LivestockResearchforRuralDevelopment

Volume11,Number11999

Overallviewonthetraditionoftappingpalmtreesandprospectsforanimalproduction
ChristopheDalibard
InternationalRelationsService,MinistryofAgriculture,Paris,France
"Neera[sapextractedfromBorassusflabellifer]canbeconvertedintoJaggerysweetas
honeyitself.ThisJaggeryissuperiortocaneJaggery.CaneJaggeryissweet,butPalm
Jaggeryissweetanddeliciousitcanbeproducedworthcroresofrupees.PalmGur
givesmineralsaltstoo.DoctorshavetoldmetoeatJaggeryandIalwayseatPalmGur.
NaturehasmadethisproductinsuchawaythatitcannotbemanufacturedintheMills
itisproducedintheCottages.WheretherearePalmtrees,thisJaggerycanbeeasily
produced.AndhraDeshahasthousandsofPalmtreesthere,Jaggeryisproducedin
everyhamlet.Thisisthewaytobanishpovertyfromtheland.Thisalsoisanantidoteto
poverty."MahatmaGandhi[Fromaspeechdeliveredattheopeningofthevillage
industryexhibitioninBrindawanBihar(3May1939)]

Abstract
Palmtreeshaveprovedtobeefficientconvertersofsolarenergyintobiomassinmostagroecologicalzonesofthetropicalworld.Mosttappedpalmtreesgivesasapveryrichinsugar(10to20%).Forseveral
millennia,manyspeciesofpalmtrees(includingcoconut)havebeenusedforsugarproduction.HighlysophisticatedtechniquesoftappingweredevelopedthroughthecenturiesinAsia,AfricaandAmerica.High
yieldsofsugarwereobtainedfrompalmsthatcouldcontinueforuptoahundredyearsofproduction.Oneofthemainconstraintsonproductioninrecenttimeshasbeentheincreasinglackoffuelneededfor
processingpalmsapintosugarandthepricethereof.Nevertheless,sincetrialsoffeedingpigswithfreshsugarpalmsapweresuccessfullyinitiatedinanFAOprojectinCambodia,therehasbeenrenewedinterestin
tappingpalmtreesforsaptobeusedasfeed.AthoroughreviewoftheliteraturehasshownthatintensivepigrearingbasedonpalmsaphasalreadybeenpractisedbytheIndonesiansforcenturiesandwasfoundtobe
averyefficientsystemforintensifyingagricultureinsomehighlypopulatedislands.Intoday'seconomy,developinganimalproductionusingpalmsapasthemainsourceofenergyinthedietlooksverypromising:
thelandcouldsustainhigherpopulationdensitiesthroughtheintensificationofcropandanimalproductionwithinsustainableintegratedsystemsforsmallfarmers.
Keywords:sugarpalm,tapping,sap,livestock,feed

Foreword
Therecentdocumentationoftheveryhighpotentialofthesugarpalm(Borassusflabellifer)asasourceofdigestibleenergyforpigproduction(KhieuBorinandPreston1995)hasfocussedattentiononthepalm
speciesingeneralandtheirmultipurposeusesinparticular.Thisreviewdemonstratestheenormousamountofknowledgethatexistsonthetappingofpalmsanduseofthesap,includingthefatteningofpigsdone
traditionallyforcenturiesincertainislandsinIndonesia.Itisclearthatmostoftheinformationisderivedfromindigenoussourcesandthatpalmcultivationhasplayedamajorroleinpovertyalleviationthroughout
thetropics.Theneglectofthisspeciesbyresearchers,otherthanformonoculturalexportpurposes(eg:coconuts,datesandpalmoil),isareflectionofthereductionistthinkingthathasprevailedinagriculturalscience
duringthelast50yearorsoyears.Itishopedthisreviewwillreviveinterestinthepalmspeciesatatimewhenefficientcaptureofsolarenergyandenvironmentalfriendlinesscharacteristicssharedbymostofthe
palmspeciesarereceivingpriorityasindicatorsofsustainablefarmingsystems.
...TheEditors

Introduction
Palmsarebelievedtobeamongtheoldestfloweringplantsintheworld(Redhead1989).Forcenturies,manypalmspecieshavebeentappedthroughoutthetropicalworldinordertoproducefreshjuice(sweet
toddy),fermenteddrinks(toddy,wine,arak),syrup("honey"),brownsugar(jaggery)orrefinedsugar.Oneofmankind'sfirstsourcesofsugarwasprobablyArengapinnata(Redhead1989).Evidenceoftheuseof
BorassusflabellifersugarinIndiahasbeenreportedbytheGreekhistorianMegasthenes,ambassadortothecourtofChandragupta,inthe4thcenturyBC.Hindusknewhowtoextractitabout4,000yearsago
(Ferguson1888,citedbyFox1977).JaggeryandtreacleextractedfromCaryotaurenssapinSriLankahasbeenanimportantsourceofsugarfromantiquity(Dissanayake1977).InAfrica,themaintraditionaluseof
palmsapisforwineproduction.IthasbeenreportedinEgypt(datepalm)longbeforethebirthofChrist(Barreveld1993)andontheGuineacoastbyearlynavigatorsinthe15thcentury(SodahAyernorand

Matthews1971).
Mosttappedpalmtreesdonotonlyproducesapbutaremultipurpose(ediblefruits,buildingmaterials,fuel,fibres,wax,etc.)andtheirsocioeconomicimportancecanbecriticalfortheruralpoor:Ghandiusedtocall
Borassusflabellifer,aremedyagainstpoverty.ATamilclassicalpoem(TalaVilasam)composedbyArunachalaminTamilNaduisentirelydedicatedtothegloryofthistreeandenumerates801articlesmadefrom
itsvariousparts(Rangaswami1977Kovoor1983).Anotheroutstandingexampleisthecoconutpalm,forwhicheverypartisused.ThistreeiscalledinIndia"TreeofHeaven","Mankind'sgreatestproviderinthe
tropics","Treeoflife",etc.(Rangaswami1977).Thereareatleast1,000usesforthecoconutpalm(Dissanayake1986).Nypafruticansisalsoanoutstandingproviderofvariousproductswhichareessentialto
everydaylivingandthereforeissaidtobethemangrove'scounterpartofcoconut(Quimbo1991).Palmtreesarealsooftenassociatedwithcropsandpastures.
Thescopeofthispaperisfocusedonpalmtreesthataretraditionallytappedorwithapotentialfortappinginanondestructivemanner,guaranteeingsugarproductioninthelongrunwithinsustainableproduction
systems.Sugarproductionfromthefruits(asfromdatesofdatepalm)orfromthestarchaccumulatedinthepithofthestem(asforsagopalm)isnotreviewedhere.

Rationale
Theoretically,theadvantagesoftakingthesugarsfromthesapbeforeitgoestothefruitsareobvious.Thesesugarsareinterceptedbeforebeingusedintheproductionofthenonediblepartssuchashuskincoconut,
whichrepresents35%ofthefruit(Rangaswami1977),andintheproductionofediblematerialthroughchemicalreactionswhichimplyaloss,mainlyaconversionofsugarintooilasforcoconutandoilpalm.Itis
thereforemoreprofitablefromthepointofviewofedibleenergyproductiontotapapalmforthesapratherthanallowingthepalmtoproducefruits.Similarly,itwasdemonstratedthat,inthecontextofharvestable
energyfromthecoconutpalm,theamountofenergyharvestedinthesap(throughproductionofethanol)couldbe5to7timeshigherthanfromtheoilofthenuts(coconutoilismixedwithdieselfuelina510%
blendaspartofanationalenergyprograminthePhilippines)(Banzon1984).
Table1:Yieldsofalcoholfuelfromdifferentsources(HamiltonandMurphy1988)
Sourceofalcoholfuel
Sweetpotato
Tappednipah
Tappedcoconut
Tapioca
Sugarcane

Annualyield(litres/ha)
6,75018,000
6,48015,600
5,000
3,2408,640
3,3506,700

Comparingfivesourcesofalcoholfuel,HamiltonandMurphy(1988)emphazisetheinterestofnipahintermsofyield(Table1)andmanagement:tappingiseasycomparedtococonutthelandisproperlyusedand
theenvironmentprotectedastherearenowastestogetridofasbagasseinthecaseofsugarcane.

Physiology
Itispossibletoobtainasugarysolutionbytheexcisionofthemeristeminnearlyallpalms(Tuley1965a).Basically,starchreservesfromthetrunkareconvertedtosugarandaretransportedupwardstowardthestem
apex(Fox1977).AlthoughthisistrueinthecaseofCorypha,otherexplanationsareneededforpalmssuchascoconutwhichdoesnotaccumulatestarchinitstrunk(Reijne1948citedbyVanDie1974).Pethiyagoda
(1978)describestheupwardstreamasawateryliquidcontainingdissolvedsaltsabsorbedfromthesoil,andthedownwardstreamasacomparativelyrichmixtureoffood(principallysugars)manufacturedinthe
leaves.Thesapflowisinterceptedbyinjuringfibrovasculartissuesoftheapexoroftheinflorescence.Nevertheless,thisauthorrecognizesthatthelargevolumeofexudateproducedduringtappingandthehigh
sugarconcentrationclearlyindicatethatthematerialisdrawnfromstoredresourcesandisinexcessofcurrentlysynthesisedsugars.
VanDie(1974)considersthatthebleedingsapofCocosnuciferaandArengasaccharifera,andprobablysomeotherpalmstoo,mayberegardedasthemobileaqueousphaseofthesievetubesystemofthesetrees,
flowingtoanartificialsink,thebleedingsite.However,therateofbleedingfromasingleinflorescenceisseveraltimeshigherthantherateofassimilateflowintoasinglebunchduringfruitformation.Theoriginof
thelargeflowofsapthatoccursinatappedtreeisnotyetclearlydemonstrated.ThisisalsothecaseforBorassusflabelliferwherewaterfromrootabsorptionappearsquiteinsufficient(Kovoor1983).Nypafruticans
sapyieldishigherincloudyweather,anditisclaimedthattranspirationcompeteswithsapyieldbutispartlycompensatedbyvariationinsugarcontent(Hinchy1938acitedbyHamiltonandMurphy1988).
Pethiyagoda(1978)suggeststhatthereisasteepriseinrespirationwhichoccurswheneverthereisarapidsolubilisationandmovementofmaterialsfromsitesofstoragetothepointsatwhichtheyareneededsuchas
duringseedgermination,floweropeningandfruitripening.Thisphenomenoncanbefostered,heightenedandsustainedbymanipulativeprocesses,theuseofgenerallyyounggrowingsites(merismatictissues)and
theactoffresheningthewound.Preliminarystudies(notpublished)citedbyPethiyagoda(1978)showaconsiderablyincreasedrespirationbyfragmentsofcoconutinflorescencedrawnfromstimulatedspadices.
InCambodia,arecentstudyonBorassusflabellifershowsthatthereisnosignificantdifferencesbetweendaysintheyieldofjuiceanditsBrixvalue,butdifferencesforthesetwoparametersarehighlysignificant
betweenfarms,monthsandsexofthepalmtree(fortheBrixbetweenmaleandfemale,thedifferenceissignificantinsteadofhighlysignificant).Duringtheproductionseason,juiceflowsignificantlydecreasesas
theBrixsignificantlyincreases.Sapflowishigherduringcoolnights(KhieuBorinandPreston1995KhieuBorin1996).
Tappingisgenerallypractisedtwiceaday.Forexample,inthecaseofthecoconuttree,thescarshealandthesapflowstopswhenslicingisnotdoneforoneortwodaysand2weekswouldbenecessaryforrestoring
thesapflow(Levang1988).

Location,productsandtappedpartsofpalms
Annex1listsmorethan30differentpalmspeciesthataretraditionallytappedinpartsofthetropicalworld.Thiswascompiledfrommorethanahundredreferencesonpalmsintheliterature.Manyreferencesare

severaldecadesoldasthereisnotmuchrecentliteratureonthissubject.ThemajorpartoftheinformationwasfoundonpalmsthataretappedintheOldWorld,withmoreorlessasmanydifferenttappedspeciesin
AsiaandinAfrica.VerylittleliteratureseemstobeavailableontappingpalmtreesintheNewWorld.InAmericaandAfrica,itseemsthattappingpalmshasbeenpractisedexclusivelyormainlyforwine
production,whereasinAsiathesapisusedeitherasfreshjuiceorprocessedintoalargearrayofproducts(wine,arak,sugar,vinegar,etc.).Annex1alsoshowsthattherearetappedpalmspeciesadaptedtoalmostall
agroecologicalzonesofthetropicalworldfromtidalareasandswampstodesertsandmountains.

Sapcomposition
Mosttappedpalmtrees(Table2)giveasapveryrichinsugar(10to20%accordingtospeciesandindividualvariation)whereasthemapletree,tappedforsugarproductioninNorthAmericagivesasapcontaining
only3%ofsugar(Annett1913).Gibbs(1911)citedbyVanDie(1974)hasreportedastrikingresemblanceindrymatter,sucrose,andashcontentofthebleedingsapfromthepalmspeciesinvestigatedbyhim(Cocos
nucifera,Arengasaccharifera,NypafruticansandCoryphaelata).SugarsfrompalmtreessuchasPhoenixsylvestrisandBorassusflabelliferarereportedtobemorenutritiousthancanesugar(Rangaswami1977
Roy1951citedbyMorton1988).Somemedicinalvalueisalsooftenreported:itisthecaseforthesugarfromBorassusflabellifer(Rangaswami1977).InMadagascar,Cocosnuciferasapisusedagainstnephritis
andbladderinfections.
Table2:DataonthecompositionofsapandjaggeryfromBorassusflabellifer
Productandreference
Freshsap[1]
Freshsapbeforecooking[2]
Freshsapstabilizedwithsodiumbenzoate[2]
Specificgravity
1.07
pH
6.76.9
6.00to4.00
6.45
Nitrogen
0.056g/100cc
Protein
0.35g/100cc
0.10to0.20%
0.10%
Totalsugar
10.93g/100cc
14.00to9.40%
15.78%
Sucrose
12.30to8.50%
15.04%
Reducedsugar
0.96g/100cc
0.80to3.50%
0.62%
Fat
Mineralsasash
0.54g/100cc
0.10to0.30%
0.17%
Calcium
Trace
Phosphorus
0.14g/100cc
Iron
0.4g/100cc
Copper
VitaminC
13.25mg/100cc
VitaminB1
3.9IU
VitaminBcomplex
Negligible
References:[1]PaulasandMuthukrishnan1983acitedbyDavisandJohnson1987[2]Romera1968[3]Roy1951citedbyMorton1988.

Jaggery[3]

1.04%
76.86%
1.66%
0.19%
3.15%
0.861%
0.052%
11.01mgper100g
0.767mgper100g

BorassusflabelliferfreshsapisagoodsourceofvitaminBcomplex(Chopraetal1958citedbyMorton1988)anditcontainsascorbicacid(Dissanayake1986).100litresofsapgive78kgofsugarand8kgof
molasses(PaulasandMuthukrishnan1983acitedbyDavisandJohnson1987).Asthesapfromthemorningcollectionhasbeenproducedatlowertemperaturesthantheonecollectedintheevening,itisless
fermentedandthereforecontainsmoresucrose(Romera1968).ArecentstudyinCambodiashowedthatsucrosecanrangefrom66to94%orfrom51to81%oftotalsolidsinthejuicerespectivelyinJanuaryorin
April.Glucoseandfructoselevelsincreasedduringthesameperiod(KhieuBorinandPreston1995KhieuBorin1996).InthecaseofBorassusaethiopium,sapcompositionofthemorningcollectionmarkedly
differsfromtheeveningcollectionandalsosapcompositiondiffersonthelevelofcuttingoftheterminalbud,losingitstastewhenitsbaseisreachedthesapalsocontainslesssucrosethanBorassusflabellifersap
(Portres1964).InBurma,thetappersdistinguishupto6differentqualitiesofsapaccordingtothetappingstageandthesexofthetree(Lubeigt1979).
TheCaryotaurenssapalsoconsistsalmostentirelyofsucrosewhichisrapidlyfermentedandinverted(Dissanayake1986).ItspHis6.5anditcontainstracesofacids,0.34%ofreducingsugarsandatotalsugar
between1516%(Theivendirarajahetal1977).Thejaggeryhasthefollowingcomposition:76.683.5%sucrose,0.760.9%reducingsugar1.651.98%ash1.792.27%proteinand6.68.34%pectingums
(Dissanayake1977).FreshsapofcoconuthasapHequalto6andaBrixof17(NaimandHusin1984).Itcontains12to18%sugar(mainlysucroseandsmallamountsofglucose,Norrisetal(1922)citedby
Grimwood1975),0.5%ash,2%organicsolids(Nathanael(1960)citedbyGrimwood1975)andsmallamountofvitamins,suchas1630mgofascorbicacidper10ml(Banerjee(1935)citedbyGrimwood1975).
Coconutsugarcontains0.5to1.3%protein,72to88%oftotalsugar,57to81%sucrose1.3to2.5%totalmineralsand5to10%humidity.ThefreshsapoftheAfricanoilpalmcontains9.6to10.6%ofsucrose.
Glucoseandfructosearemuchbelow1%(EzeandUzoechiOgan1988).SprechervonBernegg(1929)citedbyVanDie(1974)reports14%totalsugars.ThesapisalsorichinvitaminB(particularlyB12)andin
sulphurproteins(Hartley1977Tuley1965a).ThesapofPhoenixsylvestrisisagoodsourceofvitaminsoftheBgroupandcontainsinadditionanappreciableamountofascorbicacid(Rangaswami1977).

