International Journal of Modern Biology and Medicine, 2013, 3(2): 88-100

International Journal of Modern Biology and Medicine

ISSN: 2165-0136
Florida, USA
Journal homepage: www.ModernScientificPress.com/Journals/IJBioMed.aspx
Article

Comparative Phytochemical and Physico-chemical Properties of

Aspilia africana (Pers) C. D. Adams and Tithonia diversifolia
(Hemsl) A. Gray Petals as a Scientific Backing to Their
Tradomedicinal Potentials
Uduak Essiett* and Ikoedem Unung
Department of Botany and Ecological Studies, Faculty of Science, University of Uyo, P.M.B. 1017,
Uyo. Akwa Ibom state, Nigeria
* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: u.essiett@yahoo.com
Article history: Received 15 March 2013, Received in revised form 3 April 2013, Accepted 15 April
2013, Published 19 April 2013.

Abstract: The petals of Aspilia africana (Pers.) C. D. Adams and Tithonia diversifolia
(Hemsl.) A. Gray were investigated for their phytochemical constituents, quantitative
evaluation, nutritional values, extractive values and wound healing activity. Phytochemical
analysis revealed the presence of saponins, tannins, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides in both
plant petals. Alkaloids were presence in T. diversifolia petals but absent in A. africana
petals. Anthraquinones was absent in both plant petals. Quantitative evaluation revealed
moisture content of 8.5% and 12.3%, total ash of 5.16% and 7.0%, sulfated ash of 4.0%
and 5.0%, Acid-insoluble ash of 0.5% and 1.0% for A. africana and T. diversifolia petals
respectively. Nutritional determination revealed 6.5% and 6.0% lipids, 22.0% and 4.0%
fibre, 11.8% and 10.06% protein, 59.69% and 79.94% carbohydrate for A. africana and T.
diversifolia petals respectively. Extractive values revealed 15.5% and 16.5% diluted
ethanol-soluble, 16.0% and 19.0% water-soluble, 2.5% and 3.5% non-volatile ethersoluble, 2.3% and 2.9% volatile ether-soluble for A. africana and T. diversifolia petals
respectively. Wound healing activity revealed a significantly (p0.05) higher rate of wound
healing with a percentage wound contraction of 87.50% and 75% for A. africana and T.
diversifolia respectively. The result of these studies indicates that petals extracts possess
antioxidant, antibacterial and haemostatic activities which explain its folkloric use in
animal nutrition and human medicine.
Keywords: Aspilia africana, Tithonia diversifolia, petals, phytochemical, Asteraceae.

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1. Introduction
Nature has provided abundant plant wealth for all living creatures, which possess medicinal
virtues. The essential values of some plant have long been published but a large number of them
remain unexploited as yet. The traditional system of the medicine like Chinese, Ayurvedic, Unani and
Biomedicine are very effective particularly in rural areas for the treatment of various ailments. In spite
of the advent of modern medicine, tribal populations are still practicing the art of herbal medicine.
Nearly about 80% of the total human population still depends upon traditional remedies together with
folklore system based mainly on phytotherapy (Azaizeh et al., 2003).
Although the historic role of medicinal herbs in the treatment and prevention of disease, and
their role as catalysts in the development of pharmacology do not, however, assure their safety for
uncontrolled use by an uninformed public (Matthews et al., 1999). Traditional of healthcare must
always been features of human society and from the available evidence it is found that plants are
playing a lead role in the therapy (Srivastava, 2000).
A medicinal plant is any plant, which in one or more of its organs contains active ingredients
which can be used for the therapeutic purposes or contain foundation compounds that can be used for
the synthesis of useful drugs (Sofowora, 2008).
It has also been reported that, the African continent have a long history with the use of plants
and in some African countries, up to 90% of the population rely on medicinal plants as a source of
drugs (Hostettmann et al., 2000).
At a time when majority of mankind has moved away from lifes natural ways, when illness,
caused by a changed attitude to life threatens, we should turn again to medicinal herbs which God in
His greatness have provided for us since time immemorial (Odoemena and Egwali, 2006). Thus, plants
such as Aspilia africana and Tithonia diversifolia in the family Asteraceae used in herbal medicines to
cure diseases and heal injuries is due to its tradomedicinal potentials.
The crushed leaves and flowers of A. africana is widely used in ethnomedicinal practice in
Africa for its ability to stop bleeding, as well as promote rapid healing of wounds and sore and for the
management of problems to cardiovascular diseases (Dimo et al., 2002). The leaves and flowers of A.
africana are also used in the treatment of rheumatic pain (Oliver, 1960) as well as bee and scorpion
stings (Single, 1965).
In Kenya, they are used to kill intestinal worms. In Uganda, it is used to treat gonorrhea (Page
et al., 1992). In some community in Nigeria, women boil and filter the leaves of A. africana which
they drink to prevent conception (Eweka, 2008). The plant has a wide reputation and use as a
haemostatic, and in Liberia it is even credited with the capacity of arresting bleeding of severed artery
(Dalziel, 1955). The leaf-sap is also an eye medicine in Tanganyika, dripped into the eyes for eyeCopyright 2013 by Modern Scientific Press Company, Florida, USA

