1.

0 ABSTRACT
The purpose of this experiment is to obtain the flow rate/discharge of 3 particular flow
measuring apparatus which are the rotameter, orifice meter and venturi meter in accordance
to Bernoullis Equation. The time taken for the water to discharge as the diameter of
rotameter increased was determined and tabulated. Then, the discharge for each apparatus is
calculated using the data obtained through the experiment and the calculations were
tabulated. The results were analyzed and its accordance to Bernoullis Equation was
discussed. Besides, the loss coefficient when fluid flows through 90 elbow also determined
in which the Piezometer Head Differential is taken at the elbow. The data recorded with the
different flowrate and time is taken. The experiment was completed and carried out
successfully.
2.0 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this experiment is to obtain the flowrate measurement by utilizing three basics
types of flow measuring techniques which are rotameter, orifice meter and venturi meter
which then gives the Bernoullis Principle equation. The rapid enlargement in cross-sectional
area and a 90 elbow are also calculated in this experiment. This will also to investigate the
loss coefficient of fluid through the 90 elbow.
A fluid is any substance which is capable of flowing over a surface which under
continual deformation under applied shear stress and which under appropriate temperature
conditions or state will take the shape of container. All fluids have a certain degree of
compressibility and pose little resistance to a change in form or shape. Fluids can be roughly
divided into liquids and gases.

3.0 OBJECTIVES
The main objectives before conducting this experiment are to obtain the flow rate
measurement by utilizing three basics types of flow measuring techniques which is rotameter,
venturi meter and orifice meter and also to investigate the loss coefficient of fluid through 90
degree elbow.

4.0 THEORY
a) Rotameter
The rotameter is a flow meter in which a rotating free float is the indicating element.
Basically, a rotameter consists of a transparent tapered vertical tube through which fluid flow
upward. Within the tube is placed a freely suspended float of pump-bob shape. When there
is no flow, the float rests on a stop at the bottom end. As flow commences, the float rises until
upward and buoyancy forces on it are balanced by its weight. The float rises only a short
distance if the rate of flow is small, and vice versa. The points of equilibrium can be noted as
a function of flow rate. With a well-calibrated marked glass tube, the level of the float
becomes a direct measure of flow rate.
b) Venturi Meter
The venturi meter consists of a venturi tube and a suitable differential pressure gauge. The
venturi tube has a converging portion, a throat and a diverging portion as shown in the figure
below. The function of the converging portion is to increase the velocity of the fluid and
lower its static pressure. A pressure difference between inlet and throat is thus developed,
which pressure difference is correlated with the rate of discharge. The diverging cone serves
to change the area of the stream back to the entrance area and convert velocity head into
pressure head.

Figure 1: Specification of venturi meter

Tapping A = 26 mm
Tapping B = 21.6 mm
Tapping C = 16 mm
Tapping D = 20 mm
Tapping E = 22 mm
Tapping F = 26 mm
By applying Bernoullis equation at section 1 to point 2, we get
2

As pipe is horizontal

h =

where, h =

, differences at sections 1 and 2

from the continuity of equation at the section 1 and 2, we obtain

=>

Hence,

h=

Discharge

(Equation 4.1)

The equation 4.1 known as theoretical discharge.

(Equation 4.2)

C) Orifice Meter
The orifice for use as a metering device in a pipeline consists of a concentric square-edged
circular hole in a thin plate, which is clamped between the flanges of the pipe as shown in the
figure below.

Figure 2: Orifice meter

Let

By applying Bernoullis equation at section 1 to point 2, we get

 h =

Where h is different head

Let

Coefficient of contraction,

By continuity equation, we have

Hence,

Thus, discharge,

Q=

If Cd is the coeeficient of discharge for orifice meter which is defined as

Cd = C c

Cc = Cd

Hence,

(Equation 4.3)

The coefficient of discharge of the orifice meter is much more smaller than venturi meter.

c) 90 elbow
Figure below shows fluid flowing in a pipeline where there is some pipe fitting such as bend
or valve, and change in pipe diameter. Included in the figure is the variation of piezometric
head along the pipe run, as would be shown by numerous pressure tappings at the pipe wall.
6

Figure 4: Piezometric head along a pipeline

If the upstream and downstream lines of linear friction gradient are extrapolated to the plane
of fitting, a loss of piezometric head, h, due to the fitting is found. By introducing the
velocity heads in the upstream and downstream runs of pipe, total head loss, H can be
determined in which

Energy losses are proportional to the velocity head of the fluid as it flows around an elbow,
through an enlargement or contraction of the flow section, or through a valve. Experimental
values for energy losses are usually expressed in terms of a dimensionless loss coefficient K,
where

depending on the context.