Managementoftappedpalmtreesandyieldsofsugar
Themanagementofpalmtreesforsapproductionvariesverymuchaccordingtospecies(SeeAnnex2).Nypafruticans,Phoenixsylvestris,Elaeisguineensis,RaphiahookeriandCocosnuciferacanbetappedata
ratherearlyage,respectivelywhenthetreesare4,5,6,7and7yearsold(CrevostandLemari1913Abedinetal1987Essiamah1992Profizi1988Levang1988).Ontheotherhand,manyyearsareneededbefore
tappingCaryotaurens(10to15),Borassusflabellifer(15to30)orCoryphaelata(20to100)(Redhead1989,Fox1977).
Thenumberofyearsapalmtreecanbetappedisalsoverydifferentdependingonthespecies.CoryphaelataandRaphiahookeriflowerjustonce.Theywillproducesaponlyforafewmonthsbeforedying(Fox
1977Profizi1988).ArengapinnataandCaryotaurenswillproducesapforseveralyears,withlargeinterruptionsinthecaseofCaryotaurensasitflowersonlyeverytwoorthreeyears(Redhead1989Dissanayake

1977).Otherpalmtreeswillproducesapformuchlongerperiods:10to15yearsforElaeisguineensis,morethan20yearsforCocosnucifera,50yearsforNypafruticansandPhoenixsylvestrisand30to100years
forBorassusflabellifer(Adand1954Levang1988Magalon1930Abedinetal1987Lubeigt1977).Somespeciesareabletoproducesapallyearround:Arengapinnata,Cocosnucifera,Elaeisguineensisand
Nypafruticans(Mogeaetal1991Rangaswami1977Tuley1965aKiew1989).BorassusflabelliferandPhoenixsylvestrisproduceonlyseasonally(CrevostandLemari1913Annett1913).
Mosttappedpalmtreesgivesasapveryrichinsugar(10to20%accordingtospeciesandindividualvariation).Theyieldsarehighlyvariableaccordingtothespeciesandtheirmanagement.InthecaseofBorassus
flabellifer,thefemaletreescangiveasmuchas50%moresapthanmaletrees(Lubeigt1979).Underpropermanagement,themaintappedpalmspecies(Arengapinnata,Borassusflabellifer,Cocosnuciferaand
Nypafruticans)canreachyieldsofabout20tonnesofsugarperhectare(VanDie1974WatsoncitedbyKiew1989).Comparedtosugarcaneproduction(515tonnesofsugar/ha/year),theBorassusflabellifertree
canreach18tons/ha/yearunderrainfedconditions(KhieuBorinandPreston1995KhieuBorin1996)andthecoconuttree19tons/ha/year(Jeganathan1974).Accordingtoestimates,Elaeisguineensisproduces
muchlesssugar(1.2tonneperhectare,Udom1987)but,asithasneverbeenexploitedforsugarproductionbutonlyforwineproduction,therearegoodprospectsforobtainingmuchhigheryieldsinaproduction
systemorientedtowardssugarproduction.

Methodsofpalmtappingandsappreservation
Thetechniquesfortappingpalmsarenumerousandcanvarydrasticallyfromonecontinenttoanother,asdemonstratedbythecaseofBorassusaethiopiuminAfricaandBorassusflabelliferinAsia.Refined
techniquesoftappingtheinflorescenceofthelatterarecompatiblewithproductioninthelongterm.DestructivetechniquesareusuallypractisedontheterminalbudofB.aethiopiumandareoftenresponsibleforthe
deathofthetreewithinafewmonths.AstappingismainlydoneinAfricaforwineproduction,theuseoftheAsiantechniqueinAfricawouldpermitsapproductionthroughouttherainyseasonwhereaspalmwineis
drunkmuchmoreduringthedryseason(Portres1964).TheAfricanoilpalmisusedinAfricaforproducingwinemainlythroughtwodifferenttechniques:oneisdestructive(incisionofstemapexoffelledpalm)
andispreferredinGhanatheotherisnotdestructive(excisionofmaleinflorescenceandsometimesoffemaleinflorescenceaswell)andhasbeendevelopedwhereeconomicconsiderationshaveforcedthepeopleto
preservetheirpalms,e.g.ineasternNigeria(Hartley1977).
Tappingcanbepractisedaftercuttingdownthetrees.Otherwise,exceptforNypafruticans,whichistrunklessanddevelopsitsinflorescenceataheightofabout1m(HamiltonandMurphy1988),otherpalmtrees
havetobeclimbedfortappingastheirterminalbudsandinflorescencesarelocatedatthesummitoftheirtrunkwhichisoftenover10mhigh.Theexcisionoftheterminalbudofstandingtreesisquiteharmfulsince
tappedpalmsneverresumevigorousgrowth.Iftheterminalbudisonlyperforated,thenthetreeswillshowmalformationinsubsequentleaves,flowersandtrunkgrowth(Kovoor1983).Nevertheless,ithasbeen
observedthatmultistemmedtreessuchasHyphaenecoriaceaandPhoenixreclinatainsoutheasternAfricagenerallyrecoppiceaftertapping,althoughtappedstemsdieunlesstappingisstoppedbeforetheapical
meristemistotallydestroyed(Cunningham1990).Theverylowyieldsofsapfromthesetreesareinterpretedasaresultofoverexploitation.Cunningham(1990)suggeststhatifpalmsizeclassesshiftedtotheextent
thattherewasagainahighproportionofmaturefruitbearingpalmsinthepopulation,theninflorescencetappingcouldbepractisedasHyphaenecoriaceaisanannuallyfloweringpalm.
Themostadvancedmethodoftappingisthatappliedtotheinflorescencespadixwhichguaranteesahighyieldforlongperiodswithoutaffectingthewellbeingofthetree.Itonlyentailsasacrificeofabunchoffruit
inthecaseoftappingfemaleinflorescences.TappingtheinflorescenceispractisedthroughoutS.E.Asiaonallspeciesoftappedpalmtrees(Kovoor1983).Twofeaturesarecommonintapping:manipulative
treatmentorpreparation(applicationofchemicalsandsubstanceofplantorigin,twisting,distortion,kneading,pounding,bruising,beatingortapping)necessaryasapreludetocopiousandsustainedsapflow,and
renewingtheexudingwoundbyshavingoffathinsliceoftissueonceortwiceaday(Pethiyagoda1978).Tappingisanart:sapyieldsdependontheskillsofthetapper(KhieuBorinandPreston1995KhieuBorin
1996CoconutResearchInstitute1967).
Onceextracted,sugarcaneorsugarbeetjuicesareimmediatelyprocessedforsugarproduction.Inthecaseofpalmsugar,asthesapflowisslow,intermediatestoragebeforecollectionisnecessary:thejuiceisleftfor
aminimumof10hoursattemperaturesaround300C,withhighhygrometryandhighcontaminationswithnaturalyeasts,bacterialandfungalspores(Romera1968Pethiyagoda1978).Usually,ifthesapisusedfor
sugarproduction,itwillbecollectedtwiceadayasfermentationshavetobeavoidedasfaraspossible.However,theinclusionofanantifermentingagentisusual(Kovoor1983):traditionallylimeandbarkorleaves
(richintannins)fromvarioustreespeciesareused.Thevesselsareregularlycleanedandrinsedwithwaterandsometimessmoked.Sugarisproducedbyboilingthesaptoevaporationuntilasufficientlythicksyrup
isobtainedoutofwhichsugarwillcrystallizeoncooling(Kovoor1983).AstudyconductedonBorassusflabelliferandCaryotaurenssapbyJoachimetKandiah(1938)citedbyDissanayake(1986)showsthatlimed
potsinhibitfermentationandinversionofsucrosebetterthansmokedpotsthelattertechniqueiseffectiveonlyforaperiodof3to4hoursaftercollectionfromthetree.

Methodsofpalmtappingandsappreservationforthemainspecies:
Arengapinnata(Syn.:A.saccharifera)
Therearesignificantdifferencesbetweenthemethodspractisedbythedifferenttribes(Mogeaetal1991).Tappingisgenerallydoneonthemaleinflorescencespadix(Redhead1989Friedberg1977).Infact,thesap
fromfemaleinflorescenceisofinferiorqualityandthespadixrequiresmoreeffortduringpreparation(Mogeaetal1991).Awoodenmalletisusedforslowlyhittingseveralminutesadaythetrunkbeneathandabove
thestemoftheinflorescencewhileswingingitbeforeincision(Friedberg1977).Thetappercleansthemaleinflorescencestalkfromitsbractsassoonastheflowersarenearlyopen.Thecleanstalkisthenslowly
beatenforseveralminuteseachdayforabout2or3weeksatadistanceofabout4560cmfromthestalkbase,untilthestalkbecomesswollenlaterthestalkiscutattheswollensection.Thesapiscollectedina
bamboopipe.Ineverytapping,theapexofthestalkissliced1to5mmdependingonthepretreatment.Anothermethodconsistsofsplittingthestemoftheinflorescenceinto2partsandinremovingsecondarystems
exceptthelastfourthataregroupedintoabamboorecipientwherethejuicewillfallthefoursecondarystemsextremitiesarecutandthenbruisedwithwoodplierstwiceadayduring5daysthetwofollowingdays,
theyareputinabamboorecipientcontainingonelitreofwater,thenexttwodays,theyarebruisedagainandthentheproductionstarts(CrevostandLemari1913).Thesimplestmethodconsistsininsertinga
bamboopipeintothebaseofthemaleflowersandtocollectthesapintoagourd(Redhead1989).Theclosertothegroundthemaleinflorescencearises,thesmallerusuallytheamountofsapitproduces(Mogeaetal
1991).InsomeplacesofSulawesi(Indonesia),ArengapinnataandArengawightiiarecutdown,theleavesareloppedandthetrunkisslicedatintervals(Kovoor1983Pethiyagoda1978).

Arengapinnatatappingisaverylabourintensiveactivity.Itisdoneaccordingtoaveryregularworkingscheduleforthegenerallytwiceadayactivity.Beatingandpreparationof20inflorescencestalks(ofwhich
1216willproduceeachfor4months)takessome2.5hourseachday.Onehealthypersoncantap1216treesonthebasisofan8hourworkingday,ormoreifthetreesarecloseenoughtogofromonetotheotherby
jumping.Ontheaverage,apersontapsabout10treesand10workersarenecessaryperhectare(Mogeaetal1991).Tappingmustbedonedailyotherwisethesapflowwilldiminishrapidlyastissuehealingoccurs.
Toslowdownsapfermentation,thecontainerissterilizedwiththesmokeofawoodfire(Mogeaetal1991).
Borassusaethiopium
InBanfora(BurkinaFaso),thetechniqueinvolvesthelateralportionoftheyoungstemanddoesnotkillthetree(Redhead1989).Ahole(10cmdiameter)ismadeabovetheleavecrowninordertoreachtheextremity
oftheterminalbudwhichisessentiallymadeofsofttissuesoftheyoungleaves.Theterminalbudisperforatedsuperficiallyandhorizontallyandthesapiscollectedinacalabashthroughaguttermadeofayoung
foldedleaveputattheperipheryoftheterminalbud(Portres1964).Aheapofleavesisputontheentryoftheholetoprotectthecutbudfromdesiccationandinsects.Theperforationisrefreshedtwiceadayaslong
asthetreelookshealthy.Oncethetreelooksexhausted,theperforationislefttohealandnewleaveswillcomebutthetrunkwillremainstuntedanddeformed(Bellouard1950).
InIvoryCoast,inthepast,maletreesonlyweretappedasfemaletreeswerepreservedforguaranteeingregeneration.Atreewithamarkedbulgeandattheendofitsdevelopment(ataheightof68monthetrunk)is
preferredasitensuresregularity,goodquantityandqualityofthesap.A"ladder",madeofrattancreeper,bambooorrachisofRaphiasp,istiedtothenortheastsideofthetrunk.A"safetybelt"madeofrattan
creeperisalsousedbytheclimberwhileworkingatthetopofthetree.Theleavesarecutexcept2to4sixmontholdleavesonthesouthwestwhichservefordrawingthesapupwardsand2or3petiolesarealsoleft
toserveasaseat.Oneortwotopyoungleavesoftheterminalbudarepreserved.Oneortwodayslater,alateralwindowismadeinthenortheastpetioleinordertoassessthelevelofthebasisoftheterminalyoung
leave.Theterminalbudwillbesectioned10cmbelowthejunctionpetiolelimbofthemoreinternalterminalleave(neithertoolowtoavoidshorteningtotalperiodofproduction,nortoohighasitwilldelayprofuse
sapflow).Allyoungleavesabovethispointaredelicatelycutwithoutdamagingtheterminalbud.Thewindowisenlargedandtheterminalbudsectionedwithaslightslopetowardstheentranceofthehole.Itis
closedandprotectedtoavoidinsectsanddesiccation.Thefollowingdaytheterminalbudiscutagainwithmoreslopetowardsthewindow.Aguttermadefromaleaveisputandgoestoacalabashandtheprotection
isputagain.Thentwiceaday,theterminalbudiscut24mmfurtherandthesapcollected(Portres1964).
InotherAfricanregions(asinSenegal),thetreesareoftentappedtodeathafterseveralmonths.Usedfortheleavesduringthefirstyears,thetreesarethentappedoncetheyhavereached23mhigh.Theheartis
reachedwithaknifeattheleveloftheterminalbud.Ahole,30cmlong15cmbroadand10cmdeepismade.From1to6litresofsap(thereismorecollectionofsapduringthecoldmonthsandwhenthereisfog)will
becollectedeverydayduring4to6months(Bellouard1950Giffard1967).Anothertechniqueconsistsinbruisingandcuttingbuncheswhichisharmlessforthetrees(Chevalier1930).
Borassusflabellifer
Variousmethodsareusedtoclimbthetree(sixrecordedbyKovoor1983),usingankleloops,aerialropewaysbetweentrees,hoopbelt,rivetedbamboo,mobile49mlongladdersandfixedonesontheupperpartof
thetrunks,notchesinthetrunk,etc.TappingtechniquesofBorassusflabelliferaresimilartothatofcoconutexceptforslightdifferences.Sapiscollectedtwiceadayinallcases.Insomecountries(Cambodia),
differenttongsareusedaccordingtothesexofinflorescenceandstageoftapping(Kovoor1983).
InSriLanka,fourdifferentmethodsareusedaccordingtothesexandageoftheinflorescence(Kovoor1983):
Twoweekoldmaleinflorescences:theyarecleanedfromtheiroutersheathsandlefttodryfor3daysthenafreshsurfaceiscutdailyandabout1litreofsapisobtaineddailyforoneandhalfmonths.
Onemontholdmaleinflorescences:allitsspikes(12)arepressed,strokedandgrouped3to6togethertobefittedtoapot.
Youngfemaleinflorescences:themainaxisisstruckwithanironrodtosoftenthetissuesandaforkisusedtocrushthenodeswherefruitswouldarise.
Twotothreemontholdfemaleinflorescences:theyalreadybearfruitswhicharesliceddaily.
InUpperBurma,the8monthdurationtappingseasonconsistsin3tappingphaseswhichalsoincludespecificoperationssuchasfourdifferenttappingtechniques,twoforbothmaleandfemaletrees(Aubert1911).
InCentralBurma,sapcollectioncanbecontinuedallyearroundbutwithlowyieldsbetweenNovemberandJanuary(Lubeigt1977).InCambodia,ifatreestartsgivingmanyinflorescencesatthesametime,someof
them(1to7accordingtotree,climateandlocation)willreceivetheusualtreatmentwhiletheotherswillbeslicedandcrushedfor58daysandthenpreserved(3to5months)forjuicecollectionsomemonthslater
(KhieuBorinandPreston1995KhieuBorin1996).Claypots,bamboosinternodes,calabashesorleafbucketsareusedforsapcollection.
Anothertappingtechniqueisasfollows.Theinflorescenceisbruisedinitsparticularstageofgrowththroughbeatingandcrushingitwithwoodentongs.Thenitisboundinto"torches"andtappedbycuttingoffthe
bandagedtips(Redhead1989).Amalletisusedforslowlyhittingseveralminutesadaythetrunkbeneathandabovethestemoftheinflorescencewhileswingingitandfinallypinchingitbeforeincision.Anew
incisionismadeaftereverycollection(Friedberg1977).ThemethoddescribedbyCrevostandLemari(1913)forArengapinnataisalsopractisedonBorassusflabellifer.
Inordertoslowdownthefermentationofthesap,thevesselsaresmokedandcoatedwithlime(Redhead1989).Barkorleavesfromdifferentspeciesarealsoused:Schleicheraoleosabarkorleaves(Friedberg1977
Kovoor1983),ShoreacochinchinensisbarkinCambodia(CrevostandLemari1913Kovoor1983),ShoreaobtusainBurma,ShoreatalurainThailand(Lubeigt1977),Voticahermandianabark(Magalon1930),
Launaeacoromandelicadriedbark,Anacardiumoccidentaleleaves(Kovoor1983),VateriaacumintabarkorCyminosmapedunculata(Dissanayake1986).Thesepiecesofbarkarefinelystampedandaddedtoeach
receivingbucket(Fox1977).Tkatchenko(citedbyKovoor1983)hasfoundthat5to7goflimeperlitreconservethesapquitesatisfactorilyformorethanadayagainstfermentation.InRotiisland(Indonesia),the
tapperusesforeveryproducingpairofrachillaeasetoftwoleafbuckets.Twiceaday,hebrushestheinsideandcleanswithwatertheleafbucketsfromwhichhehasjustcollectedthesapandwhicharegoingtodry
asheplacestheotherleafbucketofthepairforthefollowingsapcollection.Thisisreputedtoslowdownthefermentationofthefreshjuicewithoutchangingitstasteaswoulddolimeorbarkadditives(Fox1977).
InUpperBurma,theearthenvesselsusedforsapcollectionreceivespecialtreatment.Beforebeingusedforthefirsttime,theyarewashedandexposed,stillwet,withtheiropeningstowardsafiremadeofdried
branchesandleavesforabout10minutes.Thentheyarechangedtwicedailyaftereverysapcollection.Theyarebroughtbacktothehouseandwashedanddriedandjustbeforereplacingthemonthetree,afewchips
ofthebarkofShorearobustaareputinthevessel(Aubert1911).
Caryotaurens

