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Narrative
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Anarrativeorstoryisanyreportofconnectedevents,actualorimaginary,presentedinasequenceof
writtenorspokenwords,orstillormovingimages.[1]
Narrativecanbeorganizedinanumberofthematicand/orformalcategories:nonfiction(e.g.definitively
includingcreativenonfiction,biography,journalism,andhistoriography)fictionalizationofhistorical
events(e.g.anecdote,myth,legend,andhistoricalfiction)andfictionproper(e.g.literatureinproseand
sometimespoetry,suchasshortstories,novels,andnarrativepoemsandsongs,aswellasimaginary
narrativesasportrayedinothertextualforms,games,orliveorrecordedperformances).Narrativeisfound
inallformsofhumancreativity,art,andentertainment,includingspeech,literature,theatre,musicand
song,comics,journalism,film,televisionandvideo,radio,gameplay,unstructuredrecreation,and
performanceingeneral,aswellassomepainting,sculpture,drawing,photography,andothervisualarts
(thoughseveralmodernartmovementsrefusethenarrativeinfavoroftheabstractandconceptual),aslong
asasequenceofeventsispresented.ThewordderivesfromtheLatinverbnarrare,"totell",whichis
derivedfromtheadjectivegnarus,"knowing"or"skilled".[2]
Oralstorytellingisperhapstheearliestmethodforsharingnarratives.Duringmostpeople'schildhoods,
narrativesareusedtoguidethemonproperbehavior,culturalhistory,formationofacommunalidentity,
andvalues,asespeciallystudiedinanthropologytodayamongtraditionalindigenouspeoples.[3]Narratives
alsoactas"living"entitiesthroughculturalstories,astheyarepassedonfromgenerationtogeneration.
Becausethenarrativestorytellingisoftenleftwithoutexplicitmeanings,childrenactasparticipantsinthe
storytellingprocessbydelvingdeeperintotheopenendedstoryandmakingtheirowninterpretations.[4]
Theword"story"maybeusedasasynonymfor"narrative"aswellasfor"plot,"thecollectiveevents
withinanygivennarrative.Narrativesmayalsobenestedwithinothernarratives,suchasnarrativestoldby
anunreliablenarrator(acharacter)typicallyfoundinnoirfictiongenre.Animportantpartofnarrationis
thenarrativemode,thesetofmethodsusedtocommunicatethenarrativethroughaprocessnarration(see
also"NarrativeAesthetics"below).
Alongwithexposition,argumentation,anddescription,narration,broadlydefined,isoneoffourrhetorical
modesofdiscourse.Morenarrowlydefined,itisthefictionwritingmodewherebythenarrator
communicatesdirectlytothereader.

Contents
1Humannature
2Literarytheory
3Typesofnarratorsandtheirmodes
4Aestheticsapproach
5Psychologicalapproach
6Socialsciencesapproaches
6.1Inquiryapproach
6.2Mathematicalsociologyapproach
7Inmusic

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7Inmusic
8Inculturalstorytelling
9Historiography
10Otherspecificapplications
11Seealso
12References
13Sources
14Furtherreading
15Externallinks