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pains of no apparent origin. The leaf-sap and a leaf-decoction are rubbed onto the breasts and made in
an inhalation in Tanganyika to promote milk-flow. The fresh crushed leaves and flowers are used.
Their application is said to draw up exudations and to promote rapid healing. Amongst the Hausa,
superstitious uses are prominent as a love-philtre, and a charm prepared from the plant and tied around
the forehead attracts the glad eye (Burkill, 1985).
The stems and leaves of T. diversifolia are used as a fodder (Roothaert and Paterson, 1997),
Poultry feed (Odunsi et al., 1996). In Nigeria, the decoctions of various parts are used for the treatment
of malaria, diabetes mellitus, sore throat, liver and menstrual pains (Elufioye and Agbedahunsi, 2004;
Owoyele et al., 2004; Moronkola et al., 2007).
Oral decoction of the leaves and stem is used for the treatment of hepatitis in Taiwan and
gastrointestinal disorder in Kenya and Thailand (Johns et al., 1995).
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl) A. Gray, green biomass have been recognized as an effective
source of nutrients for lowland rice (Oryza sativa) in Asia and more recently for maize (Zea mays) and
vegetations in eastern and southern Africa (Sao et al., 2010).
Mahecha and Rosales (2005) stated that, the protein in T. diversifolia foliage is highly soluble
and hence is quickly fermented in the rumen of goats.
Liasu and Ayandele (2008) reported on the antibacterial activity of aqueous extract of T.
diversifolia stem and ethanolic extract of its flower. It has been reported that A. africana has some
contraceptive or anti-fertility properties (Eweka, 2007).
Olowokudejo et al. (2008) recorded an ethnobotanical survey of herbal markets and medicinal
plants in Lagos State of Nigeria whereby Aspilia africana leaves and flowers were used as
haemostatic, cleaning sores, corneal opacities, stomach disorders, tuberculosis, neurons disorders,
guineacrosm, gonorrhoea and skin rashes.
From available literature, several work have been carried out on A. africana and T. diversifolia,
but there has yet being no report on the petals of the flower of these two plants as a scientific
backing to its tradomedicinal potentials.
The present study is to carry out a comparative phytochemical screening to determine the
different bioactive agents in the petals of A. africana and T. diversifolia flower; determine the
proximate composition of the petals of the two plants and determine the amount of constituents
which is extractable using different solvent (i.e. extractives) under the specified condition.
The significance of this study is to prove that the therapeutic uses of the petals of these A.
africana and T. diversifolia flowers will be considerably clarified from these pieces of information.

