablishedafterthefirstandsecondlaws,
butwasdeemedtobemorefundamental,andsowasnamedthezeroth law.
Thefirstlawstatesthatalthoughenergycomesinmanyforms,andcanbetransferredbetweensystems,it
canneitherbedestroyednorcreated.Thisisalsoknownasthelawofconservation.Thus,thechangein
energyofasystemplusthechangeinenergyofthesurroundingsMUSTALWAYSequalzero.
Thesecondlawstatesthatthereisanaturaldirectiontoallnaturalprocesses,andthesenaturalprocesses
cannotbereversedwithoutanenergypenalty.Movingintheoppositedirectionresultsinanenergypenalty.
Forexample,acarrestingonthetopofahillcan,withoutanyenergyinput,rolldownthehillandcometo
restatthebottomofthehill.However,inordertogetthecarbackupthehill,weneedtouseenergy
(gasoline).Thenaturaldirectionofheatenergyflowisfromhighertemperaturetolowertemperature.Justas
itwouldbesillytoexpectacartosimplyrollUPahill,itisridiculoustoexpectheattoflowfromalower
temperaturetoahighertemperature.

16

Thefirstprincipleisthatheatcanonlyflowinonedirection,fromaplaceofgreater
intensitytooneofless.Ifnodifferenceexists,noheatflowtakesplace.Thegreaterthe
differenceinintensity,themorequicklythistakesplace.

17

Ifwehaveapotofwateronastoveandplaceathermometerinitwecanreada
temperature,asweraisethetemperatureaddingheatthethermometerwillreadhigher.
Alltheheatenergyweaddedgoesintoraisingthewatertemperature.Thisheatenergyis
sensibleheat.
Ifweknowtheamountormass(quantity)andthetemperaturedifference(intensity)we
candeterminetheheatadded.

18

Asecondkindofheatoccurswhenaliquidchangestoagas.Thisislatentheat.A
thermometercannotmeasurethisheatandthisisthelargestamountofheatperpound.
Thisboilingprocessiswhathappenswhentherefrigerantabsorbstheheatfromtheair
systeminthecoolingcoil.Bothsensibleandlatentheatareusedinthisprocessandare
referredtoastotalheat.Thistotalheatiscalledenthalpy.

19

Tobetterunderstandwhatlatentheatis,letstakealookatwaterasanexample.Supposewehaveone
poundoficeat20F(pointA).Inordertomelttheice,weneedtofirstbringthetemperatureoftheiceup
d fi
20 F ( i A) I
d
l h i
d fi b i
h
f h i
to32F(pointB).Itrequires32Btuforthischangeintemperature.Recallthat1Btucanraisethe
temperatureof1poundofwater1F.So,32Btus areneeded.
Oncetheiceisat32F,adding1moreBtuwillnotbringthetemperatureoftheiceto33F.Rather,144
Btusareneededtomelt1poundoficeintowater.Noticeinthe
graphthatwhiletheheatenergyinputfrompointBtopointCincreases,thetemperaturedoesnot.The
reasonforthisisthattheenergyisusedtobreakthemolecularbondsofthesolid,andchangeitintoliquid
form.Thisheatoffusionisstoredinthemolecularstructureofthewater.Onceiceismelted(pointC),then
eachadditionalBtuaddedincreasesthetemperatureofthewater,untilthewatertemperaturereaches212
F(pointD).
Atthatpoint,eachadditionalBtuaddedtothewaterisusedtobreakthemolecularbondsofthewater,and
changetheliquidintoavapor.Aswasthecasewiththeheatoffusion,theheatofvaporizationisstoredin
themolecularstructureofthegas.Forwater,almost1,000Btusarerequiredtovaporize1poundofwater.
So,theamountofheatenergyrequiredtovaporize1poundofwaterisapproximatelyequivalenttothe
amountofheatenergyrequiredtoraisethetemperatureof1,000poundsofwaterby1F.
Oncethepoundofwaterhasvaporized(pointE),theneachadditionBturaisesthetemperatureofthe
steam.Thistemperatureriseabovetheboilingpointissuperheat.Notethatitinthesuperheatregiona
temperatureriseof30degreesonlyresultsfrom10Btuofenergy.
Nowrecallthatthe1stLawofThermodynamicsdictatesthatenergycanneitherbecreatednordestroyed.
Therefore,thelatentheatofvaporizationisreleasedwhensteamcondensesintowater,andthelatentheat
,
p
,
offusionisreleasedwhenthewaterfreezestobecomeice.