Theinflorescenceinitsparticularstageofgrowthisboundintoa"candle"formandtappedbyrepeatedlyslicingofftheendofthecandle(Redhead1989).Thebruisingtechniqueissimilartotheoneusedfor
Borassusflabellifer(Magalon1930).InSriLanka,thetechniquehasbeendescribedindetailsbyDissanayake(1977):"Whentheflowerappears,itistappedbeforeitreachesmaturity.TheartoftappingaCaryota
urensflowerisverymuchavillagecraftrequiringahighdegreeoftraditionalexpertise.Alongbamboopoleiserectedalongthetrunkwithsuitablesupporttoreachthecrown.Theselectedflowerispreparedfor
tappingfirstbybeatingitwithastoneorwoodandthentiedwithastringinseveralplacestokeepitinpropershape.Aconcoctionmadeofherbs,ashandsaltisthenappliedtotheendoftheflower,whereafine
angularslashismade.Tappingbegins34daysafterthisapplicationabigearthenpotisplacedattheendoftheflowertocollectthesap."
ThemostcommonmethodsusedinSriLankatopreventfermentationofthesapare:liningtheinsideofthecollectingpotwithfreshlimeplacingVateriacopalliferabark,CareyaarboreabarkorAchronychia
laurifolialeavesinacleanpotbeforeitisusedforcollectingsap(TheivendirarajahandJeyaseelan1977).Studiesshowedthatlimeisthemosteffective,nextVateriacopalliferabark,followedbyCareyaarborea
barkandAchronychialaurifolialeavesVateriacopalliferabarkcouldbeusedaseffectivelyaslimetopreservesweettoddyfor39hours(TheivendirarajahandJeyaseelan1977).
Cocosnucifera
InSriLanka,segmentsofcoconuthuskaregenerallyfastenedallthewayupthetrunkforclimbingthecoconuttreealooproundtheanklesisusedsometimes(CoconutResearchInstitute1967).InsouthSumatra,
simplenotchesarecarvedinthetrunk.Theinflorescenceinitsparticularstageofgrowthistapped(Redhead1989).Thedevelopmentoffemaleflowersinsidethespathe(about60cmlong)causesaswellingatthe
basisofthespathe.Theappearanceoftheswellingistakenasthecorrectstagefortapping.Theinflorescenceselectedfortappingisfirsttrained,byagentleuniformbeatingalloverthespathe,twiceaday,inthe
morningandintheevening,thespathebeingwoundaroundwithastrongcoirorcoconutfibrestringtopreventitfrombursting.Afteraweek'sbeating,about710cmofthetipofthespatheiscutoff.Onthethird
day,thecutendiscarefullypounded(CoconutResearchInstitute1967).Beatingiscontinuedforaboutaweek,whileanearthenpot(inSriLanka)orabambootube(Thailand)ishungfromthespadixtocollectthe
oozingliquidfromthecutsurface(Grimwood1975).Thefreeendofthespadixisgraduallybentdown(CoconutResearchInstitute1967).Ifthetreesaretappedforsweetjuice,theyarecollectedinthemorning
(Rangaswami1977).Thesapgenerallybeginstodripafter1215days,orupto35afterthebeginningofthetappingprocessaccordingtothetapper'sskill,seasonalconditionsandnatureofthepalm.Thenslicing
about2mmandcollectingsaparedonetwiceadaywhiletappingandbruisingoperationsarediscontinued(Nathanael1970,citedbyKovoor1983CoconutResearchInstitute1967).Nevertheless,lighttappingofthe
endofthespathewithamalletmaybecontinuedandtheslicedsurfaceofthespatheissometimessmearedwithamixtureofbruisedleaveswhichcontainssaponinandstimulatesthesapflow(Child(1964)citedby
Grimwood1975).Asinglespathewillbetappeduntilitisreducedtoastumpabout1015cminlength.Aboutthreeweeksbeforereachingthispoint,anotherspatheispreparedinordertoensurecontinuityofsap
productionwithoutanybreakforaperiodofoneyearongoodpalms(Nathanael(1970,citedbyKovoor1983).
AccordingtoRedhead(1989),coconutsaptobeusedforjaggeryiscollectedinthemorningsonly,incleanvesselscontainingafermentationinhibitorsuchaslime.InThailand,thebarkofVateriaacuminataor
Shoreataluramaybeadded.Theslicedsurfaceofthespathemightalsobedaubedwithlime(Levang1988).InIndonesia,theearthenwarepotsaresterilizedinanakedflameandaboutateaspoonfull(5g)offinely
cutchipsofVateriaacuminatabarkisadded(Purnomo1992).InMalaysia,aquarterofthecontainerisfilledwithamildsolutionoflimewatertogetherwithdriedlatexfrommangosteenbark(NaimandHusin
1984).
Coryphaelata(Syn.:C.utan)
Theentiregrowingpointoftheterminalinflorescenceisexcisedjustbeforethedevelopmentoftheinflorescencestarts(Redhead1989Kovoor1983VanDie1974).Ashallowdepressionisscoopedoutatthetopof
thenakedstem,andthejuiceiscollectedfromthedepression(Redhead1989Kovoor1983).InRoti(Indonesia),thetechniqueconsistsinbreachingtheinflorescence(Fox1977).Incisionsoftheflowerstalkarealso
reported(Pethiyagoda1978).
Elaeisguineensis
ThemostcommonmethodinWestAfrica,andparticularlyinIvoryCoastandGhanaisdestructive.Justbeforethefructification,theyoungtreeisfelleddownbylooseningtherootswithaspadeandpullingdown
thetree.Foroldertrees,thetrunkiscutat3060cm.Allfrondsinthemerismaticregionareremovedafteroneortwoweeks.Acavityismadeintheterminalbud.Itiseitherarectangularwellabout7.5cmdeepwith
aroundholeboredinitsfloororabowlshapedhollow10cmx9cm,abouttwothird(15cm)thediameterofthestemindepth.Abrandisputinitinordertoactivatethesapflowandreducetheinfestationofthewell
byinsectsandtheirlarvae,bacteria,mouldsandyeasts.Collectionofthesapstarts2to4dayslater,usingabamboogutter(15cmlong)whichgoesintoacontainer(calabash)underthestem.Itisdonetwiceaday:
eachtime,thetappercutsawayfromtheterminalbuda1mmlayeroftissueandflareswithfirethestemsurfacearoundthetappingwound.Thesapflowlasts1to2months(BlancPamard1980Kovoor1983
Essiamah1992Hartley1977SodahAyernorandMatthews1971).AlessdestructivemethodispractisedinNigeria(Igbos)andconsistsinpiercingthestemofthestandingtreeuptothebud(Tuley(1965)citedby
Kovoor1983).AdetaileddescriptionisgivenbyEssiamah(1992).Severalleavesarecutoffthesideofthestem.Arectangularhole(8cmx510cm)iscutinthestemtoadepthofabout30cmormoreaccordingto
thesizeofthepalmtree.Asuctionpipemadeofbambooisusedtocollectthesapintoajughungonthestem.Asthesapflowisveryintense,thetappermustclimbthetree3timesadaytocollectit.Eachtime,he
cutsawayathinlayeroftissuefromthewoundsurfaceinadownwarddirection.Thelengthoftherectangularholecanthusextendto30cmormoreaccordingtothedurationofsapflow.Thetreedies2or3weeks
afterbeingtapped.InMadagascar(Sakalava),theterminalbudisalsoincised(Decary1964).
Anondestructivemethodconsistsintappingthemaleinflorescences(SprechervonBernegg1929,citedbyVanDie1974).ItisespeciallypractisedbytheJorubasinNigeria,butitisalsofoundinBeninandIvory
Coast.IthasbeendescribedindetailbyEssiamah(1992)andSodahAyernorandMatthews(1971).Allfrondsbelowanunopenedmaleinflorescence(beforethedifferentiationoftheflowerspikesstarts)arecutoff
andtheleafsubtendingitisremovedtoobtainaccesstotheinflorescenceenclosedinitsspathes.About7.5cmabovethebaseofthemaleinflorescence,aneattriangularholeismadeinthefrontspathe(about2.5to
6cmdeepinthemainstemofthespadixand2.5cmonthesides).Theholeisthencoveredandthefollowingdayafunnelofsmallbamboo(16cmlongand2cmindiameter)isinsertedinthecutinsuchaposition
thatthesapflowsintocalabashes(vessels).Toensurecontinuousflow,theholeisextendeddownwardsbyremovingadailysliceofabout3mm.Thetappingisstoppedwhenthebaseofthemaleinflorescenceis
reached.Thesapiscollectedmorningandeveningandanewslicetakenateachcollection.Palmtreestappedinthismannersetfruitonetotwoyearsaftertapping(SodahAyernorandMatthews1971).InCasamance
(Senegal),theDiolauseasimilartechniquebutbothmaleandfemaleinflorescencesareused.Whilepreparingtheinflorescence,itsstemiscoveredwithamattressofleaveswhichisstruckvigorouslywiththehead
ofanaxeinordertostimulatethearrivalofthesap(Adand1954).
Hyphaenecoriacea

ThetechniqueisdescribedindetailsbyCunningham(1990).Palmclumpsareselectedandlargestemswithintheseclumpsarepreparedfortappingafterburningeachclumptoremoveundergrowthandleafspines.
Selectedstemsaretrimmedtoinitiatesapflowusingarazorsharpbushknifewhettedagainstastickkeptforthatpurpose.Thestemandyoungleafbasesarecutataslightangletoguidesapontoaleafgutterand
intotheclaycollectioncontainer.Bytheendofthetappingperiod,theseyoungleafbaseshavebeenremovedbytrimming2to3timesperdayovera5to7week'speriod.Thereforetheterminalbudiscuttodeath
ofthestembuttheclumpsurvives(Cunningham1990).
Hyphaenethebaica
InDjiboutiandEritrea,theterminalbudisoftencuttodeathofthestem(Jahiel1993Fanshawe1966).AsHyphaenethebaicaisamultistemmedpalm,thispracticedoesnotmeanalwaysthedeathoftheclump.
Thereisalsoalessdestructivetechnique.Theselectedstemiscleanedfromallleaves.Thenonlythebasesofthefutureleavesarecutbutnottheterminalbuditself.Newcutsarepractisedupto4timesadayfora
coupleofweeksandgenerallystoppedbeforereachingtheterminalbud.Sometapperswillreachthisterminalbudinordertogetmoresapbeforehavingtoprepareanothertree(Audru1985).
Jubaeaspectabilis
Thetreeisfirstfelled,theleavesloppedandthetrunksliceddailyoveraperiodofsixtoeightweeksduringwhichthebleedingsapiscollected(Pethiyagoda1978).Darwin(1860,citedbyKovoor1983)reported
yieldsofaround400litres.
Mauritiaflexuosa(Syn.:M.vinifera)
Thepalmsarecutdown,defoliatedandscorchedforincreasingsapflow.Thesapistappedfromtheinflorescencestalksorbyholesmadeintothetrunkduringthedevelopmentofinflorescences(Kovoor1983
Pethiyagoda1978).
Nypafruticans
Thestalkoftheinflorescenceiscutataproperstage(Redhead1989).Nevertheless,pretreatmentofthestalkispossibleatvariousstagesofinfructescencedevelopmentfromfloweringtomaturefruitingstages.
Plantsatmorematurestagesrequirelongerperiodsofpretreatmentthanatyoungstages.Kiew(1989)characterizestheproperstageasfollows:thefruitingheadiswelldevelopedbuthasnotbeguntodarken.
Spathesandbractsatthebaseofthefruitheadarecleanedoff(Davis1988).Thefruitingheadisfirstoscillatedgently,thenwithincreasingseverityuntilafter3weeks,itissubjectedtoviolentshaking(Watson1928,
citedbyKiew1989).AccordingtoDennett(1927),thisoperationpreventsthecellsfromhardeningandatrophyingasthestalkmatures.Thestalkkeepssoftandsupplecomparedtoanontreatedstalk.Studyingthe
labourcosts,thesameauthorfoundthat3weekswasthemostprofitabledurationforthistreatment.Thebruisedinflorescenceistappedbylighthammeringandbyincisingthetissuesabovethebruisedportionas
closeaspossibletotheyoungfruit.Thealmostfullgrownfruitheadiscutaway(HamiltonandMurphy1988).Eachdayaftercollectingthejuice,athinsliceofabout2mmisremoved.Cuttingtoolsaredisinfected
sinceflowisreducedbybacterialgrowth(HamiltonandMurphy1988).Sapflowdependsmainlyonpriorpreparationofthestalk:ifnoneisdone,flowwillbelowandwilllastonlyafewdays.Thebaseofthestalk
iskickedinmostcountrieswherethistreeistapped.InPapuaNewGuinea,asophisticatedprotocolhasbeendevelopedbyPivke(1985):bendingthestalk12timesinonedirectionpattingthelengthofthestalk
backwardsandforwardswiththebarehands64timeskickingthebaseofthestalk4timesandrepeatingthis4timesaweek.Yieldsof1,800ml/day/treeoveramonthwerereachedinintensivelytreatedyounger
agedstandswhereasonly155ml/day/treewereproducedwhenthetreatmentwasdoneonlyonceaweek(Pivke1985).InthePhilippines,thescheduleofkickinglastsfor3monthsand10daysperpalm:oncea
weekduringthefirstmonthafterflowering,twiceaweekduringthesecondmonth,onceeverytwodaysduringthethirdmonthandfinallydailyfor10days(Melana(1980,citedbyHamiltonandMurphy1988).
Tappinglifedependsonthelengthofthestalkwhichcanvaryalot:0.6to1minthePhilippines,1.4minSumatraand1.9minPapuaNewGuinea(HamiltonandMurphy1988).Toslowdowntheveryrapid
fermentationofthesap,thebamboorecipients(2litrescapacity)arewashedwithlimeandwater(Redhead1989CrevostandLemari1913).
Phoenixdactylifera
Theentiregrowingpointiscutoffandashallowdepressionisscoopedoutatthetopofthenakedstem.Thejuiceiscollectedfromthedepression(Redhead1989Kovoor1983).Anothertechniqueconsistsincutting
offthefronds:exudationofsapoccursinthecavitycreatedbydefoliation(Pethiyagoda1978).Tappingadatepalmisasevereinterventionasitdeprivesthepalmofmostofitsleavesandfoodreservesgreatcareis
requiredduringthetwicedailyscarring,becauseifitiscarriedontoofar,thepalmwilldie.Every20daysorso,thecone,canalandspoutarereadjusted.Aftertappingiscompleted(uptothreeorfourmonths),three
tofouryearsareneededforthetreetobeabletobearafullcropoffruitagainandfiveyearsbeforetappingitagain(Barreveld1993).UsingtheIndianmethodoftappingforPhoenixsylvestrisonPhoenix
dactylifera,Barreveld(1993)reportedinferiordailyyieldsbutconsideringthatannualtappingwouldbepractisedinthiscase,therewouldbehigheryieldsofsappertreeoveraperiodof3to4yearsnevertheless,
labourhoursinvolvedperunitsapharvestedisdefinitelyhigher.
Phoenixreclinata
InIvoryCoast,thetreeiscutdownanduprooted,allleavesareremovedandtheterminalbudiscut.Acavityismadeinwhichabrandisputinordertoactivatethesapflow.Collectionofthesapstarts3to4days
laterthroughagutterlinkedtoacalabash.Collectionisdonetwiceaday,eachtime,theterminalbudisfurthercut.Itlasts1to2months(BlancPamard1980).Anothertechniqueconsistsinincisingthelateral
portionoftheyoungstem(Redhead1989).InsoutheasternAfrica,thesametechniqueasdescribedbyCunningham(1990)forHyphaenecoriaceaisused.
Phoenixsylvestris
Thestemispierceduptotheterminalbud(Kovoor1983).InBangladesh,theoldestleavesareremovedattheendofOctoberononesideofthepalmtreealongabout35cm.Thebasesofthepetiolesandthesheaths
arecarefullyremoved.Atrianglepieceofbark(pointdownwards)iscutbutgreatcaremustbetakennottoexposethesapsupplyinginnerzone.Aweeklater,asthefinecoveringofsofttissuesgetsalittlehardened
andbeginstocrack,thiscoveringisremovedwithoutdamagingtheinnerzone.Thencomesarestof12to14daysafterwhichalateralincisionisdoneinthetriangle.Thesapexudingfromthescoopedsurfaceisrun
throughabamboospoutintoavessel.Anewincisionismadethe2followingdaysandthenthereisa4dayperiodofrestandthesamecycleisrepeateduntiltheheartisreached.Thefollowingyear,thesame
treatmentisdoneontheothersideofthetreewhichgivesazigzagconfigurationtothetrunktappingcanbepractisedeveryyearforseveraldecades(averageof25years)(Fealy1925Annett1913Barreveld1993).
Inordertoslowdownthefermentationofthesap,theearthenvesselarecoatedwithlimeinBangladesh,theyarewellsmokedeverymorning(Annett1913).