2. Materials and Methods

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The fresh flower (petals) of Aspilia africana (Pers) C. D. Adams and Tithonia diversifolia
(Hensl) A. Gray were collected from a bush in Okobo, Oron, and Uyo Local government Area of
Akwa Ibom State. The plant was authenticated by Dr. (Mrs.) U. A. Essiett, a taxonomist in the
department of Botany and Ecological Studies, University of Uyo, Uyo.
2.1. Preparation of the Extract
After collection and identification of the two plant flowers, the petals were then separated from
the flower, sun dried and then powdered. The powdered material were weighed accurately and 20g
each were macerated cold in 400mL of 70% ethanol for 72 hours (3 days) in a maceration tank at room
temperature following Sofowora (2008) method. The plant materials were then filtered and the filterate
obtained was concentrated in water bath at 40C which yield a semi-solid extract that is then used for
the phytochemical screening. 20g of 400mL ethanolic extraction of A. africana petals and T.
diversifolia petals yields 18.4% and 18.9% extract respectively. The extract was used to carry out
phytochemical screening using a suitable method (Trease and Evans, 1989; Sofowora, 2008).
2.2. Quantitative Microscopy/Proximate Analysis
The moisture content of the powdered leaves was determined by loss on drying method
(African Pharmacopoeia, 1986). The ash value, acid insoluble ash, water-soluble ash and sulphated
ash were determined as described (British Pharmacopoeia, 1980; African Pharmacopoeia, 1986). The
water and alcohol extractive values were obtained using the method outlined (Brain and Turner, 1975;
British Pharmacopoeia, 1980). The fat (lipids), crude fibre, crude protein and carbohydrate were
obtained using the method outlined (Pearson, 1976; Okon, 2005; AOAC, 2000).

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Phytochemical Screening
The result of preliminary phytochemical analysis of the petals of Aspilia africana and Tithonia
diversifolia flower shows the presence of saponins, tannins, flavonoids and cardiac glycosides.
Alkaloids was found to be absent in petals of A. africana flower, but present in petals of T. diversifolia
flower. Anthraquinones were found to be absent in the phytochemical screening of the petals of the
plant (Table 1).
3.2. Proximate Analysis
The result of the proximate analysis (quantitative evaluation in Table 2 and nutritional analysis
in Table 3) of the petals of A. africana and T. diversifolia flower show moisture content (8.5% and
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12.3%), Ash content (5.16% and 7.0%), Sulfated ash (4.0% and 5.0%), Acid insoluble ash (0.5% and
1.0%) respectively as quantitative evaluation (Table 2). Lipid (6.5% and 6.0%) Fibre (22.0% and
4.0%), Protein (11.8% and 10.06%) and carbohydrate (59.69% and 79.94) as nutrients values for A.
africana and T. diversifolia petals respectively (Table 3).
Table 1: Result of the phytochemical analysis of the ethanolic extract of A. africana and T. diversifolia
petals
Test
Observation
Inferences
A. africana
Saponins (frothing Frothing persisted for more than

T. diversifolia

+++

++

was

A cleared solution was observed in

test)

10mins.

Tannins

A blue-black colouration
observed

Alkaloids

A.

africana

colouration

and

orange

ppt

was observed in T.

diversifolia
Flavonoids

Orange colouration was observed

++

++

Liebermans test

A blue-green colour was formed

++

Salkowskis test

++

+++

+++

reddish-brown

colour

was

observed at the interface

Keller-killiani test

A brown ring was observed at the

interphase

Anthraquinones

No purple-pink colouration was

test

observed at the mixable layer

Key
Absent
Trace
Moderately
Abundantly present

=
=
=
=

+
++
+++

3.3. Extractives
The result of extractives also shows percentage extractive values of A. africana and T.
diversifolia flower petals. Diluted Alcohol soluble (15.5% and 16.5%), water soluble (16.0% and
19.0%), Non volatile Ether soluble (2.5% and 3.5%) and volatile ether soluble (2.3% and 2.9%)
respectively (Table 4).

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Table 2: Result of Quantitative Evaluation of the Petals of A. africana and T. diversifolia

Parameter
Moisture content

Percentage Composition (% w/w)

T. diversifolia
A. africana
8.5
12.3

Ash content

5.16

7.0

Sulfated ash

4.0

5.0

Acid insoluble ash

0.5

1.0

Table 3: Result of the Nutritional Analysis of the Petals of A. africana and T. diversifolia
Parameter

Percentage Composition (% w/w)

T. diversifolia
A. africana
6.5
6

Lipid
Crude fibre

22

Crude protein

11.81

10.06

Carbohydrate

59.69

79.64

Table 4: Result of the extractives of the petals of A. africana and T. diversifolia