Humannature
OwenFlanaganofDukeUniversity,aleadingconsciousnessresearcher,writesthat"Evidencestrongly
suggeststhathumansinallculturescometocasttheirownidentityinsomesortofnarrativeform.Weare
inveteratestorytellers."[5]Storiesareanimportantaspectofculture.Manyworksofartandmostworksof
literaturetellstoriesindeed,mostofthehumanitiesinvolvestories.
Storiesareofancientorigin,existinginancientEgyptian,ancientGreek,ChineseandIndianculturesand
theirmyths.Storiesarealsoaubiquitouscomponentofhumancommunication,usedasparablesand
examplestoillustratepoints.Storytellingwasprobablyoneoftheearliestformsofentertainment.Asnoted
byOwenFlanagan,narrativemayalsorefertopsychologicalprocessesinselfidentity,memoryand
meaningmaking.
Semioticsbeginswiththeindividualbuildingblocksofmeaningcalledsignsandsemantics,thewayin
whichsignsarecombinedintocodestotransmitmessages.Thisispartofageneralcommunicationsystem
usingbothverbalandnonverbalelements,andcreatingadiscoursewithdifferentmodalitiesandforms.
InOnRealisminArtRomanJakobsonarguesthatliteratureexistsasaseparateentity.Heandmanyother
semioticiansprefertheviewthatalltexts,whetherspokenorwritten,arethesame,exceptthatsome
authorsencodetheirtextswithdistinctiveliteraryqualitiesthatdistinguishthemfromotherformsof
discourse.Nevertheless,thereisacleartrendtoaddressliterarynarrativeformsasseparablefromother
forms.ThisisfirstseeninRussianFormalismthroughVictorShklovsky'sanalysisoftherelationship
betweencompositionandstyle,andintheworkofVladimirPropp,whoanalysedtheplotsusedin
traditionalfolktalesandidentified31distinctfunctionalcomponents.[6]Thistrend(orthesetrends)
continuedintheworkofthePragueSchoolandofFrenchscholarssuchasClaudeLviStraussandRoland
Barthes.Itleadstoastructuralanalysisofnarrativeandanincreasinglyinfluentialbodyofmodernwork
thatraisesimportantepistemologicalquestions
Whatistext?
Whatisitsrole(culture)?
Howisitmanifestedasart,cinema,theater,orliterature?
Whyisnarrativedividedintodifferentgenres,suchaspoetry,shortstories,andnovels?

Literarytheory

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Inliterarytheoreticapproach,narrativeisbeingnarrowlydefinedasfictionwritingmodeinwhichthe
narratoriscommunicatingdirectlytothereader.Untilthelate19thcentury,literarycriticismasan
academicexercisedealtsolelywithpoetry(includingepicpoemsliketheIliadandParadiseLost,and
poeticdramalikeShakespeare).Mostpoemsdidnothaveanarratordistinctfromtheauthor.
Butnovels,lendinganumberofvoicestoseveralcharactersinadditiontonarrator's,createdapossibilityof
narrator'sviewsdifferingsignificantlyfromtheauthor'sviews.Withtheriseofthenovelinthe18th
century,theconceptofthenarrator(asopposedto"author")madethequestionofnarratoraprominentone
forliterarytheory.Ithasbeenproposedthatperspectiveandinterpretiveknowledgearetheessential
characteristics,whilefocalizationandstructurearelateralcharacteristicsofthenarrator.