Raphiahookeri
InsomepartsofNigeria,thepalmsarecutdownandscorchedforincreasingsapflow(Kovoor1983).ThesapcanalsobecollectedfromtheupperstempiercedtodeathasitiscurrentlypractisedinWestAfricathe
methodisthesameastheonedescribedforoilpalmsbyIgbosinNigeria(Tuley1965,citedbyKovoor1983Essiamah1992).Thetappersextractthesapjustbeforetheappearanceofthespadixandtappingisdone
onfloweringtrunks(Profizi1988).InCameroon,thebaseofthetreeissplitbeforefruitproduction(Fyot1973).

Multipurposeuses
AsdescribedinAnnex1,mostpalmtreeshavemultipurposeuses(seealsothereviewbyJohnson1997).Theseusesarenotalwayscompatible.Sapproductionisatitsmaximumjustbeforeorduringfruitformation,
whenstarchesinthestemareconvertedintosugarswhichenterthesapandflowtothesiteoffruitformation.Tappingthetreecompeteswiththeproductionoftheripeningfruit(Redhead1989).Nevertheless,some
speciescanbeexploitedforbothfruitandsap,butthetreesmightdieprematurelyinthecaseofoverexploitation(Redhead1989).TappingBorassusaethiopiumimpedesfruitproductionandisdetrimentaltothe
qualityofthewoodcollectingyoungleavesreducessapyields(Bellouard1950).InMaduraisland(Indonesia),pruningtheBorassusleavestwiceayearwilldrasticallyreducethejuiceproducinglifeofthetreefrom
3040yearsto810whilemoderatepruningwillstillpermit2030yearsofjuiceproduction(Fox1977).Nypafruticansimmatureleavesarecutforcigarettepapers,matureleavesforthatchbutharvestingleaves
reducestheyieldofsugar(Kiew1989).InIvoryCoast,theAfricanoilpalmistappedbeforefructificationwhichkillsthetreewithinoneortwomonths(BlancPamard1980).
Tappingcanalsostimulatefruitproduction:ayoungcoconutpalmtappedduring612monthsforsugarproductionwillthenproducemorenuts(Magalon1930Fealy1925).Thishasbeenclearlydemonstratedby
Mathes(1984):low(inregardtonutproduction)yieldingpalms,aftertapping,hadafruitproductionthreetimesthatofthehighyieldingpalms,anddoublethatoftheveryhighyieldinguntappedpalms.Atechnique
calledsequentialcoconuttoddyandnutproductionhasbeendevelopedinthePhilippinesattheDavaoResearchCentre.Thefirsthalfofthespatheistappedandthesecondhalfisleftforfruitproductionasfemale
flowersthatdeveloptomaturenutsaresituatedinthislowerportion.Nutandcoprayieldsareabout50%lowerthannontappedpalmshowever,thistechniquehasbeendemonstratedtobeveryfeasibleandhighly
profitableforsmallproducers(MaravillaandMagat1993).
Arengapinnatacanbetappedwhentheyarebetween1215andmorethan30yearsoldthentheycanbecutforsagoproduction(Sumadi1988).Nevertheless,inWestJava,wheresagoisobtainedfromtrees1012
yearsold,notappingwillbedonepreviously,farmersarguingthatitwouldreducethequantityofstarchinthetrunk(Mogeaetal1991).InEasternNigeria,oilpalmsthathavebeenabandonedasuneconomicbunch
producersusuallygivegoodeconomicreturnsforwineproduction(usinganondestructivetappingtechniqueonmaleinflorescences)beforeoldplantingsareclearedandreplanted(Tuley1965a).

Roleinsustainableintegratedproductionsystemsandintheprotectionoftheenvironment
TherearevarioustypesofpalmcropassociationsinBangladesh.PhoenixsylvestrisandBorassusflabellifercanbothbeassociatedwithseveralofthefollowingcrops:rice,wheat,chickpea,mustard,jute,lentil,
potato,linseed,wintervegetablesandsugarcane(Abedinetal1987).Palmtreesoftenhaveadvantagescomparedwithothercropsasfarassustainabilityisconcerned:inpartsofwestJavawhereArengapinnatais
stilltendedingroves,soilsappearmuchmorestableandproductiveofothercropsthanwherecassavaiscultivated(Dransfield1977).Furthermoretheadvantagesofthistreeareitsgreatecologicaltolerance,its
abilitytogrowandstabilizeunproductiveerosionpronesitessuchassteepdrylandslopes(e.g.,coffeeorchardsonstonyslopesinNorthSulawesi,Mogeaetal1991),itspotentialtogrowonalmostanytypeofsoil,
toincreasesoilfertilityandwaterconservation,itsgreattoleranceofaccidentalburning(theonlysurvivingtreeintheMinahassa,Sulawesi,aftervolcanicactivity),therelativelyfastgrowthrate,thefactthatitneeds
almostnomaintenanceandusuallydoesnotsufferfromanyseriouspestsordisease,andthewiderangeofsecondaryoralternateproductsobtainable.Arengapinnataisconsideredasoneofthemostdiverse
multipurposetreespeciesandthemostimportantsugarpalmofthehumidtropicsafurtheradvantageisthatthistreegrowswildinmanyplaces(Mogeaetal1991).
BorassusflabelliferisoftenplantedonboundariesofpaddyfieldsinCambodiaandIndia.Theeffectsofshadingonunderstoreycropsarelikelytobenegligibleduetothesmallsizedcrownsandtothelargespace
(1015m)betweentrees(JambulingamandFernandes1986).InCambodia,ricecultivationandBorassusflabellifersugarproductionareassociatedinmanyareas:anaveragefamilyowns2425Borassusflabellifer
treesand22.5haricefield(Romera1968).Thistreethrivesinreputedlythepoorest,infertileandaridregions.IncentralBurma,afterayearofdrought,itstillcanproducesapduringayearbuttheyieldwill
decreaseandtheflowwillfinallystop(Lubeigt1977Lubeigt1979).Italsosuffersremarkablylittlefromprolongedflooding.Itisextraordinarilypestanddiseaseresistant,requiringlimitedmeansofcultivationif
any.Asitgrowsinsandyplains,itisusedforblockingerosionandfixingdunes,thankstoitsdeeprootsystem(Kovoor1983).Itisalso,likeCoryphaelata,afireresistantpalmthatispioneerspeciesonregularly
burntlandsuchasthoseexploitedbytheslashandburntechnique(Ormeling1956,citedbyFox1977).Theyoungtrees(upto15to40years)areusedinBurmaaswindbreakinareascroppedwithgroundnut
(Lubeigt1977Lubeigt1979).ItplaysamajorroleinSavuandRotiislands(Indonesia)wherethesoilfertilityisacrucialconstraint.Thetraditionalslashandburnsystem,whichiscurrentlypractisedin
neighbouringislands(TimorandSumbaforexample),hasbeenreplacedbysemipermanentgardeningthroughtheuseoflargeamountsofoldBorassusleavesthatareburntinthefields.Thispermitsfertilegardens
tobekeptinthevicinityofthehouses.Animalmanureisalsousedinselectedgardens.Inadditiontoanintensivepigrearing,theseislandsarealsofamousforhavingwelldevelopedgoatandsheepherdsandfor
havingkeptwaterbuffalowhereasinneighbouringislandsthesehavebeendisplacedbyBalicattle.GardensareeasilyfencedwithpalmleafstalksbutinmanycasesinSavu,animalsarepennedorcorralledand
fieldsareleftunfenced.Thereforethesetwoislandswhicharedrier,morewindsweptandmoreerodedthatlargerneighbouringislands,havebasedtheirmainrelianceonpalmutilizationintegratedwithwetrice
cultivation,dryfieldcultivation,gardening,herdingandfishing.allthesecomponentsoftheintegratedfarmingsystemsvaryinproportionaccordingtoareaandyearsandshowthegreatsenseofadaptabilitythat
thesepeoplehavereached.Whereashungerperiodsandfaminesusedtooccurfollowingdroughtsinneighbouringislands,calculationswerealwaysmadeinSavuandRotiinorderthatfailedcropscouldbealways
replacedbyotherfoods,Borassussaporsyrupbeingtheultimateonethatwasnevermissing(Fox1977).Borassusforestspossessapotentiallyuniquepatternofnutrientcycling,whichenablesthemtosupport
relativelyproductiveandstableformsofagricultureaswellastocontributetorecoveryofdisturbedsites(Anderson1987).
InthePeruvianAmazonia,Mauritiaflexuosaconstitutesdensepopulationsinseasonalswampforestsonwaterloggedsoilsoronsandysoils,whicharegenerallyconsideredasunfitforagriculture(Kahn1988).
Unlikesugarcane,Nypafruticansdoesnotcompetewithothercropsforagriculturallandexceptwheretotalreclamationisundertakenonmangroveland(HamiltonandMurphy1988).

Socioeconomicaspectsoftappingpalmtrees
Nowadays,thefivemajoreconomicpalmsoftheworldarecoconut(Cocosnucifera),Africanoilpalm(Elaeisguineensis),date(Phoenixdactylifera),betelnutpalm(Arecacatechu)andpejibaye(Bactrisgasipaes).
Evenifthethreefirstspeciesmentionedarecurrentlytapped,thisremainshighlymarginalintheireconomicrole.
Intheyear1910,93%ofthetotalamountofalcoholandalcoholicbeveragesproducedinthePhilippineislandswasprocessedin68distilleriesfrom90millionslitresofthesapexudingfrompalmtrees(mainlynipah
andcoconutpalms)thisindustrywasconstantlyincreasingandnipahpalmwasconsideredthecheapestsourceofalcoholintheworld(Gibbs1911).Besidesthis,therewasalsoaverylargeconsumptionof
undistilledpalmsap.InBurma,duringthebeginningoftheseventies,upto28millionbottleofarakmadefromBorassusflabellifersapwerecommercializedperyearthroughshopsandbars,whichmeansabouta
bottleperinhabitant(Lubeigt1979).In1969,palmwineproducedinNigeriawasestimatedatroughly2millionmetrictons(FMANR1974,citedbyOkereke1982).Inthiscountry,thetradeinpalmwineprovidesa
sourceofincome,notonlytothetappersthemselves,butalsotoawiderangeofmarketintermediaries(Okereke1982).ThespeciesofRaphia(R.hookeri,R.vinifera,R.sudanica)areveryimportantintheeconomy
ofthevillagesaroundtheswampsinWestAfrica(SouthernBeninandNigeria):mostofthepeopleusesthefruitsandtheleaves,andpalmwineismadefromthesapwhichisconsumedfreshordistilled(Profizi
1988Tuley1965b).PalmwineisalsostilllargelyproducedandcommercializedinIvoryCoastwhereitprovidesgoodopportunitiesofemployment(BlancPamard1980).InmanypartsofNigeria,andotherpartsof
WestAfrica,theoilpalmssurroundinglargetownsareregularlytappedforwineproduction.Itisanindustryofconsiderableeconomicandnutritionalimportancewhichsatisfiesasteadymarketintheseareaswhere
higherreturnsareensuredusingoilpalmforwineproductioninsteadofoilproduction(Hartley1977).InSouthEasternAfrica,palmwinetappingofHyphaenecoriaceaandPhoenixreclinataisalabourintensive
activity(highdensitiesofsmallpalmswithlowyields)providingasubsistenceincometogetherwithpastoralismandgatheringofwildfruits(Cunningham1990).
AsestimatedbyPethiyagoda(1978),intheearlydecadesofthiscentury,inSouthEastAsiancountries,hundredsofthousandsoftonnesofsugarwereproducedannuallythroughthetapping,mainlyofArengasp,
Borassussp,Cocossp,NypaspandPhoenixsp.Between10and17%(estimateof480,000tonnesofpalmsugarin1911)ofIndia'ssugarwasproducedfrompalms(Annett1913).InBangladesh,theindustryofsugar
madefromPhoenixsylvestrisisanoldoneanddatesugarwasreportedaslargelymanufacturedandexportedattheendoftheeighteencentury.Inthemiddleofthelastcentury,afterslaveemancipationmeasures
graduallydecreasedthesuppliesofsugarfromtheWestIndies,arapidriseindatesugarproductionoccurred.In1849,onefifth(10,000tonnes)ofthewholeannualquantityofsugarexportedfromIndiatoEngland
wasdatesugar(Annett1913).
Palmtapperscanbeeitherprosperousoramongthepoorest:thisismainlyrelatedtothetreeandlandproperty.InSavuisland(Indonesia),tappingisanactivityamongothersandtappersowntheirlandandtrees.In
UpperBurma,mosttappersarelandlessandthepalmtreesarethepropertyofawelloffminoritywhichgetsonethirdofthesapproduced(Aubert1911).InSriLanka,theartoftappingCaryotaurensandmaking
jaggeryhasbeenrecognizedasanimportantfunctiontowarranttheexistenceofaseparatesubcastewhichstillexiststoday(Dissanayake1977).InthelowrainfallGangesfloodplainofBangladesh,juiceextraction
fromPhoenixsylvestrisandmolassesmakingsupportaspecialgroupoftechnicians,whoareusuallypoorfarmers(Abedinetal1987).Arengapinnata,throughproductionandprocessingofitssapandsagoensures
increasedfarmers'incomesandruralemploymentopportunities(Sumadi1988).InWestJava,itcontributeswidelytothedailylifeofmanyvillagersforwhomitisalsoaconsiderablesourceofincome.InNorth
Sulawesi,thedowryisstillpayableintheformofanumberofsugarpalms,indicatingthegreateconomicvalueplacedonthesetrees.There,anaverageof6fullygrownpalmscanprovideagoodincomeforone
family(Mogeaetal1991).InthePhilippines,mostcoastalfarmersdependonNypafruticanssapproductionfortheirincome(Quimbo1991).In1986,118tonnesofNypafruticanssugarvaluedatM$237,464was
exportedfromMalaysia(Kiew1991).InSarawak(Malaysia),nipahtappingiscarriedoutasacottageindustryandprovidesalivelihoodtoagroupofpeoplewhohavenoothermeansofearningaliving(Pearce
1991).InmanyAsiancountries,theuseofthismultipurposepalmtreecontinuesandinsomeplaces,theyhavebecomethebasisforcottageindustriesandcommercialoperation.AccordingtoKiew(1991),coconut
palmsugarisstillforsaleineverygroceryshopinpeninsularMalaysia.Recently,somelargescalecommercialinteresthasdeveloped:inparticular,thehighcostoffossilfuelandfertilizerhasinitiatedanewlookat
thefuelalcoholandsugarpotentialofpalmtrees(HamiltonandMurphy1988).
PalmsofthegeniusBorassuscomesecondonlytothecoconutinthepalmpopulationoftheworldandtheyspantwocontinentsacrossagoodthirdoftheequator(Kovoor1983)wheretheyhavebeentappedfor
centuries.Kovoor(1983)notesthatthesimplerationaleofavoidingsinglecropeconomiesbyallpossiblemeansisbyitselfsufficienttofosterthesystematiccultivationandexploitationofthispalm.Generally
speaking,itisthepoorandthelandlessthatbenefitmostfromtheBorassuspalm(Fox1977).InIndia,itistappedbymembersofthelowestcastesanditplaysanimportantroleintheeconomyoftheruralpoor,
especiallyindroughtproneareas(Rangaswami1977).InTamilNadu,itprovidesfarmerswithacashincomethroughoutthedryseasonwhenthereisnocroponthefieldsandwhendemandforonfarmlabourislow
(JambulingamandFernandes1986).Ferguson(1850,citedbyFox1977)givessomedetailsontheimportanceofthistree:"ItisnotthewholesomenessornourishingqualitiesoftheedibleproductsoftheBorassus
flabellifertreethatmakeitsoimportanttotheinhabitantsofIndiabutsimplythefact,thatthousands,perhapsmillionsofthepeoplecanprocurethesefromtheirBorassusflabellifergroves,orpurchasethemfora
lowratefromtheirneighbourswhilstRiceandotherarticlesoffood,arefrequentlysoexpensiveastobeplacedbeyondtheirmeans.TheBorassusflabellifertreeis,inthisrespect,whatthePotatohassolongbeen
tothepoorIrishandScotch".InBurma,halfofthesugarconsumedinthecountrycomesfromBorassusflabellifer(Lubeigt1977).InUpperBurma,thetappersformaspecialclass,theprofessionishandeddown
fromfathertoson,requiringlongtrainingandgoodskills.Themenonlyaretappersbutallthefamilyisinvolvedinsapcollectionandprocessing.Thelifeishard,badlyremuneratedandattendedoftenwithsad
accidents(Aubert1911).SeveralhundredthousandsofpeopleliveonBorassusflabelliferinCentralBurmaandmorethanonemillionforallBurma(Lubeigt1977Lubeigt1979).Thislimitsthedriftfromtheland.
BorassusflabelliferisalsoimportantintheBurmesemythology:theKingAnoratha(10441077),founderofthefirstgreatBurmeseEmpire,hadfourclosepaladins,oneofthemwellknownforhisconsiderable
strengthdemonstratedbyhisabilitytoclimbonethousandsugarpalmtreesinasingleday(Lubeigt1979).InIndonesia,thousandsofpoorfamiliesintheMaduraandSundaislandgroupmaketheirlivingfromthis
palmbecauseofitsmultipleuses,thesweetsaprepresentingitsmosteconomicallyvaluableproduct(Davis1988).IntwoIndonesianislands,RotiandSavu,studiedbyFox(1977),thepopulationsdependfortheir
survivalonutilizationoftheBorassus.Thereisanearlytotalexploitationofthistreewhichisharvestedfordailyneedsandwhichconstitutesthepivotofacomplexdiverseeconomy.ThepotentialissuchthatFox
notesthattheprecisecarryingcapacityofthiseconomicadaptationtopalmutilizationremainsunknown.RotineseandSavuneselivelargelyfromthesugaroftheirtrees:freshsapthroughouttheproductionseasonor
dilutedsyrupotherwiseisconsumedseveraltimesaday,ofteninplaceofanysolidfood.Fox(1977)notesthatitcanbeliterallysaidoftheRotineseandSavunesethattheyarefed,equipped,attired,buried,and
rememberedaftertheirdeceasebytheproductsoftheirpalms.Greaterspecializationhasaccompaniedincreaseofpopulationdensity:asBorassustappingisalabourintensiveactivity,andaslongasthereare
sufficientpalms,newlabourisabsorbed.ButinsomeareasinSavu,wherethepopulationdensitiesarethehighest,nativepalmswerenotsufficientandthereforepeoplehaveplantedclustersofpalmsinfenced
enclosures,whichinturnpermitsincreasedefficiencyintappingandfurtherintensifiesallthecomponentsoftheintegratedsystemsguaranteeingbetteryields.SomeRotineseandSavuneseestablishedthemselvesin
partsofSumbaandTimorislandswheretheyreproducedtheirtraditionalfarmingsystembasedonBorassusandbecameeconomicallystrongerthanthenativepeople(Ormeling1956,citedbyFox1977).Borassus
palmsareessentialbuffersforensuringfoodsecurityofmanypeopleinAsiawhendroughtsoccurandothercropsfail(Fox1977).InCambodia,whereBorassusisassociatedwithrice,ifthericeyieldsarelow,the
harvestofBorassussapisincreased(Romera1968).There,theareaswhereBorassusflabellifertreesaremorenumerousarealsoareaswithhigherpopulationdensities.Borassusflabellifersugarproductionis
essentialfortheruralcommunityhavingreachedacertaindensity.Oncefuelwoodbecomesscarce,immigrationstarts(Romera1968).Sugarpalmsyrupproductionisstilltodaythemainactivityinmostofrural