20

Whilesensibleheatcaneasilybemeasuredwithathermometer,measuringthelatentheat
isnotassimple.Yetthereisatremendousamountofenergystoredinthemoistureinthe
airintheformofthelatentheatofvaporization(notethattheairthataroundusalways
hassomelevelofmoisture).Sohowdowegoaboutdeterminingtheenthalpy,orthetotal
energycontent,ofavolumeofairthatcontainsmoisture?Todetermineenthalpy,weneed
tousethepsychrometriccharttographthemassofmoistureinaunitmassofdryairat
varioustemperatures.Byusingthepsychrometricchart,wecandeterminetheenthalpy
and other important information about moist air
andotherimportantinformationaboutmoistair.

21

Thebaselinescaleisthedrybulbscale.Drybulbisjustthetemperatureyoureadonastandardthermometer.
Recallthattheboilingpointisdependentonpressureandpressureisafunctionofaltitude,thereforethepsychrometricchart isbased
onanaltitude.Thechartwewillalsouseisbasedonsealevelandhasastandardbarometricpressureof14.696psia.
Theverticalaxisonthechartistheamountofmoisture,measuredineithergrainsorinpoundsofmoistureperpoundofdry air.Agrain
isthemoisturecontentinlbsofmoistureperpoundofdryairmultipliedby7000.Thistermisjusteasiertousethatthe Lbs/lbsdryair.
Rememberthattheactualamountofmoistureintheairisverysmall.
It is easy to locate many air and water vapor mixtures by using the chart. For example, air at 70 F dry bulb temperature is somewhere on
the vertical line opposite 70 F. Air with 60 grains of water vapor per pound is on the horizontal line at 60 grains. The air at 70 F and 60
grains is the point where these two lines meet.
Any point on the psychrometric chart is a state point. It is an illustration of the thermodynamic state of a given dry air/water vapor
mixture.
The state point at 70 F and 60 grains contains superheated water vapor since it is not located on the saturation curve. At 70 F, the air
would be saturated at 110.6 grains of moisture.
Thesaturationlineisusedtodefineatemperaturecalleddewpoint.Thedewpoint isthetemperatureatwhichiftheairiscooledit
couldholdnomoremoisturegrainsofmoisture.Thetemperatureatwhichthegrainsofmoisturesaturatetheairisthedewpoint
temperature.Tofindthedewpointfollowahorizontallineatthemoisturecontentuntilitintersectsthesaturationline. The
temperaturewheretheyintersectisthedewpoint.
DEWPOINT AND THE SATURATION LINE
Suppose this air is then cooled what happens? At first only the temperature is reduced; no water vapor is removed until the air reaches
its point of maximum humidity. In the example shown, the temperature is 53 F.
Any further cooling will now cause some water vapor to condense, because at 53 F the air can hold only 60 grains per pound of air. The
temperature at which the moisture content or relative humidity has reached 100% is called the dewpoint. If the temperature is dropped
below the dewpoint to 48 F, only 50 grains of water vapor remain in the air. 10 grains of water vapor condense.
If the temperature is dropped still further to about 42.5 F, another 10 grains is condensed because only 40 grains remain in the air at
this temperature.
Thewatervaporintheairatthedewpoint hasarelativehumidityof100%andissaidtobesaturated.Alinewhichconnectstheseand
other100%saturationpointsisknownasthesaturationline,whichisthesameasthe100%relativehumidityline.Thisline givesthe
dewpoint temperaturesandiscommonlycalledthesaturationcurve.Thedewpoint temperatureforairdependsupontheamountof
ate apo p ese t, a d s ou d o t e c a t by o g o o ta y e t o e to t e satu at o cu e a d ead g t e te pe atu e
watervaporpresent,andisfoundonthechartbymovinghorizontallyleftovertothesaturationcurveandreadingthetemperature
there.

