Basics of Computer Networks

Computer Network:

A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection

of computers and devices connected by communications channels that facilitates
communications among users and allows users to share resources with other users.

Network Goals:

1. The main goal of networking is "Resource sharing", and it is to make all

programs, data and equipment available to anyone on the network with out
the regard to the physical location of the resource and the user.
2. A second goal is to provide high reliability by having alternative sources
of supply. For example, all files could be replicated on two or three
machines, so if one of them is unavailable, the other copies could be
available.
3. Another goal is saving money. Small computers have a much better
price/performance ratio than larger ones. Mainframes are roughly a factor
of ten times faster than the fastest single chip microprocessors, but they cost
thousand times more. This imbalance has caused many system designers to
build systems consisting of powerful personal computers, one per user, with
data kept on one or more shared file server machines. This goal leads to
networks with many computers located in the same building. Such a
network is called a LAN (local area network).
4. Another closely related goal is to increase the systems performance as the
work load increases by just adding more processors. With central
mainframes, when the system is full, it must be replaced by a larger one,
usually at great expense and with even greater disruption to the users.
5. Computer networks provide a powerful communication medium. A file that
was updated/modified on a network can be seen by the other users on the
network immediately.

Network Applications:

1. Business Applications
2. Home Applications
3. Mobile Users
4. Social Issues
Network Components:

1. Gateway
2. Router
3. Bridge
4. Switch
5. Hub
6. Repeater
7. Network Interface Card (NIC)

Gateway:

Many networks exist in the world, often with different hardware and
software. People connected to one network often want to communicate with
people attached to a different one. The fulfillment of this desire requires that
different, and frequently incompatible networks, be connected, sometimes by
means of machines called gateways to make the connection and provide the
necessary translation, both in terms of hardware and software.

Router:

A router is a networking device that forwards packets between networks

using information in protocol headers and forwarding tables to determine the best
next router for each packet. Routers work at the Network Layer (layer 3) of the
OSI model and the Internet Layer of TCP/IP. a specialized network device that
determines the next network point to which to forward a data packet toward its
destination. Unlike a gateway, it cannot interface different protocols. Works on
OSI layer 3.

Bridge:

A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer
(layer 2) of the OSI model. Bridges do not promiscuously copy traffic to all ports,
as hubs do, but learn which MAC addresses are reachable through specific ports.
Once the bridge associates a port and an address, it will send traffic for that
address only to that port. Bridges do send broadcasts to all ports except the one on
which the broadcast was received. a device that connects multiple network
segments along the data link layer. Works on OSI layer 2.

Switch:

A network switch is a device that forwards and filters OSI layer 2 datagram
(chunk of data communication) between ports (connected cables) based on the
MAC addresses in the packets. This is distinct from a hub in that it only forwards
the frames to the ports involved in the communication rather than all ports
connected. A switch breaks the collision domain but represents itself a broadcast
domain. Switches make forwarding decisions of frames on the basis of MAC
addresses. A switch normally has numerous ports, facilitating a star topology for
devices, and cascading additional switches. Some switches are capable of routing
based on Layer 3 addressing or additional logical levels; these are called multi-
layer switches. The term switch is used loosely in marketing to encompass devices
including routers and bridges, as well as devices that may distribute traffic on load
or by application content (e.g., a Web URL identifier).

Hub:

Connects multiple Ethernet segments together making them act as a single

segment. When using a hub, every attached device shares the same broadcast
domain and the same collision domain. Therefore, only one computer connected to
the hub is able to transmit at a time. Depending on the network topology, the hub
provides a basic level 1 OSI model connection among the network objects
(workstations, servers, etc). It provides bandwidth which is shared among all the
objects, compared to switches, which provide a dedicated connection between
individual nodes. Works on OSI layer 1.

Repeater:

A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal, cleans it from the

unnecessary noise, regenerates it and retransmits it at a higher power level, or to
the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances
without degradation. In most twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are
required for cable which runs longer than 100 meters.

Network Interface Card:

A network card, network adapter, or NIC (network interface card) is a piece

of computer hardware designed to allow computers to communicate over a
computer network. It provides physical access to a networking medium and often
provides a low-level addressing system through the use of MAC addresses.

Network Topology:

Network topology is the physical interconnections of the elements (links,

nodes, etc.) of a computer network. A local area network (LAN) is one example of
a network that exhibits both a physical topology and a logical topology. Any given
node in the LAN has one or more links to one or more other nodes in the network
and the mapping of these links and nodes in a graph results in a geometrical shape
that may be used to describe the physical topology of the network. Likewise, the
mapping of the data flows between the nodes in the network determines the logical
topology of the network. The physical and logical topologies may or may not be
identical in any particular network.

Any particular network topology is determined only by the graphical mapping of

the configuration of physical and/or logical connections between nodes. The study
of network topology uses graph theory. Distances between nodes, physical
interconnections, transmission rates, and/or signal types may differ in two
networks and yet their topologies may be identical.

The study of network topology recognizes five basic topologies:

• Bus topology
• Star topology
• Ring topology
• Tree topology
• Mesh topology

Bus:

In local area networks where bus technology is used, each machine is connected to
a single cable. Each computer or server is connected to the single bus cable
through some kind of connector. A terminator is required at each end of the bus
cable to prevent the signal from bouncing back and forth on the bus cable. A
signal from the source travels in both directions to all machines connected on the
bus cable until it finds the MAC address or IP address on the network that is the
intended recipient. If the machine address does not match the intended address for
the data, the machine ignores the data. Alternatively, if the data does match the
machine address, the data is accepted. Since the bus topology consists of only one
wire, it is rather inexpensive to implement when compared to other topologies.
However, the low cost of implementing the technology is offset by the high cost of
managing the network. Additionally, since only one cable is utilized, it can be the
single point of failure. If the network cable breaks, the entire network will be
down.