Cambodiaafterricegrowing(KhieuBorinandPreston1995KhieuBorin1996).InthecaseofBorassusflabelliferandCaryotaurens,themostimportantandprimarymaterialistheirsap,andwhileotherproducts
ofthesepalmshavebeenreplacedbysubstitutes,jaggeryandtoddystilldemonstratecostadvantagestothecommunitieswhousethem(Dissanayake1986).

Originofthedeclineinpalmtreetappingactivity
Oneofthemainreasonsforthedeclineofsugarproductionfrompalmtreesistheincreasinglackoffuelwoodanditsincreasingprice.SugarproductionfromArengapinnatarequires23m3woodfor100to120kg
ofsugar(Mogeaetal1991).InSouthSumatra,3to4kgofdryclovetreeleavesor0.02m3ofdurianorheveawoodarenecessarytoprepare1kgofsugar(Levang1988).InMaduraisland(Indonesia),thecostofthe
firewoodforproducingBorassussugaramountstoathirdofthepriceofthesugar(GebuisandKadir1928,citedbyFox1977).InCambodia160to200kgoffuelwoodarenecessaryformaking35kgofsugar
(Lubeigt1977Romera1968)andthisisthemostexpensivecomponentinthecostofsugarsyrupproduction(KhieuBorinandPreston1995KhieuBorin1996).There,Borassusflabellifersugarmakinghasbeen
responsibleformajorforestcuttingandthissugarisnotproducedanymoreincertainruralareasbecauseofthelackoffuelwood.Ontheotherhand,themarketforfreshjuiceisverylimitediftheareaisnotcloseto
acity(Romera1968).InUpperBurma,thesugarindustryfromBorassusflabelliferconsumesalargeamountoffuelandhasforcenturiesledtoindiscriminateforestcutting.Insomeareas,fuelfordomesticuseis
evenbecomingscarce(Aubert1911).InBurma,everytapperusesabout3tonnesoffirewoodperyear4.4kgareneededperkgofpalmsugar(Lubeigt1979).InCentralBurma,thepriceoffuelwoodisrapidly
increasingandtapperscanhardlyaffordit(Lubeigt1977).ThisfuelproblemstartedtobecomecrucialinBurmaattheendofthefiftieswhenthegovernmentinitiatedmeasurestoenforceprotectionoftheforest
(Lubeigt1979).
Inthecaseofwineproducingpalmtrees,thedeclineoftenoccurredunderreligiousorcolonialpressurewithintheframeworkofageneralpolicyaimedatpreventingpeoplefromdrinkingalcoholicbeverages.Thus,
tappingofBorassusaethiopiuminAfricamainlydoneforwineproductionhasbeendisruptedwhereverMuslimreligionhasbecomedominant.ThishappenedinpartsofSenegalwherethecatholicsereerhadto
leavetheirfieldstoMuslimwolofcomingfromthenorth.Before,inthecatholicsereerareas,somepeoplewerefullyemployedastappingprofessionals(Niang1975).InIvoryCoast,theFrenchcolonialpressure
triedtodiscouragetheproductionofpalmwine.In1914,intheBaoulregion,theaverageconsumptionofpalmwinewas135litres/man/yearbut2yearslatertheFrenchgovernorforbademakingand
commercializingpalmwine(whichwasalsomadefromtheAfricanoilpalmandPhoenixreclinata)exceptforfamilyconsumptionandtraditionalevents(BlancPamard1980).InMadagascar,makingwinefrom
Raphiaruffiaalsousedtobeforbidden(Decary1964).InSriLanka,a10thcenturyrockinscriptionprohibitsroyalofficersfromdemandingtoddyfromvillagersorengaginginillicittrade(Dissanayake1977).
Centurieslater,undercolonialruleandthereafter,therewasalsoageneralbanontheproductionandsaleoftoddyatvillagelevelthevillageheadmenandthelocalconstabularywhoenforcedtheseregulationswere
sorepressivethatveryfewvillagerswouldhavetakentheriskoftappingCaryotaurensevenformakingjaggeryandtreacle(Dissanayake1977).
InAfrica,somedestructivetechniquesoftappingwereresponsibleforthedisappearanceofthetreesinsomeareas.InIvoryCoast,Portres(1964)mentionedthehighconsumptionofpalmwineandthenumerous
specializedbarsalongtheroadsandinthevillages,allthisofferingalotofemploymentopportunities.Thepalmwinebecameverypopularasthroughbettermeansofcommunication,itcouldbemadeavailable
throughoutthecountry.Thetreesdisappearedinentireareaswithin10yearsasthetechniquesusedfortappingtreesweredestructiveandregenerationoftreeswasneglected.
Inmanyplaces,socioeconomicchangeswereresponsibleforthedeclineinpalmtreetappingactivity.InIvoryCoast,theimportantmovesofpopulationinthefifties(settlerssettingupcoffee,cocoa,rubbertrees
andoilpalmplantations)werealsoresponsibleforlossoftraditionalcodesofmanagingthetreesandlesslongtermconcerns.Thusthetraditionaltechniqueoftappingonlymaletreesandkeepingfemalesfor
regenerationwasabandoned(Portres1964BlancPamard1980).Inmanyareasofthiscountry,wineproducingpalmtreeswerereplacedbyrubbertreesandoilpalmsundertheFrenchcolonialpressure.In1940,in
Burma,theareasplantedwithBorassusflabelliferwerereducedbymorethanonesixthbecauseofthemilitaryoperationsconsecutivetotheJapaneseinvasion(Lubeigt1979).InCambodia,thedeclineofthe
productionofBorassusflabellifersugarstartedin1955withtheendoftheexportsofsugartoVietnamandtheincreasingconsumptionofimportedcanesugar:Borassusflabellifersugarpricescollapsed(Romera
1968).InSriLanka,undercolonialruleandthereafter,widespreadcultivationofcoconutasanexportedorientedcropdrasticallychangedthelocaleconomyandimportedsugarbecamecheaper(Dissanayake1977).
InPeninsularMalaysia,swampareasweredrainedforcoconutplantationswhereNypafruticanswasbeforepredominant(Kiew1989).Fishponddevelopersalsofoundgreatprofitsinvariousfishpondoperations
madepossiblebyconvertingmangroveswamps,includingNypafruticansareas,forfishproduction(Encendencia1985).
Tappingsugarpalmsisverylabourintensive.Itmustbedonedailyotherwisethesapflowrapidlydiminishesastissuehealingoccursandrestartingthesapflowrequireslongandhardwork.Whenevereasierand
betterpaidjobswereavailable,tappingwasgivenup.TheemergenceoftheoileconomyinMalaysiahascollapsedtheindustryofalcoholfromNypafruticanssap(labourtooexpensive).Duringthecolonialperiod
inIndia,BorassustapperswererecruitedintheBritishplantationsabroad,particularlyontherubberandoilpalmestateswheretheirskillscouldbeeasilyadaptedtothoserequiredforthesetrees(Fox1977).
Inmanycountries,incomparisontoothercropsorcommodities,thereisagenerallackofinterestshownbythedecisionmakersaboutthesocioeconomicpotentialoftappingpalms.Noneorlittleresearch,selection
ofhigheryieldingvarietiesortrainingandextensionservicesarefundedandthetappersareseldomexposedtotechnologicalinnovationsiftheydonotgeneratethembythemselves.

Originofthenewinterestforpalmtreetappingactivity
Intoday'seconomy,theprofitabilityoftappingpalmsforsugarhassometimesimproved:thisisthecaseforcoconutandCaryotaurensinSriLanka.Inthemidseventies,withcontinuingforeignexchangecrises,a
reductionintheimportofsugaroccurredandwasimmediatelyfollowedbyasuddenriseinitsprice.Thegovernmentwasthenforcedtorelaxtheoldcolonialregulationsandinmanyareas,palmsugaragainbecame
alowcostsourceofsugar(Dissanayake1977).InpartsofSouthSumatra(Sriwangi),tappingcoconutforsugarproductionis8to10timesmoreprofitablethansellingnuts.Onefamilyisratherwelloffwith35trees
andin1987,morethan40%ofthefamiliesoftheareawereinvolvedintappingastheirmainsourceofincome.Theiraverageearningsweremorethantwicethoseofneighbouringareaswherecoconuttappingwas
notpractised.Atapperearnsperdaytwicetothreetimesmorethanafieldworker,thatistosayaboutwhatearnsacarpenterorabricklayer.Animportantadvantageforthetapperisthathehasadailyincome
throughouttheyear.Thisgiveshimaneasieraccesstocreditfacilities(Levang1988).InSriLanka,about0.5%(i.e.2,025ha)ofthetotalsurfaceforcoconutlandistappedfortoddybyatleast5,000tappers
(Abeysekera1979).InthePhilippines,asequentialcoconuttoddyandnutproductionsystemcanprovidethesmallscalecoconutfarmerswithincomesnearly10timeshigherperhectareandperyearcomparedtothe
traditionalpracticeofproducingnutsonly(MaravillaandMagat1993).Inthiscountry,aprogrammelabelledas"EstablishmentofBuriPlantationforTechnologyDevelopmentandEmploymentGeneration"is

promotingthemultipurposesugarproducingpalmtreeCoryphaelatainordertostimulatethecottageindustry(Abrenillaetal1988).InNigeria,anoilpalmestateislikelytobebetteroffdevotingallitsresourcesto
theproductionof9,770litres/ha/yearofoilpalmwinethanproducing10tonnesoffreshfruitbunchperhectareperannum.Furthermore,asoilpalmwineproductionismorelabourintensivethanfreshfruitbunch
production,tappingoilpalmtreesforwineislikelytocreatemorejobsthanharvestingfruitbunches(Udom1987).
Producingsugarforpalmtreesthatcanbetappedallyearround(likecoconutandNypafruticans)isanadvantagecomparedtotheseasonalproductionofsugarfromsugarcane.Productionisnotinterruptedby
replantingandrotationandthecontinuousproductivitymeansnodisplacedlabour,whichisamajorproblemincaneeconomy.Furthermore,thereisnobagassedisposalproblemandthereisnoexpensivecrushing
milltomaintain(HamiltonandMurphy1988).Ontheotherhand,themaindrawbackistheneedforfirewoodorotherfuel:forexample,thedeadleavesfromNypafruticansusedasfuelarefarfrombeingsufficient
tomakesugarfromthesapofthistree.Palmtreesthatproducesugarseasonally,likePhoenixsylvestrisfromNovembertoMarch(coldweather)andBorassusflabelliferfromApriltoSeptember(hotweather)would
growverywellsidebysideassuggestedbyAnnett(1913)inBangladeshandwouldensurecontinuoussugarproductionallyearround.
InLatinAmerica,themostabundantpalm,Mauritiaflexuosa,hasaconsiderablepotentialfromaneconomicdevelopmentstandpointasitisasourceofmanydifferentproductsamongwhichpalmwineshouldbe
promoted(Johnson1997).InatentativelistofpalmswithdevelopmentpotentialcompiledbyJohnson(1997),itisinterestingtonotethatforaboutoneoutoftwopalmsofthelist,thesapisamajorproduct.

Industrializedprocessingofthesap:
BorassusflabellifersugarproductionisindustrializedinSriLanka(Morton1988).InIndia,differentproductsfromthesapofthistreeareindustriallyprocessed:sapassoftdrink(600,000bottlesin19821983in
Madras),chocolatebars,candies,applejam,mixedfruitjamandpalmsyrup(DavisandJohnson1987).InWestAfrica,thesealedbottlingofpalmwinefromtheAfricanoilpalmisbeingundertaken(Bassir(1968,
citedbyHartley1977).InCameroon,in1969/1970,theconsumptionoflocallymadeorimporteddrinksamountedto405millionlitresoutofwhich280millionlitreswerepalmwine.In1971thefirstindustrialized
unitwithacapacityof1,000litres/dayofRaphiaspwineinsealedbottleswassetup(Fyot1973).InGhana,thepalmwineindustry(largedistilleriesinthecitiesandsmallscalefactorieslocatedinvillages)wasalso
ofgrowingimportancewiththedeclineinthepalmoilindustry(SodahAyernorandMatthews1971).