Typesofnarratorsandtheirmodes
Awriter'schoiceinthenarratoriscrucialforthewayaworkoffictionisperceivedbythereader.Thereisa
distinctionbetweenfirstpersonandthirdpersonnarrative,whichGrardGenettereferstoashomodiegetic
andheterodiegeticnarrative,respectively.Ahomodiegeticnarratordescribesownpersonalexperiencesasa
characterinthestory.Suchanarratorcannotknowmoreaboutothercharactersthanwhattheiractions
reveal.Aheterodiegeticnarrator,incontrast,describestheexperiencesofthecharactersthatappearinthe
story.Anarrativewhereineventsareseenthroughtheeyesofathirdpersoninternalfocaliserissaidtobe
figural.Insomestories,theauthormaybeomniscientandemploymultiplepointsofviewaswelland
commentoneventsastheyoccur.
Mostnarratorspresenttheirstoryfromoneofthefollowingperspectives(callednarrativemodes):first
person,orthirdpersonlimitedoromniscient.Generally,afirstpersonnarratorbringsgreaterfocusonthe
feelings,opinions,andperceptionsofaparticularcharacterinastory,andonhowthecharacterviewsthe
worldandtheviewsofothercharacters.Ifthewriter'sintentionistogetinsidetheworldofacharacter,
thenitisagoodchoice,althoughathirdpersonlimitednarratorisanalternativethatdoesnotrequirethe
writertorevealallthatafirstpersoncharacterwouldknow.Bycontrast,athirdpersonomniscientnarrator
givesapanoramicviewoftheworldofthestory,lookingintomanycharactersandintothebroader
backgroundofastory.Athirdpersonomniscientnarratorcanbeananimaloranobject,oritcanbeamore
abstractinstancethatdoesnotrefertoitself.Forstoriesinwhichthecontextandtheviewsofmany
charactersareimportant,athirdpersonnarratorisabetterchoice.However,athirdpersonnarratordoes
notneedtobeanomnipresentguide,butinsteadmaymerelybetheprotagonistreferringtohimselfinthe
thirdperson(alsoknownasthirdpersonlimitednarrator).
Multiplenarrators
Awritermaychoosetoletseveralnarratorstellthestoryfromdifferentpointsofview.Thenitisuptothe
readertodecidewhichnarratorseemsmostreliableforeachpartofthestory.Itmayrefertothestyleofthe
writerinwhichhe/sheexpressestheparagraphwritten.SeeforinstancetheworksofLouiseErdrich.
WilliamFaulkner'sAsILayDyingisaprimeexampleoftheuseofmultiplenarrators.Faulkneremploys
streamofconsciousnessbynarratingthestoryfromvariousperspectives.
InIndigenousAmericancommunities,narrativesandstorytellingareoftentoldbyanumberofeldersinthe
community.Inthisway,thestoriesareneverstaticbecausetheyareshapedbytherelationshipbetween
narratorandaudience.Thus,eachindividualstorymayhavecountlessvariations.Narratorsoften
incorporateminorchangesinthestoryinordertotailorthestorytodifferentaudiences.[7]
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Aestheticsapproach
Narrativeisahighlyaestheticart.Thoughtfullycomposedstorieshaveanumberofaestheticelements.
Suchelementsincludetheideaofnarrativestructure,withidentifiablebeginnings,middlesandends,or
expositiondevelopmentclimaxdenouement,withcoherentplotlinesastrongfocusontemporality
includingretentionofthepast,attentiontopresentactionandprotention/futureanticipationasubstantial
focusoncharacterandcharacterization,"arguablythemostimportantsinglecomponentofthenovel"
(DavidLodgeTheArtofFiction67)differentvoicesinteracting,"thesoundofthehumanvoice,ormany
voices,speakinginavarietyofaccents,rhythmsandregisters"(LodgeTheArtofFiction97seealsothe
theoryofMikhailBakhtinforexpansionofthisidea)anarratorornarratorlikevoice,which"addresses"
and"interactswith"readingaudiences(seeReaderResponsetheory)communicateswithaWayneBooth
esquerhetoricalthrust,adialecticprocessofinterpretation,whichisattimesbeneaththesurface,forminga
plottednarrative,andatothertimesmuchmorevisible,"arguing"forandagainstvariouspositionsrelies
substantiallyontheuseofliterarytropes(seeHaydenWhite,Metahistoryforexpansionofthisidea)is
oftenintertextualwithotherliteraturesandcommonlydemonstratesanefforttowardbildungsroman,a
descriptionofidentitydevelopmentwithanefforttoevincebecomingincharacterandcommunity.