22

Wetbulbtemperaturecanbeaconfusingconcept.Wetbulbtemperaturecanbestbeexplainedasatemperaturewhich,
if moisture is added to the air for a given dry bulb temperature and moisture content the air would become saturated A
ifmoistureisaddedtotheairforagivendrybulbtemperatureandmoisturecontent,theairwouldbecomesaturated.A
slingpsychrometer isusedtomeasurewetbulb.Thisdeviceisanadiabaticsaturatorwhichsimplymeansthatmoistureis
addedwithoutanyheataddedorlost.Onewaytovisualizethisisaseriesofspraysaddingwatertotheairwherethe
wateraddedisatthetemperatureoftheair.Ifthesaturatorisusedtoaddmoisturetotheair,thetemperatureatwhich
itleavesthesaturatoras100%relativehumidity(rh)isthewetbulbtemperature.
To see how wet bulb is obtained, start with a pound of air at 75 F dry bulb temperature and 60 grains of water vapor. As
the dry bulb temperature of the dry air/water vapor mixture drops, its specific humidity (grains) increases, while the
enthalpy remains constant.
If the
th sprays are wellll designed,
d i d the
th air
i temperature
t
t
d
dropsin
i this
thi case down
d
t almost
to
l
t 61.5
61 5 F.
F At this
thi temperature,
t
t
it is
i
saturated with almost 82 grains of water vapor. This concept is the evaporative cooling effect.
Thetemperatureofthesaturatedair,afterpassingthroughthesprays,iscalledthewetbulbtemperature.Inthiscase,
61.5 Fisthewetbulbtemperatureofairat75 Fdrybulbtemperatureand60grainsofwatervapor.
Thelastbasicpropertyonthechartisenthalpy.Enthalpyisameasureofthetotalheatcontentintheair.Enthalpy
actuallychangesslightlyasthemoisturecontentoftheairchanges.Deviationlinesareawaytoaccountforthischange.
Formanyofthecalculationsinnormalairconditioning,theerrorcausedbyignoringthisisnotsignificant.Enthalpylines
arejustanextensionofthewetbulblinesor,saidanotherway,wetbulbdeterminesenthalpy.
Enthalpy is very useful in determining the amount of heat that is added to or removed from air in a given process. It is
found on the psychrometric chart by following along a wet bulb temperature line, past the saturation line, and out to the
enthalpy scale. For example, air at 75 F dry bulb temperature and 60 grains of water vapor has an enthalpy of 27.50 Btus
per pound of air.

23

Nextwewilldiscussthemethods ofheattransfer,orhowheatmoves.Ifwearegoingto
moveheat,weneedtoknowhowheatmoves.Therearethreewaysheatenergyis
transferred.Thefirstisconduction,whichisheattransferbycontact.Useanexample
everyonecanrelateto,likeaspooninapotonthestove.Theheatmovesupthespoonto
yourhand.

24

Thesecondmodeofheattransferisconvection.Theeasiestwaytovisualizeconvective
heattransferistorelateittothepotofwaterheatingonastove.Longbeforeitcomestoa
boil,youcanobserveamotiontakingplacewithinthepot.Thismotionisduetothe
differenceindensitycurrentsasthewaterwarms.Warmwaterrisesandcoldwatersettles
toreplacethewarmingwater.Thissamethingistrueintheair.Youmayrelatethisto
beingonaladderandobservingthatitismuchwarmerneartheceiling.
Thereareactuallytwotypesofconvectiveheattransfer:naturalandforced.Natural
There
are actually two types of convective heat transfer: natural and forced Natural
convectiontakesplacebecauseofthedifferencesindensityofthefluidsonly.
Ifweaddafan,wehaveforcedconvection.Inthiscase,notonlydoesthenaturalbuoyancy
comeintoplay,butalsothemotioncreatedbythefan.Airmovementincreasesthe
amountofheattransfer.Thegreaterthedegreeofmotionthegreatertheconvectiveheat
transfer.