For results of better accuracy, long sections of straight pipe are required to establish with
certainty the relative positions of the linear sections of the piezometric lines. However, in a
compact apparatus as described in this manual, only two piezometers are used, one placed
upstream and the other downstream of the fitting, at sufficient distances as to avoid severe
disturbances. Thesepiezometers measure the piezometric head loss, h between the tapping.
Thus
7

h = h hf ' ..(10)

hf = friction head loss which would be incurred in fully developed flow

along the run of pipe between the piezometer tappings
f = friction factor
L = distance between the piezometer, measured along the pipe center line
D = pipe diameter
V = average velocity of fluid flow in pipe
The friction head loss is estimated by choosing a suitable value of friction factor, f for fully
developed flow along a smooth pipe. The method used in this manual to determine the
friction factor is the prandtl equation

Typical values derived from this equation are tabulated in the table below:

In determination of the fraction factor, f, it is sufficient to establish the value of f at just one
typical flow rate, as about the middle of the range of measurement due to the fact that f varies
only slowly with Re, and the friction loss is generally fairly small in relation to the measured
value of h.
Characteristic of flow through elbow and at changes in diameter.
90 Elbow
Figure below shows flow round a 90 elbow which has a constant circular cross section.

Figure 5: 90 elbow
The value of loss coefficient K is dependent on the ratio of the bend radius, R to the pipe
inside diameter D. As this ratio increase, the value of K will fall and vice versa.

5.0 APPARATUS AND MATERIALS

Hydraulic Bench (Model: FM110)

Water
Flow meter Measurement Apparatus (Model: FM 101)
Manometer tubes
Discharge valve
Staddle valve
Rotameter
90 elbow
Orifice
Venture

6.0 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

A) General Start-up Procedures
1.
2.
3.
4.

The apparatus is placed on top of a suitable hydraulic bench.

The apparatus is levelled on the bench top.
The hydraulic coupling was connected to the outlet supply of the hydraulic bench.
The discharge connect of the flow apparatus hose was connected to the collection
tank of the hydraulic bench.

Starting up the Apparatus:

1. The flow control valve of hydraulic bench was fully closed and the discharge valve
2.

was fully opened.

The discharge hose was ensured it is properly directed to volumetric tank of Fibre
glass before starting up system. Also ensure that volumetric tank drain valve was left

opened to allow flow discharge back into sump tank.

3. Once step (b) is confirmed the pump supply was start up from hydraulic bench. The
bench valve was opened slowly. At this point, the water flowing from hydraulic bench
through to the flow apparatus and discharge through into the volumetric tank of
hydraulic bench and then drained back into sump tank of hydraulic bench.
4. The flow control was proceeded to fully open valve. When the flow in the pipe is
steady and there is no trapped bubble, the bench valve was started to close to reduce
the flow to the maximum measurable flow rate.
5. The water level in the manometer board are begin to display different level of water
heights. (If the water level in the manometer board is too high where it is out of
visible point, the water level was adjusted by using the staddle valve. With the
maximum measurable flow rate, maximum readings are retained on manometer).
6. At this point, the flow was slowly reduced by controlling the flow discharge valve of
apparatus; this discharge valve was totally closed.
7. The water level in the manometer board was began to level into a straight level. This
level maybe at the lower or maybe at the higher end of the manometer board range.
(Take note that the pump from the hydraulic bench is at this time, still supplying water
at a certain pressure in the system).
8. Lookout for Trapped Bubbles in the glass tube or plastic transfer tube. Remove
them from the system for better accuracy. To do this, you can either slowly press the
plastic tube to push the bubbles up or lightly tab the glass tube to release the
bubbles upwards.
10

B) Demonstration of the operation and characteristic of three different basic types