Extractives
Diluted ethanol-soluble

Values (% w/w)
A. africana
T. diversifolia
15.5
16.5

Water soluble

16.0

19.0

Non-volatile ether-soluble

2.5

3.5

Volatile Ether-soluble

2.3

2.9

The result of phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of alkaloids in trace quantity in T.
diversifolia petals which primarily acts as feeding deterrants and toxin to insects and other herbivores
(Harborne, 1993), in many cases by directly interacting with molecular targets within the nervous
system (Wink, 2000), and are toxic to mammals (Rattan, 2010). This property was absent in A.
africana petals.
Flavonoids exhibit a broad range of biological activity such as antimicrobial, anticancer,
antiallergic and well as antitumour properties. On the other hand, flavonoids are potent water-soluble
antioxidants and free radical scavengers, which prevent oxidative cell damage, have strong anticancer
activity (Pietta, 2000). Flavonoids in intestinal tract lower the risk of heart disease, and as antioxidant,
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it provide anti-inflammatory activity (Okwu, 2004; Essiett et al., 2010). This may be the reason why A.
africana and T. diversifolia petals have been used for the treatment of wounds, burns and ulcer in
herbal medicine. Flavonoids in both plants petals is an important component of a normal diet, and has
been suggested that flavoid-rich foods may limit neurodegeneration and prevent or reverse normal or
abnormal deterioration in cognitive performance (Spencer, 2010).
Saponins which were present in abundant quantity in A. africana and moderate quantity in T.
diversifolia petals have anti-inflammatory, anti-yeast, anti-fungal, anti-tumours, anti-parasitic and
antiviral activities that confirms its usefulness in tradomedicinal practitioners (Sofowora, 2008; Sparg
et al., 2004). It has the property of precipitating and coagulating red blood cells and some
characteristics of saponins include formation of foams in aqueous solutions, hemolytic activity,
cholesterol binding properties and bitterness (Okwu, 2004). These properties bestow high medicinal
activities on the extracts from A. africana and T. diversifolia petals.
Tannins which have astringent and detergent properties were also present in trace quantity in
both plants petals, and this could be responsible for their anti-fungal activity when used against
diarrhoea and malaria. This coincides with reported works (Bouquet et al., 2008; Trease and Evans,
2002; Bruneton, 1999).
There has been an assertion by Trease and Evans (2002) that naturally cardiac glycosides are
used for treatment of various diseases associated with the heart such as in controlling supraventricular
(atrial) cardiac arrhythmias, it also exert a slowing and strengthening effect on failing heart. Cardiac
glycosides were also found to be present in both petals of A. africana and T. diversifolia flower
extracts while anthraquinones were absent in both plants petals. The presence of this compound in A.
africana and T. diversifolia petals could be useful in the treatment of diseases associated with the heart
(Trease and Evans, 2002).
The presence of these phytochemicals explains why petals of A. africana and T. diversifolia are
used by tradomedicinal practitioners to stop bleeding, cure wounds, allergies, rheumatism,
inflammatory and ulcers.
The proximate analysis, quantitative evaluation (Table 2) and nutritional values (Table 3), is an
important parameter in setting standard of crude drugs and the physical constant parameters could be
useful in detecting any adulterants in the drugs. The moisture content that is not too high indicates less
chances of microbial degradation of the drugs during storage and in this study, the moisture content
value for A. africana petals was 8.5% and that of T. diversifolia petals was 12.3% and the general
requirement for moisture content in a crude drug is not more than 14% (British Pharmacopoeia, 1980),
thus, the values obtained in this research work is within the accepted range and this is an agreement
with Edward et al., 1971; Musa et al., 2005; Schuna, 2010.