25

Thethirdtypeofheattransferisradiation.Thisistheprocessoftransferringheatby
electromagneticwaves.Thesunisoneofthebestexamplesofthismodeofheattransfer.
Everyonehasexperiencedtheeffectofthesuncomingthroughawindow.Theyareheated
buttheairaroundthemiscooler.Thisenergytransferisdependentonanumberoffactors:
thetemperatureofthetwobodies(inthisexample,thesunandtheperson),theangle,the
absorptionofthesurface(color),andthedistancebetweenthem.Youhaveprobably
noticedhowdarkobjects warmmorethanalightobject.Thisistrueofenvelope
components like walls and roofs as well
componentslikewallsandroofsaswell.

26

Aswediscussed,conductionisthemodebywhichheatistransferredthroughasolidor
fluidmediumatrest,andheattransfersfromhighertemperaturetolowertemperature.In
thesummerwhentheexteriortemperatureishigherthantheinteriortemperature,heat
conductsfromtheoutsidethetoinside.Inthewinterwhentheexteriortemperatureis
lower,heatconductsfromtheinsidetotheoutside.And,whenthereisnodifferencein
temperature,thenthereisnoconductiveheattransfer.
FourierssLawdescribesconductiveheattransfer.Therateofheattransferisdependenton
Fourier
Law describes conductive heat transfer The rate of heat transfer is dependent on
thethermalconductivityofthematerial,thethicknessofthematerial,theexposedsurface
area,andthetemperaturedifferencebetweentheoutsideandtheinside.Noticethatthis
equationcalculatestherateofheattransfer thechangeinheatenergyoverchangein
time.

27

Thermalconductivity,definedbythevariablek,isamaterialproperty.Theunitforthermal
conductivityisBtusperfeetthicknesshourdegreeFahrenheit.Greaterkmeanshigher
rateofheatflow.Thethicknessofthematerial(x)alsoimpactstherateofheatflow;the
thickerthematerial,thelowertherateofheatflow.Thus,architectsaffectconductiveheat
transferthroughtheselectionofmaterialsandthedeterminationofthematerialthickness.
Manufacturers,however,oftenratematerialsintermsoftheconductanceofatotal
assembly For instance Andersen Windows rates the thermal performance of the entire
assembly.Forinstance,AndersenWindowsratesthethermalperformanceoftheentire
windowassembly,andnotsimplytheglassbyitself.Thisrating,calledtheUvalue,has
includedinitthethicknessofthematerial.Thus,theUvalueisequivalenttok/x.Notethat
thexisinfeet
Resistivity(r)issimplytheinverseofk,andjustlikek,resistivityisamaterialproperty,and
doesnotincludethethicknessofthematerial.Becauseitistheinverse,higherresistivity
indicatesthatamaterialisabetterinsulator.Likewise,resistance(R)istheinverseofU.R
accountsfortheentireassembly,andthusthethicknessofthematerialisincludedinthe
Rvalue.TheRvalueoftypicalinsulationis,therefore,equivalenttox/k.Asanexamplean
R13insulationwhichis3.5inchesthickwouldhaveakvalueof0.077x3.5/12=0.225/
Btu/fthrF.

28

Anotheraspectofconductiveheatflowthatanarchitectcancontrolisthesurfaceareaof
thematerialthatisexposedbetweentwodifferenttemperatureconditions.Thelargerthe
surfacearea,thegreatertherateofheatflow.

29

Heatflowisdrivenbydifferenceintemperature.Ifthereisnodifference,thenthereisno
heatflow.Thearchitecthasnocontrolovertheexteriortemperature,thoughheorshecan
specifythetemperaturethatisappropriateforadesiredprogrammaticfunction.

30

Letslookatourfirstexampleusingawallcomposedofasinglematerial.

31

Sincetheconductivityofconcreteis0.8Btu/fthrF,wedivide0.8by0.5(6=0.5of1
foot)togettheconductancevalueof1.6Btu/ft2hourF.Wemultiplytheconductanceby
thesurfaceareaofthewall,whichis16feetsquared,andthetemperaturedifference
betweentheoutsideandinside,or70F.Thetotalheattransferthroughthisconcretewall
is,therefore,1792Btu/hrfromtheinsidetotheoutside.NotethatanegativeQindicates
thatheatisflowingfromtheinsidetotheoutside(heatloss),andapositiveQindicates
heatflowingfromtheoutsidetotheinside(heatgain).