Prospectsforincreasingsugaryields
Asstatedbefore,comparedtosugarcaneproduction(515tonnesofsugar/ha/year),theBorassusflabellifertreecanreach18tons/ha/yearunderrainfedconditions(KhieuBorinandPreston1995KhieuBorin1996)
andthecoconuttree19tons/ha/year(Jeganathan1974).Nevertheless,thepotentialofincreasingsugarproductionfrompalmtreesislikelytobemuchhigherthanfromsugarcaneasmuchlessresearchhasbeen
devotedtopalmtreesinthisrespect.
Indigenousknowledgeisavailableincountriesthathavehadalongexperienceintappingpalmtrees.Thetappergenerallymakesaselectionbeforestartingtapping:hechoosesthetreesthat,accordingtohis
experience,shouldfulfilthefollowingobjectives:highsapyieldreducedtimebetweencommencementofworkinganinflorescenceandthefirstflowofsapmaximumvolumeofsapsustainedforaslongas
possiblehealthandwellbeingofthetreemaintainedduringtapping(Pethiyagoda1978).
Tallvarietiesofcoconuttreesyieldtwiceasmuchsapasdwarfpalmsandaremoreresistanttopestsandtodroughtsandwindsbecausetheirrootsystemismoredeveloped(Jeganathan1974).Considerablevariations
occuraccordingtotapper'sskills,day,season,prevailingweather,spadix,natureofthepalm,localityandmanure(Pethiyagoda1978).Aperiodof31daysofsapflowperspatheistheaverageinSriLanka.There,
coconutpalmscanbetappedthroughouttheyearaslongasrainfallissatisfactoryandeverypalmisrestedfor4monthsayear(CoconutResearchInstitute1967).Elsewhere,itispossibletoencountersituations
wheretreeshavebeencontinuallytappedformanyyearswithoutapparentilleffects(Pethiyagoda1978).Thereareconsiderablyvaryingestimatesofdailysapyields:from0.9to15litrespertree.Thesameoccurs
forsugarconcentrationofthesap(from4to22%):thelowerconcentration(4%)isrelatedwiththehigheryield(15litres).Thehighyieldingcoconuttreeswithregardtotheproductionofnutsarenotnecessarilythe
bestsapyielders(Pethiyagoda1978).Nathanael(1956)citedbyPethiyagoda(1978)liststhefollowingcriteriaforpromisingsapyields:shiny,pliableleaflets,longinternodes,uniforminflorescenceproductionand
thinnerinflorescencesheaths.InSriLanka,throughhybridizationworktoidentifythemostpromisingspecieswithregardtonutproduction,ahybridbetweenatallvariety(Typica)andadwarfone(Pumila)was
foundtobethebest.ItssapproducingcapacitywasstudiedlaterbyJeganathan(1974):onthebasisof158treestothehectare,thedailysapyieldperhectarewas346litres(with15%sugarasforTypicasap)forthe
hybrid,whileitwas247forTypicaandonly74forPumila(with247treestothehectareforthislattervariety).ThedifferencebetweenthehybridandTypicawasmainlyduetothehigherproductionofspadicesin
thehybrid(17.7peryearagainst11.7forTypica)whichsupersedesthelowerandshorterproductionofeveryspadixforthehybrid(45litres/21days)comparedtoTypica(nearly50litres/31days).
Theimpactofmanuringonsapyieldsisreportedtobehighforcoconutsbutscientificdataarescarce.TheSriLankanCoconutResearchInstituteispresentlydoingsomeresearchandarecentsurveyhasidentified
thefollowingfactorsaffectingtoddyyields:moisturestress,failuretoapplyamulcharoundthemanurecircle(2maroundthepalm),nutritionaldeficiencies,rainstorms,winds,lackofexperienceandshortageof
skilledtappers.Afertilizermixturehasbeendevelopedfortoddytappingpalms:rockphosphate(4partsbyweight),potassiumchloride(18parts),dolomite(8parts).2to3kgofthismixturearegivenperpalmper
yearaccordingtosoiltypeandclimaticconditions600gureaand1kgagriculturalsaltarealsogivenperpalmperyearwithanincreaseof50%forthehigherproducingpalms(CoconutResearchInstitute1986).
SelectionandbreedingoftheAfricanoilpalmforhighsapyieldsandhighconcentrationofsugarhavenotyetstartedonalargescale.Itislikelythatyieldimprovementresearchwillproducevarietiesthatwillyield
morethan100litresofsapperpalmandmorethan14,800litresperhectareperannum(Udom1987).ItisabsolutelyessentialformosttappedpalmspeciesinAsiatohaveasophisticatedpreparatoryphase,
sometimescontinuedthroughoutthetappingperiod,inordertoensurehighyieldsofsap.Itinvolvesallsortsoftechniquessuchasbending,kicking,hammering,kneading,bruisingtheinflorescenceanditsstalk.
SuchapreparatoryphasehasnotbeenreportedinAfricafortheAfricanoilpalmanditislikelythatsouthsouthtransferoftechnologycouldpermitamajorincreaseinsapproductionfromthistree.
Differentmanagementtechniquespermitincreasedsugarproductionfrompalmtrees.Nypafruticansproducesmoreinflorescences(andpotentiallymoresap)whenthestandsarekeptthinnedofoldleaves.Sap
productioncanbeimprovedbywiderspacingbetweentreesthaninwildalmostpurestandsofNypafruticans:from2,500/hadownto500orlessbyremovingtherhizomesoftheothersplantstopreventthemfrom

regenerating(HamiltonandMurphy1988).InthePhilippines,Quimbo(1991)developedanew,highlyprofitablemethodoftappingthatincreasesthesapyieldfromlessthan60,000litres/hatomorethan100,000.
Thistechniqueconsistsinusingclenchedfistsaspressureapplicator,whichloosensthesilicaandcrystallikedepositsinthetrachealelementsofthepeduncle,thusenhancingfreesapflowatasimilarratebutfor
muchlongerperiods(111daysinsteadof60days).Treatmentcouldalsobereducedfrom94days(ofwhich52contactdays)to43days(ofwhich22contactdays)withtotalsapyieldstillhigheronaperplantbasis.
SimilarlyinPapuaNewGuinea,Pivke(1985)hasdevelopedasophisticatedprotocolofpretreatmentthatpermitsmuchhighersapyields.
ForArengapinnatainNorthSulawesi,a10x10mspacingproducedthehighestyieldsofsap(Sumadi1988).HighyieldingstrainsofArengapinnatahavebeenisolatedintheintensivesugarpalmcultivationin
Minahassa,NorthSulawesi(Mogeaetal1991).Thetrees,withanaverageof19m(upto25m)aremuchhigherthanelsewhere.NearTomohon,atanaltitudeof700800ma.s.l.,thesapproductionamountsto1215
litresaday,containing1215%ofsugarwithconsiderablylongertappingperiods(612months)foreachinflorescence(normallymorethan1mlong).Asuperiorsugarpalminthislocationproducesallyearroundan
averageof30litresaday(Mogeaetal1991).
DailyBorassusflabellifersapyieldsaveragebetween6and10litrespertreebutcanbeaslowas1litreorashighas20litrespertree(Paulas(1983TjitrosoepomoandPudjoarinto1983,citedbyKovoor1983).This
canbeexplainedbygeneticandenvironmentalfactors.Moresappertreecanbeobtainedifeachinflorescenceproducesmore,overalongerperiod(skilloftheoperator),iftherearemoreinflorescencesinagiven
time,iffloweringstartsonyoungertreesandlastslonger(geneticfactors)andiftheresponsetotappingishigher(geneticfactors)(Kovoor1983).Borassusaethiopiumiscommonlytappedforwineproductionin
westAfricabuttheproductionofsugarhasneverbeenrecorded.Nevertheless,ithasagoodpotentialforsugarproductionand,inareaswheresugarcanedoesnotgrowifnotirrigated(Sudaneseareaswithlongdry
season),thistreecouldreplaceitforsugarproduction(Chevalier1930).
Researchisneededtoassesstherelativeimportanceofgeneticvsenvironmentalvstechnologicalfactorsinordertoestablishapriorityagendaforincreasingsapproductionandsapqualityeitherthroughbreeding
programmesormanagementtechniquesoracombinationofboth.

Prospectsforfacilitatingsapcollection
Formostnondestructivetappingtechniques,ahighdegreeoftraditionalexpertiseisneededandwherethistechniqueisnottraditionallypractised,greatdifficultiesmightbeencounteredintrainingpeople.Usually,
thefatherteacheshissonaboutpalmtappingduringaverylongperiod.Inthecaseofthehighsugarproducingpalms,reducedheightwouldbeamuchappreciatedcharacteristicdecreasinglabourtime,effortand
risks.Unlikethecoconut,dwarfmutantsandraceshavenotbeenreportedtooccurinthecaseofBorassusflabellifer(Kovoor1983).Thismaybeattributedtothelackofsystematicresearch.Analternativewouldbe
toselectthemostprecocioustrees(thatstartfloweringataverylowheight)asprecocityisagenetictrait(Kovoor1983).
Devicesforsaferandmoreefficientwaysofclimbingpalmtreeshavebeeninvented:onebyDavis(1984)citedbyDavisandJohnson(1987)anotherwasdevelopedbythePalmyraDevelopmentBoardofSriLanka
and,usingit,thetapperwouldbeabletotapabout100treesaday,morethantwicethepresentaverage(Dissanayake1986).TheergonomicproblemsoftoddytappershavebeenreviewedinSriLankabyAbeysekera
(1979).
HybridizationoftheAfricanoilpalmwiththeAmericanspecies,Elaeisoleifera,whichhasacreepingtrunkandbetterresistancetodisease(Kahn1988)couldproduceaproductivevariety,easytotapbecauseoflow
andstableheight.

Prospectsforanimalproductionwithinsustainableintegratedfarmingsystems
Storageofsapatlocallevelisnotpossibleasfermentationrapidlyoccursevenifdelayedbysomechemicalagents.Fermentedsapisnotsuitablefortheproductionofgoodqualitysugarandthisusuallylimitsthe
expansionofpalmsugarmakingatvillagelevel.Processingsapintogoodqualityjaggeryisalsoadifficultandtimeconsumingtask:upto16hoursperdayinCambodia(KhieuBorinandPreston1995KhieuBorin
1996).Italsorequiresanexperiencedandskilledworker,oftenawoman(stirring,removingoffroth,maintainingtheappropriatetemperature,etc.).Thisisalsoamajorbottleneckwhichlimitssapprocessing
(Dissanayake1986).Furthermore,inmanycountries,productionandsaleoftoddyisprohibitedbyregulationsandsomerawmaterialiswasted(Dissanayake1986).AccordingtoMogea(Mogeaetal1991),Arenga
pinnatainNorthSulawesi(Indonesia)couldconsiderablycontributetotheincreaseofthelocalincomesandprovidemanyjobopportunitiesiftheproblemsduetotheenormousamountsoffuelwoodrequiredfor
makingsugarandthelimitedmarketingpossibilitiesoftheproductscouldbesolved.Itisdifficulttobringthefreshsapandthepalmwinetotheremotemarketswhereastheneighbouringonesareoftensaturated.If
thesugarisbettercommercialized,thenthefuelconstraintacutelyoccurs.InRotiandSavuislands(Indonesia),thetappersclaimthattheycouldtap20to30Borassustrees,butrarelydoesanyonetapmorethan10to
15atanyonetimeascookingthesaptoproducesyrupisthelimitingfactor(Fox1977).Thereisahugepotentialforcapitalisingonunderexploitedsugarpalmtreeswhicharenotusedbecauseofthelackof
fuelwoodformakingsugarorthelimitedmarketingpossibilities.InCambodia,twosurveysconductedin1938and1960showedthatrespectivelyonly26%and30%oftappablepalmyratreeswereactuallytapped
(Romera1968).InSriLanka,onlyabout2%ofthetotalareasuitablefortappingisreportedtobeactuallytapped(Sivilingam1983,citedbyDissanayake1986).IncoastalNigeriaandCameroon,Nypafruticans
whichwasintroducedearlyinthiscentury,hasnaturalizedandisunderutilized(Johnson1997).Therefore,thereisanichefordiversification.Inthesecases,thesapcouldbeusedforanimalproduction.Present
labourconstraintscanbeovercomethroughtheuseofclimbingdevicesthatenablethetappertotaptwiceasmanypalmtrees(Dissanayake1986).
Ontheotherhand,meatdemandisincreasinginmanydevelopingcountriesaspopulationgrowsandlivingstandardsimprove:inthecaseofCambodia,thepigpopulationisincreasingatarateof16.6%peryear
(Devendra1993,citedbyKhieuBorinandPreston1995KhieuBorin1996).Insteadofpreparingsugarfromthesapofsugarproducingpalmtrees,thesapcanbedirectlyfedtotheanimalsandprovidemostofthe
energyneededinthediet.ThishasbeendoneforcenturiesintwoIndonesianislands,RotiandSavu.TheyhaveacomplexdiverseeconomythathasBorassusasthecentreandwhichincludesasmallscalesemi
intensiveorintensivepigrearingcomponent(78pigsperhousehold).InaBorassuseconomy,pigsareaprimemeansofconvertingpalmproductstoprotein.Pigsarefedfreshsapthroughoutmostofthetapping
seasonandthereforefattenduringthedryseasonwhileotherlivestockusuallyloseweight.Inaddition,pigsoftenreceivetheresidue(froth)andspillfromthesyrupcookingprocess.Duringtherainyseason,theyare
frequentlyfedsyrupmixedwithwater(nevertheless,whenCoryphaelataisavailableasinRoti,peoplewillgenerallyfavourstheuseofitssagoaspigfeedinsteadofpalmsyrup).Foxconcludesinthesewords:

"BorassussyrupandfruitconstitutetheprimaryfoodforpigspigsinturnareaprincipalmeansbywhichSavu'spalmeconomyisabletosupportitsdensepopulationpigsandpalmsgotogetherand
onecanviewpigsasareasonableindicatorofpalmutilization".Thisisfurtherdemonstratedbythestrongcorrelations(muchhigherthanforotherlivestockspecies)betweenpigandhumanpopulationsinthe
differentareasofthesetwoislands.Theareaswherethepopulationdensitiesarehighest,aretheareasofmostintensivepigrearingpigsalsorepresentingthehighestproportionsofthetotallivestock(Fox1977).
CaptainJamesCook,sailingwestfromNewGuineastoppedattheSavuislandfrom17to21September1770,atthehighpointofthetappingseason.Hereportedinhisbook"Voyages"detailedinformationonthe
useofBorassus.Inthisparticularyear,thecropswerereportedtohavefailed.Thereforethemaximumharvestofsapwastakingplaceinordertosecure6to8monthsfoodsupply.Despitethisthreatenedfood
securitysituation,Cookwitnessedthatsyrupwasgiventopigsandusedevenforotheranimalproduction:"Ihavealreadyobserved,thatitisgivenwiththehusksofricetothehogs,andthattheygrow
enormouslyfatwithouttakinganyotherfood:weweretoldalso,thatthissyrupisusedtofattentheirdogsandtheirfowls..."(CookcitedbyFox1977).
TheauthorofthispaperspentaweekinRotiinmidNovember1997.Itwasattheendofalongandseveredryseason(duetoElNio).AsRotiisthemostsouthernIndonesianisland,itgetstheshortestrainyseason
ofthecountry.Borassustappingisstillpractisedeverywhereontheisland.Tapperswereinterviewedintwoplaces,aMuslimfishingvillageonthenortheastcoast(Papela)andaChristianvillagealongabeachon
thesouthwestcoast(Nemberala).Freshsapisstillcommonlyusedforanimalproduction.Pigsarefedwithfreshsaptwiceaday,justaftersapcollection(earlymorningandatdusk).Whenfreshpalmsapisnot
available(rainyseason),palmsyrup(onelitreofsyrupcomesfrom4to5litresofsap)isdilutedwithwatertofeedthepigs.Thequantityofpalmsapgivenperpigperdayvariesaccordingtotheavailabilityofother
feeds.Herearetwoexamplesofadailypigdiet,respectivelyduringtherainyseason,inPapela,andduringthetappingseasoninNemberala:threemeals,eachoneincludingonelitreofsyrupdilutedintwolitresof
waterandabout170gofricetwomealsperday,eachoneincluding1.5litreoffreshsapandchoppedmeatfromabouttwoandhalfcoconuts.Apartfromthesefeeds,thepigsgenerallysatisfythegreatestpartof
theirproteinneedsthroughscavengingonthebeach,especiallyatlowtide.Thepigsspendalldaysandevenpartofthenight,digginglongditchesinthesand,goingfarfromtheseashoreandclosetothecorralreef
andturningoverthestonesineverypoolaccessibleatlowtide.Theygetcrabs,snailsandvariousothershells,smallfishes,seacucumbersandseaweeds.Thepigsaresoldonthemarketoncetheyareaboutoneyear
old,weighingaround40kg.Thepoultryalsodrinksthepalmjuice.InNemberala,thejuiceisalsogiventothedogs.Everydoggetsaboutalitreofsapperdaysharedinthreemeals.Theotherpartofthedietismade
ofrice,fishandmeatwastesandbones.Apartfromguardingthehouse,theuseofthedogisforitsmeatasitisstillatraditionalfoodforthenonMuslimpeopleoftheisland.Themalesaregenerallyslaughtered
whentheyarearound2yearsold.
TrialsonfeedingpigswithpalmjuicehavebeeninitiatedrecentlyinCambodiawithintheframeworkofanFAOTechnicalCooperationProject(FAO1995).Pigswererearedfrom20to80kg,withADGof356g
usingthefollowingdailydiet:approximately8kgofpalmjuice156gofprotein(fromsoyabean),lime,saltand500goffreshwaterspinachperday.Twelvefarmswerestudied.Takingintoaccountthepriceof
fuelwood,theprofitpertreeperdaywasnearly14timeshigherwhenthejuicewasusedforfeedingpigsinsteadofmakingsugarsyrup(KhieuBorinandPreston1995KhieuBorin1996).
Usingfreshsapforfeedinganimalswillavoidburninglargequantitiesoffuel.Nevertheless,aspartofthisfuelgenerallycomesfromthepalmtreeitself,itmightbepossibletomakesyruporsugarthatwillbeeasy
topreserveandthatwillbelaterfedtotheanimalswhenthesugarproductionseasonisover.Ifthisisnotpossible,sapproductioncanbeentirelyusedasfreshjuiceforfeedingfatteninganimalsandthefattening
cyclecancoincidewiththesometimesrathershorttappingseason.Thiscaneasilybedonewithpigsandducks.Apartfromgivingalotofaddedvaluetothesap,thisalsopermitsthesmallfarmers,whousuallyhave
verylowstoragecapacityforsyruporsugar,toavoidsellingsapatlowpriceduringthetappingseason.Sap,syruporsugarcouldalsobeusedasemergencyfeeds,replacingotherfeedswhoseproductionhasbeen
compromizedbydroughtsorothercalamities,whenevernecessary.
Tobalancemonogastricdietsbasedonsugarpalmjuiceorsyrup,agoodsourceofproteinisrequired.Assoyabeanishardlyavailableatareasonablepriceinmanytropicalareas,somealternativesourcesofprotein
areneeded:possiblesourcesincludecassavaleaves,sweetpotatoesleaves,foddertreeleaves,aquaticplants(duckweed,Azolla),wholesoyaplantatmilkygrainstageandfishwastes.Properuseandmanagementof
thesedifferentalternativesourcesofproteincancontributetoreducingpollution,increasingcarbonsinksanddecreasingerosion.Animalfeedingsystemsbasedonpalmjuice/syrupfavourkeepingtheanimalsin
confinementinsteadofgrazingorscavengingsystems.Thisprotectstheenvironment,limitsthedisseminationofcontagiousdiseasesandalsooptimizestheintegrationoflivestockwithinanintensivefarmingsystem
(Figure1).Manurecanbeprocessedthroughabiodigestor,producingtheenergyforfamilycookingneeds,andtheeffluentcanbeusedasafertilizereitherforcropsorforfishponds.

Ruminantsalsobenefitfromthesugarpalmtrees.AsmentionedbyKhieuBorinandPrestonduringtheSecondFAOElectronicConferenceonTropicalFeeds,Borassussapandthescumobtainedduringsapcooking
aretraditionallyusedforsofteningricestrawusedforcattlefeeding(especiallydraughtanimals)inCambodia(Speedyetal1997).Cattlearealsofedwithmaturefruitsorpartsofthemthatarenotusedforhuman
consumption.DuringhisstayinRoti,theauthorofthispaperdidnotgetanytestimonyrelatedtofeedingfreshsaporsyruptotheruminants.Nevertheless,thegoatsgetthefoamproducedduringthesapcooking.
Greentwigswiththeirleaves,takenfromthetreethatalsoprovidesthefirewoodusedforcookingthesap,areslightlycookedtogetherwiththesapandusedtoremovethefoam.Then,theyareimmediatelygivento
thegoats.Thankstothisfeed,thegoatswerestillinaverygoodbodyconditiondespiteofthefactthatitwastheendofalongandseveredryseason.
Thepotentialoffeedinggoatsandcowswithpalmsapasthemainsourceofenergyformilkproductionshouldbeinvestigatedaswellasthesourceofnitrogen(nonproteinnitrogenandbypassproteins),minerals
andfibretocompletethediet.Incidentally,tappingpalmtreeswillalsoalwaysofferaneasysourceofsugarforbeeswhichwilltendtospontaneouslyharvestallwastedsugar.Honeyproductionisthereforeincreased
inareaswherepalmtreesaretapped(Fox1977).

Conclusion
Borassuspalmsarethemostnumerouspalmsintheworldafterthecoconutpalm(Fox1977).Despitethis,theyareamongtheleaststudiedofallthepalmspeciesintheworld.Asformanyothersugarproducing
palmtreessuchasCaryotaurens,verylittleisknownabouttheireconomicpotential(Dissanayake1977).Thislackofinterestcanbeexplainedduringcolonialhistorybythefactthat,fromthecolonizer'spointof
view,itwasmucheasiertosetup,manageandcontrollargesugarcaneplantationstoproducesugarthantouseexistingscatteredpalmtreesthathadbeenmanagedforcenturiesbythelocalpeople,oftenwithina
subsistenceeconomy.Besidethis,thesetreesareoftenassociatedwiththepoor.Thefactthattheirjuicequicklyfermentsandmakesalcoholmadetappingactivitiesundesirabletogovernments,andalsoforthe
Hindus,BuddhistsandMuslimsorthodoxes(Fox1977).
Nevertheless,therearemanygoodargumentsforrevitalizingknowledgeandresearchonsugarproducingpalmtrees.Consideringtheirmultipurposeuses,theycancontributeinmanywaystothesustainabilityof
integratedfarmingsystems.Forexample,inIndonesia,Mogea(1991)suggeststopromoteanddevelopthroughresearchprojectsthreeparticulartaxawithinthenativepalmresources.Twoofthemhavesugarastheir
mainproduct:ArengapinnataandBorassusflabellifer.Assugarproducingpalmtreesareoftenthemainsubsistenceresourceforthepoorestpeople,improvingthewaythesetreesareusedwillcontributetothe
alleviationofpoverty.Palmtapping,especiallyasfaraswildandsemiwildspeciesareconcerned,isanactivitythatdoesnotrequirecapitaltostart.Inhighlypopulatedruralareas,itcanbeamajorsourceofself
employmentforthepoorestpeopleandavoidmajordriftsfromtheland.Inthecaseofcoconut(inSriLankaforexample)orAfricanoilpalm(inColombiaandNigeriaforexample),withthelowandunpredictable
worldpricesofcopraandpalmoil,ithasbecomeincreasinglydifficultforsmallfarmerstodependontheirproduction.Thisencouragesattemptstofindotherwaysofusingthesetrees,includingdiversificationfor
bettersustainabilityofthesystem.Sugarproductionandanimalproductionarealternativestoconsiderifmarketscanbedevelopedfortheseproducts.
Whenselectingpalmssuitableforsmallfarmers,itisimportanttoconsidertheamountofknowledgeavailableaboutthecandidatespecies.Agoodindicatoristhedegreetowhichapalmhasbeendomesticated.
Generally,themoreadvancedthestageofdomestication,theeasierthespeciescanbecultivatedsuccessfully(Johnson1987).Consideringthehighcostanddurationofadomesticationprogram,inthecaseofnon
domesticatedsapproducingpalms,itissuggestedtoevaluateandselectonefordomestication(Arengapinnata,CoryphaumbraculiferaandC.utanarestrongcandidates)whereastheotherspeciesshouldbe
consideredformanagementimprovement(Johnson1997).
Futureresearchonusingpalmtreesapforanimalproductionshouldconsiderthefollowingissues:
Assessmentofexistingstandsofwildpalms(Nypafruticans,Borassussp.,etc.)andtheeconomicprospectsfromtappingthesetrees.
Assessmentoftheeconomicpotentialofpalmtreesselectedovercenturiesforsapproductiontobeusedinotherregions:BorassusflabelliferfromCambodiaorIndonesiacouldbeinstalledinAfricawhere
ecologicalconditionsaresimilarArengapinnatafromNorthSulawesicouldbeinstalledonunproductiveerosionpronesoilsinLatinAmericaCaryotaurenscouldbedevelopedinmarginallands.
Identificationofcriteriaforproperselectionofindividualstobetappedandforrecognizingtheproperplantstageforinitiatingsuccessfultappingoperations.
Physiologyoftheproductionofsapflowandprecisesignificanceofthevariousactsthatconstitutetheartoftappinginordertodevelopimprovedtechnologiesforincreasingsugaryields(techniquesof
tapping,frequency,fertilization,treespacing)andtooptimizetheuseoflabour.
Selectionofearlyfloweringpalmtrees.
Improvedtechnologiesforsafelytappingtrees.
Techniquestopreservethejuiceandavoidfermentation.
Identificationofproductionsystemswithpalmtrees,cropsandanimals:accordingtothepresenteconomicandenvironmentalchanges,assessmentoftherelevanceoftappingsugarpalmtreesforanimal
productionincomparisonwithenergyproduction(ethanol)orotherproductions(coprafromcoconutoroilfromoilpalm).
Whatisneededisathoroughfieldsurveyreviewingindetailallindigenousknowledgerelatedtotappingpalmtreesforsugarandanimalproduction.Thiswouldpermitamajorbreakthroughforassessingthefuture
potentialofthesetreesandforsharingtechniquesandexperiencesbetweenregionsandcountries.Manyruralareasarelikelytobenefitfromanewsourceofselfemploymentandsustainableincomeoncethe
potentialoftappingpalmtreesforsugarandanimalproductionhasreceivedthefullattentionitdeservesfromdecisionmakersthroughfundingresearch,selection,technologyimprovement,trainingandextension
andsmallcreditforfarmers,

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Annex1:Location,management,productsandtappingtechniquesoftappedpalmsspecies
Latinname
(Commonnames)
Acrocomiaaculeata
Acrocomiamexicana
Arecacatechu(Arecapalm,betel
palm,arecanut)

Regionsandmanagement

Products

LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(Haiti)[32]
Honduras[37]

Wine[32]
Wine[37]

Tropicalrainforestto900mS&SEAsia:India,IndonesiaImprovedcultivatedpalm[1]

Sugar(jaggery),freshjuice,toddy

Tappedparts
Terminalbudonfelled
trees[37]
SameasforArenga
pinnata

seedasmasticatory,edibleheart,leavesforthatch,leafsheathsforhats,containers,
trunkforwood,dyesource,etc.[1]
Arengapinnataorsaccharifera
Tropicalrainforestintodryforestto1,200mS&SEAsia:India,Thailand,Cambodia,Malaysia,Indonesia(N Sugar(jaggery),freshjuice,toddy[1],vinegar[2]starchfromtrunk(sago),
Male(andrarely
(Sugarpalm,toddypalm,lontar)A. Sumatra,WJava,EBorneo,NSulawesi),PhilippinesUnimprovedcultivatedormanagedpalm[1]Strong
seawaterresistantfibrefromleafsheath,edibleheart[1],ediblefruits,leavesfor
female)inflorescence
undulatifoliainBorneoA.tremula candidatefordomestication[32]
roofing,formakingbrooms,matting,baskets,cigarettepapers,etc.[3]
spadixorsecondary
inthePhilippines
stems
Arengawightii
SAsia:endemictoIndia(Kerala,Karnataka,TamilNadu)[32]
Toddy[32]
Peduncle[32]
Attaleasp
CentralandSAmerica[38]
Freshjuice,wine[38]
Terminalbud[38]
Beccariophoenixmadagascariensis CentralMadagascar(1,000m)
Freshjuiceleaves:hats[4]
Betsimisaraka:trunk
[4]
Borassusaethiopium
Tropicalsavanna[1]From500(even200ifsuperficialwateralsotreebenefittingfromdewsandfogs[5])to Wine,freshjuice,vinegar[34]potentialforsugarproduction[7][8]whichis
Terminalbud,lateral

(Africanpalmyra,Africanfanpalm)1,300mmyearlyrainfallwith6to8monthsofdryseason[6]Africa:Senegal(This,Casamance),Gambia,
deniedby[9]edibleimmaturefruit,terminalbud,youngrootsandgerms,leaves portionofyoungstem
Guinea,IvoryCoast,BurkinaFaso(Banfora),Cameroon,GabonSemiwildorwildpalms[1]Candidatefor
forthatch,weaving,woodforbuilding[1][7]
orbunches
domesticationwithagroforestrypotential[32]
Borassusflabellifer(Sugarpalm
Tropicalforestintosavannato750m[1]EastAfrica:ZanzibarAsia:PersianGulf,coastlineofIndia,SriLanka,Sugar"candy",jaggery,toddy,palmjuice,arak,vinegar,yeastforbread[11]edible Inflorescencespadix,
tree,fanpalm,palmyrapalm,toddy Bangladesh,Burma,Thailand,Malaysia,Indonesia(Borassussundaicus(lontarpalm)[10])Laos,Cambodia,
fruitsandshoots,leavesformanuscripts,timber,fuel,buildingmaterial,canoe,fan spatheofmaleand
palm,desertpalm,lontarpalm,
Vietnam,ChinaUnimprovedcultivatedormanagedpalm[1]Candidatefordomesticationwithagroforestry [12],fromleafstalk:fibre(exportedfromTamilNaduto40countries[13]),fences femaletreesorfruits
brabtree,rondier)
potential[32]
[10]leavesforthatch,weaving[1]
Borassusmadagascariensis(Rnier Alongrivers[4]Madagascar
Wine
Inflorescencespadix
Malgache)
[4]
Calamusvanuatuensis
Pacific:endemictoVanuatu[32]
Sap[32]
Stem[32]
Caryotaurens(Indiansagopalm, Tropicalrainforest,especiallyprimaryforest[1]to1,500m[14]Asia:India,SriLanka,Indonesia,Malaysia,
Honey,sugar(jaggery),freshjuice,toddy[11]Priceofsugarabout50%over
Inflorescencespadix
toddypalm,kitulpalm,fishtail
CambodiaSPacificUnimprovedcultivatedormanagedpalm[1]Domesticationpotentialinagroforestry
Borassusflabelliferandalsohigherpricethancoconut[15]fibrefromleafsheath,
palm,caryotapalm)C.cumingiiin systems[32]
starchfromtrunk(sago),seedschewedassubstituteforbetelnut,edibleheart[1]
thePhilippines
[11]
Tropicalrainforest,coastalareasto300mEAfrica:MozambiqueAsia:SouthernIndia,SriLanka,Thailand, Sugar(jaggery),freshjuice(occasionallytappedinMozambique[16]),wine,arak, Unopenedflower
Cocosnucifera(Coconutpalm)
Cambodia,Malaysia,Indonesia(CentralJava),PhilippinesPacificislandsImprovedcultivatedpalm[1]
vinegaredibleoil,fruit,heart,leavesforthatch,weaving,trunkforwood,etc.[1] spathe
Immatureinflorescence
Coryphaelataorutan(Bajurpalm, SEAsia:Indonesia,PhilippinesUnimprovedcultivatedormanagedpalm[1]StrongcandidateformanagementPhilippines:fermenteddrink,vinegar,muscovadosugar[17]sago,clothes,hats,
growingpointor
Buripalm,sabalpalm)
ordomesticationwithagroforestrypotential[32]
furniture,ropesfromleaffibre,fencesfromleafstalks,woodforbuilding[10]
flowerstalks
Tropicalrainforestto600m
Coryphaumbraculifera(Talipot
Sugar,wine[1]starchfromtrunk,leavesformatting,paper[1]
S&SEAsiaUnimprovedcultivatedormanagedpalm[1]Strongcandidateformanagementordomestication
palm)
withagroforestrypotential[32]
Felledorstandingtrees
Elaeisguineensis(Oilpalm,African WAfrica:CapeVerde,Senegal(Casamance),Guinea,Ghana,IvoryCoast,NigeriaMadagascar[4]Indonesia Wine,strongalcohol(over80%)[18]edibleoil,heart,leavesforthatch,weaving, terminalbudormaleor
oilpalm)
[6]Improvedcultivatedpalm[1]alsowildinNigeria[31]
petiolesforfencing,construction[1],medicinalandcosmeticuses[19]
maleandfemale
inflorescences
Gronophyllummicrocarpum
SEAsia:Indonesia(Moluccas)[35]
Sapstarchleavesforthatch[35]
Inflorescence[35]
Hyphaenecoriacea
SEAfricaMadagascar[32]
Wine
Terminalbud
Hyphaenepetersiana
SWAfrica:Namibia[32]
Wine[32]
Flowerbud[32]
Terminalbudorbasis
Hyphaeneshatan
Madagascar
Wine
oftheinflorescence[4]
Hyphaenethebaica
Semideserts&desertsofEAfricato600m[1]:Djibouti[20],Eritrea[21]Unimprovedcultivatedormanaged
Terminalbudoronly
Wineediblefruitandheart,fruitformedicinaluse,leavesforweaving[1]
(Doomordumpalm,gingerbread palm[1]Candidateforimprovedmanagement[32]
futureleaves
palm)
Jubaeaspectabilis(ChileanWine
Chile
Wine
Trunkoffelledtrees
Palm)
Mauritiaflexuosa(Swamppalm,
Tropicalrainforest,areassubjecttofloodsNorthernSAmerica(Bolivia,Brazil,Colombia,Peru,Venezuela) Wineedibleoil,fruit,heart,starchfromtrunk,leaffibreforrope,petioleforcork, Trunkorinflorescence
moriche,buriti,muriti,aguaje,fan
[32]Semiwildorwildpalms[1]
trunkforwood[1]
stalkoffelledtrees
palm)
Freshjuice,toddy,arack,sugarandvinegarediblealmonds,saltfromthepetiole
Tidalareas(salttolerant)Asia:India,SriLanka,Bangladesh,Burma,Thailand,Cambodia,Malaysia,Indonesia,
Nypafruticans(Watercoconut,nipa
andstemashes,frondforthatchingandweaving[11][1][36],cigarettepaper[24],
PhilippinesPacificMainly,wildalmostpurestands[22]Unimprovedcultivatedormanagedpalm[1],also
Inflorescencespadix
palm,apungpalm)
leavesmadeintoshinglesforroofingandwallingpurposes,hats,mats,raincoats
managed:plantedpurestandsreplantingnotnecessary[23]Candidateforimprovedmanagement[32]
[25]
Stumphollowedout
Orbignyamartiana(BabassuPalm) WiderangeofedaphicandclimaticconditionsTropicalLatinAmerica:Brazil[33]
Winefruitassourceoffood,feed,oilandcharcoaledibleheartsaltfromburnt
afterfellingthetree
stemsleavesforthatch,weaving[33]
O.cohune
O.cohuneinHonduras[37]
[33]
Phlogapolystachya
Madagascar[4]
Freshjuice,wine
Trunk[4]
Subtropicalsemidesertanddesert[1]NAfrica:Tunisia,EgyptSAsia:India[34]Improvedcultivatedpalm Wine,arack,sugarediblefruit,leavesforthatch,weaving,trunkforwood,etc.[1] Terminalbudoronly
Phoenixdactylifera(Datepalm)
[1]
[34]
defoliation
Terminalbudorsideof
Phoenixreclinata(Dwarfdate
Palmgur,wineediblefruitandheartveryresistantbuildingmaterialthatch,
SEAfricanearthecoast[26]WAfrica:CapeVerde,Senegal(Casamance),IvoryCoast[6][19][27]
youngstemor
palm,raffiapalm)
weavingbagsandmats,sponges,toys[19][34]
inflorescence[32]
Phoenixsylvestris(Wilddatepalm, Tropicalrainforestto1,500mSAsia:India,BangladeshWAfrica:IvoryCoastUnimprovedcultivatedor
Wine,sugar[32]ediblefruit,fuel,mat,buildingmaterial,fencing[12]leavesfor Terminalbudorsideof
toddypalm,silverdatepalm)
managedpalm[1]Bangladesh:plantations[28]Domesticationpotentialwithinagroforestrysystems[32]
weaving[1]
youngstem
Terminalbudonfelled
Pseudophoenixekmanii
Caribbean:DominicanRepublic[32]
Wine[32]
trees[32]
Terminalbudonfelled
Pseudophoenixvinifera
Caribbean:DominicanRepublic,Haiti[32]
Wine[32]
trees[32]
Raphiahookeri,
R.vinifera,
R.palmapinus,R.regalis,