Psychologicalapproach
Seealso:Narrativetherapy
Withinphilosophyofmind,thesocialsciencesandvariousclinicalfieldsincludingmedicine,narrativecan
refertoaspectsofhumanpsychology.[8]Apersonalnarrativeprocessisinvolvedinaperson'ssenseof
personalorculturalidentity,andinthecreationandconstructionofmemoriesitisthoughtbysometobe
thefundamentalnatureoftheself.[9][10]Thebreakdownofacoherentorpositivenarrativehasbeen
implicatedinthedevelopmentofpsychosisandmentaldisorder,anditsrepairsaidtoplayanimportantrole
injourneysofrecovery.[11]NarrativeTherapyisaschoolof(family)psychotherapy.
Illnessnarrativesareawayforapersonaffectedbyanillnesstomakesenseofhisorherexperiences.[12]
Theytypicallyfollowoneofseveralsetpatterns:restitution,chaos,orquestnarratives.Intherestitution
narrative,thepersonseestheillnessasatemporarydetour.Theprimarygoalistoreturnpermanentlyto
normallifeandnormalhealth.Thesemayalsobecalledcurenarratives.Inthechaosnarrative,theperson
seestheillnessasapermanentstatethatwillinexorablygetworse,withnoredeemingvirtues.Thisis
typicalofdiseaseslikeAlzheimer'sdisease:thepatientgetsworseandworse,andthereisnohopeof
returningtonormallife.Thethirdmajortype,thequestnarrative,positionstheillnessexperienceasan
opportunitytotransformoneselfintoabetterpersonthroughovercomingadversityandrelearningwhatis
mostimportantinlifethephysicaloutcomeoftheillnessislessimportantthanthespiritualand
psychologicaltransformation.Thisistypicalofthetriumphantviewofcancersurvivorshipinthebreast
cancerculture.[12]
Personalitytraits,morespecificallytheBigFivepersonalitytraits,appeartobeassociatedwiththetypeof
languageorpatternsofwordusefoundinanindividual'sselfnarrative.[13]Inotherwords,languageusein
selfnarrativesaccuratelyreflectshumanpersonality.ThelinguisticcorrelatesofeachBigFivetraitareas
follows:
Extraversionpositivelycorrelatedwithwordsreferringtohumans,socialprocessesandfamily
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Agreeablenesspositivelycorrelatedwithfamily,inclusivenessandcertaintynegativelycorrelated
withangerandbody(i.e.,fewnegativecommentsabouthealth/body)
Conscientiousnesspositivelycorrelatedwithachievementandworknegativelyrelatedtobody,
death,angerandexclusiveness
Neuroticismpositivelycorrelatedwithsadness,negativeemotion,body,anger,homeandanxiety
negativelycorrelatedwithwork
Opennesspositivelycorrelatedwithperceptualprocesses,hearingandexclusiveness

Socialsciencesapproaches
Humanbeingsoftenclaimtounderstandeventswhentheymanagetoformulateacoherentstoryor
narrativeexplaininghowtheybelievetheeventwasgenerated.Narrativesthuslieatfoundationsofour
cognitiveproceduresandalsoprovideanexplanatoryframeworkforthesocialsciences,particularlywhen
itisdifficulttoassembleenoughcasestopermitstatisticalanalysis.Narrativeisoftenusedincasestudy
researchinthesocialsciences.Hereithasbeenfoundthatthedense,contextual,andinterpenetratingnature
ofsocialforcesuncoveredbydetailednarrativesisoftenmoreinterestingandusefulforbothsocialtheory
andsocialpolicythanotherformsofsocialinquiry.
SociologistsJaberF.GubriumandJamesA.Holsteinhavecontributedtotheformationofaconstructionist
approachtonarrativeinsociology.FromtheirbookTheSelfWeLiveBy:NarrativeIdentityina
PostmodernWorld(2000),tomorerecenttextssuchasAnalyzingNarrativeReality(2009)andVarietiesof
NarrativeAnalysis(2012),theyhavedevelopedananalyticframeworkforresearchingstoriesand
storytellingthatiscenteredontheinterplayofinstitutionaldiscourses(bigstories)ontheonehand,and
everydayaccounts(littlestories)ontheother.Thegoalisthesociologicalunderstandingofformaland
livedtextsofexperience,featuringtheproduction,practices,andcommunicationofaccounts.