of flowmeter
Procedures:
1. The apparatus was placed on bench, the inlet pipe was connected to bench supply and
outlet pipe into volumetric tank.
2. With the bench valve was fully closed and the discharge valve was fully opened, the
pump supply was start up from hydraulic bench.
3. The bench valve was slowly opened until it is fully opened.
4. When the flow in the pipe is steady and there is no trapped bubble, the bench valve
was started to close to reduce the flow to the maximum measurable flow rate.
5. By using the air bleed screw, the water level in the manometer board was adjusted.
The maximum readings are retained on manometers with the maximum measurable
flowrate.
6. Note readings on manometers (A - J), rotameter and flow rate was measured.
7. Step 6 is repeated for different flow rates. The flow rates can be adjusted by utilizing
both bench valve and discharge valve.
8. To demonstrate similar flow rates at different system static pressures, the bench was
adjusted and flow control valve together. Adjusting manometer levels as required.
C) Determination of the loss coefficient when fluid flows through a 90 degree elbow
1. The apparatus was placed on bench, inlet pipe was connected to bench supply and
outlet pipe into volumetric tank.
2. With the bench valve fully closed and the discharge valve fully opened, the pump
supply was start up from hydraulic bench.
3. The bench valve was slowly opened until it is fully opened.
4. When the flow in the pipe is steady and there is no trapped bubble, the bench valve
was started to close to reduce the flow to the maximum measurable flow rate.
5. By using the air bleed screw, the water level in the manometer board was adjusted.
The maximum readings was retained on manometers with the maximum measurable
flowrate.
6. Note readings on manometers (I and J) and flow rate was measured.
7. Step 6 is repeated for different flow rates. The flow rates can be adjusted by utilizing
both bench valve and discharge valve.
8. The tables was completed.
9. Plot graph H against
for 90 degree elbow to determine the coefficient of losses.
D) General Shut-down Procedures
11

1. The water supply valve and venturi discharge valve was closed.
2. The water supply pump was turned off.
3. The water from the unit was drained off when not in use.

7.0 RESULTS
7.1 DEMONSTRATION OF THE OPERATION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
DIFFERENT BASIC TYPE OF FLOWMETER.

Manometer reading (mm)

rotam
eter
(L/mi
n)

volume
(L)

time
(min)

Flow
rate, Q
(L/min)

Flowrate
calculated using
Bernoulis
equation (L/min)
venturi

orifice

239

238

231

285

236

237

237

222

229

228

0.37

8.11

3.234

4.41

256

251

225

241

246

250

250

186

212

210

10

0.17

17.65

2.556

9.81

291

281

222

260

270

277

277

130

186

184

15

0.10

30.00

9.54

13.95

339

320

216

285

300

315

314

45

154

150

20

0.08

37.50

12.72

18.87

7.2 DETERMINATION OF THE LOSS COEFFICIENT WHEN FLUIDS FLOWS

THROUGH A 90 ELBOW.

Volume (L)

Time (sec)

Flowrate, Q
(L/min)

12

Differential
Piezometer
Head, h
(mm) elbow

V (m/s)

V2/2g (mm)

(hi hj)
3

0.37

8.11

0.672

23

0.17

14.65

1.214

75

0.10

30.00

2.486

315

0.08

37.50

3.108

492

13

7.3 The graph for h against v2/2g

Figure 7.1 : h against v2/2g

8.0 CALCULATION
8.1 DEMONSTRATION OF THE OPERATION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
DIFFERENT BASIC TYPE OF FLOWMETER.

8.1.1 ORIFFICE CALCULATION

14

when

= 0.015 m

m3/ s

x 60000

= 4.41 L/min

when

= 0.064 m

m3/ s

x 60000

= 9.81 L/min

when

= 0.147 m

m3/ s x 60000
15

= 13.95 L/min

when

= 0.269 m

m3/ s x 60000

=
= 18.87 L/min

8.1.2 VENTURI CALCULATION

when

= 7.772 X 10-3 m

16

=3.234 L/min
when

= 4.993 X 10-3 m

when

= 0.069 m

=
=

when

= 0.122 m

=
=

8.2 DETERMINATION OF THE LOSS COEFFICIENT WHEN FLUIDS FLOWS

THROUGH A 90 ELBOW.
Calculate velocity

17

V=

A=
when Q = 8.11 L/min

V=

=
when Q = 14.65 L/min

V=

=
when Q = 30.0 L/min

V=

=
when Q = 37.5 L/min

V=

18

Calculate

when Q = 8.11 L/min

= 0.023 m

=
when Q = 14.65 L/min

0.075 m x

= 75.0 mm
when Q = 30.0 L/min

19

= 0.315 m x

= 315 mm
when Q = 37.5 L/min

= 0.492 m x

= 492 mm
Coefficient loss,k when fluid flow through a 90 degree elbow. The
coefficient loss value is determined as the gradient,m of graph H against
.
At point (1,23) and (4,492)

