TCP/IP by Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn

UDP . The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is one of the core members of the Internet protocol
suite. The protocol was designed by David P. Reed in 1980 and formally defined in RFC 768.
UDP uses a simple connectionless transmission model with a minimum of protocol mechanism.
It has no handshaking dialogues, and thus exposes any unreliability of the underlying network
protocol to the user's program. There is no guarantee of delivery, ordering, or duplicate
protection. UDP provides checksums for data integrity, and port numbers for addressing different
functions at the source and destination of the datagram.
With UDP, computer applications can send messages, in this case referred to as datagrams, to
other hosts on an Internet Protocol (IP) network without prior communications to set up special
transmission channels or data paths. UDP is suitable for purposes where error checking and
correction is either not necessary or is performed in the application, avoiding the overhead of
such processing at the network interface level. Time-sensitive applications often use UDP
because dropping packets is preferable to waiting for delayed packets, which may not be an
option in a real-time system.[1] If error correction facilities are needed at the network interface
level, an application may use the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or Stream Control
Transmission Protocol (SCTP) which are designed for this purpose.
TCP. The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a core protocol of the Internet
Protocol Suite. It originated in the initial network implementation in which it
complemented the Internet Protocol (IP). Therefore, the entire suite is commonly
referred to as TCP/IP. TCP provides reliable, ordered, and error-checked delivery of a
stream of octets between applications running on hosts communicating over an IP
network. TCP is the protocol that major Internet applications such as the World Wide
Web, email, remote administration and file transfer rely on. Applications that do not
require reliable data stream service may use the User Datagram Protocol (UDP),
which provides a connectionless datagram service that emphasizes reduced latency
over reliability.

In data communications networks, packet segmentation is the process of dividing a data packet
into smaller units for transmission over the network. Packet segmentation happens at layer four
of the OSI model or the transport layer.[citation needed] Segmentation may be required when:

The data packet is larger than the maximum transmission unit supported by the network

The network is unreliable and it's desirable to divide the information into smaller
segments to maximize the probability that each one of them can be delivered correctly to
the destination[citation needed]

Protocols that perform packet segmentation at the source usually include a mechanism at the
destination to reverse the process and reassemble the original packet from individual segments.

This process may include automatic repeat-request (ARQ) mechanisms to detect missing
segments and to request the source to re-transmit specific segments.
In a communication system based on a layered OSI model, packet segmentation may be
responsible for splitting one MPDU into multiple physical layer service data units so that reliable
transmission (and potential re-transmission via ARQ) of each one can be performed individually.
The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides a way to create a high-speed (up to 1 gigabit/s) local
area network using existing home wiring (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables), is an
example of a protocol that employs packet segmentation to increase reliability over noisy media.
In computer networking, encapsulation is a method of designing modular communication
protocols in which logically separate functions in the network are abstracted from their
underlying structures by inclusion or information hiding within higher level objects.
The physical layer is responsible for physical transmission of the data. Link encapsulation allows
local area networking and Internet Protocol (IP) provides global addressing of individual
computers; Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) adds application or process selection, i.e., the
port specifies the service such as a Web or TFTP server.[2]
During encapsulation, each layer builds a protocol data unit (PDU) by adding a header (and
sometimes trailer) of control information to the PDU from the layer above. For example in the
Internet Protocol Suite, the contents of a web page are encapsulated with an HTTP header, which
is encapsulated by a TCP header, which is encapsulated by an IP header, which is encapsulated
by a frame header and trailer. The frame is forwarded to the destination node as a stream of bits,
where it is decapsulated (or de-encapsulated) into the respective PDUs and interpreted at each
layer by the receiving node.[3]

MULTIPLEXING

Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is inherently an analog technology. FDM achieves the

combining of several signals into one medium by sending signals in several distinct frequency
ranges over a single medium.
One of the most common applications for FDM is traditional radio and television broadcasting
from terrestrial, mobile or satellite stations, or cable television. Only one cable reaches a
customer's residential area, but the service provider can send multiple television channels or
signals simultaneously over that cable to all subscribers without interference. Receivers must
tune to the appropriate frequency (channel) to access the desired signal.[1]
A variant technology, called wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is used in optical
communications.

Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital (or in rare cases, analog) technology which uses
time, instead of space or frequency, to separate the different data streams. TDM involves
sequencing groups of a few bits or bytes from each individual input stream, one after the other,
and in such a way that they can be associated with the appropriate receiver. If done sufficiently
quickly, the receiving devices will not detect that some of the circuit time was used to serve
another logical communication path.
Consider an application requiring four terminals at an airport to reach a central computer. Each
terminal communicated at 2400 baud, so rather than acquire four individual circuits to carry such
a low-speed transmission, the airline has installed a pair of multiplexers. A pair of 9600 baud

modems and one dedicated analog communications circuit from the airport ticket desk back to
the airline data center are also installed.[1] Some modern web proxy servers (e.g. polipo) use
TDM in HTTP pipelining of multiple HTTP transactions onto the same TCP/IP connection.[2]
Carrier sense multiple access and multidrop communication methods are similar to time-division
multiplexing in that multiple data streams are separated by time on the same medium, but
because the signals have separate origins instead of being combined into a single signal, are best
viewed as channel access methods, rather than a form of multiplexing.

Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is a simple, lock-step, File Transfer Protocol which
allows a client to get from or put a file onto a remote host

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an "Internet-standard protocol for

managing devices on IP networks". Devices that typically support SNMP include
routers, switches, servers, workstations, printers, modem racks and more.

Telnet is a user command and an underlying TCP/IP protocol for accessing remote
computers. Through Telnet, an administrator or another user can access someone
else's computer remotely.
The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a standardized network protocol
used on Internet Protocol (IP) networks for dynamically distributing network
configuration parameters, such as IP addresses for interfaces and services.

DNS. Short for Domain Name System (or Service or Server), an Internet service
that translates domain names into IP addresses. Because domain names are
alphabetic, they're easier to remember. The Internet however, is really based on IP
addresses. Every time you use a domain name, therefore, a DNS service must
translate the name into the corresponding IP address. For example, the domain
name www.example.com might translate to 198.105.232.4.
ARP. The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a telecommunication protocol used for
resolution of network layer addresses into link layer addresses, a critical function in
multiple-access networks.

The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is one of the main protocols of the
Internet Protocol Suite. It is used by network devices, like routers, to send error
messages indicating, for example, that a requested service is not available or that a
host or router could not be reached.