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Inbuildingconstruction,conductiveheattransferisrarelythroughasinglematerial,but
ratherthroughacompositeconstructionofvariousmaterials.Evenwhenthisisjustone
material,suchasasolidconcretewall,thereisalwaysathinlayerofairfilmonanysurface
thatisexposedtotheair.Theairfilmisalayerofstaticairthatrestsupagainstthesurface
duetofriction,andtheairfilmimpactsconductiveheattransfer.
Morecommonly,awallisconstructedoutofaseriesofmaterials.Inthedrawing,thewall
is constructed of plywood siding polystyrene insulation board mineral fiber insulation and
isconstructedofplywoodsiding,polystyreneinsulationboard,mineralfiberinsulation,and
gypsumboard.Eachofthesematerials,aswellastheairfilms,havedifferentRvalues.In
ordertocalculatetheheattransferthoughacompositeconstruction,theRvaluesofeach
ofthelayersmustbesummeduptogetatotalRvalue.
Notethatthisfilmthicknessappliestoallsurfaces,notjustawallbutaroof,partitionor
flooroveranunheatedspaceaswell.Thethicknessofthefilmisdependentonthevelocity
oftheairoverthesurface.Moremovementresultsinasmallfilmthickness.Forinside
surfacesthefilmthicknessisnormallyassumedasstillair.Thefilmthicknessforoutdoor
filmthicknessdependsonthewindandisassumedasmallerfilminthewinterwhenthe
windisnormallyhigher.

33

Inthisexamplewehavelookatawallcomposedofmultiplelayers.Theresistanceisthe
sumoftheresistancesofeachlayer whichcomposethewallassembly.Noticethatinthe
equationtheUvalueintheequationis1dividedbythetotalRvalue.Rvaluescanbe
addedbutUvaluescannotbeadded.

34

Onceweknowthetotalconductiveheattransferthroughthewall,wecanthencalculate
thethermalgradientthroughthewallsection.Theequationweusetocalculatethe
thermalgradientisareconfigurationofFouriersLawthatallowsustosolveforthe
temperatureattheinterfacebetweeneachmaterial.Thisisawaytodetermineatwhat
pointinthewallassemblythesurfacetemperaturewillreachthedewpoint temperature.In
theorythisisthepointatwhichcondensationcanoccurandisthevaporbarrierneedsto
belocatedsuchthatmoisturedoesnotcondenseatthispoint.

35

Todeterminethetemperatureontheinterfacebetweentheoutsideairfilmandthe
plywoodsiding,wedefinetheexteriortemperatureasT0,andtheinterfacebetweenthe
airfilmandtheplywoodsidingastheinteriortemperatureT1.Tocalculatethe
temperatureattheinterfacebetweentheplywoodsidingandthepolystyreneinsulation
board,T1isdeemedtheexteriortemperature,andT2theinteriortemperature.Thus,the
calculationsmustbeperformedsequentiallyfromtheonesideofthewalltotheother.
The Q for each material is equal to the Q of the entire wall because the total quantity of
TheQforeachmaterialisequaltotheQoftheentirewallbecausethetotalquantityof
heatflowthroughtheentirewallmustpassthrougheachofthematerials.Thusfromthe
calculationsontheprecedingslide,weknowthattheQ=145.27Btu/hr.

36

Foreachlayerofmaterial,weusetheRvalueofthatmaterial.Bysolvingthereconfigured
equation,wecancalculatethetemperatureatT1,whichinthisexampleis5.77F.Then,
weuseT1astheTout,andweusetheRvalueoftheplywoodsiding,andsolveforT2,
whichis8.58F.Wecontinuesequentiallythroughthewallandthenfinallyseethatthe
temperatureontheinsideoftheinteriorairfilmis75F,asweexpected.Thetemperature
gradientcalculationscanbeperformedfromtheoutsidein,orfrominsideout,butthey
mustbeperformedsequentially.
Regarding the vapor barrier we can determine from the psychrometric chart the
Regardingthevaporbarrier,wecandeterminefromthepsychrometricchartthe
temperatureatwhichthemoistureintheairwillcondense.Forthetemperaturedifference
usedinthisexample,wecanseethatunlesstheairinsidehasnohumidity(whichdoesnot
occurnaturally),moisturewillcondense.Asmentionedpreviously,condensationinsidethe
wallisnotdesirable.Weplaceavaporbarrierwithinthewallatapointwherewecan
controlcondensation.