Inquiryapproach
Inordertoavoid"hardenedstories,"or"narrativesthatbecomecontextfree,portableandreadytobeused
anywhereandanytimeforillustrativepurposes"andarebeingusedasconceptualmetaphorsasdefinedby
linguistGeorgeLakoff,anapproachcallednarrativeinquirywasproposed,restingontheepistemological
assumptionthathumanbeingsmakesenseofrandomorcomplexmulticausalexperiencebytheimposition
ofstorystructures."[14][15]Humanpropensitytosimplifydatathroughapredilectionfornarrativesover
complexdatasetstypicallyleadstonarrativefallacy.Itiseasierforthehumanmindtorememberandmake
decisionsonthebasisofstorieswithmeaning,thantorememberstringsofdata.Thisisonereasonwhy
narrativesaresopowerfulandwhymanyoftheclassicsinthehumanitiesandsocialsciencesarewrittenin
thenarrativeformat.Buthumansreadmeaningintodataandcomposestories,evenwherethisis
unwarranted.Innarrativeinquiry,thewaytoavoidthenarrativefallacyisnodifferentfromthewayto
avoidothererrorinscholarlyresearch,i.e.,byapplyingtheusualmethodicalchecksforvalidityand
reliabilityinhowdataarecollected,analyzed,andpresented.Severalcriteriaforassessingthevalidityof
narrativeresearchwasproposed,includingtheobjectiveaspect,theemotionalaspect,thesocial/moral
aspect,andtheclarityofthestory.

Mathematicalsociologyapproach

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Inmathematicalsociology,thetheoryofcomparativenarrativeswasdevisedinordertodescribeand
comparethestructures(expressedas"and"inadirectedgraphwheremultiplecausallinksincidentintoa
nodeareconjoined)ofactiondrivensequentialevents.[16][17][18]
Narrativessoconceivedcomprisethefollowingingredients:
AfinitesetofstatedescriptionsoftheworldS,thecomponentsofwhichareweaklyorderedintime
Afinitesetofactors/agents(individualorcollective),P
AfinitesetofactionsA
AmappingofPontoA
Thestructure(directedgraph)isgeneratedbylettingthenodesstandforthestatesandthedirectededges
representhowthestatesarechangedbyspecifiedactions.Theactionskeletoncanthenbeabstracted,
comprisingafurtherdigraphwheretheactionsaredepictedasnodesandedgestaketheform"actionaco
determined(incontextofotheractions)actionb".
Narrativescanbebothabstractedandgeneralisedbyimposinganalgebraupontheirstructuresandthence
defininghomomorphismbetweenthealgebras.Theinsertionofactiondrivencausallinksinanarrativecan
beachievedusingthemethodofBayesiannarratives.
Bayesiannarratives
DevelopedbyPeterAbell,thetheoryofComparativeNarrativesconceivesanarrativeasadirectedgraph
comprisingmultiplecausallinks(socialinteractions)ofthegeneralform:"actionacausesactionbina
specifiedcontext".Intheabsenceofsufficientcomparativecasestoenablestatisticaltreatmentofthe
causallinks,itemsofevidenceinsupportandagainstaparticularcausallinkareassembledandusedto
computetheBayesianlikelihoodratioofthelink.Subjectivecausalstatementsoftheform"I/shedidb
becauseofa"andsubjectivecounterfactuals"ifithadnotbeenforaI/shewouldnothavedoneb"are
notableitemsofevidence.[18][19][20]

Inmusic
Linearityisoneofseveralnarrativequalitiesthatcanbefoundinamusicalcomposition.[21]Asnotedby
Americanmusicologist,EdwardCone,narrativetermsarealsopresentintheanalyticallanguageabout
music.[22]Thedifferentcomponentsofafuguesubject,answer,exposition,discussionandsummary
canbecitedasanexample.[23]However,thereareseveralviewsontheconceptofnarrativeinmusicand
theroleitplays.OnetheoryisthatofTheodoreAdorno,whohassuggestedthatmusicrecitesitself,isits
owncontext,narrateswithoutnarrative.[23]Another,isthatofCarolynAbbate,whohassuggestedthat
certaingesturesexperiencedinmusicconstituteanarratingvoice.[22]Stillothershavearguedthat
narrativeisasemioticenterprisethatcanenrichmusicalanalysis.[23]TheFrenchmusicologistJeanJacques
Nattiezcontendsthatthenarrative,strictlyspeaking,isnotinthemusic,butintheplotimaginedand
constructedbythelisteners.[24]Hearguesthatdiscussingmusicintermsofnarrativityissimply
metaphoricalandthattheimaginedplotmaybeinfluencedbythework'stitleorotherprogrammatic
informationprovidedbythecomposer.[24]However,Abbatehasrevealednumerousexamplesofmusical
devicesthatfunctionasnarrativevoices,bylimitingmusicsabilitytonarratetoraremomentsthatcanbe

