Professional Documents
Culture Documents
measures intelligence, then IQ is high in validity. If it does not actually measure intelligence,
then it is low in validity.
RELIABILITY: Refers to stability of measurement. Example: A research instrument is high
in reliability if it gives consistent readings when it is used on the same subject even if the
subject is measured at different times. Example of a "research instrument" is a survey
questionnaire.
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY (used to summarise a dataset)
1. Arithmetic Mean - affected by extreme values
2. Median
3. Mode
MEASURES OF DISPERSION (used to determine how spread out a dataset is)
1. Range - difference between highest and lowest values
2. Variance
3. Standard Deviation - the higher the Standard Deviation, the more spread out
the data. The Standard Deviation is the square root of the Variance.
THE STANDARD DEVIATION IS A VERY IMPORTANT MEASURE - Under a
Standardised Normal Curve,
68.3% of the data are found +1 or -1 standard deviation from the mean
95.5% of the data are found +2 or -2 standard deviations from the mean
99.7% are found +3 or -3 standard deviations from the mean
LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT OF DATA
1. Nominal data: qualitative, categorical data. Example: ethnicity, SEX, religion.
2. Ordinal data: Rank-ordered data. Data are grouped from low to high. But we cannot say
how much lower or how much higher. Example: "low anxiety", "moderate anxiety" and "high
anxiety".
3. Interval data: quantitative data. There is fixed equal interval between numbers e.g.
the difference between 10 km and 15 km is the same as the distance between 30 km
and 35 km. Examples of interval data: height, weight, temperature measured using
the Celsius scale.
4. Ratio level data: Similar to Interval Data but in addition, it has an absolute zero e.g.
income, temperature measured using the Kelvin scale.
NOTE: For Ratio Data, we can use ratio level, interval level, ordinal level and nominal level
statistical tests.
For Interval Data, we can use interval level, ordinal level and nominal level tests.
For Ordinal Data, we can use ordinal level and nominal level tests.
But for Nominal Data, we can only use nominal level statistical tests.
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS/STATISTICAL INFERENCE
If we are doing research on a large population, we need not study each and every individual
in the population. All we need to do is choose a sample (RANDOM and
REPRESENTATIVE) from the population. We can use our findings from the sample to infer
(draw conclusions) about the population.
Research Hypothesis/Alternative Hypothesis: the hypothesis we wish to test. Also
To test if there is a statistically significant difference between the two population means from
the two matched samples.
5. If there are more than two samples, we use the ANOVA test (Analysis of Variance) or Ftest
NOTE: IF THERE ARE MORE THAN TWO SAMPLES, IT IS INCORRECT TO USE THE
T-TEST TO MAKE PAIRWISE COMPARISONS
Example: if there are 3 samples, it is incorrect to compare mean #1 with mean
#2, mean #1 with mean #3, mean #2 with mean #3. The ANOVA test should be done on
the three means instead.
CHOOSING A TEST
1. What is the level of measurement? Nominal, ordinal or interval?
2. How many samples? One, two or more?
3. If two samples, are they independent or paired/matched?
4. Choose the test. Make sure the assumptions of the test are not violated
ASSUMPTIONS OF CHI-SQUARE TEST OF INDEPENDENCE
1. Nominal data (ordinal data also OK)
2. 25 =< n =<250 (preferably)
3. Random sample
4. Expected value of each cell is at least 5 (if not, you should combine some of the
categories)
INTERPRETING RESULTS OF CHI-SQUARE TEST
H0 is "There is no association between religion and ethnicity. Any association seen is due to
chance alone"
H1 is "There is a statistically significant association between religion and ethnicity "
Reject H0 if the calculated chi-square equals or exceeds the critical value
Reject H0 if p is less than or equal to 0.05 (if testing at alpha = 0.05)
ASSUMPTIONS OF T-TEST FOR TWO INDEPENDENT SAMPLES
1. Random
2. Interval data
3. Normal distribution in both groups
4. Preferably n < 30 (for each sample).
INTERPRETING RESULTS OF T-TEST
H0 is "There is no difference between mean heights of Chinese and mean heights of
Japanese. Any difference seen is due to chance alone"
H1 is "There is a difference between mean heights of Chinese and mean heights of Japanese
"
Reject H0 if the calculated t statistic equals or exceeds the critical value
Reject H0 if p is less than or equal to 0.05 (if testing at alpha = 0.05)
IMPORTANT: What is STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT may not be CLINICALLY
SIGNIFICANT.
CORRELATION AND REGRESSION