37

Butawallsectionisnotusuallyconstructedinthesamemannerthroughouttheentire
wallassembly.Forinstance,someareasofthewallmaybefilledwithinsulation,while
otherareasmaybeconstructedofastud.Theconductiveheattransferthroughdifferent
materials,andthusdifferentassemblies,differs.Inordertocalculatethetotalconductive
heattransferthroughawallthatiscomposedofdifferentassemblies,youmusttakethe
sumoftheheattransferthrougheachofthedifferentassemblies.
Inawoodframewall,theareasofthewallwithstudsconductadifferentamountofheat
In
a wood frame wall the areas of the wall with studs conduct a different amount of heat
thantheareaswithinsulation.Inordertodeterminetheheatflowthroughthisentirewall,
thetotalRvalues,aswellasthetotalsurfaceareaofeachoftheassemblies,needtobe
determined.WecanseethatthetotalRvalueoftheportionwithinsulationis15.42,and
8.80fortheportionwithoutinsulation.Then,weneedtodeterminethesurfaceofthe
portionwithinsulationandthatoftheportionconstructedofwoodstuds.Andthetotal
areaofthewallis,ofcourse,32ft2.

38

Theheattransferthrougheachofthedifferentwallassembliesiscalculatedseparatelyand
thensummedtodeterminetheoverallheattransferthroughthewall.

39

EnergycodeinmoststatesreferstoASHRAE Standard90.1.Thisstandardhasminimum
requirementsforenvelopecomponents.Shownhereinredaretherequirementsfor
climatezone4whichistypicalofaplacelikeNewYorkCityandforconstructionlikeour
wallexample.NoticetherequirementfornotonlyaUvaluebutalsoanRforthe
insulation.Thec.i.intheblueboxindicatesthatonelayermustbecontinuousinsulation,
forexampleatheinsulatingboardontheoutsideofthebuildingbelowthesiding.
NotethattherequiredUvaleisacompositeofthewallandstudcomponent.Wetherefore
Note
that the required U vale is a composite of the wall and stud component We therefore
needtoratiotheUvaluesasshownonthenextslidetodetermineifwehavecomplied.
RemembertothatthesmallertheUvaluethelessheatfloworthemoreresistancetoheat
flow.smallerUvaluesareagoodthing.

40

TofindanequivalentUvaluefortheassemblywecantakearatiooftheUvalueforeachof
thewallcomponents, I.E.studsandinsulation,andtakethepercentagethatthatmaterials
representsofthetotalwallassembly.

41

Convectionisthemodebywhichheatistransferredthroughthemotionofafluid;inthe
caseofabuilding,air.Notethatwhiletheheatismovedfromonelocationtoanotherviaa
fluid,theeventualheattransferfromthefluidtoitssurroundingstilloccursviaconduction.
Convectionisdrivenbytwoforces.Temperaturedifferencescausedensitydifferencesina
fluid,andgravitypullshigherdensityfluidsdownward.Thus,coolerairmovesdownward,
forcinghotterairupward.Thisnaturalconvection,drivenbytemperaturedifferences,
occurs in the vertical direction Pressure differences also drive convection When wind
occursintheverticaldirection.Pressuredifferencesalsodriveconvection.Whenwind
blowsonanobject,thereishigherpressureonthewindwardsideandlowerpressureon
theleewardside.Thepressuredifferencecausesafluidtomove.Thisforcedconvection,
drivenbypressuredifference,generallyoccursinthehorizontaldirection.

42

Theothercomponentoftheconvectiveheattransfercalculationistheheatgainorloss
duetoairexchanges.Ittakesenergytocondition,whetherheatorcool,theoutsideair
thatentersaroom.Whenthisconditionedairleavestheroom(eitherthroughcracksinthe
wallconstruction,throughthemechanicalventilationsystem,orthroughwindowsand
doors),thesameamountofairmustbereplaced.Ifyouwanttoconditiontheairtoa
certaintemperature,energymustagainbeusedtoconditionthisnewair.(Alternatively,a
heatexchangercanbeusedtoretaintheheatorcoolth,butwe'llgetintothatinalater
lecture ) In the interest of energy conservation we want to minimize the amount of air
lecture.)Intheinterestofenergyconservation,wewanttominimizetheamountofair
changesinaspacebutweneedacertainleveloffreshairinordertoachievegoodindoor
airquality.So,weneedtobalancebetweenthesetwocompetingdemands.