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identifiedbytheirbizarreanddisruptiveeffect.[24]Varioustheoristssharethisviewofnarrativeappearing
indisruptiveratherthannormativemomentsinmusic.Thefinalwordisyettobesaid,regardingnarratives
inmusic,asthereisstillmuchtobedetermined.

Inculturalstorytelling
Anarrativecantakeontheshapeofastory,whichgiveslistenersanentertainingandcollaborativeavenue
foracquiringknowledge.Manyculturesusestorytellingasawaytorecordhistories,myths,andvalues.
Thesestoriescanbeseenaslivingentitiesofnarrativeamongculturalcommunities,astheycarrythe
sharedexperienceandhistoryoftheculturewithinthem.Storiesareoftenusedwithinindigenouscultures
inordertoshareknowledgetotheyoungergeneration.[25]Duetoindigenousnarrativesleavingroomfor
openendedinterpretation,nativestoriesoftenengagechildreninthestorytellingprocesssothattheycan
maketheirownmeaningandexplanationswithinthestory.Thispromotesholisticthinkingamongnative
children,whichworkstowardsmerginganindividualandworldidentity.Suchanidentityupholdsnative
epistemologyandgiveschildrenasenseofbelongingastheirculturalidentitydevelopsthroughthesharing
andpassingonofstories.[26]
Forexample,anumberofindigenousstoriesareusedtoillustrateavalueorlesson.IntheWesternApache
tribe,storiescanbeusedtowarnofthemisfortunethatbefallspeoplewhentheydonotfollowacceptable
behavior.Onestoryspeakstotheoffenseofamother'smeddlinginhermarriedson'slife.Inthestory,the
WesternApachetribeisunderattackfromaneighboringtribe,thePimas.TheApachemotherhearsa
scream.Thinkingitisherson'swifescreaming,shetriestointervenebyyellingathim.ThisalertsthePima
tribetoherlocation,andsheispromptlykilledduetointerveninginherson'slife.[27]

Historiography
Inhistoriography,accordingtoLawrenceStone,narrativehastraditionallybeenthemainrhetoricaldevice
usedbyhistorians.In1979,atatimewhenthenewSocialHistorywasdemandingasocialsciencemodel
ofanalysis,Stonedetectedamovebacktowardthenarrative.Stonedefinednarrativeasorganized
chronologicallyfocusedonasinglecoherentstorydescriptiveratherthananalyticalconcernedwith
peoplenotabstractcircumstancesanddealingwiththeparticularandspecificratherthanthecollectiveand
statistical.Hereportedthat,"Moreandmoreofthe'newhistorians'arenowtryingtodiscoverwhatwas
goingoninsidepeople'sheadsinthepast,andwhatitwasliketoliveinthepast,questionswhich
inevitablyleadbacktotheuseofnarrative."[28]
Somephilosophersidentifynarrativeswithatypeofexplanation.MarkBevirargues,forexample,that
narrativesexplainactionsbyappealingtothebeliefsanddesiresofactorsandbylocatingwebsofbeliefsin
thecontextofhistoricaltraditions.Narrativeisanalternativeformofexplanationtothatassociatedwith
naturalscience.
Historianscommittedtoasocialscienceapproach,however,havecriticizedthenarrownessofnarrativeand
itspreferenceforanecdoteoveranalysis,andcleverexamplesratherthanstatisticalregularities.[29]