Tropicalrainforest,swamps,areassubjecttofloods[1]WAfrica:IvoryCoast,SMali,SBurkinaFaso,Benin,
Terminalbudonfelled
Nigeria,EasternCameroun[8][29]R.hookeri:SBenin:wildstandsthatdonotneedreplantationwhenadult Freshjuice,wine,strongalcohol[30][32]ediblefruit,oil,leavesforfibre,thatch, treesorterminal
treesaretappedcultivationalsopractised[30]R.ruffia:WetareasofMadagascar[4]Semiwildorwildpalms petiole,leafrachisforbuildingmaterial[1]
inflorescenceon

R.sudanica,R.ruffia(Raffiapalm, [1]Candidatesforimprovedmanagement[32]
Africanpiassava,Africanwine
palm,RattanPalm)

standingtrees

References:[1]Johnson1987[2]Davis1988[3]Sumadi1988[4]Decary1964[5]Niang1975[6]Giffard1967[7]Bellouard1950[8]Chevalier1930[9]Portres1964[10]Fox1977[11]Redhead1989[12]Abedinetal1987[13]Jambulingam
andFernandes1986[14]Rangaswami1977[15]Dissanayake1986[16]VenncioMachado1974[17]Abrenillaetal1988[18]Essiamah1992[19]BlancPamard1980[20]Jahiel1993[21]Fanshawe1966[22]HamiltonandMurphy1988[23]
Encendencia1985[24]Kiew1989[25]Quimbo1991[26]Cunningham1990[27]Adand1954[28]Annett1913[29]Fyot1973[30]Profizi1988[31]Okereke1982[32]Johnson1997[33]Mayetal1985[34]Baumer1995[35]Mogea1991
[36]Pearce1991[37]Balick1990[38]Stewart1994.

Annex2:Productionparametersofmaintappedpalmspecies
Ageoffirst/lasttapping
(years)Heightoftree
Arenga
36l/dayperpeduncle(2to4canbetappedinatree, From512to2to5years
pinnataor eachfor1to4months[1])11to16.5%0.4kg/day later[2][4][1]7to1520m
saccharifera [2][3][4]NorthSulawesi,goodtrees:35to40l/day [1]
[5]
Latinname Litresofsap/treeSugar%Sugar/tree

Borassus 5to6l/day2months/yearthroughbruisingand
10to20mhigh[11][9]
aethiopium cuttingbunches[7]100l/tree/year[8]IvoryCoast
andSenegal:200to300l/treeonlyduringonemonth
with912lpeakonthe20estday[9][10]Upto20%
[50]
Borassus
flabellifer

Caryota
urens

Cocos
nucifera

Corypha
elataor
utan

FrequencyoftappingSeasonDuration

Sugar/haTree/haWorkneeded

Oncetotwiceaday[2][1]2to9withaverage5months Indonesia:3kg/day/ha(256trees/ha)[5]
[2][4]allyearroundinEastKalimantanandNorth
PureplantationinNorthSulawesi:20,000kg/year
Sulawesi[1]
(80kg/tree/year)[6]
Twice(IvoryCoast)tothreetimes(Senegal)aday[11] 500trees/ha[12]

4to6monthsbeforedeath[11]8monthsifclayeyor
claysiltedsoils[11]Senegal:allyearroundbuton
differentareas:plateauinrainyseasonlowareascloseto
forestindryseason[9]betteryieldsattheendofthedry
season:FebruaryandMarch[10]
3l/daythefirst3monthsand1.5the3last8to20% 2030to5060yearsold[2] Onceortwiceaday[2][13]
1,500kgwith250300trees/ha[7]100trees/hainTamilNadu[22]Madura(Indonesia):
0.5to0.25kg/day[13][14][12][15][16]
1517to45withoptimum
70kg/yearpergoodtreeplantedat6minterval[23]Cambodia:70kg/tree/year(42kg
2533inBangladesh[20] (nightcollection=twicethedaycollection[23])
sugar&28kgmolasses)[16]Cambodia:if200trees/ha:18,000kg/year[18]Upper
150l/tree/year[3]
Burma:upto80to100years
Burma:averagetapper:4050treestwice/day:malesduringfirstpartof8monthseason,
ofproduction[21]From10 5months,every3rdyearrested[2]Mar.toOct.inUpper femalesduringsecondpart[24]Cambodia:goodtapper:2530treestwice/day
6065kgsugar/tree/year[8]
Burma[24]Nov.toAprilMayinCambodia[13]Jan.to (4x2hrs/day)[16]
12mto2030m[14][22]
Burma:from45mwhen15 MayinTamilNadu[22]Dec.toJuly[16]Outerarcof
370400l/femaletree/year[12]
thelesserSundaislands(Indonesia):dryseason(Apr.to 20treestwice/dayifassistantatthebaseofthetree[18]
20yearsold[21]
Nov.with2peaks,oneinAprilMayandahigheronein
5to10l/dayaveragewithminimumof1and
Sep.Oct.)[23]
maximumof20(Paulas1983,Tjitrosoepomoet
Pudjoarinto1983citedby[17],[18])11to20l/day
inIndonesia[51]
Borassusmadagascariensis:1l/dayduringoneweek
[19]
5to27l/day(upto60)[2][25][3][26]1516%
1015to210yearslater[2]
including9.8to13.6%sucrose[15][14][26][27]
[14](flowersonlyevery23
years[26])1520m[14]
muchshorter/Borassus
flabelliferwhenstarts
flowering[15]
1to1.5l/day[14]1l/day/spadix[25]SriLanka:0.9
to1.5l/dayallyearround(Nathanael1955citedby
[6])[28]SouthSumatra:5to15l4to6%
SouthSumatra:7yearsEast
0.44kg/day[29]9.5to18%[25][14](Norrisetal.
Java:duringmorethan20
(1922)citedby[28])SriLanka:2.2l/dayduring14
years[29]2030m
monthsfromhybrid(TypicaxPumila)[30]Malaysia:
17%sucrose[31]SriLanka:1622%sugar[32]
Assumption[33]:30kg/year
20l/dayfor34months[49]Upto45.2l/day[34]
Flowersoncewhen20over
17%sugarSeveralhundredsofkgofsucroseto
100yearsoldanddies[23]
death[6]2,699lduring132days(Gibbs1911cited
2040m[35]
by[34])
Felledtree:34l/day[10]
14%SprechervonBernegg1929citedby[6]
dependsonnumberofmaleinflorescencesavailable: 6to10ormoreyearsfor
felledtreetechnique[34]
Senegal(Casamance):5l/dayforatreewith8

Twiceaday[26]

110kgofsugar/tree/year[26]

36months[26]

Throughouttheyear[14]
averageof2spathes(upto3)tappedsimultaneouslya
newfloweringaxisproducedeachmonth[29][33]

Assumption[33]:4,448kg/ha(148trees)SriLanka:Tallvariety(Typica):13,590kg/ha
(158trees/ha)Dwarfvariety(Pumila):3,950kgsugar/ha(247trees)hybridof2:
19,027kg/ha[30]2530trees/tapper/workingdayifpalmsnotconnected7590ifpalms
connected(Nathanael1970citedby[17])about5hrs/day/35trees[29]

Twicedaily[2]

Twice(IvoryCoast)tothreetimes/day[10][34]
3134kgsucrose/semiwildoilpalm/year(SprechervonBernegg1929citedby[6])
2weeksto4monthsonfelledtrees[34]Nigeria:yields
highestatthebeginningofrains(increasedphysiology >450kg/year(150trees)[38]Nigeria:1,200kg/yearwhenmaleandfemaleinflorescences

inflorescences(4femalesand4males)[36]149
Elaeis
guineensis l/month(Hartley1977citedby[34])1112%[37]

Hyphaene
thebaica

MaleInflorescenceofpalmsthatdonotproduce
enoughfruitsforoil:26l/tree/year(about0.2l/day)
[38]

Senegal(Casamance):10to activityinMarchApril)andendofrains(moremale
15yearsofproduction[36] inflorescencesfortappinginOct.Nov.)([38],Hartley
1977citedby[34])Senegal(Casamance):Octoberto
710m[36]
June(dryseason)saplessconcentratedduringrainy
season[36]allyearround(4to5months/tree)[38]23
weekspermaleinflorescence[47]

Upto4l/day[40]

Upto30m[40]

Jubaea
340to450ltodeath[17][33]
spectabilis

Upto4times/day1425daysandthen2.5yearrest
beforenexttapping[40]

tapped(148trees)[39]Ghana:20to100treestappedtodeathperfarmerperseason
Nigeria:estimateof14/22treestappedpertapperperworkingdayof5/8hours
respectively(maleandfemaleinflorescences):onehectareof150treesrequires2tappers
asonlyonethirdofthepalmsaretappedatanyonetimeaverageof11mn/treetwicea
day[39]

From2025to4050trees/tapper[40]

Once/daySeveralweeks[17]

3,000kg/year([2][25])to10,000kg/year(2,000plants)[13]Gibbscitedby[4]3,800to
45to55[13][25]
4,500kg/year(2,500plants,700750sapproducing)[42][43]PeninsularMalaysia:
0.6to1.8l/day[3]0.5l/day/fruitingheadforabout1
Oncetotwice(forhighyieldingtrees)daily[2]
20,300kg/year(500plantswith2stalkstappedperplant/340days/year)Watsoncitedby
monthupto26fruitingheads/tree,ofwhich2can Trunkless:theinflorescence
Nypa
betappedatanyonetime[41]43l/year12%[25] iscarriedonastalkborneon [41][43]6months(3months/treebetweenJuly&Dec.) [41]Sumatraestate:22,400kg/yearasaconservativeestimate(Johnstoncitedby[43])
fruticans
0.5to3l/day1415%36to40l/tree/year[42]
therootstockandsticksout [13]throughouttheyear[41]Malaysia:allyearround PapuaNewGuinea:28,000kg/yearif50%ofpalmsfloweryearlyandmeantappingperiod
of100days[48]Sumatraestate:38workers/10haplot:30ontapping/collecting,5on
ofthegroundtoaheightof (Dennett1927acitedby[43])
1417%(Halos1981citedby[43])
maintenanceandpreparationofstalksthroughkicking,etc.,2onsyruptransportandone
about1m[43]
overseer(Johnstoncitedby[43])
19l/dayfromanotchinthestem(Bose1927citedby
Phoenix
40to50yearsofproduction Twicedaily[2]AutumninMediterraneanregions[50]
[34])9l/nightduring50nights[50]810l/day(500
dactylifera
[50]
Warmseason,onceeveryfiveyearsfor3to4months[52]
tomorethan1,200l/tree)10%1kg/day[52]
Phoenix
Saprichinsugar[10]
10m[10]
reclinata
Bangladesh:from56to55
years,optimum1525[20] Oncedaily[44]Bangladesh:fromNov.toMarchwith Bangladesh:>8,000kg/year(1,250trees)[44]20treespreparedin1h20'[42]5060
Phoenix
10to40kgsugar/tree/year[3][42][44]10to14% [44]
sylvestris
greateryieldsinmidwinter[44]
trees/day/tapper300400/year[44]

Raphia
hookeri

2l/day[45]

0.5to1016m[44][14]
Flowersoncewhen710
yearsoldanddies47mup Twicedaily[45]
to8m(orless)[46]

Raphia
2l/day[19]
Madagascar:Trunkincised(45cmdeep)[19]
ruffia
References:[1]Mogeaetal1991[2]Redhead1989[3]Johnson1987[4]Davis1988[5]Sumadi1988[6]VanDie1974[7]Chevalier1930[8]Bellouard1950[9]Portres1964[10]BlancPamard1980[11]Niang1975[12]Giffard
1967[13]CrevostandLemari1913[14]Rangaswami1977[15]Dissanayake1986[16]Romera1968[17]Kovoor1983[18]KhieuBorinandPreston1995KhieuBorin1996[19]Decary1964[20]Abedinetal1987[21]Lubeigt1977
[22]JambulingamandFernandes1986[23]Fox1977[24]Aubert1911[25]Magalon1930[26]Dissanayake1977[27]Theivendirarajahetal1977[28]Grimwood1975[29]Levang1988[30]Jeganathan1974[31]NaimandHusin
1984[32]Theivendirarajahetal1979[33]Pethiyagoda1978[34]Essiamah1992[35]Abrenillaetal1988[36]Adand1954[37]EzeandUzoechiOgan1988[38]Tuley1965a[39]Udom1987[40]Audru1985[41]Kiew1989[42]
Fealy1925[43]HamiltonandMurphy1988[44]Annett1913[45]Fyot1973[46]Profizi1988[47]Okereke1982[48]Pivke1985[49]Johnson1997[50]Baumer1995[51]Mogea1991[52]Barreveld1993.

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