Star:

In local area networks where the star topology is used, each machine is connected
to a central hub. In contrast to the bus topology, the star topology allows each
machine on the network to have a point to point connection to the central hub. All
of the traffic which transverses the network passes through the central hub. The
hub acts as a signal booster or repeater which in turn allows the signal to travel
greater distances. As a result of each machine connecting directly to the hub, the
star topology is considered the easiest topology to design and implement. An
advantage of the star topology is the simplicity of adding other machines. The
primary disadvantage of the star topology is the hub is a single point of failure. If
the hub were to fail the entire network would fail as a result of the hub being
connected to every machine on the network.

Ring:

n local area networks where the ring topology is used, each computer is connected
to the network in a closed loop or ring. Each machine or computer has a unique
address that is used for identification purposes. The signal passes through each
machine or computer connected to the ring in one direction. Ring topologies
typically utilize a token passing scheme, used to control access to the network. By
utilizing this scheme, only one machine can transmit on the network at a time. The
machines or computers connected to the ring act as signal boosters or repeaters
which strengthen the signals that transverse the network. The primary
disadvantage of ring topology is the failure of one machine will cause the entire
network to fail.

Mesh:

Fully connected

The physical fully connected mesh topology is generally too costly and complex
for practical networks, although the topology is used when there are only a small
number of nodes to be interconnected.

Partially connected

The type of network topology in which some of the nodes of the network are
connected to more than one other node in the network with a point-to-point link –
this makes it possible to take advantage of some of the redundancy that is provided
by a physical fully connected mesh topology without the expense and complexity
required for a connection between every node in the network.

Tree:

Also known as a hierarchical network.

The type of network topology in which a central 'root' node (the top level of the
hierarchy) is connected to one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the
hierarchy (i.e., the second level) with a point-to-point link between each of the
second level nodes and the top level central 'root' node, while each of the second
level nodes that are connected to the top level central 'root' node will also have one
or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the third level)
connected to it, also with a point-to-point link, the top level central 'root' node
being the only node that has no other node above it in the hierarchy (The hierarchy
of the tree is symmetrical.) Each node in the network having a specific fixed
number, of nodes connected to it at the next lower level in the hierarchy, the
number, being referred to as the 'branching factor' of the hierarchical tree.

Hybrid:

Hybrid networks use a combination of any two or more topologies in such a way
that the resulting network does not exhibit one of the standard topologies (e.g.,
bus, star, ring, etc.). For example, a tree network connected to a tree network is
still a tree network, but two star networks connected together exhibit a hybrid
network topology. A hybrid topology is always produced when two different basic
network topologies are connected. Two common examples for Hybrid network
are: star ring network and star bus network
Types of Network:

Local Area Network (LAN):

Local area networks, generally called LANs, are privately-owned networks

within a single building or campus of up to a few kilometers in size. They are
widely used to connect personal computers and workstations in company offices
and factories to share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information.

Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN):

A metropolitan area network, or MAN, covers a city. The best-known

example of a MAN is the cable television network available in many cities. This
system grew from earlier community antenna systems used in areas with poor
over-the-air television reception. In these early systems, a large antenna was
placed on top of a nearby hill and signal was then piped to the subscribers' houses.

Wide Area Network (WAN):

A wide area network, or WAN, spans a large geographical area,

often a country or continent. It contains a collection of machines intended for
running user (i.e., application) programs. We will follow traditional usage and call
these machines hosts. The hosts are connected by a communication subnet, or just
subnet for short. The hosts are owned by the customers (e.g., people's personal
computers), whereas the communication subnet is typically owned and operated
by a telephone company or Internet service provider. The job of the subnet is to
carry messages from host to host, just as the telephone system carries words from
speaker to listener. Separation of the pure communication aspects of the network
(the subnet) from the application aspects (the hosts), greatly simplifies the
complete network design.

Internet:

Many networks exist in the world, often with different hardware and
software. People connected to one network often want to communicate with
people attached to a different one. The fulfillment of this desire requires that
different, and frequently incompatible networks, be connected, sometimes by
means of machines called gateways to make the connection and provide the
necessary translation, both in terms of hardware and software. A collection of
interconnected networks is called an internetwork or internet.

Broadcast Networks:

Broadcast networks have a single communication channel that is shared by

all the machines on the network. Short messages, called packets in certain
contexts, sent by any machine are received by all the others. An address field
within the packet specifies the intended recipient. Upon receiving a packet, a
machine checks the address field. If the packet is intended for the receiving
machine, that machine processes the packet; if the packet is intended for some
other machine, it is just ignored. Broadcast systems generally also allow the
possibility of addressing a packet to all destinations by using a special code in the
address field. When a packet with this code is transmitted, it is received and
processed by every machine on the network. This mode of operation is called
broadcasting. Some broadcast systems also support transmission to a subset of the
machines, something known as multicasting. One possible scheme is to reserve
one bit to indicate multicasting. The remaining n - 1 address bits can hold a group
number. Each machine can ''subscribe'' to any or all of the groups. When a packet
is sent to a certain group, it is delivered to all machines subscribing to that group.

Point-To-Point Networks:

Point-to-point networks consist of many connections between individual

pairs of machines. To go from the source to the destination, a packet on this type
of network may have to first visit one or more intermediate machines. Often
multiple routes, of different lengths, are possible, so finding good ones is
important in point-to-point networks. As a general rule (although there are many
exceptions), smaller, geographically localized networks tend to use broadcasting,
whereas larger networks usually are point-to-point. Point-to-point transmission
with one sender and one receiver is sometimes called unicasting.