= 0.0064
Since m = k

20

9.0 DISCUSSION
In this experiment, the flow rates of venturi meter and orifice meter are calculated
using the Bernoullis equation as shown in calculation before. For example, as a rota meter
flowrate is fixed to 5 L/min the time taken is recorded after it reached at volume of 3 L. Then,
flowrate is calculated again as volume over the time taken. This shows the flowrate of rota
meter is only a small change with the flowrate taken manually. Flowrate of rotameter is
higher than the flowrate of venturi meter when calculated using the equation of Bernoullis
Equation. In venturi meter, the flowrate calculated using the Bernoullis equation is 3.23
L/min compared to the fixed flowrate at 5 L/min which is slightly different in flowrate. This
may be caused by the converging portion, a throat and diverging portion to increase the
velocity of fluid and lower the statics pressure. By using the Bernoullis equation, the venturi
meter flowrates are less than that given because of frictional effects and consequent head loss
between inlet and throat.
In orifice meter, the flowrates also gives a slightly different in flowrate of rotameter.
For example, at rotameter flowrate of 5L/min, the orifice flowrate gives 4.41 L/min by using
the Bernoullis equation. This shown the flowrate of rotameter is higher than the orifice meter
when calculated using Bernoullis equation. This is because of the concentric square-edged
circular hole in a thin plate which gives a pressure at holes in the pipe walls on both side of
the orifice plate.
For experiment in determination of loss coefficient in 90 elbow, the piezometric head is
calculated by subtracting the head loss in I and J column of manometer. If the upstream and
downstream lines of linear friction gradient are extrapolated to the plane of fitting, a loss of
piezometric head, h, due to the fitting is found. The velocity head is calculated by using the
formula V2 / 2g. The graph of piezometric head against velocity head was plotted. The slope
of the graph are shown that the energy loss proportional to the velocity head of the fluid as it
flows around an elbow, through an enlargement or contraction of the flow section, or through

21

a valve. Experimental values for energy losses are usually expressed in terms of a
dimensionless loss coefficient K, where the value from the graph gives 0.0064.

10.0 CONCLUSION
In this experiment, the flow rates in the venturi meter, orifice meter and rotameter can
be determined by using Bernoullis Equation. The flowrates beween the venturi meter,
orifice meter and rotameter give a slightly different flowrate when calculated using
Bernoullis Principle. The ideal flowrates of venture and orifice meter is calculated using
the Bernoullis equation. In venturi meter losses are less so coefficient of discharge is
higher whereas in orifice meter due to no convergent and divergent cones there are more
losses and hence its coefficient of discharge is less. In venturi meter losses are low due to
steam line shape of the diffuser and the pressure gradient is not abrupt as in case of orifice
meter. As the graph is plotted, the slope of the graph gives the loss coefficient, K which is
0.0064. This shows the loss coefficient is 0.0064 when its flow through the 90 elbow.

11.0 RECOMMENDATIONS
There are some recommendation is made up in order to get more accurate results in this
experiment.
Parallax error must be avoid when readings is taken at the manometer tubes. The value that
appears on the equipment we must wait until it becomes stable then the readings can be
taken. This is because of the stable condition that we are taking the readings are in the steady
state condition. Other than that, in the way to get accurate calculations of the result, we must
ensure that we used suitable formulas and calculated without any error occurs. Others than
that, we must ensure that when we reads the readings of the manometer, the eyes must be
perpendicular to the manometer readings. This is to avoid parallax error. This error is caused
when the eyes is not perpendicular to the manometer readings thus obtaining a wrong
measurement.
22

Besides that, in order to take an accurate result, the air in the manometer tubes must be
flush out. The water supply must flows through it for bleeding until the air bubbles escaped
then we can start up the experiment with different flowrate with the saddle valve is depressed
until all the water in manometer tubes turns half of it.
The control valve of water must be controlled all the time so that there is no slightly different
in the flowrate meter while taking the readings in manometer. Lastly, repeat the experiment at
least four times. Because of that, we take three readings of the rotameter which is 5 L/min,
10L/min,15L/min and 20 L/min to get the obtain the accurate results.

12.0 REFERENCES
1.

Equipment for Engineering Education and Research. (n.d.). Flowmeter Measurement

Apparatus Solution Manual, Model 101. SOLTEQ Company. Retrieved from
http://www.solution.com.my/pdf/FM101(A4).pdf;

2. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering. Water Resources Engineering

(CE 3620). (Spring 2013). Laboratory 1: Flow Measurement. Michigan Technological
University.

Retrieved

from

http://www.cee.mtu.edu/~vgriffis/CE

%203620%20materials/CE3620-Labs/Lab%201-Flow%20Measurement.pdf

Coulson J. M. and Richardson J. F. (2005). Chemical Engineering Design. Volume 6.

4th Edition. Chap 3. pp. 87.-93. Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.
3. McCabe,L., Smith,J.C., and Harriot,P. (2001). Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering, 5th Edition, New York: McGraw Hill pp.214-221.

13.0 APPENDICES
See the next page.

23