43

44

Everymaterial,includingair,hassomeabilitytoholdheatenergy.Thischaracteristicis
calledthespecificheat,measuredinBtu/lbF.Theamountofheatrequiredtoraiseone
poundofwateronedegreeFahrenheit,thespecificheatofwater,is1Btu/lbF.Foragiven
material,thespecificheatistheamountofheatnecessarytoraiseonepoundofthegiven
materialonedegreeFahrenheit.Forair,thespecificheatis0.24Btu/lbF.
Everymaterialhasacertaindensityaswell.Theproductofthespecificheatanddensity
gives us the heat capacity (the amount of heat a given volume of material can hold) of the
givesustheheatcapacity(theamountofheatagivenvolumeofmaterialcanhold)ofthe
material.Thedensityofairis0.075lb/ft3,andsotheheatcapacityofairis0.018Btu/ft3
F.

45

Thedensityandspecificheatvaluesarethenpluggedintothisequationtocalculatethe
amountofheatamaterialcanstore.Thisiswhatiscommonlyreferredtoasthermalmass.
Whenairisbeingexchanged,avolumeofairwithacertainheatcontentisreplacedbythe
samevolumeofairwithadifferentheatcontent.Therateatwhichthisvolumeofairis
exchangeddeterminestherateofheattransfer.

46

Theseareimportanttermsandyoushouldbesureyouunderstandeach.Wewillbeusing
theseofteninourdiscussionsofsystems.

47

Inordertocalculatetherateofheattransferduetoairexchanges,weneedtodefinethevolumeofairthat
i
isreplaced.Thisvolumeofairismeasuredineithercubicfeetperminute(CFM)orairchangesperhour
l d Thi
l
f i i
di i h
bi f
i
(CFM)
i h
h
(ach).CFMisanabsolutevalue,whileachisrelativetothevolumeofairintheroom.Forinstance,ifthe
volumeofaroomis1000cubicfeet,and1500cubicfeetofairisreplacedeveryhour,thentheachisequalto
1.5.InordertoconvertCFMtoach,simplymultiplytheCFMby60minutes/houranddividebythevolumeof
airintheroom.
Thereplacementaircanbeprovidedintentionallybytheventilationsystem,andunintentionallythrough
infiltration(airleakagethroughcracksintheconstruction).Onecanusethefollowingaveragevalues:for
windows,0.5CFMperfootofcrack,andfordoors,1.0CFMperfootofcrack.Sincetheoutdoorairthat
replacesthepreconditionedindoorairrequiresenergy,keepingtheACHrelativelylowsavesenergy.
However,badindoorqualitymayresultiftheachistoolow.Asfarasinfiltrationisconcerned,oneshould
striveforabout0.5ach.Manyenergycodestodayrequireanairbarriertohelplimitinfiltrationthroughthe
wallassembly.
Notethatincommercialbuildingswheneverthespaceisoccupied(peopleMAYbepresent)thenventilation
mustbeprovided.Engineerstypicallywillneedtoprovidedmoreairthanisexhaustedforthingsliketoilet
exhaust.Inthesecasesadditionalexhaustisprovided.Iftheengineersizestheexhaustsothatevenwiththe
additionalexhaustthereismoreairprovidedthanremovedthepressureispositiveandspacepressurized.
Whenpositivepressureisprovidedinthespaceairleaksoutofthecracks(exfiltration)ratherthanintothe
space.Whenthismethodisuseddonotcomputebothaventilationandinfiltrationairquantity.Inthe
unoccupiedperiodmostenergycoderequiresthattheventilationbeshutoffandthereforeitispossiblethat
theloadfrominfiltrationwillbealargerload.Irecommendthatyoucheckbothconditionsincommercial
buildings.