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The total ash which is the measurement of the amount of the residual substances not volatilized
when the drug sample is ignited by heat. Ash may be derived from the plant tissue itself (i.e.
physiological ash) or from the extraneous matter, especially sand and soil adhering to the surface of the
drugs (i.e. non-physiological ash), and this kinds of ash are determined together, therefore it is referred
to as total ash (African Pharmacopoeia, 1986). A high ash value is indicative of contamination,
substitution, adulteration, or carelessness in preparing the drug or drug combinations for marketing
(Chandel et al., 2011). In this work, the total ash values of 5.16% and 7.0% for Aspilia africana and
Tithonia diversifolia petals respectively were found to be reasonably low, indicating low
contamination when stored.
The determination of acid-insoluble ash is a method intended to measure the amount of silica
especially sand and silicious earth present in the drugs and the percentage of silica was found to be
0.5% for A. africana and 1.0% for T. diversifolia petals which implies that a small portion of the ash
content is acid soluble, it also indicates that T. diversifolia petals is more digestible than A. africana
petals since a high value indicate a high digestibility of the plant when eaten or consumed (Okhale et
al., 2010; Ibrahim et al., 2010). The sulfated ash of 4.0% for A. africana and 5.0% for T. diversifolia
petals are good criteria to judge the identity and purity of crude drug.
Protein which is the major compound containing nitrogen in any food sample is used as an
index of protein termed crude protein as distinct from true protein (Okon, 2005). In this research
work, protein content of 11.81% for A. africana and 10.06% for T. diversifolia petals shows that A.
africana petals are riched in protein than T. diversifolia petals when consumed.
Fat (Lipid) content of 6.5% for A. africana petals is higher than (6.0%) that of T. diversifolia
petals, and this indicates that A. africana petals have high source of energy than T. diversifolia petals
and this high energy are needed especially by growing animals. By definition, fat is the materials
soluble in certain organic solvent, but the presence of bound fat such as Lipoprotein, create problems
(Okon, 2005).
Fibre content of 22% for A. africana and 4% for T. diversifolia petals indicate that A. africana
petals have more excessive woody materials than T. diversifolia petals, hence, fibre determination is
the criteria for judging purity of herbal crude drugs (Agarwal, 2005), and carbohydrate content of
59.69% for A. africana petals is lower than that of T. diversifolia petals which is 79.94% (Table 3).
Water-soluble extractive value plays an important role in evaluation of crude drugs. Less
extractive value indicate addition of exhausted material, adulteration or incorrect processing during
drying or storage (Chandel et al., 2011). The water-soluble extractive values for A. africana and T.
diversifolia petals were 16% and 19% respectively (Table 4). Diluted alcohol-soluble extractive values

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of 15.5% for A. africana petals and 19% for T. diversifolia petals was also indicative for the same
purposes as the water-soluble extractive.
The ether-soluble extractive value signifies the presence of amounts of fats, lipids and some
steroids in the drug (Chandel et al., 2011). In this research work, ether-soluble extractive values for A.
africana and T. diversifolia petals were in the range of 2.3% - 3.5% (Table 4). A. africana petals have
2.5% non-volatile ether-soluble extractive value and 2.3% volatile ether-soluble extractive value, while
T. diversifolia petals have 3.5% non-volatile ether-soluble extractive value and 2.9% volatile ethersoluble extractive value. Comparing the water-soluble, dilute alcohol-soluble and ether-soluble (nonvolatile and volatile) extractive values of the drugs (i.e. A. africana and T. diversifolia petals), it was
observed that the percentage water-soluble extractive values were higher than the percentage dilute
alcohol-soluble and ether-soluble extractive; this indicates presence of more amounts of water-soluble
contents in the two plants petals. This means that water will be a better solvent for extraction of the
plant.

4. Conclusion
In conclusion, the traditional knowledge on A. africana and T. diversifolia shows that the plants
are reputable for the treatment of heart diseases, wound healing, malaria, prevent conception and also
in the production of antimalaria, antidiabetes, anti-inflamentory and anti-fungal drugs due to its
chemical constituents.
The analysis carried out on these plants shows that A. africana and T. diversifolia petals are
rich in secondary metabolites which could be explored as potentials drugs and phytomedicines. Thus,
the research and its result could serve as a scientific backing to the use of A. africana (Pers) C. D.
Adams and T. diversifolia (Hemsl) A. Gray petals in tradomedicinal practices for cure of different
ailments.

5. Recommendation
Having reached the conclusive part of this work, it is therefore recommended that A. africana
(Pers) C. D. Adams and T. diversifolia (Hemsl) A. Gray should be used as medicine for its efficacy for
curing different ailments and further studies should be carried out on the petals of A. africana and T.
diversifolia to determine the extent and dosage at which a patient should use. Studies should also be
carried out on antinutrient, mineral element, saponification value, iodine value, chemo-microscopical
examination and thin-layer chromatography for the development of new drugs.

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