Otherspecificapplications
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Anarrativecasestudyisacasestudythattellsastory.
Narrativeenvironmentisacontestedtermthathasbeenusedfortechniquesofarchitecturalor
exhibitiondesigninwhich'storiesaretoldinspace'andalsoforthevirtualenvironmentsinwhich
computergamesareplayedandwhichareinventedbythecomputergameauthors.
Narrativefilmusuallyusesimagesandsoundsonfilm(or,morerecently,onanalogueordigital
videomedia)toconveyastory.Narrativefilmisusuallythoughtofintermsoffictionbutitmayalso
assemblestoriesfromfilmedreality,asinsomedocumentaryfilm,butnarrativefilmmayalsouse
animation.
Narrativehistoryisagenreoffactualhistoricalwritingthatuseschronologyasitsframework(as
opposedtoathematictreatmentofahistoricalsubject).
Narrativepoetryispoetrythattellsastory.
AnarrativeverdictisaverdictavailabletocoronersinEnglandandWalesfollowinganinquest.
Metanarrative,sometimesalsoknownasmasterorgrandnarrative,isahigherlevelcultural
narrativeschemawhichordersandexplainsknowledgeandexperienceyou'vehadinlife.
Narrativephotographyisphotographyusedtotellstoriesorinconjunctionwithstories.

Seealso
Folklore
Monogatari
Narrativethread
Narremeasthebasicunitofnarrativestructure
Organizationalstorytelling
Howstoriesaffectourbrainsandwhystoriesshapeandimpactculture
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BrtTyEmDLKQ)in"HardwiredforStory"a2014TEDXby
EMMYnominatedwriter,producer,anduniversityprofessorSJMurray.

References
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VladimirPropp,MorphologyoftheFolkTale,p25,ISBN0292783760
Piquemal,2003.FromNativeNorthAmericanOralTraditionstoWesternLiteracy:StorytellinginEducation.
Hevern,V.W.(2004,March).Introductionandgeneraloverview.Narrativepsychology:Internetandresource
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Furtherreading
Abbott,H.Porter(2009)TheCambridgeIntroductiontoNarrativeSecondEdition.Cambridge:Cambridge
UniversityPress.
Bal,Mieke.(1985).Narratology.IntroductiontotheTheoryofNarrative.Toronto:TorontoUniversityPress.
Clandinin,D.J.&Connelly,F.M.(2000).Narrativeinquiry:Experienceandstoryinqualitativeresearch.
JosseyBass.
Genette,Grard.(1980[1972]).NarrativeDiscourse.AnEssayinMethod.(TranslatedbyJaneE.Lewin).
Oxford:Blackwell.
Goosseff,KyrillA.(2014).Onlynarrativescanreflecttheexperienceofobjectivity:effectivepersuasion
(http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/JOCM0920140167)JournalofOrganizationalChange
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative

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NarrativeWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Management,Vol.27Iss:5,pp.703709
Gubrium,JaberF.&JamesA.Holstein.(2009).AnalyzingNarrativeReality.ThousandOaks,CA:Sage.
Holstein,JamesA.&JaberF.Gubrium.(2000).TheSelfWeLiveBy:NarrativeIdentityinaPostmodernWorld.
NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
Holstein,JamesA.&JaberF.Gubrium,eds.(2012).VarietiesofNarrativeAnalysis.ThousandOaks,CA:
Sage.
Hunter,KathrynMontgomery(1991).Doctors'Stories:TheNarrativeStructureofMedicalKnowledge.
Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress.
Jakobson,Roman.(1921)."OnRealisminArt"inReadingsinRussianPoetics:FormalistandStructuralist.
(EditedbyLadislavMatejka&KrystynaPomorska).TheMITPress.
Labov,William.(1972).Chapter9:TheTransformationofExperienceinNarrativeSyntax.In:"Languageinthe
InnerCity."Philadelphia,PA:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress.
LviStrauss,Claude.(1958[1963]).AnthropologieStructurale/StructuralAnthropology.(TranslatedbyClaire
Jacobson&BrookeGrundfestSchoepf).NewYork:BasicBooks.
LviStrauss,Claude.(1962[1966]).LaPenseSauvage/TheSavageMind(NatureofHumanSociety).London:
Weidenfeld&Nicolson.
LviStrauss,Claude.MythologiquesIIV(TranslatedbyJohnWeightman&DoreenWeightman)
Linde,Charlotte(2001).Chapter26:NarrativeinInstitutions.In:DeborahSchiffrin,DeborahTannen&HeidiE.
Hamilton(ed.s)"TheHandbookofDiscourseAnalysis."Oxford&Malden,MA:BlackwellPublishing.
Norrick,NealR.(2000)."ConversationalNarrative:StorytellinginEverydayTalk."Amsterdam&Philadelphia:
JohnBenjaminsPublishingCompany.
RanjbarVahid.(2011)TheNarrator,Iran:Baqney
(http://signbook.persiangig.com/document/literature/theory/raavi1.pdf)
PrezSobrino,Paula(2014)."Meaningconstructioninverbomusicalenvironments:Conceptualdisintegration
andmetonymy"
(http://www.academia.edu/7924477/Meaning_construction_in_verbomusical_environments_Conceptual_disintegra
tion_and_metonymy._Journal_of_Pragmatics_70_2014_130151)(PDF).JournalofPragmatics(Elsevier)70:
130151.doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2014.06.008(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.pragma.2014.06.008).
Quackenbush,S.W.(2005)."Remythologizingculture:Narrativity,justification,andthepoliticsof
personalization"
(http://psychweb.cisat.jmu.edu/ToKSystem/Related%20Articles/Remythologyzing%20Culture.pdf)(PDF).
JournalofClinicalPsychology61:6780.doi:10.1002/jclp.20091(https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fjclp.20091).
Polanyi,Livia.(1985)."TellingtheAmericanStory:AStructuralandCulturalAnalysisofConversational
Storytelling."Norwood,NJ:AblexPublishersCorporation.
Salmon,Christian.(2010)."Storytelling,bewitchingthemodernmind."London,Verso.
Shklovsky,Viktor.(1925[1990]).TheoryofProse.(TranslatedbyBenjaminSher).Normal,IL:DalkeyArchive
Press.
Todorov,Tzvetan.(1969).GrammaireduDcameron.TheHague:Mouton.
Toolan,Michael(2001)."Narrative:aCriticalLinguisticIntroduction"
Turner,Mark(1996)."TheLiteraryMind"
RanjbarVahid.TheNarrator,Iran:Baqney2011(summaryinenglish)
(http://narrative.byethost7.com/ranjbar.html)
White,Hayden(2010).TheFictionofNarrative:EssaysonHistory,Literature,andTheory,19572007.
(http://books.google.com/books?
id=8aO_oChF6HQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+fiction+of+narrative&hl=en&ei=Ie5oTpb7I8PhiALq8MyuDg
&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false)Ed.Robert
Doran.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.

Externallinks
InternationalSocietyfortheStudyofNarrative
(http://narrative.georgetown.edu/)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative

Lookupnarrativein
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ManfredJahn.Narratology:AGuidetotheTheoryof
Narrative(http://www.unikoeln.de/%7Eame02/pppn.htm)
[1](http://www.stephaniebrandt.net/de/)Interdisciplinary
ResearchInstitute
NarrativeandReferentialActivity
(http://www.thereferentialprocess.org/theory/narrativeand
referentialactivity)
SomeIdeasaboutNarrativenotesonnarrativefroman
academicperspective
(http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/pcraddoc/narhand1.htm)
Newcinemachairstudies"narrativeIEDs"SFStateNews.
09/29/11(http://www.sfsu.edu/~news/2011/fall/15.html)
DOCFilmInstitute(http://docfilm.sfsu.edu/)

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