48

49

50

Thesetwoequationsaccount foralltheloadsneededtodetermineaheatingload.Notice
thatwedonotnormallyincludeanybenefitfrominternalloadswhencalculatingthe
heatingload.Thisisdoneatdesignconditionsonly.Whenheatingloadsarecalculatedat
otherthandesign(nearmaximumandminimumconditionsasshownatthebeginningif
thislecture)thentheinfluenceofinternalloadsistakenintoaccount.

51

WhatisIAQ?
IAQ initsbroadestsense involvesallelementsinabuildingenvironmentthatimpactan
occupant.Thesewouldincludehealth,comfort,andaestheticconsiderations.
IAQisconsideredtobetheprocessof controlofairbornecontaminants withinacceptable
limitsatthelocation(s)ofthebuildingoccupants.Thisisgenerallyaccomplishedbycontrol
ofcontaminantsattheirsource,by:
1) eliminating the source ofthecontaminantitself;
1)eliminatingthesource
of the contaminant itself;
2)bytheuseoffiltrationdevices tocaptureanindoorcontaminant;
3)bydilution toreplacecontaminatesinroomairwithsupplyairthathasamuchlower
levelofcontamination.
Dilutioncanbeaccomplishedby:
1)Meetingdesignventilationrates.
2)Providingventilationratesbasedonspacegaseouscontaminationlevels.

52

InresponsetotheenergycrisisresultingfromtheArabOilEmbargoin1973,building
envelopesweresealedtightinordertoconserveenergy.Occupantsexperiencedillness
andvomitingasaresultofthehighcontaminantlevelsintheindoorair.Contaminants
rangefromoccupants'CO2tooffgasing andvolatileorganiccompoundsfrombuilding
materialssuchaspaintsandcarpet.Contaminantlevelsaretypicallymeasuredinpartsper
million(partsofcontaminanttomillionpartsofair).
ThemostcommonmethodofIAQcontrolistoprovideddilutiontoreducethe
The
most common method of IAQ control is to provided dilution to reduce the
concentrationtoacceptablelevels.Theseconcentrationlevelsaregenerallyfarlessthan
thelevelswhichwouldmakepeoplesick.Thisisthebasesfortheventilationrate
establishedbyASHRAEwhichhavenowbeenadaptedintomostbuildingcodes.

53

Wewillgointomoredetailonthisinnextweeklecture, sincethisissuchanimportant
topic.

54

Theintegrateddesignapproachistogeteveryoneinvolvedinthedesignprocessinvolved
attheearlieststagesofdesign.Simple decisionsandideaswhenbroughtupearlyinthe
processcanhaveasignificantimpactontheoverallproject.Theseideasifdoneearlymay
neverhappen.Heisanexample:
Duringacharrette thelightingdesigneraskedtheinteriordesignerwhatthereflectance
valueofthepainttheyplannedtousewas.Seemslikeasmallthingright?Howeverturns
out if the reflectance value of the paint was increased the lighting designer could reduce
outifthereflectancevalueofthepaintwasincreasedthelightingdesignercouldreduce
theamountoflightrequired.Thisisthecasesincethelightingcalculationisbasedon
deliveringtherequiredfootcandlesattheworksurfacewhichisafunctionofthe
reflectanceoftheservices.Thechangenotonlyresultedinlesslightingfixturesbut
reducedthesizeoftheelectricaldistributionsystem.Butthatisnottheend.Rememberat
thebeginningofthislessonwhatoneofthelargestACloadsisinacommercialbuilding?
Thelighting.IfIreducethenumberoflightsIalsoreducetheACloadwhichreducedthe
sizeoftheACsystemandtheassociateddistributionsystem.Smallchange,whichresulted
innotonlyenergysavingsbutcostsavingsaswell.
Thisistheideaofintegrateddesign.

55

Thisweekwearelookingattheownerand theirroleinintegrateddesign.Ihavetriedto
chartabovethedifferenttypesofowners.Eachhassomeverydifferentforcesthat
influencetheywaytheylookatbuildingahighperformancebuilding.Studyeachofthese
andthinkabouthowtheyaredifferentorthesameinthewaytheapproachaproject.We
willbediscussingthisinthediscussionforum.

56

57

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PleasenotethisassignmentisduebyMonday at6PM.

59

Makeanoteoftheseimportanttermsandbesureyoucandefinethem.

60